essay about turkey culture

• Countries and Their Cultures
• Culture of Turkey

Culture Name

Orientation.

Identification. The English word "Turkish" comes from the ancient Turkish word Türk , which can be used as an adjective or a proper noun. In Turkish, the name of the country is Türkiye . After decades of nationalistic indoctrination, most citizens self-identify as Turks regardless of ethnic background. Some of the major non-Turkish ethnic groups—the Kurds in the southeast, the Arabs in the south, the Laz of the western Black Sea coast, and the Georgians in the northeast and northwest—express double identities.

Location and Geography. Turkey occupies Asia Minor and a small portion of Europe. Its area is 301,382 square miles (814,578 square kilometers). It is bounded on the west by the Aegean Sea; on the northwest by the Sea of Marmara, Greece, and Bulgaria; on the north by the Black Sea; on the east by Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran; and on the south by Iraq, Syria, and the Mediterranean. Although Istanbul (formerly Constantinople) is the major city and was the capital of the Ottoman Empire, the first president—Mustafa Kemal Atatürk—chose Ankara, an interior Anatolian city, as the capital in 1923. Militarily Ankara was less exposed and more easily defended than Istanbul. The choice also symbolized Atatürk's policy of nationalism, because Ankara was more Turkish and less cosmopolitan than the old capital.

Turkey has 4,454 miles of coastline. The interior consists of mountains, hills, valleys, and a high central plateau. The western coastal plains are generally more densely populated and industrial than are the central and eastern regions, except for Ankara on the central Anatolian plateau. Because Asia Minor had been home to Lydians, Hittites, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Seljuks, and Ottomans over the centuries, it is dotted with historic monuments.

Physiographically, the country may be divided into five regions. The Black Sea region has a moderate climate and higher than average rainfall. It is dominated by the Pontic mountain range. The west is noted for agriculture, including grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and tobacco. In the more humid east, the mountains leave a narrow coastal plain rarely exceeding twenty miles wide. The Black Sea peoples settled and farmed the valleys and narrow alluvial fans of the area's rivers, developing a form of steep slope agriculture to grow vegetables and fruits. Tea, the major cash crop, did not become popular until the 1960s. Some villagers combined gardening with transhumant pastoralism, which involves grazing small herds of sheep, goats, and cattle on the lowlands in the winter and in the high Pontic pastures in the summer.

Until recently, the rugged topography limited agriculture, and alternative land-based industries were virtually absent. Thus, many western Black Sea men sought work outside the region in the navy and merchant marine or in major cities, later returning home to retire. While the men worked away, the women kept up the home, farmed the land, and cared for the livestock.

The central Anatolian plateau region is dotted with mountains and denuded of trees. It has a semi-arid climate with high temperatures in summer and low ones in winter. Villagers engage in animal husbandry and cultivate wheat, barley, and sugar beets. Areas unsuited for cultivation are used to graze large herds of sheep, cattle, and goats.

The Mediterranean coastal region is lined by the Taurus Mountains. It has a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and mild, humid winters. The eastern part, around Mersin and Adana, is known for extensive cotton production by wealthy landowners. Mersin is an important seaport and oilrefining center. The western region is noted for citrus and banana groves. Seminomadic peoples traditionally utilized the Taurus Mountains to graze sheep, goats, cattle, and camels. Women among the Turkish Yürük pastoralists made woolen kilims, rugs, and saddlebags. Tourism is now a major industry.

The Aegean region also has a Mediterranean climate. It contains rich valleys and alluvial plains as well as rolling hills and mountains. A wide variety of crops are produced, including citrus fruits, olives, nuts, sunflowers, tobacco, sugar beets, grains, fruits, and vegetables. The area contains most of Turkey's prosperous small farmers and food-processing plants. Izmir is the region's major commercial and industrial center; it is the third largest city and second major port.

The Marmara–Istanbul region, a crossroads of Europe and Asia, is the most densely settled, commercial, industrial, and touristic region. It has a moderate climate, rich soil, and extensive coastlines. As a result of modern development, it has the highest percentage of the population engaged in nonagricultural pursuits of any region in the country. Istanbul, the largest and most cosmopolitan city, leads the country in commerce, shipping, fashion, literature, arts, and entertainment. Over the decades, it has attracted a steady stream of migrants from all parts of the country.

Demography. The annual population increase fell to 1.6 percent in 1998 after decades of annual growth over 2.5 percent. The 1998 population was estimated at 64,566,511, with 65 percent of the people living in urban areas and 35 percent in some thirty-five thousand villages. Turkey does not categorize its population by ethnicity, and the sizes of ethnic groups must be estimated. There are at least thirty-five non-Turkish ethnic groups, including other Turkic peoples who speak different Turkic languages, such as the Uygurs, Kirgiz, Kazaks, Uzbeks, Balkar, and Azerbaijanis. Those who speak non-Turkic languages include Kurds, Armenians, Greeks, Circassians, Georgians, Laz, Arabs, Rom (Gypsies), Ossetes, Albanians, and Chechens. The Kurds are the largest of these groups, probably numbering over ten million. The next largest may be the Arabs concentrated along the Syrian border at about one million and the Laz of the Eastern Black Sea coastal region, who may number about three hundred thousand.

Linguistic Affiliation. The Turks originated in inner Asia. Their language belongs to the Altaic family. The earliest evidence of Turkish writing dates to eighth-century C.E. runic inscriptions on steles along the Orkhon River near present-day Ulan Bator, Mongolia. The language was influenced by Persian and Arabic after the ninth century, when Turks began moving into the Middle East and converting to Islam. After the establishment of the Turkish Republic, many Arabic and Persian words were replaced with words derived from ancient Turkish. As part of Atatürk's Turkification program, all Muslim citizens were legally required to speak and write in Turkish. Until 1991, publications, radio broadcasts, and public speaking in many non-Turkish languages were legally prohibited. Today the vast majority of young people speak only Turkish. However, most Kurds raised in southeastern Turkey speak Kurdish as well as Turkish.

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. Present-day Turkey was founded in 1923 as an offspring of the multiethnic and multilingual Ottoman Empire, which existed between the fourteenth and early twentieth centuries and embraced much of the Middle East along with parts of southeastern Europe and North Africa in the sixteenth century. In the nineteenth century, when the Balkans and the Trans-Caspian regions were separated from the empire, many non-Turkish Ottoman citizens fled or migrated to Anatolia and Turkish Thrace to resettle.

With the Ottoman Empire's demise in World War I, the heartland of the old empire—Istanbul and Asia Minor—was reconstituted as the Republic of Turkey under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (later called Mustafa Kemal Atatürk). To make Turkey a modern, Western-style, secular nation-state, Atatürk disestablished Islam as the state religion, adopted Western legal codes, and established a compulsory secular educational system in which all young Muslim citizens, regardless of ethnicity, were taught that they were ethnically Turkish and citizens of a Turkish nation-state. After centuries of intermarriage with Mediterranean and Balkan peoples and the assimilation of those peoples into the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish state, the vast majority of today's Turks physically resemble southern Europeans rather than central Asiatics.

National Identity. The government founded and supported historical and linguistic societies that researched and, if necessary, invented a glorious Turkish past that would instill pride in the country's citizens. The official policy of Turkish nationalistic indoctrination has been largely effective. Most citizens, regardless of their non-Turkish ancestry, self-identify as Turks both ethnically and nationally, with the exception of some Kurds.

Ethnic Relations. After the post-World War I Treaty of Laussane, only Christian Armenians, Orthodox Greeks, and Jews were allowed to maintain their religious and educational institutions. Since 1999, the only non-Turkish languages taught in public schools have been western European languages and Arabic.

About half the Kurds reside in southeastern Turkey, their traditional homeland. Most of those in other regions have become Turkified though education, work, military service, and intermarriage. Since the 1970s, a growing number of Kurds have rediscovered their non-Turkish roots, based in part on Kurdish, an Indo-European language related to Persian.

Although the use of Kurdish in public speech and print has been legal since 1991, prosecutors often arrest Kurdish speakers and confiscate Kurdish publications under the Anti-Terror Law, which prohibits the dissemination of separatist propaganda. Prosecutors also have used other parts of the criminal code to limit ethnic expression. As of 1999, Kurdish-language broadcasts remained illegal. The Sanliurfa (southeastern Turkey) branch of the Mesopotamian Cultural Center, a corporation established to promote the Kurdish language and culture, was banned in 1997 by the provincial governor. In 1997, the governor's office in Istanbul refused the Kurdish Culture and Research Foundation permission to offer Kurdish-language classes.

In June 2000, a Turkish court convicted Abdullah Ocalan, the leader of the PKK, of murder and sentenced him to death. Kurds in Turkey, Europe, and other countries demonstrated in support of him. Ocalan has appealed the sentence to the European Court of Human Rights. Should Turkey impose the death penalty on Ocalan, its relations with its Kurdish citizens will become severely strained.

In recent years, Georgians, Circassians, and Laz have been attempting to revive their non-Turkish languages and cultural traditions within the limits allowed by Turkish law. In the early 1990s, a group of Georgian Turks began publishing Çveneburi ,a cultural journal devoted to Georgian poetry, literature, and folklore. These peoples consider themselves Muslims and Turkish citizens with non-Turkish Ottoman ancestries.

The vast majority of citizens, however, share a common Turkish culture with some regional, urban–rural, social class, and ethnic variations. There has been a good deal of intermarriage, especially among Sunni Muslims with different ethnic backgrounds. The state accepts all citizens as Turks. There are no official legal, educational, or employment disabilities associated with ethnicity and no system of ethnic identity cards.

Turkey has expressed concern for the treatment of Turkic peoples in neighboring countries, such as Bulgaria, Iraq, and Iran. However, Turkey is concerned primarily with the rights of Turks in Europe. Turkey is an associate member of the European Union. Since the 1960s, millions of its citizens have immigrated to western European countries to work, and only a small percentage have received European citizenship. Consequently, Turkey has about three million citizens living in Europe.

For Ankara, this overseas workforce has been a mixed blessing. While many send back hard currency to their relatives, many are exposed to political and religious ideas that are prohibited in Turkey. For example, about 20 to 25 percent of Turkish citizens in Europe are Kurds; many were not aware of their ethnic roots until they were educated by Kurdish nationalists there. Kurdish nationalists have also won the sympathy of many Europeans. The forms of cultural suppression exercised by the Turkish government violate the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, a treaty that Ankara has ratified and is obligated to respect.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space. Architecture and the use of space have been influenced by economic factors, political ideology, environment, tradition, and foreign ideas. Ottoman architecture with its Byzantine and Islamic elements represented a clear cultural expression of the imperial past. Leaders of the new republic wanted a different architecture that would proclaim their new vision of a Western, secular nation-state. One goal of the republic was to catch up with the material culture and technology of the West. Hence, they turned to western Europe to help create a new capital in Ankara.

Ankara represented a tabula rasa on which a new Turkish order could be constructed. In the early 1920s, it was an insignificant town of 20,000 people, with narrow winding streets and simple mud-brick houses. During the early years of the republic, Ankara was transformed with monumental government buildings symbolizing the ambitions and power of the new state.

Although some early building designs maintained a nostalgic association with the Ottoman past, modern architects and government officials regarded that style as inappropriate. Contemporary architectural styles, inspired by Europe, began to replace Ottoman revivalism in institutional building after 1927. In the late 1920s and early 1930s in part as a result of an economic crisis, the government favored drab forms of international architecture influenced by the Bauhaus school.

In the pre–World War II period, the monumental official architecture of the German and Italian regimes became dominant. Ankara's Grand National Assembly building (1938–1960) manifested the spirit of National Socialist architecture. In the area of housing, a "Republican Bourgeoisie" consisting of highly paid military and civilian officials played an important role in the acceptance of modern architecture. Western buildings with indoor plumbing and electricity fit their search for a contemporary lifestyle without ties to the past.

After World War II, the International Style became more common. Its site plans were typified by functional geometric elements, and its building facades employed grid systems. The Istanbul Hilton Hotel (1952) became an influential and highly copied example of this style.

In the 1960s, the Bauhaus school with its emphasis on mass production influenced the construction of middle-class urban housing in Ankara and some other cities. Turkey's first skyscraper, a commercial office building, was constructed in 1959 in Ankara. Since that time, modern skyscrapers and high-rise government, commercial, and apartment buildings have transformed most major cities. Since the 1950s, modern urban centers have been ringed by expanding squatter settlements ( gecekondus )of substandard housing constructed quickly by peasants from rural areas. Today between 50 and 60 percent of Turkey's urban population consists of gecekondu residents.

Housing styles in small towns and villages are determined by tradition, family structure, environment, local building materials, and income. There is considerable variety in external appearance by region.

Most homes are divided in a selamlîk (a public reception room) and a harem (private family quarters). In traditional households, male guests are confined to the selamlîk , where they converse with the male members of the household, while women stay in the harem . Many traditional homes also have an enclosed garden or courtyard where females can perform some of their domestic duties and chat with neighbors.

In small towns and villages, males dominate public space while females dominate the private space of the home. In the mosque, females pray in an area apart from and outside the view of males. It is not uncommon for movie theaters, restaurants, beaches, and public parks to have a "bachelors" section for males and a "family" section for families and single females. In public transportation conveyances, it is not considered proper for a male to take a seat next to an unrelated female. In recent years, many of these restrictions have been eased in major cities, but coffeehouses and some bars remain exclusively male domains.

Food and Economy

In the winter, many Turks eat a breakfast of bread with hot soup. In the warmer seasons, they commonly eat bread and jam, hard- or soft-boiled eggs, a white cheese made from sheep's milk, salty olives, and warm milk or hot tea with milk. A typical noon meal consists of vegetable and meat stew with a side dish of rice or bulgar pilaf and salad, with fruit for desert. Borek or dolma may substitute for the stew. Sweet deserts, such as baklava, are served on special occasions. The evening meal is usually lighter, consisting of leftovers from noon or a kebab with salad. Ordinarily, only water is drunk with the noon and evening meals.

Food preferences and preparations vary by region and ethnicity. For example, the Black Sea is noted for fish, especially anchovy, dishes, while the eastern region is noted for spicy foods. Circassians are famous for preparing chicken in a walnut sauce, while Georgian cuisine is typified by thick corn bread and corn soup. Lahmacun , or Armenian pizza, originated in the southeastern provinces once occupied by Armenians.

All cities have numerous restaurants and snack stands. Many specialize in a limited number of foods, such as kebabs, soups, meat wraps made with pide (a flat bread), pastries, and fish. Others offer a variety of meals, including stews, pilafs, vegetables, and deserts. Inexpensive restaurants cater to workingmen, who commonly eat only breakfast and the evening meal at home. Higher-class restaurants generally set aside a section for females and families. American fast-food chains have become popular in the large cities.

The major food taboo in Turkey is pork, which is forbidden to Muslims. Although the Koran also forbids alcoholic beverages, many Turks drink beer, wine, and liquors. Certain segments of the Muslim population regard other foods as taboo even though their religion does not prohibit them. For example, Yürüks, a formerly nomadic Turkish people, avoid all seafood with the exception of fish. Members of the Alevi sect of Islam do not eat rabbit because it menstruates. Turks in the northwestern province of Balikesir avoid snails, claiming incorrectly that the Koran forbids their consumption.

For the holy month of Ashure , which comes after the Feast of Ramadan, many households prepare a pudding called Ashure to share with guests, friends, and neighbors. According to tradition, Ashure must contain at least fifteen different ingredients, such as peas, beans, almonds, cereals, rice, raisins, rosewater, pomegranate seeds, orange peels, figs, and cinnamon. Throughout much of Turkey, wedding soup, a preparation of lamb meat with bone, egg, lemon juice, flour, butter, and red pepper, is served at wedding celebrations.

Turkish beverages include tea drunk throughout the day, thick coffee usually taken after a meal, ayran (buttermilk), boza (a fermented bulgur drink taken in the winter), and rakî (an aniseed-flavored brandy usually mixed with water). Carbonated drinks have become popular with young people, and beer gardens in major cities have become hangouts for men.

Basic Economy. Turkey is self-sufficient in food production. Fishers, farmers, and animal husbandry workers produce a wide variety of fish, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and meat for consumers. However, malnutrition affects some of the urban poor and small segments of the rural population in the southeastern region.

In 1996, agriculture contributed 15 percent to the gross national product and 43.1 percent of the labor force was engaged in agriculture. Turkey exports cereals, pulses, industrial crops, sugar, nuts, fresh and dried fruits, vegetables, olive oil, and livestock products. In the early 1990s agricultural products accounted for 15 percent of total exports. However, if one includes cotton and wool, agriculture's contribution to total exports is even greater.

Since 1984, Turkey has liberalized its policy on food imports. Daily products and luxury food items, especially from European Union countries, are available in most large cities.

Most farmers produce for both domestic consumption and sale. Very few are self-sufficient. The vast majority rely on a well-established network of local and regional markets as well as large wholesalers to sell their surplus product. They then buy food and manufactured items from the proceeds.

Land Tenure and Property. Between the 1920s and 1970, the government distributed more than three million hectares of mostly state land to landless peasants. Although no comprehensive property surveys have been conducted, it is believed that most farm families own some land. According to the data in a 1980 agricultural census, 78 percent of farms had five hectares or less and together accounted for 60 percent of all farmland. Twenty-three percent of farms were between five and twenty hectares and accounted for 18 percent of all farmland. Fewer than 4 percent exceeded a hundred hectares, but they amounted to 15 percent of the farmland.

Less than one-fifth of farmers lease or sharecrop the land they till. Sharecroppers generally receive half the crop, with the remainder going to landlords, who supply seed and fertilizer. Most villages have common pastures for the residents' herd animals. In the past, southeastern Anatolia had feudal landlords who owned entire villages.

Many large farms have been converted into modern agricultural enterprises that employ machinery, irrigation, and chemical fertilizers. Such farms concentrate on high-value fruits and industrial crops and employ land-poor farmers. Since the 1950s, the mechanization of agriculture has reduced the need for farm labor, causing many villagers to migrate to the cities.

Trade. Since the 1980s, trade has played an increasingly important role in the economy. Turkey's entrance into a customs union agreement with the European Union (EU) in 1995 facilitated trade with EU countries. In 1997, recorded exports amounted to $26 billion (U.S.), with unrecorded exports estimated at $5.8 billion. The major export commodities were textiles and apparel (37 percent), iron and steel products (10 percent), and foodstuffs (17 percent). The major export partners were Germany (20 percent), the United States (8 percent), Russia (8 percent), the United Kingdom (6 percent), and Italy (5 percent).

Imports were valued at $46.7 billion (U.S.) in 1997. Import commodities included machinery (26 percent), fuels (13 percent), raw materials (10 percent), and foodstuffs (4 percent). The primary import partners were Germany (16 percent), Italy (9 percent), the United States (9 percent), France (6 percent), and the United Kingdom (6 percent).

Division of Labor. Most jobs are assigned on the basis of age, skill, education, gender, and in some cases kinship. There are many small family-owned and -operated businesses in towns and cities. In those businesses, young people, especially sons, are trained from an early age to operate the enterprise. Until the 1960s, many young people, especially males, learned their skills in the traditional apprentice system. Today the Ministry of Education operates thousands of basic and advanced vocational and technical schools for males and females.

Turkey has numerous universities where students of both sexes study to become businesspersons, doctors, engineers, lawyers, teachers, accountants, bankers, and architects. Civil service jobs require applicants to meet educational requirements and pass a written examination.

Turkish law generally prohibits the employment of children under 15 years of age, except that those who are 13 and 14 may do light, part-time work if they are enrolled in school or vocational training. In practice, the children of poor families work to earn needed income. Aside from farm labor, underage boys work in tea gardens as waiters, auto repair shops, and small wood and metal craft industries. Underage girls generally work at home at handicrafts.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes. The most important determinants of social status are wealth and education. The basic categories include the wealthy urban educated class, the urban middle class, the urban lower class, the large rural landowner class, and the general rural population. A university education is the minimum qualification for entry into the urban educated class, in which there are numerous substrata.

Distinctions can be drawn between the urban upper and urban middle classes. The urban upper class includes several groups with high status determined by education, political influence, and wealth. Wealthy businessmen are accorded very high status, as are successful physicians, cabinet ministers, and many members of the assembly, directors of important government departments, and other high-level officials. Since World War II, businessmen have challenged the old military–bureaucratic elite for power and social prestige. Members of the urban upper class are generally westernized; most speak at least one Western language, are well acquainted with European or American life and culture, and have close contact with the diplomatic and foreign business communities.

The urban middle class includes most civil servants, proprietors of medium-size businesses and industries, many persons in service occupations, some skilled workers, and university students. These groups usually are less westernized than the upper class and more oriented to Turkish culture. The urban middle class also includes virtually the entire upper strata of the provincial cities. There is considerable mobility within the urban educated class.

The urban lower class includes semiskilled and unskilled laborers, low-paid service workers, and the urban unemployed. The high rate of migration of young villagers to urban areas makes this the most rapidly growing class. Many migrants have difficulty finding jobs, and others work only seasonally. Many live in poverty in the shantytowns that ring the major cities. Urbanization continues as the rural population grows and urban industry offers better incomes.

Some 30 percent of the population are rural farmers, often referred to as peasants. Improved communications and transportation have brought them into closer contact with towns and cities. Educational efforts since 1923 succeeded in bringing the national literacy level up to 82.3 percent by 1995, although the rural literacy level is lower. Some eastern rural areas are still dominated by large landowners, traditional clan heads, and religious leaders. Young villagers who migrate to towns and cities cannot find their way into the middle class unless they receive further education.

Symbols of Social Stratification. Most men of all social classes have adopted Western styles of dress, including trousers, shirts, and jackets. Men and women in the upper and middle urban classes pay attention to Western fashions. They also live in high-priced apartments and try to possess Western luxury items, such as cars, electronic devices, cell phones, and computers. They have developed a taste for Western literature and music and attend musical events and plays. The upper class favors European-language high schools and universities; the middle class is more satisfied with standard Turkish educational institutions. Both classes prefer to speak an educated Istanbul style of standard Turkish.

Most members of the lower urban classes live in shantytowns. Only a small proportion have graduated from high school ( lise ). The women tend to wear traditional conservative clothing, including head scarves and long coats, even in the summer. They favor Turkish and Middle Eastern music. The peasant and rural classes are the least exposed to Western and urban influences in dress, styles, language, and music. They, like the lower urban class, tend to speak Turkish with regional accents and grammatical peculiarities. The women wear conservative peasant dress consisting of baggy pantaloons and head scarves.

Political Life

Government. The government operates under the 1982 constitution. All the constitutions (1924, 1961, and 1982) were written and adopted while military leaders were in control. The 1982 constitution states that "Turkey is a democratic, secular and social State . . . loyal to the nationalism of Atatürk" (Article 2). "The Turkish State, with its territory and nation, is an indivisible entity. Its language is Turkish" (Article 3).

The constitution enumerates a long list of civil and political rights but subordinates them to considerations of "national security," "national unity," and "public morality." It also allows the government to impose emergency rule or martial law. The constitution establishes a popularly elected single-chamber national assembly with full legislative powers, a prime minister and cabinet responsible to the national assembly, and a constitutional court with the power of judicial review. It provides for a president with extensive executive powers and legislative veto authority who is elected by the assembly for a seven-year term.

There is a wide array of political parties. It is illegal for parties to appeal to religion, advocate the establishment of a religious state, or claim to represent a class or ethnic group. In recent elections, no party has been able to win more than 22 percent of the vote, leading to coalition governments.

Turkey is divided administratively into eighty provinces ( iller ), which are subdivided into subprovinces ( ilçeler ), which in turn are divided into districts ( bucaklar ). A governor ( vali ) appointed by the minister of the interior heads each province and represents the state. Locally elected representative bodies at the village, city, and provincial levels also play governing roles.

Leadership and Political Officials. Most of Turkey's political leaders have been high-ranking military officers, university professors, or successful businessmen. Many provincial governors are former generals or career civil servants who graduated from Ankara University's public administration program. The military elite sees itself as the protector of the constitution and Atatürk's principles. It has formal influence over governmental matters through the National Security Council, which is composed of the prime minister; the chief of the general staff; the ministers of national defense, the interior, and foreign affairs; and the commanders of the armed forces and the gendarmerie. This body sets national security policy.

Military leaders have been especially concerned about threats to secularism and the unity of the state and nation. In 1997, the militarily dominated National Security Council presented the prime minister, Necmettin Erbakan, with twenty demands, including closing religious lodges, enforcing laws prohibiting religious dress in public, closing some state-supported religious schools, cooling relations with Iran, and curtailing the activities of religious organizations.

Citizens often petition elected officials for favors or aid. Unless they are personally acquainted with an official, they convey a petition through a friend or sponsor who knows an official, a member of his or her family, or one of his or her friends.

Turkish law prohibits communist and religious parties. The parties range from socialist (Democratic Left Party), to moderately conservative and free enterprise (Motherland Party), to right-wing ultranationalistic (Nationalist Action Party), to near-religious (Virtue Party).

Social Problems and Control. Internal security and law enforcement are handled primarily by the national police in urban areas and the gendarmerie in rural areas. However, in areas under a state of emergency or martial law, the gendarmerie functions under the military. The national police are armed and authoritarian in demeanor. They have been accused of treating arrested persons roughly to obtain information or confessions during incommunicado detention. The government has instituted human rights training for the police.

The gendarmerie maintains security outside municipal boundaries and guards land borders against illegal entry and smuggling. Recruits are supplied through military conscription. Gendarmes have been subject to the same criticisms as the national police.

Turkey abandoned Islamic law and adopted the Italian penal code in 1926. Serious crimes include premeditated homicide, theft, arson, armed robbery, embezzlement of state property, perjury, and rape. Political speech insulting the president, the military, and parliament has been criminalized. The antiterror law criminalizes written and oral propaganda, meetings, and demonstrations aimed at damaging the unity of the state.

The death penalty can be imposed for certain crimes against the state and premeditated murder, but there have been no executions since 1984. Conviction for a serious felony can disqualify one from holding public office, voting, and practicing certain professions.

Compared to other Middle Eastern countries, the incidence of ordinary crime is low. The most common felonies resulting in incarceration in 1991 were crimes against property (8,360), crimes against individuals (5,879), and crimes against "public decency and family order" (2,681). Every year an unknown number of people are incarcerated for illegal political activity and thought crimes, such as advocating an Islamic state or cultural rights for an ethnic minority.

Military Activity. The Turkish military plays political, cultural, and security roles. Military leaders created the republic in 1923, replaced civilian governments in 1960 and 1980, and forced a civilian government out of office in 1971. Because of universal male conscription, the military is a major national socialization agent for young men of different regions, classes, and ethnicities.

Since joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1952, Turkey has maintained a large military consisting of land forces, navy, air force, coast guard, and gendarmerie. In 1994, it had 503,800 officers and enlisted men on active duty. Defense is usually the largest category in the national budget; from 1981 to 1991, it averaged 20 percent of total government expenditures.

Social Welfare and Change Programs

In 1998, the government estimated that 81.3 percent of the population were covered by state social security and retirement services. Employers pay insurance premiums for work-related injuries, occupational diseases, and maternity leave; employers and employees pay premiums to cover illness, disability, retirement, and death benefits. The government also offers social security insurance to the self-employed and operates orphanages. Local associations or nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) associated with mosques and crafts also provide welfare to the needy.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

One of the most important NGOs is the Army Mutual Assistance Foundation (OYAK), created in 1962. It controls a huge investment fund of obligatory and voluntary contributions from military personnel and investment profits. It has invested substantially in the auto, truck, tractor, and tire industries; the petrochemical, cement, and food processing industries; and retail and service enterprises. Through OYAK, the Turkish military became partners with foreign and domestic investors and shares their economic interests. Because of OYAK's investments, the economic security of thousands of active and retired armed forces personnel became dependent on the profitability of large capitalistic enterprises. Consequently, military corporate interests expanded into the areas of labor law, trade unionism, trade and monetary policy, corporate taxation, tariffs, investment banking, and related matters.

Other major NGOs include the Turkish Trade Association, representing the interests of merchants, industrialists, and commodity brokers; the Turkish Confederation of Employers' Unions, representing employers; and the Confederation of Turkish Trade Unions, representing labor. In addition, NGOs exist for practically every interest group in crafts, sports, social issues, education, religion, and the arts.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. Turkish law guarantees equal pay for equal work and has opened practically all educational programs and occupations to women. Exceptions are the religious schools that train imams (Islamic prayer leaders) and the job of imam itself. In general, men dominate the high-status occupations in business, the military, government, the professions, and academia. According to traditional values, women should do domestic work and not work in the public arena or with unrelated men. However, women have begun to work more in public.

Lower-class women generally have worked as maids, house cleaners, women's tailors, seamstresses, child care givers, agricultural laborers, and nurses, but in the early 1990s, about 20 percent of factory employees and many store clerks were women. Middle-class women commonly are employed as teachers and bank tellers, while upper-class women work as doctors, lawyers, engineers, and university teachers. Only a small percentage of women are politicians.

Men work in all these fields but avoid the traditional nonagricultural occupations of lower-class women. Men monopolize the officer ranks in the military and the transportation occupations of pilot and taxi, truck, and bus driver. In urban areas, lower-class men work in crafts, manufacturing, and low-paid service industries. Middle-class men work as teachers, accountants, businessmen, and middle-level managers. Upper-class men work as university teachers, professionals, upper-level managers, businessmen, and entrepreneurs.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Marriage. Turks expect adults to marry and have children, and the vast majority do. Because men should not lower their wives' standard of living, they are not supposed to marry women of a higher economic class. People generally marry within their own religious sect and ethnic group, although interethnic marriages among Sunni Muslims are not uncommon. In traditional Turkish society, the selection of spouses and the marriage ceremony were controlled by kin groups. During the premarital process, the individuals to be married played minor roles. The rituals, especially the imam marriage ceremony, were essential for a morally and socially acceptable marriage.

In 1926, the revolutionary Turkish government abolished Islamic family law and adopted a slightly modified version of the family law in the Swiss civil code. The new Family Law requires and recognizes civil marriage ceremonies only. It requires the consent of mature individuals for a binding marriage contract and prescribes monogamy only. Even though the law prohibits parents from entering into engagement or marital agreements on behalf of their children, arranged marriages without the consent of the brides have been somewhat common. In a 1968 survey, 11.4 percent of women said their marriages had been arranged by their families without their consent, while 67 percent said they had had family-arranged marriages with their consent. The figures for the unconsented arranged marriages ranged from 7.7 percent for women living in Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir to 11.3 percent to 12.5 percent for women living in smaller cities, towns, and villages. An impressive 49.9 percent of the husbands surveyed said their fathers or other relatives had made the final decision about their marriages. This response category ranged from 59.1 percent for village men to 15.3 percent for men in Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir. Today the vast majority of marriages occur with the couple's consent, but families still play a role recommending and screening potential spouses, especially for their daughters.

Even though divorce is not considered an Islamic sin, it occurs infrequently. Divorcees, especially men with children, quickly remarry, usually to divorced women. The new code eliminated a husband's Islamic prerogative of verbal and unilateral divorce and prescribed a court proceeding. The law recognizes only six grounds for divorce: adultery; plot against life, grave assaults, and insults; crime or a dishonorable life; desertion; mental infirmity; and incompatibility. The evidentiary requirements are so substantial that establishing one of these grounds has proved difficult. A couple cannot divorce by mutual consent.

Domestic Unit, Inheritance, and Kin Groups. Traditionally, most Turks traced their descent and passed on property, especially homes and land, through the male line. Even though most households have always contained only one nuclear family, the ideal household, especially among the rural and urban wealthy, was patrilocal extended, in which a son and his bride lived in his parents' home after marriage. The basic kinship units are the family ( aile ) and the household ( hane ). Household members normally eat together and share income and expenses. The next larger unit is the patrilineage ( sulale ), consisting of relatives connected intergenerationally by a common male ancestor. While patrilineage is important to old, noble Ottoman families and tribal peoples, it is of little significance to most Turks.

The traditional Turkish household is characterized by male dominance, respect for elders, and female subservience. The father or oldest male is the head, an authority figure who demands respect and obedience. The mother is also respected, but her relationship with her children is warm and informal.

Although supreme authority ordinarily rests with the father, the household is usually mother-centered. The mother, being largely confined to the home, manages and directs its internal affairs. The division of labor has traditionally been clear-cut, with women having responsibility for the internal home, and men providing the income and representing the household to the outside world. Before the 1960s, even grocery shopping was a male duty.

In recent decades, much of this has changed. The new Family Law grants women equal rights to private property and inheritance. A larger percentage of women work outside the home, and educated women demand more equal rights.

Socialization

Women are very protective of their children. Breast-feeding for a year or more is common. The child commonly sleeps in a hammock or crib near the parents. Boys are socialized to be courageous, assertive, proud, and respectful of elders. When they undergo a painful circumcision ceremony between ages 9 and 12, they are told to be as brave as lions. Girls are socialized to be modest, compliant, supportive of males, virtuous, and skilled in domestic tasks. Fathers are authoritarian disciplinarians; mothers are generally loving and nurturing.

Every woman rejoices when giving birth to a son, because that event increases her status in the eyes of her husband, in-laws, and community. She usually pampers her son, who remains close to her until age 10 or 11, after which he spends most of his time with other males and identifies more closely with men. Mothers and daughters are especially close, as daughters usually spend much of their premarital lives close to their mothers, learning domestic skills: Generally, the father–daughter relationship is rather formal, with little public displaying of affection. Although a daughter or son may argue or joke with the mother, they are respectful and subdued in the father's presence.

During prepubescence, relations between brothers and sisters are free and easy. Later, their statuses change as the older sibling takes on some of the rights and duties of a parent. The older sister ( abla ) becomes like a second mother, loved for her warmth and affection. The older brother ( agabey ) assumes the helpful but authoritarian status of a minor father. In extended families, grandparents, especially grandmothers, provide a good deal of child care.

School attendance is compulsory to age 14. The first day of class constitutes an important rite of passage. The children are dressed in black smocks with white collars and taken to school with pomp and ceremony. Most families that can afford it, keep their children in school beyond age 14. Most would like to see their children, especially their sons, complete university, but this is rarely possible for poor families.

Formal etiquette is central to Turkish culture, governing most social interactions and the use of space. Turkish culture has an exact verbal formula for practically every occasion. Etiquette requires the pronouncement of the proper formulas for these occasions.

Strict etiquette governs intergenerational and heterosexual interactions. Unless they are close friends or relatives, older people are addressed formally. For example, older men should be addressed with the title "Bey" (Mister) and women with the title "Hanim" (Lady). Younger people are expected to be reserved in their presence. Adults of the opposite sex are expected not to act casually or show affection toward each other in public. Friends of the same sex may hold hands and greet each other with kisses on the cheek. Upon meeting, men shake hands, but a man does not shake a woman's hand unless she extends it to him.

People are not criticized for being late. Business meetings usually are preceded by tea and unrelated conversation. Consideration for companions is important. One does not drink, smoke, or eat something without first offering to share it with one's companions.

Homes are divided into guest and private areas, and it is improper to ask for a tour of the house. The soles of shoes are considered dirty, and shoes are removed when one enters a home or mosque.

Religious Beliefs. Islamic tradition, ideology, and ritual are very important. About 98 percent of Turkey's citizens are nominally Muslims, of whom about 80 to 85 percent are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and 15 to 20 percent are members of Shiite sects (mostly Alevi). Turkish Muslims recognize the standard Islamic creed and duties, but only the most religious fast or make a pilgrimage to Mecca. Four percent of Turks identify themselves as atheists, and 4 percent as agnostics.

For most Turks, Islam plays an important role in rites of passage: naming shortly after birth, circumcision for boys, marriage, and funerals. The state controls religious education and most religious personnel by supervising the schools that train Sunni imams and certifying imams as state employees who work in community mosques.

In recent decades, a revival of fundamental Islam has been supported by about 20 percent of the population. A small proportion of the population participates in Sufi orders and brotherhoods.

The most important events in the Turkey's Islamic calendar are Ramazan , the lunar month of fast; Kadir Gecesi (Night of Power), the twenty-seventh day of Ramazan , when Mohammad was appointed the messenger of Allah; Sheker Bayram a three-day national holiday at the end of Ramazan in which people exchange visits and candy; and Kurban Bayram (Feast of Sacrifice), a four-day national holiday held during the lunar month of Hajj (Pilgrimage) to commemorate Abraham's willingness to sacrifice Isaac. As many as 2.5 million sheep have been sacrificed in Turkey on this holiday; most of the meat is shared with neighbors and donated to the poor.

Medicine and Health Care. Modern Western medical services have expanded significantly over the past two decades. The Ministry of Health is authorized to provide medical care and preventive health services, train health personnel, establish and operate hospitals and clinics, inspect private health facilities, and regulate pharmacies. In 1995, Turkey had 12,500 health facilities and a doctor for every 1,200 persons. The incidence of measles, pertussis, typhoid fever, and diphtheria has declined markedly since the 1970s. Infant mortality declined from 120 per 1,000 in 1980 to 55 per 1,000 in 1992. In rural areas, midwives deliver most babies.

Most urban dwellers have access to public health facilities, but many rural citizens do not. In the countryside and among recent migrants to the cities, folk medicine is still practiced. Peasant women learn folk medicine involving herbs, spices, prayers, and rituals from their mothers and apply it to family members instead of or in addition to modern medicine. Traditionally, some men specialized in folk medicine as well.

Secular Celebrations

The major secular celebrations and official holidays begin with New Year's Day on 1 January, an adoption from the West. Many people exchange greetings cards, and some celebrate in a Western fashion. National Sovereignty Day on 23 April commemorates the first meeting of the Grand National Assembly. Because 23 April is also National Children's Day, much of the day is devoted to children's activities such as dances and music recitals. Youth and Sport Day, commemorating Atatürk's birth, is celebrated on 19 May. Victory Day, celebrating victorious battles during Turkey's War of Independence, is observed on 30 August. Republic Day, 29 October, commemorates Atatürk's proclamation of the republic in 1923. Both Victory Day and Republic Day are celebrated with patriotic parades, music, and speeches.

The Arts and Humanities

Support for the Arts. The Ministry of Culture has implemented a policy of promoting nonreligious Turkish and Western art. It provides a limited number of scholarships for the study of art and music in Europe, especially France. The ministry also supports the Academy of Fine Arts and art museums in the major cities. Most artists come from the middle and upper classes in major cities. Graphic artists rely primarily on major corporations and the upper class to buy their work. They sell through private exhibition and a limited number of art shops. Traditional craft artists who produce ceramics, rugs and kilims, brass and copper ornaments, and embroidery have a broader market for their work. Most sculptors rely largely on state commissions.

Literature. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, Turkish literature centered on the Ottoman court, which produced poetry and some prose. This literature represented a fusion of Persian, Arabic, and Turkish classical styles. Western influences were introduced in the 1860s by a group of intellectuals who attempted to combine Western cultural forms with a more simple form of the Turkish language. This westernizing trend continued throughout the nineteenth century and became more pronounced just before World War I. After 1923, the republic produced an impressive number of novelists, poets, singers, musicians, and artists. Novelists who gained international fame include Halide Edib, Resat Nuri Güntekin, and, more recently, Orhan Pamuk. Several important works dealt with village life, ranging from Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoglu's Yaban ( The Stranger ) in the 1930s to Mahmut Makal's A Village in Anatolia , and Yasar Kemal's Mehmet My Hawk , which won world recognition in 1961.

Orhan Veli generally is considered the father of modern Turkish poetry, which has been characterized by a rebellion against rigidly prescribed forms and a preoccupation with immediate perception. Some poets have experimented with obscurantist forms and ideas; many others have expressed concern for social democratic issues.

Graphic Arts. Western influence in the graphic arts began in the late Ottoman period with the founding of the Fine Arts Academy in Istanbul, which continues to be staffed by European and European-educated Turkish artists. In the republican periods, Turkish art has involved a mixture of Western and indigenous styles. Practically all artists of note have studied at the academy or in Europe. Some have imitated European forms, while others have searched for a Turkish style and portray Turkish themes such as village and urban scenes in a representational manner. Many sculptors receive state commissions to create monumental works depicting Atatürk and other patriotic themes.

Performance Arts. Foreign plays outnumber Turkish works in the theater, but theater attendance has grown in recent decades and many Turkish playwrights who combine Western techniques with Turkish social issues have had an opportunity to present their works.

Both Ankara and Istanbul have well-respected opera companies. The Presidential Symphony Orchestra gives concerts both in Ankara and on tour. Ankara and Istanbul have music conservatories that include schools of ballet. Several Turkish composers, of whom the best known is Adnan Saygun, have won acclaim in Europe and America for fusing Turkish folk themes with Western forms.

The Istanbul Music Conservatory has taken steps to preserve authentic folk music by recording it in all parts of the country. Annual folk arts festivals in Istanbul present a wide variety of Turkish music and dance.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

Most scientific research is carried out at a few universities in Ankara, Istanbul, and Izmir. The government funds two-thirds of it. The Technology Development Foundation of Turkey provides grants for industrial research and development (R&D) activities, mostly in electronics, telecommunications, and environmental technologies. The Ministry of Rural Affairs and the Ministry of Housing and Settlement provide funds for social scientific research.

Practically all Turkish leaders in the natural, social, and engineering sciences have received some education abroad, particularly in the United States. Turkey obtains much of its technology for the food-processing, metals, and textiles sectors from abroad. The Supreme Council for Science and Technology, the science and technology policy-making body, sets R&D targets for high-priority activities: information, advanced materials, biotechnology, space, and nuclear technology.

The number of scientific researchers was estimated at 8 per 10,000 members of the labor force in 1992. Almost three-quarters, or 30,172, of those researchers were in universities; basic science (10 percent), engineering (20 percent), health science (34 percent), agriculture (7 percent), social science and humanities (29 percent). Turkey's only school of social work and research is at Ankara's Hacettepe University.

Bibliography

Abadan-Unat, Nermin, ed. Women in Turkish Society , 1981.

Ahmad, Feroz. The Turkish Experiment in Democracy, 1950–1975 , 1997.

Anderson, June. Return to Tradition: The Revitalization of Turkish Village Carpets , 1998.

Andrews, Peter A. Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey , 1989.

Ansay, Tugrul, and Don Wallace. Introduction to Turkish Law , 1996.

Arat, Yesim. The Patriarchal Paradox: Women Politicians in Turkey , 1989.

Balim, Cigdem, ed. Turkey: Political, Social and Economic Challenges in the 1990s , 1995.

Baysal, Ayse, et al. Samples from Turkish Cuisine , 1993.

Birand, Mehmet Ali. The Generals' Coup in Turkey , 1991.

Erder, Türkoz. Family in Turkish Society: Sociological and Legal Studies , 1985.

Gole, Nilufer. The Forbidden Modern: Civilization and Veiling , 1996.

Gunter, Michael M. The Kurds and the Future of Turkey , 1997.

Heper, Metin, and Jacob M. Landau, eds. Political Parties and Democracy in Turkey , 1991.

Holod, Renata, and Ahmet Evin. Modern Turkish Architecture , 1984.

Inalcik, Halil, ed. From Empire to Republic: Essays on Ottoman and Turkish Social History , 1995.

Kagîtçîbasî, Çigdem, ed. Sex Roles. Family and Community in Turkey , 1982.

Karpat, Kemal H. Turkey's Politics , 1959.

Lewis, Bernard. The Emergence of Modern Turkey , 1968.

Magnarella, Paul J. Tradition and Change in a Turkish Town , 1974 (rev. ed. 1981).

——. The Peasant Venture: Tradition, Migration and Change among Georgian Peasants in Turkey , 1979.

——. Anatolia's Loom: Studies in Turkish Culture, Society, Politics and Law , 1998.

Mango, Andrew. Turkey: The Challenge of a New Role , 1994.

McDowall, David. A Modern History of the Kurds , 1997.

Metz, Helen Chapin. Turkey: A Country Study , 1996.

Olson, Robert. The Emergence of Kurdish Nationalism and the Sheikh Said Rebellion , 1989.

Ozbay, Ferhunde, ed. Women, Family and Social Change in Turkey , 1990.

Pînar, Selman. A History of Turkish Painting , 1990.

Pope, Nicole, and Hugh Pope. Turkey Unveiled , 1997.

Rittenberg, Libby, ed. The Political Economy of Turkey in the Post-Soviet Era , 1998.

Rugman, Jonathan. Atatürk's Children: Turkey and the Kurds , 1996.

Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey , 1976.

Stone, Frank A. The Rub of Cultures in Modern Turkey , 1973.

Tapper, Richard, ed. Islam in Modern Turkey; Religion, Politics, and Literature in a Secular State , 1991.

Tekeli, Sirin, ed. Women in Modern Turkish Society , 1995.

Turkish Daily News . Turkey 1989 Almanac , 1990.

U.S. Department of State. Turkey: Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1998 , 1999.

Van Bruinessen, Martin. Agha, Shaikh, and State: The Social and Political Structure of Kurdistan , 1992.

White, Jenny B. Money Makes Us Relatives: Women's Labor in Urban Turkey , 1994.

World Bank. Turkey: Women in Development , 1993.

Zürcher, Erik J. Turkey: A Modern History , 1994.

—P AUL J. M AGNARELLA

User Contributions:

Comment about this article, ask questions, or add new information about this topic:.

• History & Society
• Science & Tech
• Biographies
• Animals & Nature
• Geography & Travel
• Arts & Culture
• Games & Quizzes
• On This Day
• One Good Fact
• New Articles
• Lifestyles & Social Issues
• Philosophy & Religion
• Politics, Law & Government
• World History
• Health & Medicine
• Browse Biographies
• Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
• Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
• Environment
• Fossils & Geologic Time
• Entertainment & Pop Culture
• Sports & Recreation
• Visual Arts
• Demystified
• Image Galleries
• Infographics
• Top Questions
• Britannica Kids
• Saving Earth
• Space Next 50
• Student Center
• Introduction & Quick Facts

The northern folded zone

The southern folded zone.

• The central massif
• The Arabian platform
• Climatic regions
• Ethnic groups
• Settlement patterns
• Demographic trends
• Agriculture
• Transportation
• Constitutional framework
• Local government
• Political process
• Health and welfare
• Religious practice
• Male and female roles
• Marriage and family life
• Social change
• Arts and media
• Sports and recreation
• The Fundamental Law and abolition of the sultanate
• Declaration of the Turkish republic
• Kemalist policies
• World War II and the postwar era, 1938–50
• The economy
• Political repressions
• The National Unity Committee
• The constitution of 1961
• The ascendancy of the right, 1961–71
• Military intervention and coalition governments
• The 1982 constitution
• The Kurdish conflict
• AKP challenges Kemalist, military entrenchment
• An emboldened Erdoğan and the AKP face resistance
• AKP under pressure: failed coup attempt, crackdown on dissidents, and economic crisis
• Early Cold War: Western-oriented policy and membership in NATO and CTO
• Late Cold War: 1974 Cyprus crisis and balancing relations with the West and the Soviet Union
• Post-Cold War: Neoliberalism, attempt to join the European Union, and the “zero problems” doctrine
• Turkish involvement in the Arab Spring and the Syrian Civil War
• Turkish intervention in the Libyan Civil War
• 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict
• 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine

• How was Kemal Atatürk educated?
• How did Kemal Atatürk come to power?

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• Live Science - 10 terrific turkey facts
• Turkey - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• Turkey - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

Recent News

Turkey , country that occupies a unique geographic position, lying partly in Asia and partly in Europe . Throughout its history it has acted as both a barrier and a bridge between the two continents .

Turkey is situated at the crossroads of the Balkans , Caucasus , Middle East , and eastern Mediterranean . It is among the larger countries of the region in terms of territory and population, and its land area is greater than that of any European state. Nearly all of the country is in Asia, comprising the oblong peninsula of Asia Minor—also known as Anatolia (Anadolu)—and, in the east, part of a mountainous region sometimes known as the Armenian Highland . The remainder—Turkish Thrace (Trakya)—lies in the extreme southeastern part of Europe, a tiny remnant of an empire that once extended over much of the Balkans.

The country has a north-south extent that ranges from about 300 to 400 miles (480 to 640 km), and it stretches about 1,000 miles from west to east. Turkey is bounded on the north by the Black Sea , on the northeast by Georgia and Armenia , on the east by Azerbaijan and Iran , on the southeast by Iraq and Syria , on the southwest and west by the Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea , and on the northwest by Greece and Bulgaria . The capital is Ankara , and its largest city and seaport is Istanbul .

Of a total boundary length of some 4,000 miles (6,440 km), about three-fourths is maritime , including coastlines along the Black Sea, the Aegean, and the Mediterranean, as well as the narrows that link the Black and Aegean seas. These narrows—which include the Bosporus , the Sea of Marmara , and the Dardanelles —are known collectively as the Turkish straits; Turkey’s control of the straits, the only outlet from the Black Sea, has been a major factor in its relations with other states. Most of the islands along the Aegean coast are Greek; only the islands of Gökçeada and Bozcaada remain in Turkish hands. The maritime boundary with Greece has been a source of dispute between the two countries on numerous occasions since World War II .

A long succession of political entities existed in Asia Minor over the centuries. Turkmen tribes invaded Anatolia in the 11th century ce , founding the Seljuq empire; during the 14th century the Ottoman Empire began a long expansion, reaching its peak during the 17th century. The modern Turkish republic , founded in 1923 after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire , is a nationalist, secular , parliamentary democracy . After a period of one-party rule under its founder, Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) , and his successor, Turkish governments since the 1950s have been produced by multiparty elections based on universal adult suffrage.

Turkey is a predominantly mountainous country, and true lowland is confined to the coastal fringes. About one-fourth of the surface has an elevation above 4,000 feet (1,200 metres), and less than two-fifths lies below 1,500 feet (460 metres). Mountain crests exceed 7,500 feet (2,300 metres) in many places, particularly in the east, where Turkey’s highest mountain, Mount Ararat (Ağrı), reaches 16,945 feet (5,165 metres) close to the borders with Armenia and Iran. In the southeast the Uludoruk Peak reaches 15,563 feet (4,744 metres); though further west, the Demirkazık Peak (12,320 feet [3,755 metres]) and Mount Aydos (11,414 feet [3,479 metres]) are also significant peaks. Steep slopes are common throughout the country, and flat or gently sloping land makes up barely one-sixth of the total area. These relief features affect other aspects of the physical environment , producing climates often much harsher than might be expected for a country of Turkey’s latitude and reducing the availability and productivity of agricultural land. Structurally, the country lies within the geologically young folded-mountain zone of Eurasia , which in Turkey trends predominantly east to west. The geology of Turkey is complex, with sedimentary rocks ranging from Paleozoic to Quaternary , numerous intrusions, and extensive areas of volcanic material. Four main regions can be identified: the northern folded zone, the southern folded zone, the central massif, and the Arabian platform.

The northern folded zone comprises a series of mountain ridges, increasing in elevation toward the east, that occupy a belt about 90 to 125 miles (145 to 200 km) wide immediately south of the Black Sea. The system as a whole is referred to as the Pontic Mountains (Doğukaradeniz Dağları). In the west the system has been fractured by the faulting that produced the Turkish straits; in Thrace the Ergene lowlands are among the largest in the country, and the main mountain range—the Yıldız (Istranca)—reaches only 3,379 feet (1,030 metres). Lowlands also occur to the south of the Sea of Marmara and along the lower Sakarya River east of the Bosporus. High ridges trending east-west rise abruptly from the Black Sea coast, and the coastal plain is thus narrow, opening out only in the deltas of the Kızıl and Yeşil rivers. These rivers break through the mountain barrier in a zone of weakness where summits are below 2,000 feet (600 metres), dividing the Pontic Mountains into western and eastern sections. In the western section, between the Sakarya and Kızıl rivers, there are four main ridges: the Küre, Bolu, Ilgaz, and Köroğlu mountains. East of the Yeşil the system is higher, narrower, and steeper. Less than 50 miles from the coast, peaks rise to more than 10,000 feet (3,000 metres), with a maximum elevation of 12,917 feet (3,937 metres) in the Kaçkar range. Separated by the narrow trough of the Kelkit and Çoruh river valleys stands a second ridge that rises above 8,000 feet (2,400 metres).

The southern folded zone occupies the southern third of the country, from the Aegean to the Gulf of Iskenderun, from which it extends to the northeast and east around the northern side of the Arabian platform. Over most of its length, the Mediterranean coastal plain is narrow, but there are two major lowland embayments. The Antalya Plain extends inland some 20 miles (30 km) from the Gulf of Antalya; the Adana Plain , measuring roughly 90 by 60 miles (145 by 100 km), comprises the combined deltas of the Seyhan and Ceyhan rivers. The mountain system falls into two main parts. West of Antalya a complex series of ridges with a north-south trend reaches 6,500 to 8,200 feet (2,000 to 2,500 metres), but the most prominent feature is the massive Taurus (Toros) mountain system, running parallel to the Mediterranean coast and extending along the southern border. There crest lines are often above 8,000 feet (2,400 metres), and several peaks exceed 11,000 feet (3,400 metres).

In the eastern third of the country, the northern and southern fold systems converge to produce an extensive area of predominantly mountainous terrain, with pockets of relatively level land confined to valleys and enclosed basins, as are found around Malatya , Elazığ , and Muş .

Customs and Traditions in Turkey

The culture and traditions of Turkey are by far one of the things that will surprise you the most as soon as you visit the country. Turkey is a mix of traditions from different countries (Turkish, Greek, Georgian and more Arabic and European countries) and that´s why they are so rich in culture and a very unique country.

The 8 most interesting customs in Turkey

We know there are like a million facts about Turkish culture but talking about all of them it´s almost impossible, that´s why we have selected the top 8 most famous traditions in Turkey.

1) Avoid bad energy with an evil eye souvenir

One of the most popular Turkish traditions is related to the evil eye, or also known as “The Nazar Boncugu” . Once you get to Turkey, you will start seeing a bunch of these blue eyes made of glass, they are everywhere!

The Nazar is placed in the doors of a house, at the car and in many other places, and the main reason why they have it everywhere is to avoid the negative energy and to have better luck .

Although nowadays the evil eye is still part of the traditional Turkish culture, it has also become the most famous souvenir in the whole country . Most of the people buy at least one when they visit the country.

2) Turkish use tea to show hospitality

There is no doubt that the Turkish tea is one of the most famous things about Turkey . Its red colour and its delicious taste are of course some of the reasons why the Turkish tea has become so popular, but the actual reason why Turkish drink so much tea is related to hospitality and the social customs of Turkey.

Offering a tea to your client when he/she comes visit you is part of the Turkish work culture. The client will appreciate it and it’s a way to show respect and interest on a possible project together. Turkish tea is also served between neighbours, friends and family as a way to welcome someone or just to show them hospitality.

The Turkish tea has become very popular for tourists because of its dark red color and also because it´s always served in tulip-shaped glasses. People normally accompanied the tea with sweets like the Turkish delights.

3) Children represent the family strength

That´s right, having kids means spreading and increasing the family, which symbolizes that a family have a bigger strength. It may sound like one of those strange traditions in Turkey, but it actually happened a lot in many other countries in the past.

Imagine how important are babies when they are born, that family and friends normally give them devil eyes to protect them from any kind of danger.

Another thing Turkish people do (generally in small villages where they maintain their traditions) is to keep the mothers at the house , so she can be healthier, and the new-borns have a better beginning of their lives.

4) Ask for the hand at the marriage (Görücülük)

It could sound a little bit too old in many other cultures, and although the couple are the ones who decide if they want to get married or not, once the decision is taken, the parents get involved in the relationship.

There are many marriage customs in Turkey, but probably asking the hand is the most important one. The son and its family would normally visit the home of the future wife to analyse her , and if everything goes well, they will go ahead and ask for her hand.

On these occasions, the soon-to-be groom brings flowers, chocolate, desserts and the engagement rings , while she normally prepares the coffee for the whole family.

5) Breakfast is the most important meal of the day

While in the majority of the countries lunch or dinner are the most important meal, in Turkey is the breakfast. There are many food customs in Turkey that are related to breakfast, but we can already tell you that a Turkish breakfast would never be done with a fruit or some cereals .

Turkish people believe eating a heavy breakfast is healthier than eating a heavy lunch or dinner, and that´s why they have plenty of food on the table . Some of the foods you may be able to see on a typical Turkish breakfast are bread, cheese, eggs, butter, honey, olives and even a whole salad.

Another important fact about the Turkish breakfast culture is that family and friends get together on weekends (generally Sundays) and have a huge breakfast with even more food than the normal days. It´s a way to socialize with their close ones and have a relaxing time during the weekend.

6) Don´t be surprised by their loud car honking

In case you didn´t know it yet, one thing you need to know about Turkish people is that they have a very strong temperament and they always let their emotions guide them. This means they are not very patient when they are driving and if there is a lot of traffic, there will also be a lot of honking and crazy noises.

But in this case, the loud car honking is not only related to the traffic. Turkish people use it a lot as a way to celebrate special events .

Whenever you hear many car horns, don´t worry because it´s probably that there is a wedding around or any other important event.

7) Turkish Hamam

This time we are not only talking about the traditions and customs in Turkey, but also traditions that took place during the Roman and Byzantine empire. The Turkish Hamam is referred to a public bath and it was originally made to fulfil the emphasis on the cleanliness by Islam.

Public bath houses have been used since medieval times, they were built at every single city and they have an incredible importance on the history.

A Turkish Hamam will help you understand perfectly the culture of Turkey, as it´s not only a place to get clean, but also to be more relaxed, rest your body and muscles and the most important, the Hamam is a place were people talk to each other and feel more confident with the rest of the people.

8) Circumcision

When you are talking about the Turkish culture and traditions, you can´t forget about the circumcision, as it´s one of the most important ones. Circumcision is a religious practice and in Turkish is known as Sünnet.

The circumcision is one of the most significant moments on the life of a Turkish boy, as it´s when the boy becomes a man , or at least that´s what it´s said on the Turkish culture. The day when the circumcision occurs is celebrated with a party and the kid wears a flashy outfit to distinguish himself.

Although it is mandatory on many places of the country, fortunately, the way it´s done has been improving in the last years and now most of the people go to a hospital instead of doing it in the traditional way.

Other things to know about Turkish culture

The ones we just told are 8 of the most interesting facts about the culture in Turkey, but what we are about to tell you are some of the things you really need to keep in mind to not mess it up once you visit the country:

Always take off your shoes

A very important cultural tradition in Turkey is to take off your shoes before going inside someone else´s house . Always take them out and put them in front of the door, they will give you some slippers to wear at the house.

Turkish people believe that shoes are dirty, and they are not supposed to pray at dirty places , that´s why is so important that to take off your shoes before going to most of the inside place (houses or mosques).

Don´t leave early

Another of the interesting traditions in Turkey is that you are not allowed to leave early at a party or when you are invited to someone else´s house.

Of course, is not like you are not allowed, but Turkish people believe that you are not having a good time or that you didn´t like the way they treated you if you decide to leave the house before midnight.

The locals of Turkey are very friendly, and they love to stay until late at night hanging out with family or friends while they drink some Raki or other alcoholic drink.

Respect older people

No matter how old they are, it´s a tradition in Turkey to respect the people who is older than you . For example, if you are entering a room, you should always let them pass before you do, or if you are in a public transport, let them have the seat.

Respecting them is a way to show that when you get older you have more experience and you can always teach lessons to the ones that are younger than you. If you are talking to someone who is older than you, then you would need to add “abi” (for man) and “abla” (for woman) after their names.

Hope you enjoyed reading about the culture and traditions of Turkey

That´s all you need to know about the traditions and culture in Turkey, as you can see, they have a very unique lifestyle and many social customs to follow.

Now, you are more than ready to make a trip to Turkey! Hope you enjoyed reading all about the Turkish culture, and if you have any other question or suggestion, please let us know!

• +44 0330 027 0207
• +1 (818) 532-6908
• [email protected]
• e-Learning Courses Online

• You are here:  
• Resources /
• Country Guides /
• Turkey Guide

Turkey - Culture, Etiquette and Business Practices

Merhaba welcome to our guide to turkey., ideal for anyone researching turkish culture, customs, manners, etiquette, business values and the people, buy an in-depth insight report for turkey.

For those needing a more detailed and comprehensive overview of Turkey we have published an expert Report on Turkish Society, Culture & Business .

The 57-page PDF document has been authored by one of our Turkey country specialists and provides readers with much more detail that our free guide.

Topics include:

• An introduction to the country, its history, politics, people and culture
• Insights into the country’s values, customs and etiquette
• Tips on preparing to work with new colleagues from Turkey
• Expat-orientated information on daily life
• Guidelines and tools on adapting and dealing with cultural differences

All for only $7.

Order via the button below or read more about it here before buying!

• Order It ( $7.00 )

Remember this is only a very basic level introduction and is not meant to stereotype all Turks you may meet!

What will you learn in this guide.

You will gain an understanding of a number of key areas including:

• Religion and beliefs
• Culture and society
• Social etiquette and customs
• Business culture and etiquette

The Sultan Ahmet Mosque in Istanbul, more commonly known by Westerners as 'The Blue Mosque' due to the tiles used to decorate the interior.

Photo by Adli Wahid on Unsplash

Facts and Statistics

Location: southeastern Europe and southwestern Asia (that portion of Turkey west of the Bosporus is geographically part of Europe), bordering the Black Sea, between Bulgaria and Georgia, and bordering the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, between Greece and Syria

Capital: Ankara

Climate: temperate; hot, dry summers with mild, wet winters; harsher in interior

Population: 82+ million (2019 est.)

Ethnic Make-up: Turkish 80%, Kurdish 20% (estimated)

Religions: Muslim 99.8% (mostly Sunni), other 0.2% (mostly Christians and Jews)

Government: republican parliamentary democracy

Business culture: Ranked 25th by the Business Culture Complexity Index™

Language in Turkey

The official language, Turkish, is the first language spoken by 90% of the 63m population.

• Minority languages include Kurdish, spoken by 6% of the population.
• Arabic is spoken by 1.2% of the Turkish population; most of those speakers are bilingual Arabic and Turkish speakers.
• Other minority languages include Circassian, spoken by more than 0.09% throughout the country, Greek, Armenian and Judezmo, a Romance language spoken by Jews .

Turkish Society and Culture

Islam is the religion of the majority of Turks although the state is fiercely secular. Islam emanated from what is today Saudi Arabia. The Prophet Muhammad is seen as the last of God's emissaries (following in the footsteps of Jesus, Moses, Abraham, etc) to bring revelation to mankind. He was distinguished with bringing a message for the whole of mankind, rather than just to a certain peoples. As Moses brought the Torah and Jesus the Bible, Muhammad brought the last book, the Quran. The Quran and the actions of the Prophet (the Sunnah) are used as the basis for all guidance in the religion.

• Among certain obligations for Muslims are to pray five times a day - at dawn, noon, afternoon, sunset, and evening.
• The exact time is listed in the local newspaper each day.
• Friday is the Muslim holy day although this is not practised in Turkey.
• However, most males will attend the congregational afternoon prayer.
• During the holy month of Ramazan all Muslims must fast from dawn to dusk.
• Fasting includes no eating, drinking, cigarette smoking, or gum chewing.

Ataturk - the father of the modern day state of Turkey. Did you know criticising him in Turkey could land you in jail?

It's 100% true. Click here to learn why.

Photo by Mert Kahveci on Unsplash

Etiquette & Manners in Turkey

Meeting and greeting.

• When meeting shake hands firmly. When departing it is not always customary to shake hands although it is practised occasionally.
• Friends and relations would greet each other with either one or two kisses on the cheek.
• Elders are always respected by kissing their right hand then placing the forehead onto the hand.
• When entering a room, if you are not automatically met by someone greet the most elderly or most senior first.
• At social occasions greet the person closest to you then work your way around the room or table anti-clockwise.
• Greet people with either the Islamic greeting of 'Asalamu alaykum' (peace be upon you) or 'Nasilsiniz' (How are you? pronounced na-sul-su-nuz).
• Other useful phrases are 'Gunaydin' (Good Morning, pronounced goon-ay-dun), 'iyi gunler' (Good Day, pronounced ee-yee gun-ler) or 'Memnun Oldum' (pleased to meet you).

Gift Giving Etiquette

• Gift giving has no real place in business relationships or etiquette.
• Relationship building and the like will usually take the form of dining or sight seeing trips rather than lavish gifts.
• However, if a gift is given it will be accepted well. It is always a good idea to bring gifts from your own country such as food stuffs or craft items.
• Be aware that Turkey is a Muslim country. Before giving alcohol to anyone be 100% sure that they drink.
• The only time you would need to give any great thought to gifts would be if you were invited to a Turk's home for dinner.
• The most usual gifts to take are pastries, (especially 'baklava') and decorative items for the home such as ornaments or vases.
• Flowers are not usually taken to a host but can be if felt appropriate.
• It is best to ask a florist for advice on what is best to take.
• If the host has children take some expensive sweets or candy.

Dining Etiquette

• Most business entertaining will take place in restaurants.
• Turks enjoy food and the meal is a time for relaxing and engaging in some good conversation.
• The protocol of Turkish hospitality dictates that the host always pays for the meal.
• The concept of sharing a bill is completely alien. You may try and offer to pay, which may be seen as polite, but you would never be allowed to do so.
• The best policy is to graciously thank the host then a few days later invite them to do dinner at a restaurant of your choice.
• It may be a good idea to inform the restaurant manager that under no circumstances are they to accept payment from your guests.
• Evening meals may be accompanied by some alcohol, usually the local tipple called Rakı (pronounced rak-uh).
• It will comprise of a few courses with the main course always meat or fish based, accompanied by bread and a salad.
• Turks smoke during meals and will often take breaks between courses to have a cigarette and a few drinks before moving onto the next.
• Tea or Turkish coffee is served at the end of a meal sometimes with pastries.
• Turkish coffee is a national drink and should at least be sampled. It comes either without sugar, a little sugar or sweet.
• Turkish coffee is sipped and allowed to melt into the taste buds so do not gulp it down as you would instant coffee.
• Never drink to the bottom of the cup as it will be full of ground coffee and taste awful.

People drink and share tea from morning till night! Photo by Zeynep Sümer on Unsplash

Turkish Business Culture and Etiquette

If you're looking for expert help and advice on how to do business in Turkey, then this is what we do!

Click here to learn more about our customized cultural training .

Relationships & Communication

• Turks prefer to do business with those they know and respect, therefore spend time establishing a personal relationship.
• Relationships are fostered in the office, over extended lunches, dinners, and social outings.
• Courtesy is crucial in all business dealings.
• Turks do not require as much personal space as many other cultures and will stand close to you while conversing.
• Do not back away, as this can be construed as unfriendly.
• Discussions may start slowly, with many questions that may seem irrelevant to the purpose of your visit. It is extremely rude to insist that your colleagues get to the point.
• Ask about his/her family without prying. Questions about children will be welcomed.
• The Turks are proud of their country and will enjoy answering questions on their culture and history although be sure to avoid political history.
• Most Turkish men love football (soccer) and usually support one of three teams: Galatasaray, Beşiktaş or Fenerbahçe. Asking after their team's recent fortunes will always
• produce lively and animate responses.
• Once a relationship has been established, communication is direct.
• It is vital that you maintain eye contact while speaking since Turks take this as a sign of sincerity.

Business Meeting Etiquette

• Appointments are necessary and should be made 1 to 2 weeks in advance, preferably by telephone.
• Many Turks take vacation during July or August, so it is best not to try to schedule appointments at that time.
• It is also not a good idea to schedule meetings during Ramazan (Ramadan).
• Punctuality is expected although you should be prepared to be kept waiting.
• First appointments are more social- than business-oriented since Turks prefer to do business with people they know.
• Small talk helps establish a rapport. Do not immediately begin discussing business.
• Have all printed material available in both English and Turkish.
• Presentations should be well thought-out, thorough, and backed up with visual aids such as maps, chart and graphs.

The Turkish negotiation style has its roots in the bazaar culture of the region. Photo by Tolis Dianellos on Unsplash

Business Negotiation Etiquette

• Always come to Turkey knowing two things. Your success is defined by your ability to build effective personal relationships combined with a clearly outlined and well presented proposal.
• Business is personal. Although this is changing with the influx of big multi-nationals and a more corporate culture in some of the larger companies, many businesses are still family owned and run.
• Turks will want to do business with those they like, trust, feel comfortable with and with those that can provide a long term relationship.
• If they feel you are hiding something or there is an element of suspicion about your motives you may not get very far.
• Building a relationship with your Turkish counterpart(s) is therefore critical.
• The first meeting at least should be solely focused on getting to know each other. Once a relationship has been established you can safely move on to business matters.
• As well as looking to the person, Turks are also astute business people.
• Ensure your proposal clearly demonstrates the mutual benefit and profitability of any agreement or partnership.
• Turks are primarily oral and visual communicators so in addition to written statistics, projections and the like try to present information vocally or with maps, graphs and charts.
• Decision making can be slow. It is most likely that you will meet and negotiate with less senior members of a family first.
• Once you are seen as trustworthy and your proposal financially viable you will then move on to meet more senior members.
• A decision is ultimately made by the head of the family/company.
• When negotiating, the Turks will start at extremes in order to gage your response. Prior to negotiations know your target figure and work slowly towards it through meaningful concessions.
• When conceding ensure you present this as a favour and a decision made out of respect and liking for your counterpart(s).
• Try and concede only once you have gained agreement on a reciprocal concession on a separate or related issue.
• Do not use deadlines or pressure tactics as the Turks will use this to their advantage and reverse the tactic by threatening to cancel agreements or end negotiations.
• Be patient. It may not always be necessary to focus on financial benefits when negotiating.
• It is just as useful to point to areas such as power, influence, honour, respect and other non-monetary incentives.

Business Dress Etiquette

• Business dress is conservative. You will be expected to wear a suit and tie. Similarly women should wear smart professional outfits.
• In the summer, and especially in the cities of Istanbul, Izmir and Anakara the weather is very hot and humid. It is acceptable to just wear a shirt with trousers and in most cases to not wear a tie.
• Outside the big cities and especially in the East of Turkey both women and men should wear more conservative clothing.
• Women are advised to refrain from exposing their legs and arms and to ensure clothes are not tight-fitting.
• Men should not wear shorts.

Naming Conventions

• When addressing a Turk the most common method is to call a man by his first name followed by 'bey' (pronounced bay). So, Ertan Gonca, would be Ertan Bey. Similarly a woman's first name would be followed by 'hanim' (pronounced ha-num).
• Where professional titles exist such as Doctor or Professor, always use them either on their own of before the first name. Curiously this is also the case with many other professions such as lawyers 'Avukat' or engineers 'Muhendis'. Within Turkish companies and organisations senior ranking staff will be addressed accordingly. A common example is Mr. Manager, 'Mudur Bey'.
• A common phrase you will hear Turks using is 'efendim' (literally 'my master'). You may hear this from a waiter, a secretary, taxi driver, doorman, shop staff and many others. It is simply a polite way of addressing people you are not familiar with.

Business Card Etiquette

• Business cards are exchanged without formal ritual.
• Use both hands to exchange cards.
• Present your business card to the receptionist when you arrive.
• Have one side of your business card translated into Turkish. Although not a business necessity, it will impress your business colleagues.
• Often Turks do not give their business card unless they are certain that they wish to establish a business relationship.

Management Culture

• Please visit out guide to Turkish management culture for specific information on this topic.

Do you need to cite this page for school or university research?

Please see below examples.

Simply change the country name depending on which guide you are referencing.

MLA Format:

Commisceo Global Consulting Ltd. Afghanistan - Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette. www.commisceo-global.com. 1 Jan. 2020 https://commisceo-global.com/resources/country-guides/ afghanistan -guide

APA Format:

Commisceo Global Consulting Ltd. (2020, January 1) Afghanistan - Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette. Retrieved from https://commisceo-global.com/resources/country-guides/ afghanistan -guide

Harvard Format:

Commisceo Global Consulting Ltd. (2020). Afghanistan - Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette. [online] Available at: https://commisceo-global.com/resources/country-guides/ afghanistan -guide [Accessed ENTER DATE].

Can You Help Improve This Page?

License our culture guides, did you know that you can upload all our country culture guides onto your company intranet, connect your expatriate and international business staff with customised country information at the touch of a button., click here for more information..

34 New House, 67-68 Hatton Garden, London EC1N 8JY, UK. 1950 W. Corporate Way PMB 25615, Anaheim, CA 92801, USA. +44 0330 027 0207 or +1 (818) 532-6908

34 New House, 67-68 Hatton Garden, London EC1N 8JY, UK. 1950 W. Corporate Way PMB 25615, Anaheim, CA 92801, USA. +44 0330 027 0207 +1 (818) 532-6908

Search for something

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Exploring Turkish Cultures: Essays, Interviews and Reviews (2011)

This groundbreaking series of essays offers new insights into Turkish cultures both past and present. Moving beyond the traditional binaries of east/west, Islam/ secularism, or Europe/Asia, the book contains a variety of perspectives on contemporary Turkey, from actors, directors, critics and other major cultural figurs. The book tries to situate these opinions in context by looking on how such perspectives are employed in different cultural spheres - education, theatre, politics and the like. Exploring Turkish Cultures contains the first major interviews published in English with major figures, including actors Turkan Soray, Genco Erkal and Nesrin Kazankaya. Other figures interviewed include film directors Dervis Zaim and documentary filmmakers Ben Hopkins, Pelin Esmer and Ozgur Dogan. An extended interview with the author, translator and academic Talat Halman rounds off the interview section. Complementing these interviews are a series of essays on major Turkish films and theatrical productions, both past and present. Combining historical analysis, comment and evaluation from an author who has spent two decades living in Turkey, Exploring Turkish Cultures represents a major contribution to contemporary Turkish studies.

Related Papers

Catherine Simpson

Laurence Raw

Cinema as an art form was established in Turkey as long ago as 1896, when the first picture houses opened in the cosmopolitan area around Pera in İstanbul (now known as Beyoğlu). The industry grew up around one particular street – Yeşilçam (The Green Pine) – which later gave its name to a style of filmmaking that reached a peak of popularity during the 1960s and 1970s. Since its inception, the Turkish film industry has focused on the struggles – whether social, personal or political – experienced by a people caught between two cultures, European and Islamic. This is especially important in a country which for the past half-century has made strenuous efforts to join the European Union, yet keeps being repelled by an institution that remains fearful of the ‘Islamic other’. The Turkish Republic, meanwhile, has been reluctant to consider itself a part of the Middle East, even though it shares its religion with neighbouring countries such as Iraq and Egypt.

European Stages, Volume 14, Fall 2019

Eylem Ejder , Irem Aydin

https://europeanstages.org/2019/11/05/young-and-critical-voices-of-turkey-i-theatre-helps-us-to-hear-each-other-a-conversation-with-irem-aydin/ İrem Aydın is one of the leading young voices of Turkish theatre and performance. She produces performative and poetic works trying to focus upon and to understand the tragedy of her age and generation. Her works mostly deal with the topics “migration,” “digitalization,” and “traumatic experiences.” Born in Istanbul, Aydın studied Spanish Language and Literature at Istanbul University and attended the Master Program in Theater Creation at University Carlos III de Madrid in Spain. She wrote and directed plays such as Above the Ground Under the Clouds, TürkLand (an adaptation of Dilşad Budak’s autobiographic novel), and Golem at Entropi Sahne where she worked as artistic director and collaborated with independent collectives such as Artopia from North Macedonia and Mehrtyer from Germany for the projects “The Sheet” and “The Wedding.” She participated in festivals such as the MOT International Theater Festival, the International Forum at Theatertreffen, and the Interplay Young Playwrights Festival. Currently, she lives and works in Berlin and Istanbul. In June 2019, I met her in Berlin and had a chance to talk about her works, new projects, and thoughts on theatre. I hope I can continue the same dialogue with other young and critical voices of Turkey.

Comparative Drama

Rüstem Ertuğ Altınay , Hülya Adak

This essay is the introduction to the "Performing Turkishness" special issue of Comparative Drama, edited by Hülya Adak and Rüstem Ertuğ Altınay. The purpose of the special issue is to address the gap in the scholarship on theatre and politics in Turkey and its diasporas. Organized thematically and chronologically, the essays cover the period from the rise of European theatre and the transformation of Ottoman performance genres in the nineteenth century to the work of minoritarian theatres and independent companies in contemporary Turkey. While each essay focuses on a specific production, dramatic text, or performance genre, the authors situate their analyses within a broader historical and artistic framework. With this introduction, the authors aim to complement their work by presenting an historical overview of theatre in Turkey and its diasporas as well as a brief discussion of contemporary trends and recent productions.

The Palgrave Handbook of Asian Cinema

Murat Akser

Akser looks at the establishing factors of the production mode in Turkish cinema from the perspective of finance, production regime, the role of the screenwriter, and presentation of stars. Focusing on the organization and production of the Turkish film industry, this chapter also draws attention to the change within Turkish cinema from an artisanal, local Asian aesthetic to its reemergence as a televisual western artifact of modernity. Akser later explores the use of traditional Turkish art forms in the creation of a film aesthetics within the production modes of the 1960s–1970s Turkish cinema. “Locating Turkish Cinema” concludes with a discussion of how the production modes, narrative forms, genres, and acting styles borrowed from Western cinema conform to Turkish traditional arts.

Nezih Erdogan , Deniz Gokturk

Companion Encyclopedia of Middle Eastern and North African Film edited by Oliver Leaman Encyclopedia entry on Turkish cinema

Open Access Publishing Group

The film industry that developed at the end of the 19th century played a role in improving the masses, first visually and then aurally. The nation-states that became aware of this situation, especially Germany, began to use films in creating a collective national identity. As for Turkey, it became involved in the film industry with the contributions of Enver Paşa, who was under intense German influence. However, only documentaries, feature films, and films based on the Turkish national struggle were made until the 1950s. In the 1950s, there was an evolution in the film industry, as in every other area of Turkish life. Kostüme avantür films, a genre specific to Turkey using real or fiction characters whose stories were adapted into a film from comic strips, were introduced. These films based on historical figures attracted a great deal of attention between 1970-1980 along with the effect of internal and external political developments. Among these films, the Kara Murat series was especially prominent. The present study aims to look into the discourse on Turkish identity in the Kara Murat series within the scope of collective identity. In this regard, the Kara Murat series shown between 1972-1978 were subject to a discourse analysis based on such categories as identity, conqueror and Conquest, the “other”, and “us”. As a result of the study, it was seen that the Turkish identity discourse in these films was based on Ottoman history.

Doctoral Dissertation

Levent Yilmazok

Considering the experience of the first twenty years of Turkey's membership in Eurimages (as from 1990), this PhD thesis examines the contributions of a supranational cinema support fund - which demands a series of culturally sensitive criteria to be met - on a national cinema industry. In addition to the co-production, exhibiton and distribution support provided by Eurimages, and its contribution to filmmaking practices, Turkish-initiative co-productions - those directed by Turkish filmmakers, and those whose themes are pertinent to Turkey - are analysed herein with regard to the 'nationalness' of their content and narrative styles. Eurimages practically has been a good source of financial support for Turkish filmmakers seeking to engage with the problematic aspects of Turkey's national identity or simply seeking to convey the contribution of components to Turkey's overall cultural identity. This study also reveals those representations of diversity with particular regard to ethnic, religious and gender identities through a close examination of Turkish-initiative co-productions that have been supported by the Fund.

National Identities

gokcen karanfil

Critical Stages, Volume. 17, 2018

Eylem Ejder

When I was writing a draft for this report, I realised that in Istanbul, the most populated city in Turkey, more than 150 theatre productions are being staged every evening. It is quite surprising and gratifying to witness this, despite the socio-political crisis and the censorship in art. Actually, for a while it has been discussed that Turkish people are divided into two sharp poles both in terms of political and cultural life, namely the Republicans and the conservatives. However, the landscape of theatre studies presents a contrast. On one hand, especially over the last ten years, theatre productions in Turkey have a very prosperous landscape. One can find various trends, theatrical forms, new dramaturgical and narrative techniques ranging from musical, in-yer-face, feminist theatre, queer studies, performance art to storytelling forms, monodrama, monologue drama, solo-performance, newer adaptations of classical texts and traditional forms. More recently, a number of new groups, new venues, theatre and performance research centers such as GalataPerform, Tiyatro Medresesi, Kadıköy Theatron which are seeking for new theatrical forms, acting styles, narrative techniques, have emerged. Concordantly, the number of theatre critics and new theatre magazines, websites, blogs focusing on current performances have been gradually increasing. Additionally, there are now more than thirty-five academic departments in Theatre, Acting, Performance Arts, Dramaturgy Studies all around Turkey.

RELATED PAPERS

Erdem Guven

The Politics of Culture in Contemporary Turkey

Diliara Brileva (Galikhuzina)

Turkish Studies Vol 12:1

Ayça Tunç Cox

The Routledge Companion to Global Literary Adaptation in the Twenty-First Century (edited by Brandon Chua and Elizabeth Ho)

M. Mert Örsler

Oxford Bibliographies

Turkish Area Studies Review

Akser, Murat (2014) Towards A New Historiography Of Turkish Cinema. In: New Cinema, New Media: Reinventing Turkish Cinema. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne, pp. 43-66. ISBN 978-1-4438-5688-1 [Book section]

Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association

Arab Stages, Volume 11, Fall 2019

Eylem Ejder , Handan Salta

In Independent Filmmaking Around the Globe. Edited by Doris Baltruschat and Mary P. Erickson. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2015. pp. 131-148.

Akser, Murat. "Halit Refig's I Lost My Heart to a Turk: Woman, Islam and Modernity in Turkish Cinema." CINEJ Cinema Journal 7.1 (2018): 5-29.

Umut Tümay Arslan

suddhayan chatterjee

Independent Filmmaking Around the Globe

Hollywood Abroad: Audiences and Cultural Exchange eds. Richard Maltby & Melvyn Stokes, BFI

Nezih Erdogan

GSÜ İleti-ş-im

Ozlem Guclu

Fatmanur Kaçar Aşcı

Hülya Adak , Rüstem Ertuğ Altınay

Guido Rings

Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television

Sezen Kayhan

PORTAL Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies

Iain Robert Smith

Turkish Studies

Kerem Karaosmanoğlu

Canan Balan

Zouhair Ghazzal

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

• Close Menu X

Please note: we are aware of some payment processing issues with USA based orders, we are currently working to resolve this - sorry for any inconvenience caused!

• Publish With Us
• Meet our Editorial Advisors

"[Rescuing the Social Function of the Economy: Brazil is Back] is a most valuable contribution in these troubled times."

- Professor Noam Chomsky, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

Exploring Turkish Cultures: Essays, Interviews and Reviews

• Description

This groundbreaking series of essays offers new insights into Turkish cultures both past and present. Moving beyond the traditional binaries of east/west, Islam/secularism, and Europe/Asia, the book contains a variety of perspectives on contemporary Turkey, from actors, directors, critics and other major cultural figures. The book tries to situate these opinions in context by looking at how such perspectives are employed in different cultural spheres—education, theatre, politics and the like.

Exploring Turkish Cultures contains the first major interviews published in English with prominent public figures, including actors Türkân Şoray, Genco Erkal and Nesrin Kazankaya. Other figures interviewed include film directors Derviş Zaim and documentary filmmakers Ben Hopkins, Pelin Esmer and Özgür Doğan. An extended interview with the author, translator and academic Talât Halman rounds off the interview section. Complementing these interviews are a series of essays on major Turkish films and theatrical productions, both past and present.

Combining historical analysis, comment and evaluation from an author who has spent two decades living in Turkey, Exploring Turkish Cultures represents a major contribution to contemporary Turkish studies.

Laurence Raw teaches in the Department of English at Baskent University, Ankara, Turkey. His other books include studies of film adaptations of Nathaniel Hawthorne and Henry James, as well as a book of theatre criticism: Impressions of the Turkish Stage (2009). He has published articles on Turkish film in Literature/Film Quarterly and Screen. He also writes regular reviews of Turkish theatre productions for Theatre-world Internet Magazine and Theatre Journal.

“At first sight the book is as eclectic as Turkey’s arts scene. Interviews, reviews and essays are interspersed: inspect the crafting of this book too closely and all you can see are small squares of colour that seem to have no meaning. Step back to see the big picture and you can appreciate that each tile has been carefully placed into a mosaic that gives an integrated image. Worth particular attention are Raw’s interviews with some key figures who have shaped the arts in Turkey. Some of these are groundbreaking, because they are the first time that interviews with big stars have appeared in English.” – Marion James, Istanbul in Today’s Zaman, March 2011

Buy This Book

ISBN: 1-4438-2639-1

ISBN13: 978-1-4438-2639-6

Release Date: 9th December 2010

Price: £49.99

New and Forthcoming

• Sales Agents
• Unsubscribe

Cambridge Scholars Publishing | Registration Number: 04333775

Please note that Cambridge Scholars Publishing Limited is not affiliated to or associated with Cambridge University Press or the University of Cambridge

Copyright © 2024 Cambridge Scholars Publishing. All rights reserved.

Designed and Built by Prime Creative

Please fill in the short form below for any enquiries.

Sign up for our newsletter

Please enter your email address below;

• Undergraduate
• High School
• Architecture
• American History
• Asian History
• Antique Literature
• American Literature
• Asian Literature
• Classic English Literature
• World Literature
• Creative Writing
• Linguistics
• Criminal Justice
• Legal Issues
• Anthropology
• Archaeology
• Political Science
• World Affairs
• African-American Studies
• East European Studies
• Latin-American Studies
• Native-American Studies
• West European Studies
• Family and Consumer Science
• Social Issues
• Women and Gender Studies
• Social Work
• Natural Sciences
• Pharmacology
• Earth science
• Agriculture
• Agricultural Studies
• Computer Science
• IT Management
• Mathematics
• Investments
• Engineering and Technology
• Engineering
• Aeronautics
• Medicine and Health
• Alternative Medicine
• Communications and Media
• Advertising
• Communication Strategies
• Public Relations
• Educational Theories
• Teacher's Career
• Chicago/Turabian
• Company Analysis
• Education Theories
• Shakespeare
• Canadian Studies
• Food Safety
• Relation of Global Warming and Extreme Weather Condition
• Movie Review
• Admission Essay
• Annotated Bibliography
• Application Essay
• Article Critique
• Article Review
• Article Writing
• Book Review
• Business Plan
• Business Proposal
• Capstone Project
• Cover Letter
• Creative Essay
• Dissertation
• Dissertation - Abstract
• Dissertation - Conclusion
• Dissertation - Discussion
• Dissertation - Hypothesis
• Dissertation - Introduction
• Dissertation - Literature
• Dissertation - Methodology
• Dissertation - Results
• GCSE Coursework
• Grant Proposal
• Marketing Plan
• Multiple Choice Quiz
• Personal Statement
• Power Point Presentation
• Power Point Presentation With Speaker Notes
• Questionnaire
• Reaction Paper

Research Paper

• Research Proposal
• SWOT analysis
• Thesis Paper
• Online Quiz
• Literature Review
• Movie Analysis
• Statistics problem
• Math Problem
• All papers examples
• How It Works
• Money Back Policy
• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• We Are Hiring

Turkish Culture, Essay Example

Pages: 2

Words: 666

Hire a Writer for Custom Essay

Use 10% Off Discount: "custom10" in 1 Click 👇

You are free to use it as an inspiration or a source for your own work.

For the purpose of determine the different cultures that exist around the world, my roommate was generous enough to sit down and explain to me the type of culture that exists in Turkey.  Throughout the discussion, I was able to learn very much about the climate and the weather as well as the general behavioral customs that are typical for the area.  Religion and holidays are a very important part of the culture in Turkey and are highly revered by the people there.  There is also a different type of educational system that exists in the country from that typically found in the United States.  All of these differences were very interesting and showed that while there are differences between the two cultures, there are also several similarities that exist in our common values and how we show appreciation for the groups of people that matter.

First of all, the climate is very different from the United States.  The winter is extremely cold and it snows almost all the time in Turkey during this time of the year.  However, the spring and summer seasons are usually very dry and hot.  There is a lack of seas or lakes around the country, so most of the heat is very dry instead of humid like many parts of northeastern and middle United States.  In the fall, the weather is usually rainy and the winds can become very treacherous.

Many of the Turkish people greet friends by giving them a hand shake and a kiss.  This is not a kiss on the lips, instead the head motions towards one another and makes the motion of a kiss.  Strangers and acquaintances are usually greeted by only a hand shake.  Also, the clothing is left up to the individual to decide what to wear.  There is no traditional clothing in Turkey, so everyone typically wears very casual clothes.  There are no double standards for men and women; everyone is able to choose what he or she would like to wear.

Marriages are usually arranged marriages in Turkey where the parents of both the son and daughter determine who is to be married.  The western part of the country is less traditional because they have more of a European influence on the customs; therefore, there are very few traditional marriages in this area.  Even though the eastern part of the country has a more traditional viewpoint on marriages, many of the Turkish citizens are against having arranged marriages.  This is a debate that continues and is usually based on a family-to-family opinion whether or not the tradition should be upheld.  Nevertheless, after a couple is married the family and friends usually give gifts of gold jewelry to the bride and groom.  The wedding is usually followed by a massive celebration with food, music, cake and other traditional celebratory items.

After the couple has been married, the general custom is that the man will be the supplier for the family and the woman will stay at home to take care of the children.  Many families are giving the woman more freedom to choose whether she would like to work or stay at home.  However, the traditional male role in the family has largely remained the same as it is frowned upon if the woman makes more money than the man.

Finally, the religious views within the country are very important to the culture as a whole.  Turkey is primarily an Islamic country, but there is a large part of the Turkish population that is Christian or Jewish.  Because of these religious views, there is usually a religious ceremony held for anyone that has passed away.  The burial is ceremonious and then following the proceedings, the friends and family will eat a meal at the house of the individual that has passed away.  Most of the families are very close to the immediate and extended family members, so when one person passes away there is usually a very large showing to honor the individual and to mourn their loss.

Stuck with your Essay?

Get in touch with one of our experts for instant help!

Decision Making in Management the Case of Gore & Associates, Research Paper Example

Child Pornography, Essay Example

Time is precious

don’t waste it!

Plagiarism-free guarantee

Privacy guarantee

Secure checkout

Money back guarantee

Related Essay Samples & Examples

Voting as a civic responsibility, essay example.

Pages: 1

Words: 287

Utilitarianism and Its Applications, Essay Example

Words: 356

The Age-Related Changes of the Older Person, Essay Example

Words: 448

The Problems ESOL Teachers Face, Essay Example

Pages: 8

Words: 2293

Should English Be the Primary Language? Essay Example

Pages: 4

Words: 999

The Term “Social Construction of Reality”, Essay Example

Words: 371