essay about psychoanalytic perspective

Psychoanalysis: A History of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

However, psychoanalysis is much more than a quirky approach to understanding the human mind. It’s a specific form of talking therapy, grounded in a complex theory of human development and psychological functioning.

In this article, we’ll introduce the history of psychoanalytic theory, the basic tenets of the psychoanalytic model of the mind, and the clinical approach called psychoanalysis. We’ll explain the differences between psychoanalysis and psychotherapy and consider some criticisms of psychoanalysis.

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This Article Contains

What is psychoanalysis a definition and history of psychoanalytic theory, the approach: psychoanalytic perspective, techniques of psychoanalytic therapy, psychodynamic vs. psychoanalytic theory, psychoanalysis vs. psychotherapy, psychoanalysis test: the freudian personality test, criticisms of psychoanalytic theory, a take-home message.

Psychoanalysis is a talking therapy that aims to treat a range of mental health issues by investigating the relationship between the unconscious and conscious elements of psychological experience using clinical techniques like free association and dream interpretation (Pick, 2015).

Contemporary psychoanalysis has evolved a great deal from its roots in the classical Freudian approach, which developed in Vienna during the late 19th century.

Today, there are several psychoanalytic schools that adhere to different models of the mind and clinical approaches. These include the object relations school associated with Klein and Winnicott, Jung’s analytic psychology, and Lacanian psychoanalysis (Gaztambide, 2021).

Many controversies abound between these different approaches today, although all can be classified as an approach to psychoanalysis.

A common thread between them is their focus on the transference and countertransference dynamics between the analyst and analysand as the vehicle of psychological transformation and healing (Pick, 2015). This is explained further below.

Freudian theory: Sigmund Freud & psychoanalysis

The founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, was born in Austria and spent most of his childhood and adult life in Vienna (Gay, 2006). He entered medical school and trained as a neurologist, earning a medical degree in 1881.

Soon after his graduation, he set up in private practice and began treating patients with psychological disorders. His colleague Dr. Josef Breuer’s intriguing experience with a patient, “Anna O.,” who experienced a range of physical symptoms with no apparent physical cause (Breuer & Freud, 1895/2001) drew his attention.

Dr. Breuer found that her symptoms abated when he helped her recover memories of traumatic experiences that she had repressed from conscious awareness. This case sparked Freud’s interest in the unconscious mind and spurred the development of some of his most influential ideas.

You can read more about the clinical origins of psychoanalysis in the original text Studies on Hysteria (Breuer & Freud, 1895/2001).

Models of the mind: Ego, id, & superego

Perhaps Freud’s greatest impact on the world was his model of the human mind, which divides the mind into three layers, or regions.

• Conscious Housing our current thoughts, feelings, and perceptual focus
• Preconscious (sometimes called the subconscious) The home of everything we can recall or retrieve from our memory
• Unconscious At the deepest level of our minds resides a repository of the processes that drive our behavior, including biologically determined instinctual desires (Pick, 2015).

Later, Freud proposed a more structured model of the mind that better depicted his original ideas about conscious and unconscious processes (Gaztambide, 2021).

In this model, there are three components to the mind:

• Id The id operates at an unconscious level as the motor of our two main instinctual drives: Eros, or the survival instinct that drives us to engage in life-sustaining activities, and Thanatos, or the death instinct that drives destructive, aggressive, and violent behavior.
• Ego The ego acts as a filter for the id that works as both a conduit for and check on our unconscious drives. The ego ensures our needs are met in a socially appropriate way. It is oriented to navigating reality and begins to develop in infancy.
• Superego The superego is the term Freud gives to “conscience” where morality and higher principles reside, encouraging us to act in socially and morally acceptable ways (Pick, 2015).

The image offers a context of this “iceberg” model of the mind, which depicts the greatest psychological influence as the realm of the unconscious.

Defense mechanisms

Freud believed these three components of the mind are in constant conflict because each has a different goal. Sometimes, when psychological conflict threatens psychological functioning, the ego mobilizes an array of defense mechanisms to prevent psychological disintegration (Burgo, 2012).

These defense mechanisms include:

• Repression The ego prevents disturbing memories or threatening thoughts from entering consciousness altogether, pushing them into our unconscious.
• Denial The ego blocks upsetting or overwhelming experiences from awareness, leading us to refuse to acknowledge or believe what is happening.
• Projection The ego attempts to resolve discomfort by attributing our unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and motives to another person.
• Displacement The ego satisfies an unconscious impulse by acting on a substitute object or person in a socially unacceptable way (e.g., expressing the anger you feel toward your boss at work with your spouse at home instead).
• Regression Ego functioning returns to a former stage of psychological development to cope with stress (e.g., an angry adult having a tantrum like a young child).
• Sublimation Similar to displacement, the ego overcomes conflict by channeling surplus energy into a socially acceptable activity (e.g., channeling anxiety into exercise, work, or other creative pursuits).

It is built on the foundational idea that biologically determined unconscious forces drive human behavior, often rooted in early experiences of attempting to get our basic needs met. However, these remain out of conscious awareness (Pick, 2015).

Psychoanalysis engages in a process of inquiry into adult defenses against unacceptable unconscious desires rooted in these early experiences and emphasizes their importance as the bedrock of adult psychological functioning (Frosh, 2016).

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A modern psychoanalyst may use a range of different interventions, depending on their school of psychoanalytic thought (e.g., object-relational, Lacanian, Jungian, etc.; Gaztambide, 2021).

However, there are four component techniques specific to psychoanalysis that we explain below.

What are the four ideas of psychoanalysis?

Interpretation

Interpretation refers to the analyst’s hypothesizing of their client’s unconscious conflicts. These hypotheses are communicated verbally to the client.

Generally, the analyst will attempt to make their client more aware of their defense mechanisms and their relational context, including their unconscious conflicts and the client’s motivation for mobilizing a particular defense mechanism (Kernberg, 2016).

There are three stages of interpretation (Kernberg, 2016):

• Clarification Where the analyst tries to clarify what is going on in the patient’s conscious mind
• Confrontation Gently aims to bring nonverbal aspects of the client’s behavior into their awareness
• Interpretation When the analyst proposes their hypothesis of the unconscious meaning that relates each aspect of the client’s communication with the other

Transference analysis

Transference refers to the repetition of unconscious conflicts rooted in the client’s relational past in the relationship with the analyst. Transference analysis involves tracking elements of the client’s verbal and nonverbal communications that aim to influence the analyst’s behavior toward the client (Racker, 1982).

For example, a client with a history of childhood trauma may begin to relate to the analyst as a threatening or predatory authority figure by expressing suspicion of the analyst’s motives, missing sessions, or becoming angry with the analyst.

The analysis of a client’s transference is an essential component of psychoanalysis and is the main driver of change during treatment. It provides the raw material that informs an analyst’s interpretations (Racker, 1982).

Technical neutrality

Technical neutrality refers to the analyst’s commitment to remain neutral and avoid taking sides in the client’s internal conflicts. The analyst strives to remain neutral and nonjudgmental by maintaining a clinical distance from the client’s external reality .

Additionally, technical neutrality demands that analysts refrain from imposing their value systems on the client (Kernberg, 2016).

Technical neutrality can sometimes seem like indifference or disinterest in the client, but that is not the goal; rather, analysts aim to serve as a mirror for their clients, reflecting clients’ own characteristics, assumptions, and behaviors back at them to develop a client’s self-awareness .

Countertransference analysis

Countertransference refers to the analyst’s responses and reactions to the client and the material they present during sessions, most especially the client’s transference.

Countertransference analysis involves tracking elements of the analyst’s own dispositional transference to the client that is co-determined by the client (Racker, 1982).

Countertransference analysis enables the analyst to maintain clinical boundaries and avoid acting out in the relationship with the client.

Following on from the example given above, an analyst working with a client with a history of childhood trauma may respond to the client’s transference by feeling dismissive or contemptuous of a client that misses sessions or expresses suspicion.

However, countertransference analysis enables the analyst to understand that such feelings are a response to the client’s transference rooted in their past relational conflicts. The analyst’s feelings are then observed as material for interpretation rather than expressed (Racker, 1982).

Psychodynamic theory agrees that clinical problems in adult life often originate in a client’s early relationships. It also considers a client’s current social context and their interactions with the immediate environment.

Both theoretical approaches agree on the following:

• The existence of unconscious drives/instincts and defense mechanisms
• The impact of the unconscious on human personality and behavior
• The importance of our earliest experiences in shaping later relational patterns
• The impact of internal factors on behavior, meaning behavior is never under a client’s complete control (Berzoff et al., 2008)

It may be helpful to further distinguish between the two by providing some examples of the differences and similarities in clinical approach.

First, both the psychoanalyst and the psychodynamic therapist work with transference and countertransference. In fact, any therapeutic approach that acknowledges and works with transference and/or countertransference may be termed psychodynamic, in part (Shedler, 2010).

Therefore, a psychodynamic therapist attends to their client’s communications to detect how deep-rooted unconscious conflicts may contribute to problematic behaviors, thoughts, and feelings in the present.

However, they also attend to the here-and-now social context of a client’s life to understand how real-world situations such as poverty, grief, abuse, violence, racism, sexism, and so on contribute to a client’s suffering (Berzoff et al., 2008).

A psychoanalyst will see their client (termed a patient, usually) every weekday over an indeterminate period of years. Meanwhile, a psychodynamic therapist will see a client less frequently, perhaps once or twice a week for several months or a few years, depending on the client’s needs. Psychodynamic therapy is more client centered in this respect (Berzoff et al., 2008).

A psychodynamic therapist may include techniques that are not psychoanalytic to work with transference and countertransference. These may include communication skills, such as active listening , empathy , and expressive arts interventions. Psychodynamic therapists are not limited in their approach by the traditional pillars of psychoanalytic technique mentioned above (Shedler, 2010).

A psychoanalyst works with their client on a couch to encourage regression and access unconscious material (Pick, 2015), while a psychodynamic therapist works face to face with a client sitting upright.

Now that we’ve clarified the differences between psychodynamic and psychoanalytic therapy, let’s look at the difference between psychoanalysis and psychotherapy overall.

A psychoanalyst has a particular set of skills gained from their specific psychoanalytic training. Meanwhile, psychotherapists can train in a range of therapeutic modalities, including psychodynamic , cognitive-behavioral , humanistic , or integrative approaches (Wampold, 2018).

However, both professions focus on helping people via talk therapy. Both use their skills to help their clients gain insight into their inner worlds, address their psychological problems, and heal.

In fact, a psychoanalyst is a type of psychotherapist who specializes in psychoanalysis. Therefore, every psychoanalyst is also a psychotherapist, but not every psychotherapist is a psychoanalyst (Wampold, 2018).

Although you’ll need to consult a psychoanalyst for a more valid and reliable classification, this test can give you an idea of how psychoanalysts conceptualize personality .

The test is composed of 48 items rated on a five-point scale from Disagree to Agree. The results are in the form of scores ranging from 0% to 100% across eight personality types:

• Oral-receptive
• Oral-aggressive
• Anal-expulsive
• Anal-retentive
• Phallic-aggressive
• Phallic-compensative
• Classic hysteric
• Retentive hysteric

To understand more about Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and how it relates to personality, check out the video below.

Although psychoanalytic theory laid the foundations for much of modern psychology, it is not without flaws. Psychoanalysis is still practiced today, and psychoanalytic theory has since been updated because of our improved understanding of human behavior , neuroscience , and the brain (Frosh, 2016).

However, serious criticisms of the theory and its applications remain (Eagle, 2007).

The major criticisms include the following:

• Many of the hypotheses and assumptions of psychoanalytic theory cannot be tested empirically, making it almost impossible to falsify or validate.
• It emphasizes the deterministic roles of biology and the unconscious and neglects environmental influences on the conscious mind.
• Psychoanalytic theory was deeply rooted in Freud’s sexist ideas, and traces of this sexism still remain in the theory and practice today.
• It is deeply Eurocentric and unsupported cross-culturally and may only apply to clients from Western Judeo–Christian and secular cultures.
• Freud emphasized pathology and neglected to study optimal psychological functioning.
• The theory was not developed through the application of the scientific method, but from Freud’s subjective interpretations of a small group of patients from a specific cultural background and historical period (Eagle, 2007).

Given these valid criticisms of psychoanalytic theory, it is wise to approach Freud and his theories with skepticism.

Although his work formed the foundations of modern psychology, it did not develop from a scientifically validated evidence base and is not falsifiable. Therefore, Freud’s students and followers have borne the burden of attempting to provide evidence to support the scientific and clinical validity of psychoanalysis.

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While Freud’s classical psychoanalytic theory and traditional clinical technique have earned widespread criticism for their lack of a scientific evidence base or testability, the explanatory power of psychoanalytic theory has become part of popular culture in the West.

For example, we all know about the Freudian slip and generally accept that people often remain “unconscious” of certain aspects of themselves, their motives, behavior, and the impact they have on others.

Various defense mechanisms have become part of the everyday language of popular psychology, such as denial, repression, and projection.

There is also no denying that Freud’s interpretation of dreams has led to the widespread belief that our dreams actually mean something, rather than just being a series of random events that occur when we’re sleeping.

Meanwhile, the central therapeutic concepts of transference and countertransference have informed a widely accepted psychodynamic understanding of relationships, especially in health and social care settings. These ideas have also informed the development of safeguarding practices that uphold professional boundaries.

Some of Freud’s ideas may seem eccentric and of their time, but his legacy is far reaching and has influenced areas of thought far beyond the clinical practice of psychoanalysis.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. For more information, don’t forget to download our three Positive CBT Exercises for free .

Ed: Updated April 2023

• Berzoff, J., Flanagan, L. M., & Hertz, P. (2008). Inside out and outside in: Psychodynamic clinical theory and psychopathology in contemporary multicultural contexts . Jason Aronson.
• Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (2001). Studies on hysteria. In J. Strachey (Trans., Ed.), Complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. II (1893–95) . Vintage. (Original work published 1895)
• Burgo, J. (2012). Why do I do that? Psychological defense mechanisms and the hidden ways they shape our lives . New Rise Press.
• Eagle, M. N. (2007). Psychoanalysis and its critics. Psychoanalytic Psycholog y, 24 (1), 10–24.
• Frosh, S. (2016). For and against psychoanalysis . Routledge.
• Gay, P. (2006). Freud: A life for our time . W. W. Norton.
• Gaztambide, D. J. (2021). A people’s history of psychoanalysis: From Freud to liberation psychology . Lexington Books.
• Kernberg, O. (2016). The four basic components of psychoanalytic technique and derived psychoanalytic psychotherapies. World Psychiatry , 15 (3), 287–288.
• Racker, H. (1982). Transference and countertransference . Routledge.
• Pick, D. (2015). Psychoanalysis: A very short introduction . Oxford University Press.
• Shedler, J. (2010). The efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy. American Psychologis t, 65 (2), 98–109.
• Wampold, B. E. (2018). The basics of psychotherapy: An introduction to theory and practice . American Psychological Association.

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How Psychoanalysis Influenced the Field of Psychology

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amanda Tust is a fact-checker, researcher, and writer with a Master of Science in Journalism from Northwestern University's Medill School of Journalism.

Psychoanalysis Theorists

• Pros and Cons

Support and Criticism

• Its Past and Present

Psychoanalysis Today

Psychoanalysis is a method of therapy in which the patient talks about experiences, early childhood, and dreams. It refers to both a theory and a type of therapy based on the belief that all people possess unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories.

According to the American Psychoanalytic Association (APA), psychoanalysis can help people understand themselves by exploring their unrecognized impulses hidden in the unconscious.

In psychotherapy, people are able to feel safe as they explore feelings, desires, memories, and stressors that can lead to psychological difficulties. Research has demonstrated that the self-examination utilized in the psychoanalytic process can contribute to long-term emotional growth.

Psychoanalysis Theories

Psychoanalysis is based on Freud's theory that people can experience  catharsis  and gain insight into their state of mind by bringing the content of the unconscious into conscious awareness. Through this process, a person can find relief from psychological distress.

Psychoanalysis also suggests that:

• A person's behavior is influenced by their unconscious drives.
• Emotional and psychological problems such as depression and anxiety are often rooted in conflicts between the conscious and unconscious mind.
• Personality development is heavily influenced by the events of early childhood (Freud suggested that personality was largely set in stone by the age of five).
• People use defense mechanisms to protect themselves from information contained in the unconscious.

Skilled analysts can help a person bring certain aspects of their unconscious mind into their conscious awareness by using psychoanalytic strategies such as dream analysis and free association.

History of Psychoanalysis

Many of  Freud's observations and theories  were based on clinical cases and case studies. This made his findings difficult to generalize to the larger population. Still, Freud's theories changed how we think about the human mind and behavior and left a lasting mark on psychology and culture.

Freud's theories of  psychosexual stages , the unconscious, and dream symbolism are still popular among both psychologists and laypeople, but others view his work with skepticism.

Today, psychoanalysis encompasses:

• Applied psychoanalysis (which applies psychoanalytic principles to the study of art, literature, and real-world settings and situations)
• Neuro-psychoanalysis (which applies neuroscience to psychoanalytic topics such as dreams and repression)
• Psychoanalytic therapy

Although traditional Freudian approaches have fallen out of favor, modern approaches to psychoanalytic therapy emphasize a non-judgmental, empathetic approach.

Important Milestones

• 1856 – Sigmund Freud was born
• 1882 – Josef Breuer described the case of Anna O to Freud
• 1886 – Freud first began providing therapy
• 1895 – Anna Freud was born
• 1900 – Sigmund Freud published his book  The Interpretation of Dreams
• 1896 – Sigmund Freud first coined the term psychoanalysis
• 1908 – The Vienna Psychoanalytic Society was formed and the first international meeting of psychoanalysts was held
• 1909 – Freud made his first and only trip to the United States
• 1910 – The International Psychoanalytic Association was formed
• 1913 – Jung broke from Freud and psychoanalysis
• 1938 – The Vienna Psychoanalytic Society was dissolved
• 1939 – Sigmund Freud died in London following a long battle with oral cancer

Sigmund Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis and the psychodynamic approach to psychology. Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements:  the id, the ego, and the superego.

Other thinkers—including his own daughter,  Anna Freud —also left a significant mark on the field. Among the most prominent names in psychoanalysis were Erik Erikson ,  Erich Fromm , and Carl Jung Erik Erikson expanded on Freud's theories and stressed the importance of lifelong growth. Erikson's psychosocial stage theory of personality remains influential today in our understanding of human development.

Karl Abraham, Otto Rank, John Bowlby, Melanie Klein, Karen Horney, and  Sabina Spielrein were also key contributors to the evolution of psychoanalytic theory.

Psychoanalysis also involves a number of different terms and ideas related to the mind, personality, and treatment.

Case Studies

A case study is defined as an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. Some of Freud's most famous case studies include Dora, Little Hans, and  Anna O . These cases had a powerful influence on the development of his psychoanalytic theory.

In a case study, the researcher attempts to intensely examine every aspect of an individual's life. By closely studying a person, a researcher can gain insight into how an individual's history contributes to their current behavior.

Although the hope is that the insights gained from a single case study could apply to others, it is difficult to generalize the results, because case studies tend to be highly subjective. In some instances, the factors involved in a particular case are so individualized that they may not apply to others.

The Conscious and Unconscious Mind

The  unconscious mind  includes all of the things that are outside of our conscious awareness, such as early childhood memories, secret desires, and hidden drives. According to Freud, the unconscious contains things that we might consider to be unpleasant or even socially unacceptable. We bury these things in our unconscious because they might bring us pain or conflict.

While these thoughts, memories, and urges are outside of our awareness, they still influence how we think and behave. In some cases, the things that are outside of our awareness can influence behavior in negative ways and lead to psychological distress. 

The conscious mind, on the other hand, includes everything that is inside of our awareness. The contents of the conscious mind are the things we are aware of or can easily bring into awareness.

Thoughts, urges, or feelings that are unpleasant, difficult, or even socially unacceptable.

Buried because they can bring about pain or conflict.

Can sometimes be brought into awareness using certain techniques.

Thoughts, feelings, and urges that we are aware of or can easily bring into awareness.

Not hidden or suppressed.

May be influenced by unconscious thoughts, feelings, or memories.

The Id, Ego, and Superego

Freud believed that an individual's personality had three components: the id, the ego, and the superego.

The first of the key elements of personality to emerge is known as the id. The id contains all of the unconscious, basic, and primal urges.

The second aspect of personality to emerge is known as the ego. This is the part of the personality that must deal with the demands of reality. It helps control the urges of the id and makes us behave in ways that are both realistic and acceptable.

Rather than engaging in behaviors that are designed to satisfy our desires and needs, the ego forces us to fulfill our needs in ways that are socially acceptable and realistic. In addition to controlling the demands of the id, the ego also helps strike a balance between our basic urges, our ideals, and reality.

The superego is the final aspect of personality to emerge, and it contains our ideals and values. The values and beliefs that our parents and society instill in us are the guiding force of the superego and it strives to make us behave according to these morals.

The Ego's Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanisms are strategies that the ego uses to protect itself from anxiety . These defensive tools act as a safeguard to keep unpleasant or distressing aspects of the unconscious from entering our awareness. When something is experienced as overwhelming or even inappropriate, defense mechanisms keep the information from entering our consciousness, which minimizes our distress.

Strengths and Weaknesses

Over the course of the early 20th century, the influence of psychoanalysis grew. However, it was not without critics. Despite its flaws, psychoanalysis continued to play a key role in the development of psychology. It influenced our approach to treating mental health conditions and continues to exert an influence on psychology today. 

• Even though most psychodynamic theories did not rely on experimental research, the methods and theories of psychoanalytic thinking contributed to the development of experimental psychology.
• Many of the theories of personality developed by psychodynamic thinkers, such as Erikson's theory of psychosocial stages and Freud's psychosexual stage theory, continue to influence the field today.
• Psychoanalysis opened up a new view on mental illness, particularly that talking through problems with a psychoanalytic professional could help alleviate a person's psychological distress. 
• Freud's theories overemphasized the unconscious mind, sex, aggression, and childhood experiences.
• Many of the concepts proposed by psychoanalytic theorists are difficult to measure and quantify.
• Most of Freud's ideas were based on case studies and clinical observations rather than empirical, scientific research.

Many of the criticisms of psychodynamic approaches are based on the earlier Freudian approaches to treatment. Many people are skeptical of psychoanalysis because the evidence supporting its effectiveness has often been viewed as weak. One of the critics' main arguments is that it's not as effective as other treatments.

More recently, however, research has demonstrated that this approach can have a number of benefits.  One systematic review of previous studies concluded that psychoanalytic therapy was an effective treatment that resulted in the reduction of symptoms and long-term changes that persisted for years after treatment ended.

A 2015 review found that psychodynamic therapy could be effective in the treatment of a number of conditions include:

• Eating disorders
• Somatic disorders
• Some anxiety disorders

Another critique is that psychoanalysis often requires an investment of time, money, and effort. Psychoanalysis is also generally a long-term proposition. In the world we live in today, people are usually seeking fast results and approaches that yield an effect in days, weeks, or months. Psychoanalytic therapy typically involves a client and therapist exploring issues over a period of years.

Using the criteria established for evidence-based treatment, traditional psychoanalysis alone does not, in fact, pass muster as a method of therapy for the large majority of  psychological disorders . However, to dismiss Freud’s contributions as irrelevant to psychology... is an oversimplification.

Past and Present

Many of Freud's ideas have fallen out of favor in psychology, but that certainly does not mean that his work is without merit. Research also supports at least some of Freud's original ideas.

His approach to therapy (specifically, the suggestion that mental illness was treatable and that talking about problems could bring relief) was a revolutionary concept that changed how we approach the treatment of mental illness.

"Reviews of neuroscientific work confirm that many of Freud's original observations, not least the pervasive influence of non-conscious processes and the organizing function of emotions for thinking, have found confirmation in laboratory studies," explained Peter Fonagy in an article published in  World Psychiatry .  

Sigmund Freud was also very much a product of his time. Although he was known for his audacious theories (which were considered especially shocking in the Victorian period), his view of the world was colored by the time in which he lived. If Freud were alive today, his ideas might be regarded very differently—and his own work would likely take a different direction.

Some have suggested that if Freud were alive today, he would likely be interested in topics related to brain functioning. Prior to the development of psychoanalysis, Freud's interests had centered on developing a neural model of behavior. Researchers today also suggest that the neurobiological underpinnings of psychoanalysis are worth further exploration.

Susan Krauss Whitbourne, PhD

Psychologists today talk about the  psychodynamic , not the  psychoanalytic perspective . As such, this perspective refers to the dynamic forces within our personalities whose shifting movements underlie much of the basis for our observable behavior. Psychoanalysis is a much narrower term referring to the Freudian-based notion that to understand, and treat, abnormal behavior, our unconscious conflicts must be worked through.

Psychoanalysis as Freud conceived it might be on the decline, but that does not mean that the psychodynamic perspective has disappeared or that it will be going anywhere soon.

If you ask someone what comes to mind when they think of psychology, Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis are likely to be common responses. There is no question that psychoanalysis—both as a therapeutic approach and theoretical outlook—has left its mark on psychology.

Most psychologists today employ a more eclectic approach to the field of psychology, though there are some professionals who still take a purely psychoanalytical point of view on human behavior.

Many contemporary psychologists view psychoanalysis with skepticism.   Some even feel derision toward Freud's school of thought. In a world of psychology where cognitive processes, neuroscience, and biopsychology dominate, is there still room for psychoanalysis?

In general, there is a perceived decline in traditional psychoanalysis. A report published by the APsaA in 2008 found that psychology departments typically treat psychoanalysis as a purely historical artifact, while subjects such as art, literature, history, and other humanities were more likely to teach psychoanalysis as an ongoing and relevant topic.  

Some suggest that psychoanalysis has fallen by the wayside as an academic topic within psychology partly because of its failure to test the validity of its therapeutic approach and earlier failures to ground the discipline in evidence-based practices.

The Future of Psychoanalysis

There are a few things that psychoanalysis as a field can do to ensure its continued relevance in the world of psychology. Some things that can help improve the legitimacy and relevance of psychoanalytic methods include:

• Place a greater emphasis on scientific research and empirical evidence.
• Explore evidence-based treatments in greater depth.
• Improve data-gathering methods.
• Give greater consideration of other possible explanations for behavior.
• Collaborate actively with other mental health professionals.

Some current efforts to revitalize psychoanalysis focus on psychoanalytic concepts that are more evidence-based (such as attachment theory) or on connecting Freud's idea of the unconscious to modern neuroscience.  

A Word From Verywell

Freud's mark on psychology is still felt today.  Talk therapy is most often associated with psychoanalysis, but therapists also use the technique in other approaches to treatment, including  client-centered therapy  and  group therapy .

Psychoanalysis might not be the force it was back in 1910, but Freud's theories have had a lasting influence on both popular culture and psychology.

Psychoanalysis . Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary.

American Psychoanalytic Association. About psychoanalysis . 

Shedler J. The efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy .  Am Psychol . 2010;65(2):98-109. doi:10.1037/a0018378

de Maat S, de Jonghe F, Schoevers R, et al. The effectiveness of long-term psychoanalytic therapy: A systematic review of empirical studies . In: Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE): Quality-assessed Reviews [Internet]. York (UK): Centre for Reviews and Dissemination (UK); 2009.

Fonagy P. The effectiveness of psychodynamic psychotherapies: An update . World Psychiatry . 2015;14(2):137-50. doi:10.1002/wps.20235

Fonagy P. Psychoanalysis today .  World Psychiatry . 2003;2(2):73-80.

Solms ML. The neurobiological underpinnings of psychoanalytic theory and therapy .  Front Behav Neurosci . 2018;12:294. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00294

Paris J. Is psychoanalysis still relevant to psychiatry?   Can J Psychiatry . 2017;62(5):308-312. doi:10.1177/0706743717692306

Redmond J, Shulman M. Access to psychoanalytic ideas in American undergraduate institutions . J Am Psychoanal Assoc . 2008;56(2):391-408. doi:10.1177/0003065108318639

Cieri F, Esposito R. Psychoanalysis and neuroscience: The bridge between mind and brain . Front Psychol . 2019;10:1790. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01983

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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1.4: Freud And Psychoanalytic Theory

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Perhaps one of the most influential and well-known figures in psychology’s history was Sigmund Freud (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Freud (1856–1939) was an Austrian neurologist who was fascinated by patients suffering from “hysteria” and neurosis. Hysteria was an ancient diagnosis for disorders, primarily of women with a wide variety of symptoms, including physi- cal symptoms and emotional disturbances, none of which had an apparent physical cause. Freud theorized that many of his patients’ problems arose from the unconscious mind. In Freud’s view, the unconscious mind was a repository of feelings and urges of which we have no awareness. Gaining access to the unconscious, then, was crucial to the successful resolution of the patient’s problems. According to Freud, the unconscious mind could be accessed through dream analysis, by examinations of the first words that came to people’s minds, and through seemingly innocent slips of the tongue. Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious, as well as early childhood experiences, and this particular perspective dominated clinical psychology for several decades (Thorne & Henley, 2005).

Freud’s ideas were influential, and you will learn more about them when you study lifespan development, person- ality, and therapy. For instance, many therapists believe strongly in the unconscious and the impact of early child- hood experiences on the rest of a person’s life. The method of psychoanalysis, which involves the patient talking about their experiences and selves, while not invented by Freud, was certainly popularized by him and is still used today. Many of Freud’s other ideas, however, are controversial. Drew Westen (1998) argues that many of the criticisms of Freud’s ideas are mis- placed, in that they attack his older ideas without taking into account later writings. Westen also argues that critics fail to consider the success of the broad ideas that Freud introduced or developed, such as the importance of childhood experi- ences in adult motivations, the role of unconscious versus conscious motivations in driving our behavior, the fact that motivations can cause conflicts that affect behavior, the effects of mental representations of ourselves and others in guiding our interactions, and the development of personality over time. Westen identifies subsequent research support for all of these ideas.

More modern iterations of Freud’s clinical approach have been empirically demonstrated to be effective (Knekt et al., 2008; Shedler, 2010). Some current practices in psychother- apy involve examining unconscious aspects of the self and relationships, often through the relationship between the therapist and the client.

Freud’s historical significance and contributions to clinical practice merit his inclusion in a discussion of the histori- cal movements within psychology.

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1 1 Introduction: Culture in Psychoanalytic Thought

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The various changes in psychoanalysis over the last 100 years can be linked to the vicissitudes of Western intellectual and social history during the twentieth century. Some analysts, including Sigmund Freud, have tackled the issue of culture in psychoanalytic theory. According to Freud, culture is a product of coercion and renunciation of instincts. In its global, undifferentiated aspect, culture played an influential role in the formation of the superego, that is, in the development and functioning of the psyche. This chapter discusses culture in classical psychoanalysis, ego psychology, and object-relations schools. It also describes culture and self-psychology and presents a psychoanalytic view of culture.

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• v.9(1); Jan-Dec 2011

Freudian Theory and Consciousness: A Conceptual Analysis**

Avinash de sousa.

* Consultant Psychiatrist and Psychotherapist, Mumbai, India.

This paper aims at taking a fresh look at Freudian psychoanalytical theory from a modern perspective. Freudian psychology is a science based on the unconscious (id) and the conscious (ego). Various aspects of Freudian thinking are examined from a modern perspective and the relevance of the psychoanalytical theory of consciousness is projected. Do psychoanalysis and the unconsciousness have something to teach us about consciousness? Approaching Freud from a historical, psychoanalytical, anthropological and sociological perspective, we need to look at how Freudian theory may contribute to a better understanding of consciousness. We also need to look at psychoanalytical psychotherapy and its contribution to a better understanding of body-mind dualism and consciousness as a whole. Ego psychology is considered in the present day context and it is synthesized with various psychological studies to give us a better understanding of consciousness.

Introduction

“If often he was wrong and, at times absurd, to us he is no more a person now but a whole climate of opinion under whom we conduct our different lives…”

( W.H. Auden, In Memory of Sigmund Freud) (Auden and Mendelson, 1991 )

Despite distorted understandings of Freudian views and despite periodic waves of Freud bashing, Auden’s assessment remains essentially correct. Freud’s influence continues to be enormous and pervasive. He gave us a new and powerful way to think about and investigate human thought, action and interaction. He often made sense of the ranges that were neglected or misunderstood. Although one might wish to reject or argue with some Freudian interpretations and theories, his writings and insights are too compelling to simply turn away. There is still much to be learned from Freud (Neu, 1991). Much to be learned in relation to issues in contemporary philosophy of mind, moral and social theory. The special characteristics of unconscious states including their relations to states described by modern psychology and the relevance of the Freudian unconsciousness to questions concerning the divided or multiple self is equally important. This paper looks at the connection between Freudian theory/concepts and modern day conceptualisation of consciousness.

Is the Freudian unconscious relevant in the light of modern day consciousness?

Psychoanalysis regarded everything mental being in the first place unconscious, and thus for them, consciousness might be present or absent. This of course provoked a denial from philosophers for whom consciousness and mental were identical and they could never conceive of an absurdity such as an unconscious mental state. Reasons for believing in the existence of the unconsciousness are of course empirical, but the question as to what most fundamentally distinguishes the Freudian unconscious is a conceptual one. It is very important that one understands the nature of the unconsciousness in broad holistic terms rather than the fine details that Freud gave, and also one must follow the coherence of such a concept to understand our present day understanding of consciousness (Freud, 1912; Ricoeur, 1970).

The qualified specialization of consciousness that can be located in ordinary thought about the mind provides a source of motivation that is free from conceptual confusion. The analysis of what it is to be in consciousness has a further importance for the concept of unconscious mentality. If one assumes that all mental states are conscious alone, we will take a highly sceptical stand on Freudian theory and the topographical model of the mind proposed by him (Laplanche and Pontalis, 1983). For example, mental states like beliefs and values do not exist solely by virtue of the consciousness in them. Freud’s notion of unconscious mentality is arrived at by pressing the distinction of mental states from consciousness and combining it with the topographical model where all the psychological locales are spoken of as existing independently from their members at any given moment (Freud, 1915; Freud, 1937).

In William James’s The Principles of Psychology (James, 1890), the concept of unconscious mentality is considered in terms of its role as a necessary concomitant of what James calls the mind stuff theories by which he means theories that regard mental states as empirically analysable compounds.

It would now be helpful to spell out more precisely various conceptions of the psychoanalytic concept of the unconsciousness in terms of successive degrees of independence from the concept of consciousness.

Unconsciousness may be entirely composed of ideas that were previously conscious and have been repressed. This would meet the Lockenian condition on mentality, that is, there can be nothing in the mind that has not been previously in awareness (Ricoeur, 1970).

Unconsciousness may be perceived as entirely composed of, or at least as including some ideas that were not originally conscious but that could become conscious (Sears, 1943).

The last of these conceptions matches the unconsciousness as described in the writings of Melanie Klein and Wilfred Bion (Bion, 1984; Dryden, 2004), but it is also most probably attributable to Freud. The evidence for the same comes from Freud’s explicit statements that the concept of unconsciousness is broader than that of the repressed and also is made up of a phylogenetic heritage and primal fantasies (Freud, 1938).

A different question now needs to be addressed. It has been supposed that positive reason to believe in the existence of unconsciousness may come, and does in fact come from the notion that unconsciousness is necessary as data of consciousness have very large number of gaps in them (Freud, 1915). Consciousness is characterized by a special kind of unity, on account of which it does not tolerate gaps of any kind. We could interpret Freud’s notion in terms of gaps in self-explanation. These gaps are as such fully psychological in nature and they occur at points where we would ordinarily expect an intentional psychological explanation to be available and in this way, they stand apart from other merely nominal gaps in ordinary psychological explanation (for example, the impossibility of explaining how it is that one ordinarily remembers something).

Freud in his topographical model never looked at the mind to be built up of a number of agencies or systems, but rather these were terms used in a very special way, and it is a further puzzle as to what precisely Freud wanted them to signify (Freud, 1923). Consciousness and unconsciousness are not inimical properties and they are not intrinsically antagonistic to each other. Conflict between them is not regarding their status but because of the particular character of the contents of unconsciousness and their consequent connection with repression (Wollheim, 1973).

Many questions remain unanswered, but it is fitting to conclude that consciousness and unconsciousness are both a set of states with representational content distinguished by special features which need not be regarded as propositional attitudes, characteristically endowed with phenomenology but attributed in a spirit of pure plain psychological realism (Archard, 1984).

Relationships Between Freudian Theory and Cognitive Psychology with Reference to Consciousness

Though over a century has elapsed since Freud first proposed his theory, there has been very little comparison between Freudian theory and its links to nonpsychoanalytic academic psychology. The choice of cognitive psychology in this discussion stems from the fact that cognitive theory and cognitive psychology have a basis in almost all facets of modern psychology. Though cognitive psychology has explained many areas unknown to us 50 years earlier, one must admit that no other theorist ever constructed a conceptual and metatheoretical framework like Freud did, in order to understand psychological questions. No theory so far has ever provided a theory conceptually superior to Freud’s (Reiser, 1984).

Freud reduced the role of consciousness to that of an epistemological tool to know about certain areas of one’s mental state, removing all ontological implications. The evidence available in his time suggested that some mental states might exist outside ones awareness. Thus, Freud had to reject the principle that all mental states are conscious (ontological), but he retained the principle that all conscious states are accessible to awareness (epistemological). The demotion of consciousness to a purely epistemological role leads to serious failure, both by Freud and other theorists. In the transformation of psychology from a science of consciousness to a science of mental representations, there has been a gain in theoretical power, but there has been a loss of something of great value. Psychologists may in fact be avoiding the problem that made the mental realm so puzzling in the first place, the problem of consciousness, and thereby ignoring the mystery that is at the heart of the nature of meaning and mind (Grunbaum, 1984; Holt, 1989; Roth, 1998).

The term ‘conscious’ refers to an irreducible and irreplaceable phenomenon, no matter what the name. Terms such as awareness, reflective awareness, phenomenal awareness and phenomenal representation have all been used to refer to the same thing. Awareness has been used to refer to what we mean when we are at the moment conscious of something but also refers to the latent knowledge of something. The term conscious, unless burdened with additional meaning, may serve to mean what is immediately, subjectively and introspectively given in experience. We may be thus conscious of a rational abstract idea, an obsessional preoccupation or even a hallucination. We are conscious in psychosis, dissociative states, in intoxication and so forth. But each of these represents a quite different mental organisation of experiences, obeying different principles of organisation and existing on different levels of categorization and abstraction (Kihlstrom, 1987).

We shall now take a look at the confusion, both terminological and conceptual, that dogged Freudian thought as well as contemporary cognitive psychology. Freud always struggled with what has been called an adjectival and substantive use of the term conscious. It simply means that the term conscious idea denotes an idea that is directly, subjectively given and capable of being introspected, although it need not be. The experience can be conscious in a variety of different states, i.e., waking alert state, dream state, psychotic state and so on. It is better to refer to the above states as psychological states rather than different states of consciousness. The experience of consciousness may be different in each state but consciousness as a subjective, introspective given, is indivisible no matter what the state of consciousness. But the principles of organisation, levels of categorization and abstraction affecting or producing the experience may be different.

Cognitive psychology has not been immune to confusing and ambiguous uses of the term conscious and consciousness. If consciousness can occur in a variety of psychological states regardless of the principles of organisation, what purpose does being conscious serve and what shall then be the special conditions needed for consciousness to occur? What is the role that consciousness must play in our lives, apart from the operation of the different principles of organisation and levels of abstraction?

Freud gave consciousness the quality and capacity to transform experienced activity into unconscious states, similar to how different forms of energy are interchanged in physics. It could also play a part in inhibiting and restricting certain thoughts from becoming conscious. It also served the purpose of transforming quantities of unconscious excitation into qualitative experiences of pleasure and unpleasure (Freud, 1900; Hartmann, 1964).

Conclusions [see also Figure 1 ]

Flowchart of the paper

Whether psychoanalytic and cognitive science views of the consciousness are fraternal or identical twins, we do not know, but they were certainly reared apart from one another. The psychoanalytic twin was raised in the consulting room, exposed to primal scenes, intrapsychic conflict and the risky improvisations of clinical work, whereas the cognitive twin was raised in the scientific laboratory where calm and order prevailed. There is no doubt that the cognitive and psychoanalytic views are different and come out of different traditions (Shervin and Dickman, 1980). Cognitive science focusses on motive, affect and conflict, whereas psychoanalysis focusses on conflict and underlying psychological processes. There are in fact convergences between these two radically different views but from a holistic perspective. They follow a similarity in the nature of the problems they address, though at first look they seem to be far apart.

The newer developments in the field of cognitive science dealing with levels of categorisation and organisation will be of immense value in studying the hierarchical relationship between unconscious and conscious experiences. The chasm between the consulting room and scientific laboratory may soon narrow. We are now at a stage where we must broaden and deepen the scientific investigation of consciousness and conscious states in a way never done before. We need to apply our imagination and good will while being open minded and flexible at the same time.

Take home message

Freudian theory needs to be given a fresh look. Though considered outdated by some, it has a lot to offer to modern theories of consciousness. Insights from Freudian theory are relevant to modern day concepts of consciousness in cognitive neuroscience. Consciousness and unconsciousness are both independent and interdependent phenomena and their study will yield a different perspective on the evolution of conscious phenomena.

Conflict of interest

None declared

Declaration

This is to state that this is my original, unpublished work and has not been submitted for publication elsewhere.

CITATION: De Sousa A., (2011), Freudian Theory and Consciousness: A Conceptual Analysis. In: Brain, Mind and Consciousness: An International, Interdisciplinary Perspective (A.R. Singh and S.A. Singh eds.), MSM , 9(1), p210-217.

Questions That This Paper Raises

• Is Freudian relevant today, or must it be done away with?
• Does Freudian theory play a role in explaining our modern day concept of consciousness?
• Does the Freudian concept of ‘conscious’ relate at least conceptually to the concept of ‘conscious’ in cognitive psychology?
• Do parts of Freudian theory have resemblance with modern day cognitive psychology and its theories?
• Should qualitative research on Freudian concepts be carried out in the light of modern theories of consciousness?
• Should modern methods of neuroimaging and neuroscience in the light of new data be used to validate Freudian models of conscious phenomena?

About the Author

Avinash De Sousa is a consultant psychiatrist and psychotherapist with a private practice in Mumbai. He is an avid reader and has over 40 publications in national and international journals. His main areas of interest are alcohol dependence, child and adolescent psychiatry, mental retardation, autism and developmental disabilities. He is also the academic director of the Institute of Psychotherapy Training and Management, Mumbai. He teaches psychiatry, child psychology and psychotherapy at over 18 institutions as a visiting faculty.

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3.2: Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism: An Overview

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“Do I wake or sleep?” Keats’s question is perplexing, one we have probably asked ourselves. For our dreams often seem as real as our waking life. We dream, we wake, and we try to recollect our dream, which somehow seems to tell us something that we should know. We may tell friends our dreams, especially those strange ones that haunt our imagination, and they may venture an interpretation for us by reading our dream. Dreams are stories of our mind, albeit often bewildering narratives in need of interpretation.

Your Process

• Keep a dream journal for a least one week, jotting down those dreams that you can remember most vividly.
• Take one of your dreams and analyze it like a story: What is the plot? Who are the characters? What symbols seem to be operating in the dream-story?
• Now try to understand your dream: What might be the theme of your dream-story?

Psychoanalytical literary criticism, on one level, concerns itself with dreams, for dreams are a reflection of the unconscious psychological states of dreamers. Freud, for example, contends that dreams are “the guardians of sleep” where they become “disguised fulfillments of repressed wishes.”Sigmund Freud. The Interpretation of Dreams in The Freud Reader , ed. Peter Gay, (New York: Norton, 1989). To Freud, dreams are the “royal road” to the personal unconscious of the dreamer and have a direct relation to literature, which often has the structure of a dream. Jacques Lacan, a disciple of Freud, was influenced by Freud’s psychoanalytical theories and contended that dreams mirrored our unconscious and reflected the way we use language; dreams, therefore, operate like language, having their own rhetorical qualities. Another Freud disciple, Carl Jung, eventually rejected Freud’s theory that dreams are manifestations of the personal unconsciousness, claiming, instead, that they reflect archetypes that tap into the “collective unconsciousness” of all humanity.Sigmund Freud. The Interpretation of Dreams in The Freud Reader , ed. Peter Gay, (New York: Norton, 1989).

In this chapter, we explore three popular psychoanalytical approaches for interpreting literature—Freudian, Lacanian, and Jungian. In general, there are four ways to focus a psychoanalytical interpretation:

• You can analyze the author’s life.
• You can analyze the thematic content of the work, especially the motivations of characters and the narrator(s).
• You can analyze the artistic construction of a text.
• You can analyze yourself or the reader of the literary work using reader-response theory, which we examine in detail in Chapter 6.

Here is a quick overview of some psychoanalytical interpretations that demonstrate these approaches.

Analyze the Author’s Life

In The Life and Works of Edgar Allan Poe (1933), Marie Bonaparte psychoanalyzes Poe, concluding that his fiction and poetry are driven by his desire to be reunited with his dead mother (she died when he was three).Marie Bonaparte, The Life and Works of Edgar Allan Poe (London: Image Publishing, 1949). This desire leaves him symbolically castrated, unable to have normal relationships with others (primarily women). Bonaparte analyzes Poe’s stories from this perspective, reading them as dreams reflecting Poe’s repressed desires for his mother. While such an interpretation is fascinating—and can be quite useful—you probably won’t attempt to get into the mind of the author for a short paper. But you will find, however, that examining the life of an author can be a fruitful enterprise, for there may be details from an author’s life that might become useful evidence in your paper.

You can find out about Poe at the Poe Museum’s website ( http://www.poemuseum.org/index.php ).

Analyze the Thematic Content: The Motivations of Characters and the Narrator(s)

An example showing a psychoanalytic focus on literary characters is Frederick Crews’s reading in The Sins of the Fathers: Hawthorne’s Psychological Themes (1966).Frederick Crews, The Sins of the Fathers: Hawthorne’s Psychological Themes (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). Crews first provides a psychoanalytical reading of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s life: he sees reflected in Hawthorne’s characters a thwarted Oedipus complex (no worries, we’ll define that a bit later), which creates repression. Furthermore, Hawthorne’s ties to the Puritan past engenders his work with a profound sense of guilt, further repressing characters. Crews reads “The Birthmark,” for example, as a tale of sexual repression. Crews’s study is a model for psychoanalyzing characters in fiction and remains a powerful and persuasive interpretation.

You can read “The Birthmark,”Nathaniel Hawthorne, “The Birthmark,” in The Complete Novels and Selected Tales of Nathaniel Hawthorne , Modern Library ed., ed. Norman Holmes Pearson (New York: Random House, 1937; University of Virginia Library Electronic Text Center, 1996), etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/mo...c/HawBirt.html . which will become the story of choice for the three student sample papers in this chapter, at etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/mo...c/HawBirt.html .

Analyze the Artistic Construction

Jacques Lacan shows us how a psychoanalytical reading can focus on the formal, artistic construction of a literary text. In other words, Lacan believes that our unconscious is “structured like a language” and that a literary text mirrors this sense of the unconscious. In “Seminar on ‘The Purloined Letter’” (you can access the essay at http://www.lacan.com/purloined.htm ), Lacan argues that Edgar Allan Poe’s tale is not necessarily about the meaning of the message in the stolen letter; rather, the tale is about who controls the letter, who has power over the language contained in the letter.Jacques Lacan, “Seminar on ‘The Purloined Letter,’” Lacan.com, http://www.lacan.com/purloined.htm . You can read “The Purloined Letter”Edgar Allan Poe, “The Purloined Letter,” in Tales of Mystery and Imagination (London: J. M. Dent, 1912; University of Virginia Library Electronic Text Center, 1994), http://etext.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/PoePurl.html . at http://etext.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/PoePurl.html .

Analyze the Reader

Finally, a psychoanalytical reading can examine the reader and how a literary work is interpreted according to the psychological needs of the reader. We examine this approach in detail in Chapter 6 on reader-response criticism.

• Choose three authors and/or literary works that you think might be fruitful for applying the first three psychoanalytical approaches (remember, we’ll learn about the fourth approach in reader-response theory).
• Now jot down two reasons why you think your author and/or work might work well with these theories.
• Keep this material, for you may have already developed an idea for your paper, which you’ll be ready to write after reading the rest of this chapter.

Psychoanalytic Theories: Examples and Explanations

Psychoanalysis is the branch of psychology that investigates the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind.

Founded by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century, this theoretical framework aims to bring repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind, allowing an individual to confront and better understand their feelings and behaviors. The process usually involves dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst, often focusing on the patient’s dreams and childhood memories.

Psychoanalysis posits that human behavior is a product of internal conflicts, unconscious desires, and past experiences. In this framework, resolving these conflicts and bringing them to consciousness can lead to improved mental health and a clearer understanding of oneself.

While Freud’s ideas are largely debunked, subsequent researchers have build-on his foundations to develop their own useful ideas about the subconscious psyche.

Psychoanalytic Theory Examples

1. ego psychology (freud).

Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, developed a theory of how the subconscious mind operates.

He held that the mind contained three components: the id, ego, and superego . Each influence one another and are in struggle. The id represents impulse, the ego represents pragmatism, and the superego represents morals:

See Also: Freudian Slip Examples

2. Psychosexual Development Theory (Freud)

Freud’s second important contribution to psychoanalysis was his theory of development. In this theory, he believed people developed through distinct stages, driven by sexual desires.

Each of Freud’s stages is characterized by a different sexually-related challenge that must be overcome, or else we will develop a complex for the rest of our lives.

The stages are outlined below:

Go Deeper: Freud’s Theory of Personality – An Overview

3. the Collective Unconscious (Jung)

Carl Jung, a prominent Swiss psychiatrist, introduced the concept of the collective unconscious to psychology.

The collective unconscious is proposed to be a part of the unconscious mind, manifested by universal archetypes or symbols that are shared among all humans due to ancestral experience.

In essence, Jung’s idea posits that our behaviors and thoughts are not merely personal but influenced by ancestral knowledge contained within the collective unconscious. This concept distinguishes itself from the personal unconscious, which refers to information that has been acquired during one’s life but has been forgotten or repressed.

According to Jung, exploring your collective unconscious (through dreams or various forms of therapy) allows you to tap into universal experiences (known as Jungian archetypes) and ideas that shape your thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Go Deeper: Jung’s Collective Unconscious – An Overview

4. Psychological Archetypes (Jung)

The second key contribution of Carl Jung to psychoanalysis is the concept of archetypes. Jung defined these as universal and innate symbols present in the collective unconscious of all human beings.

Psychological archetypes, according to Jung, play a vital role in influencing human thoughts, actions, and feelings. They are generally formed through historical experiences shared by our ancestors and can be recognized through patterns that emerge in dreams, literature, art, or religion.

Some of the main Jungian archetypes include the Self, the Persona, the Shadow, the Anima/Animus, the Great Mother, the Wise Old Man, the Hero, and the Trickster.

Each archetype represents a different aspect of the human psyche. For instance, the Persona represents the image we present to the world while the Shadow houses our darkest desires and impulses. Understanding these archetypes, Jung argued, could help individuals to gain insights into their behaviors and deeper selves.

Go Deeper: Jungian Archetypes – An Overview

5. Adler’s Individual Psychology

Alfred Adler, an Austrian psychotherapist, established a unique perspective called Individual Psychology. It emphasizes the person as a whole unit and highlights the importance of societal factors, notably family and community, on individual development.

Adler argued that human character traits are shaped by an individual’s drive to overcome feelings of inferiority, which he called Inferiority Complex. The feelings arise in childhood from our realization of being lesser and weaker than adults. Correctly overcoming these feelings guides us toward mastery and personal growth, known as striving for superiority.

According to Adler, this pursuit of superiority is influenced by one’s lifestyle, an overall strategy we construct to navigate society and face challenges. The relational approach encouraged by Adler manifests in our goal-setting and problem-solving behavior, underscoring how our interactions with society profoundly shape our individuality.

6. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson made Freudian psychology far more palatable with his psycho social rather than psycho sexual model of development.

Whereas Freud argued that psychosexual energy (called the libido) was the driving force behind development, Erikson argued that it was social desires that are core to psychological development.

Erikson went on to formulate a set of lifelong stages, where the core challenge or crisis in each stage was not sexual in nature, but social:

Each stage presents a central conflict or crisis that individuals must navigate. Successfully resolving each crisis leads to the development of a basic virtue that contributes to a healthy personality and interactions with others.

Go Deeper: Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development

7. Klein’s Object Relations Theory

Melanie Klein, a prominent child psychoanalyst, offered a novel perspective through her Object Relations Theory.

This theory focuses on our interpersonal relations, asserting that our experiences with others (objects) significantly impact our personal growth and perception of the world.

According to Klein, early childhood experiences, particularly those involving primary caregivers, play an instrumental role in shaping our psyche, our expectations of others, and our relationships. These “objects” or people can either be part-objects, such as a mother’s breast to a hungry baby, or whole objects like the mother herself.

Klein proposed that we develop both positive and negative feelings towards these objects, resulting in what she termed the “paranoid-schizoid” and “depressive” positions:

• Paranoid-Schizoid: This refers to a child’s early perception of good and bad objects.
• Depressive: This introduces the awareness that objects can possess both good and bad qualities.

By understanding these interactions, Klein believed, we could grapple with our difficulties and derive insights into our relationships.

Before you Go

I’ve provided links throughout this piece to help you go deeper into your exploration of the various psychoanalytic theories. But it’s also worth zooming out to see the range of other theories in psychology , including:

• Cognitive Psychology : This branch studies mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving.
• Behavioral Psychology: This focuses on observable behaviors and the effects of the environment on them.
• Humanist Psychology: This emphasizes individual potential, self-actualization, and the intrinsic nature of human beings.
• Developmental Psychology: This examines the psychological changes and growth that occur throughout the human lifespan.
• Personality Theories in Psychology: These seek to explain the enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion that characterize individual humans.

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 10 Magical Thinking Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ Social-Emotional Learning (Definition, Examples, Pros & Cons)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ What is Educational Psychology?
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ What is IQ? (Intelligence Quotient)

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Home — Essay Samples — Psychology — Sigmund Freud — Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalysis Theory

Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalysis Theory

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Biography of sigmund freud, key concepts of psychoanalysis theory, methods of psychoanalysis, significance of freud’s psychoanalysis theory, criticism of freud’s psychoanalysis theory.

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‘So much death and upset’: the nurses quitting the NHS after Covid – a photo essay

Working as a nurse in the NHS through the Covid pandemic gave Hannah Grace Deller a unique perspective on the hardship faced by her profession. She has photographed several nurses as they decided post-Covid to leave the service

H annah Grace Deller works as a paediatric matron at St Mary’s hospital in Paddington, central London. She is also a trained photographer, and during the Covid crisis she began to photograph the conditions in which she and her nursing colleagues were working. Some of her images were published widely and exhibited at the time, earning praise from Grayson Perry, Martin Parr and others, and inspiring an album by Chris Difford, of Squeeze.

She has now published a book, Working on the Frontline , documenting the experiences of nurses and the reaction of the public during the crisis and since.

Hannah Grace Deller and her team.

Before the pandemic, I had never really taken photographs at work – just a few snaps if someone was leaving to say goodbye, that kind of thing. I had never really looked at my job in that way at all. Work was work, and my camera came out when I left the hospital as my way to relax. It’s like a form of meditation for me.

Then one day at the start of the pandemic, I was responding to a bleep when I saw a cleaner, in full PPE, trapped behind a door, and asked to take his picture . After that I thought, something is beginning here. We didn’t know how long it would last, I thought maybe a month. But, with permission from my colleagues, I thought I would document what was happening. I didn’t bring in a camera, that wouldn’t have been appropriate; I’d just take pictures on my phone and use my real camera outside work to document everything else.

The photographs, including this of nurse Steffie, are the first taken by Deller inside a hospital.

This was around the time that people were clapping for NHS workers, and that was sweet – though most nurses didn’t get out of work before 8pm to hear it. As time went on, I think lots of nurses began to wonder how much that goodwill was worth.

Nurses started protesting about pay and recognition during the pandemic. At one fair pay protest I started chatting with a nurse who said: “I’ve had enough, I’m going”. We’d had a pay offer of 1% and she said: “Surely, after everything, we are worth more than 1%.”

Thousands of nurses protested on 29 July 2020 to call for a pay rise, saying workers had been ‘on their knees’ during the pandemic.

I’ve always had an interest in photographing protests. It’s that spirit that you see in people, regardless of whether I agree with what they are protesting about. But with the nursing protests, it felt a bit different.

I began talking to other nurses on the protests, from all different hospitals, who had had enough. One of the people I spoke to was Camille, who is French but had lived in Britain for ever. With Brexit and then the pandemic, it was like a double insult to her, and she told me she was leaving nursing completely.

Nurse Camille moved to France post-Covid. She said: ‘What with Brexit, Covid and the lack of appreciation in the UK for nurses from the government, I’m done.’ She now runs an Airbnb in France with her wife and son.

We arranged that after taking her picture I would take her uniforms back as she had moved out of London, but when I got to her house, she had decided to burn them; she said it felt really therapeutic. There is a lot of trauma that can be held in clothing. A lot of the stains you just can’t get out of the uniforms, no matter how hot you wash them. As she was turning them she said: “There’s a lot of blood, sweat and tears in that fire.”

Nurse Anna left the NHS and moved to New Zealand. She wanted to fold her uniform and bring it back to her workplace to say goodbye.

Nurse Natasha used to play the cello to the Covid patients.

Nurse Natasha left after the pandemic because of burnout and disappointment around the pay dispute with the government. She decided to travel with her husband. She washed her uniforms and hung them on the line as if for the last time. Natasha used to play her instrument to the Covid patients and sometimes when someone was dying she would play music on the ward.

Nurse Mila hangs her ‘RIP’ nursing dress.

There was also Mila – she wrote “RIP nursing” on the back of her dress. She now works on Portobello Road, in London, selling jewellery.

Ellie also worked through the pandemic but had had enough; I took a few pictures of her handing her nursing uniform back. She was in her 20s and she said: “I’m just too young to experience this, so much death and upset. I just want to go to Australia and lie on the beach.” There are so many untold stories like this.

Nurse Ellie brought her uniform to her job and handed it back to be put in the bin.

There is an image of nurses in which we are expected to be submissive and sweet, never raising our voices, just getting on with the job. We are not supposed to get angry, to speak up. But there is a lot of anger in these photographs.

Nurses throw their uniforms outside No 10 Downing Street to protest against the vaccine mandates in January 2022. ‘Clapped and sacked’ was the mantra; many felt they wanted to make their own decisions around vaccines.

Of course I feel that way too sometimes, but if I’m ever upset, or feel that I want to leave, I’ll often just go round and chat to the patients on the ward. And then I’ll remember, ah, that’s why I’m here.

Hannah Grace Deller was speaking to Esther Addley

Working on the Front Line is published by Image and Reality, and can be ordered through Kickstarter .

• The Guardian picture essay
• Coronavirus
• Public services policy
• Public sector pay

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May 7, 2024

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The quantum theory of gravitation, effective field theories and strings: Past and present

by Clare Sansom, SciencePOD

Gravity is one of four fundamental interactions. The most precise description of this force is still provided by Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, published in 1915, an entirely classical theory. This description sets gravity apart from the other three forces—strong, weak, and electromagnetism—all described by quantum fields. Therefore, any attempt to unify the four forces must depend on a description of gravity that uses the principles of quantum mechanics.

This has been an active area of theoretical physics since the 1930s. A historian and a physicist, Alessio Rocci from VUB in Brussels and Thomas Van Riet from KU Leuven in Belgium have set out a historical overview of the development of quantum theories of gravity to explain our current view on a future unified theory of the four forces. This work has been published in The European Physical Journal H .

Physicists began to investigate the quantum theory of gravitation in the 1930s, taking a perturbative approach, convinced that there should be no fundamental difference between the gravitational force and the other interactions. However, finding a description of the gravitational interaction according to the laws of quantum mechanics is still a very complex task.

Later in the century, Steven Weinberg, a pioneer of both effective field theory and the standard model of particle physics , began a process of cross-fertilization between these areas and the research area of quantum gravity that produced our current view on Einstein's theory. From the mid-1980s, string theory set up a possible framework to approach quantum gravity using a 'top-down' approach. The effective field theory approach to strong forces drove the development of the 'bottom-up' perspective, culminating in the mid-1990s.

Recently, physicists have started a new program called Swampland to overcome the criticism of string theory that arose in the 2000s. Van Riet says, "The ultimate hope is that the Swampland program can lead to general patterns with observational consequences."

Provided by SciencePOD

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