challenges of education in kenya

Kenya Economic Update: Lessons from Kenya’s Education Reforms

The Nairobi Central Business District. 

Photo: Sarah Farhat/World Bank

STORY HIGHLIGHTS

• The latest World Bank economic analysis for the country highlights the success of education reforms, and recommendations for continued improvement
• Kenya provides education services for over 16 million children and youth, with almost 500,000 teachers distributed in close to 90,000 schools
• The education system is also expanding to accommodate more students, especially in pre-school and post-primary education

NAIROBI, June 7, 2021— Kenya’s education sector has improved quickly, despite disruption by COVID-19 (coronavirus). Before the pandemic, the government embarked on ambitious reforms which sought to improve the quality of education through several approaches; a competency-based curriculum (CBC), reforming professional teacher development, textbook policy, and management practices at the local level.

These reforms have made Kenya a top education performer in Eastern and Southern Africa, according to the Kenya Economic Update, Edition 25: Aiming High, Securing Education to Sustain Recovery . The report outlines the key messages from the new World Bank Public Expenditure Review (PER) in basic education and highlights Kenya’s impressive achievements, challenges, and the way forward.  

The report notes that Kenya’s real gross domestic product (GDP) is projected to grow by 5.5% in 2022 and 5.2% on average in 2023–24, a moderation following a remarkable recovery in 2021 from the worst economic effects of the pandemic. Education will need additional resources from this economic growth even while the country continues to recover from COVID-19, reduce inequities and expand the system and implement ambitious in a context of fiscal consolidation.  

“Learning remains one of the most critical assets for any country to promote equitable growth and poverty reduction, and that cannot happen without a solid foundation,” said Pedro Cerdan-Infantes, World Bank Senior Economist. “While the Education sector faces treacherous sources of inequality including uneven quality and results, Kenya has embarked on ambitious reforms to address the quality issues rather than considering the job done by virtue of near-universal access and coverage.”

Top education performer in Eastern and Southern Africa

Primary education is reaching universal levels while secondary school enrolment increased by over 50% in the seven years before the pandemic. These achievements have resulted directly from increased spending and enrolment at all levels, as well as consistent improvements in learning outcomes before the pandemic.

Performance also improved in numeracy (mathematics) and languages (English and Kiswahili). For example, performance in Class Three mathematics, English and Kiswahili improved in 2016 and 2018. Minimum requirement satisfaction increased by 6% in numeracy,16% in English, and 6% in Kiswahili. Regionally, Kenya is outstanding in reading, the report notes. Numeracy dropped in 2018 against neighboring countries, however, early grade mathematics assessments between 2015 and 2021 improved from 71% in 2016, to 80% in 2021 in secondary schools. Final secondary examinations (KCSE) performance improved from 11% in 2017 to 18% in 2021.

According to the report, these improvements resulted from sustained high spending on education. Expenditure has reached international benchmarks, both as a share of total government expenditure (TGE) and as a share of gross domestic product (GDP). TGE as a share of GDP reached 5.3% in 2018, higher than the average for other lower middle-income and upper middle-income countries, except for South Africa. The share of the government budget on education also increased, reaching 19% in 2020. Education spending per capita is also relatively high compared to countries in the region, which the report highlights is a key factor in quality education.

Despite these gains, challenges abound. Kenya has huge regional inequalities in all education outcomes. While most counties exceed 12 expected years of school, very low outcomes are concentrated in a few counties in the north and northeast of the country, in arid and semi-arid areas with EYS as low as 6.5 years. Only Nairobi County is near completing 12 years of Learning Adjusted Years of School (LAYS).

Education outcomes are much lower in rural areas and for lower income populations. Net enrollement rates (NER) are significantly higher in pre-primary, primary and secondary education, for children from households in the top 20% of income distribution, when compared to the bottom 20%.

Compounded by the pandemic, these challenges have led to learning losses and deepened inequalities in education. Around 17 million students and more than 320,000 teachers were affected by the closure of 30,000 primary and secondary schools in 2020. Schools gradually reopened from October 2020 to January 2021. Efforts to provide remote learning revealed a significant digital divide, with over 50% of the students being left out, mainly due to lack of appropriate electronic devices, access to electricity and internet connectivity.

The report proposes several policy recommendations centred on adequacy, equity and efficiency in resource use as the school system prepares to expand to accommodate more students, especially in pre-k and post-primary education. Continued and accelerated improvements in the sector will depend on:

• Adequate resources to achieve sector objectives and implement ambitious reforms by protecting spending in the short-term
• Prioritizing actions and mobilizing additional resources in the medium term
• Allocating resources more equitably, particularly development spending, teachers and school capitation grants
• Using resources efficiently by exploiting data more effectively in management, particularly at the local level, as well as improving coordination and reducing fragmentated management of the sector

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Kenya’s school reform is entering a new phase in 2023 – but the country isn’t ready

Lecturer of Education Management and Policy, Kenyatta University

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Janerose Mutegi Kibaara does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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The start of the 2023 school year in Kenya marked an important occasion: the first cohort of pupils to adopt a new curriculum in 2017 entered junior secondary school .

The competence-based curriculum , as it is known, was launched in 2017 to replace the 8-4-4 system that had been in place for 32 years. The older system was criticised for its emphasis on teachers instructing students and on examinations. An evaluation in 1998, 13 years after it was introduced, detailed numerous shortcomings. These include subjecting students to a heavy workload .

The new curriculum aims at learners constructing their own knowledge and skills through exposure to challenging situations and experience. It is learner-centred and adaptive to the changing needs of students by encouraging innovativeness and creativity. Learners explore and find solutions in classrooms that are connected to real-life situations.

Since 2017, the new curriculum has been introduced in phases. Children who entered grade 1 at all public schools and all but a handful of private schools that year have been taught the new curriculum since day one. Six years on, approximately 1.2 million of those pupils, aged around 12, are entering grade 7. This grade, along with grade 8 next year, will be known as junior secondary school – a stage which hasn’t previously existed in Kenya. This stage will be housed in primary rather than in secondary schools.

But that is about all Kenyans know for sure about junior secondary school. Schools are poorly prepared to host and instruct junior secondary classes. Classrooms are incomplete, laboratories are lacking and learning materials have yet to be delivered to schools.

On top of this, the presidential Working Party on Education set up in September 2022 to assess hurdles to implementation and other practical questions has yet to publish its recommendations on implementation. The practical issues include a widespread perception that the new system is a financial burden for poor parents .

The government’s immediate task is therefore two-fold. First, it must try to ensure that the quality of education does not suffer. Second, it must provide education without discriminating against any learner based on their social or economic background. This would allay fears that the new system favours the rich.

Read more: 6 priorities to get Kenya's curriculum back on track – or risk excluding many children from education

The main challenges

There are three major hurdles to successfully implementing the new curriculum.

The first relates to preparedness of teachers and teaching material. Facilities like laboratories and workshops that are a key requirement for successful implementation of the curriculum are yet to be built, and the teaching materials are not ready for grade 7 learners.

Three years ago, Kenya’s main teachers’ union reported that an internal survey found that few primary school teachers across all 47 counties had been trained to roll the curriculum out. The union said training was truncated from the stipulated five days to just two or three days per school term. Teachers, by their own admission, lack the knowledge and skills they need to follow the curriculum.

This problem is compounded by chronic under-staffing in most schools across Kenya. The teacher deficit stands at over 90,000. This is mainly due to a freeze in employment imposed in 1997 owing to budgetary constraints. Until the 2022 order to hire 30,000 new teachers , only enough were employed to replace those retiring or leaving the profession through natural attrition. The new hires, though welcome, are a drop in the ocean.

The second hurdle is physical facilities: there simply isn’t enough room for the new pupils. The lack of infrastructure is a challenge which the government hasn’t met over the years. Some learners continue to attend lessons under trees.

Finally, the curriculum has been labelled as very expensive especially for parents in rural areas and those with low incomes. This is because parents are frequently called upon to buy materials for practical classwork. The assumption that all parents can afford smartphones and have access to a computer or printing services for some assignments has also not gone down well.

This would appear to advantage some students at the expense of others and add to existing disparities. This raises concern because education is a basic human right.

Way forward

One of the biggest challenges in Kenya is implementation of policies. This was also evidenced in the early years of the education system that is now being phased out. This is partly due to the failure to involve all stakeholders in education and the private sector to enhance partnerships and collaboration. Working together could promote innovation and research to make the education system relevant and practical.

Faced with the current challenges, the government can borrow a leaf from UNESCO’s guidelines on quality education for all. The recommendation calls for partnerships of all actors to learn, compile and evaluate good practices, provide resources enabling practitioners to exchange experiences, and pilot and scale up good ideas.

The government needs to ensure quality education without discriminating against any learner based on their social or economic background.

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Addressing the learning crisis, an urgent need to better finance education for the poorest children.

Although more children than ever are enrolled in school, far too many are not learning. A key factor that affects quality of education is the availability of public funding. Underinvestment in education can result in several conditions that negatively impact how and what children learn. This advocacy brief presents data and analysis on education funding from 42 countries and highlights major disparities in the distribution of public education funding. The brief notes that the lack of resources available for the poorest children is exacerbating a crippling learning crisis, as schools fail to provide quality education for their students. It calls on governments and key stakeholders to urgently address equity in education funding and presents specific actions required to achieve equitable quality education for every child. Please contact:  [email protected]  

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June 8, 2018

This blog is a summary of the Kenya pilot study of the Breadth of Learning Opportunities toolkit, which is available  here .

What learning is important for children and youth?

Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) target 4.1 is a commitment by the global community to ensure that every girl and boy complete primary and secondary education by 2030. While achieving this goal is imperative, a pertinent question is “What learning is important for all children and youth?” This was one of the guiding questions for the 30 member organizations that comprised phase one of the Learning Metrics Task Force (LMTF). Seven essential domains of learning were deemed as vital for all children and youth to master in order to succeed in school and life. These domains are: physical well-being; social and emotional; culture and the arts; literacy and communication; learning approaches and cognition; numeracy and mathematics; and science and technology. Unless countries deliberately ensure that these domains are captured in their curriculum and policy documents, education delivered to the children and youth may be narrowly focusing on literacy and numeracy only.  

Breadth of Learning Opportunities (BOLO) pilot study in Kenya

In 2017, the Center for Universal Education (CUE) at Brookings and Education International (EI), developed a set of tools ( policy tool , school tool , and teacher tool ) based on the LMTF seven domains of learning to support countries and other stakeholders in measuring the Breadth of Learning Opportunities (BOLO) students are exposed to, both in the national curriculum and in school practices. CUE and EI piloted the BOLO tools in Kenya and Mexico to ensure the tools were aligned before providing national governments and education stakeholders with a facility to examine their education systems and target interventions associated with a range of learning domains. CUE, EI, and ziziAfrique from Kenya piloted the three tools between May and July 2017. For technical details of the pilot study, you can read the BOLO Technical Report .

The tools are able to map the range of learning opportunities pupils are exposed to, highlight differences between the intended and implemented curriculum , and identify challenges that teachers face while implementing the curriculum. However, the main and important challenge with the tools is that head teachers and teachers had difficulty in identifying the seven LMTF domains within their own practices, as the curriculum is organized in terms of subjects as opposed to domains. Localization of the tools, therefore, becomes imperative.

Intended versus the implemented curriculum

All education systems in the world are created to achieve country-specific goals. The main goal of education in Kenya is to support Vision 2030 , the country’s blueprint for economic growth. The intended curriculum, as described in policy documents, is the means by which these education goals are achieved. Whereas the policymakers are clear on the objectives of the curriculum and its delivery at all levels, the same cannot be said for the curriculum implementers who include head teachers, teachers, and officers who supervise curriculum implementation. In many cases, the latter are not aware of the specific competencies that the pupils are meant to demonstrate as their focus is mainly on pupils’ mastery of the content. As a result, there exists a gap between the intended and the implemented curriculum, as demonstrated by the BOLO project. As Kenya shifts from a knowledge-based curriculum to a competency-based curriculum , this is one of the challenges it will have to address.

Other challenges have to do with those that teachers face as they endeavor to deliver a balanced curriculum. These include:

• Teachers often receive little professional support to deliver a balanced curriculum.
• End of cycle exams are usually high stakes and often have consequences for both the teachers and the pupils, forcing teachers to focus on parts of the curriculum that will be assessed while neglecting those that are not examined.
• Many teachers specialize on specific subjects and are unaware of how their subjects link with others to ultimately support pupils to acquire specific competencies.

In many countries, school curriculum is organized by subjects with language, especially the Language of Instruction, numeracy, and sciences. This traditional approach to delivering the curriculum fails to ensure that children and youth acquire 21st century skills like problem solving, collaboration, and critical thinking. Therefore, there is potential for the use of the BOLO tools to help countries identify which opportunities for learning exists, the time and resources allocated to acquisition of specific skills, as well as whether there is alignment between what is intended at the national or regional level and what is implemented in classrooms. Subsequently, the BOLO tools are a good conversation starter for Ministry of Education officers when evaluating the breadth of learning opportunities that learners are exposed to through the implemented curriculum, or when reviewing the curriculum for potential changes.

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Education in Kenya

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Partner since: 2005

Total grant support: US$348,191,736

Grant eligibility:

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Partnership Compact

Priority: Improve learning outcomes to support the development of Kenya’s human capital for productivity and growth.

Other key documents

Coordinating agency: FCDO, UNESCO

GPE Team lead: Esohe Joan Eigbike

Transforming education in Kenya

Significant progress have been made to expand access to education in Kenya and improve learning. Still persistent challenges remain – like regional and gender disparities and inequitable access to learning – which demand transformative solutions.

GPE is helping the government and its partners to prioritize equitable solutions to improving learning outcomes. Working with GPE and other partners, Kenya will boost the quality of teaching , learning and pre-primary education with attention to enhancing equity, access and inclusion and achieving gender parity.

This will be done through better curriculum support materials, more robust use of technology to help implement competency-based curriculums and assessment, and school-based teacher development.

Steps to increase access to learning also include providing meals and improving water, sanitation and hygiene as well as learning environments.

Kenya: Investing in education for a better future

• Kenya is committed to becoming a newly industrialized nation by 2030 and acknowledges that quality education is vital to achieving this vision.
• With GPE support, Kenya has made impressive progress, including a 70% reduction in the cost of textbooks, and the equal enrollment of girls and boys at primary level. Additionally, the training of 102,000 teachers in improved teaching of math supported improved student competency in math.
• A new information management system has transformed the delivery of education in Kenya. Real-time data allows the government to monitor indicators such as attendance, enrollment and staffing in a transparent and reliable way.

(data as of May 15, 2024)

Type: System transformation and Multiplier

Years: 2023 - 2027

Allocation: US$113,300,000

Utilization: US$26,714,863

Grant agent: WB

Type: System capacity

Years: 2022 - 2026

Allocation: US$3,800,000

Utilization: US$26,622,750

Civil society engagement

As part of its investment in civil society advocacy and social accountability efforts, GPE’s Education Out Loud fund is supporting:

• Elimu Yetu Coalition for the 2020-2023 period. This builds on previous support from the Civil Society Education Fund (CSEF).
• Pamodzi for Inclusive Education in South-East Africa (PIESEA) led by Rays of Hope for the 2021-2024 period.

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• Kenya is part of the KIX Africa 19 hub.
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• The Back2School Project: Scaling an accelerated learning model for out-of-school girls in rural communities in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania
• Observatory on COVID-19 responses in educational systems in Africa
• Strengthening school based in-service teacher mentorship and support
• Adapting assessment into policy and learning (ADAPT): Adolescent 21 st Century skills in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania
• Common-scale assessment of early and foundational math learning across the global south
• Promoting positive early learning outcomes through strengthened capacity in learning through play - Evidence from Nigeria, the Gambia and Kenya
• Using technology to improve literacy in the Global South

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April 23, 2024 World Book Day: Celebrating the power of books to change lives Stories from Djibouti, Lao PDR, Nicaragua, Somalia, South Sudan and Zimbabwe showing how they are ensuring that more children have access to textbooks with support from GPE and other partners.

December 27, 2023 Our top 5 education result stories of 2023 Read our top stories of change of 2023.

August 09, 2023 Transforming learning assessment with the CBC app in Kenya The CBC app is a digital tool developed to simplify assessments and support both reporting processes and record-keeping in Kenyan schools, to make it easier for teachers and school administrators to offer...

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Challenges Facing Kenya in Achieving Education for All

Anthony M. Wanjohi:

Despite the Kenya’s government efforts towards the realization of Education For All (EFA), it continues to experience a number of challenges. These include gender disparities, high poverty levels, Teacher supply and quality, HIV/AIDS Pandemic and Inadequate financial resources.

Gender Disparities

The girl child continues to be in vulnerable situation.  Parental gender bias, cultural norms, negative impacts of HIV/AIDS pandemic and poverty continue to impact adversely on the girl child’s participation in education. The world has made continuous progress towards gender parity showing that gender differences in education can be overcome through public policy and changes in attitude, but there is still a long way to go as only 59 out of 176 countries have achieved gender parity in both primary and secondary education. Gender equality in educational opportunities and outcomes is the most challenging to achieve and is inherently more difficult to measure. Clearly much remains to be done. Many Sub-Saharan Countries (Kenya inclusive) are have miles to go before they achieve gender parity and equity in education (EI, 2009).

Future prospects on the girl child education depends on the following factors if EFA goals are to be realized: added commitment by all the stakeholders to the girls education, enough and targeted funding by government and donors to the girl child education, strengthening the gender unit by allocating enough financial and material resources, strengthening the capacity of the National Task Force on Gender and Education by allocating financial resources for activities, incorporating gender programmes in pre-service and in-service teacher training, advocacy for the girl child education be intensified, appointment of more women in key administrative positions at school and policy making level, strategies and plans to address the major disparities identified at primary and secondary school level be formulated (UNESCO, 2000).

High Poverty Levels

Most countries were hopeful that opportunities provided by strengthened democratic governance, and improving economies will accelerate progress.  However, poverty levels still remain high. On becoming a republic in 1964, Kenyan leaders vowed to eradicate poverty, disease and illiteracy. Today the proportion of the population living on less than one US dollar a day, that is the poverty line, is higher than ever before (Sisule, 2001). With high poverty line, compounded by economic crisis, prevalence of HIV/AIDS pandemic, it could be just a mere dream to attain Education for all by 2015. Poverty has been recognized as one of the factor that affects education.

Teacher Supply and Quality

Delivery of good-quality education is ultimately contingent on what happens in the classroom, and teachers are in the front line of service. The most important determinant of educational quality is the teacher. Thus education can be improved through supply of quality teachers (EI, 2009). This remains the role of government. It is estimated that the world will need approximately 18 million additional primary school teachers

by 2015. The most pressing need is in sub-Saharan Africa, where an estimated 3.8 million additional posts must be recruited and trained by 2015. This remains a challenging task for Kenyan government. Today, teacher-pupil ratio is still high and teacher demand and supply remain a major issue. Good quality education depends in part on reasonable class sizes and Pupil/Teacher ratios (PTR). Yet the GMR (2008) reveals that there are large regional and national disparities in PTRs. The approximate ceiling PTR usually used is 40:1, but there are large regional and national disparities.

Research shows that there are a number of factors that affect teacher demand and supply. One of the key factor is teacher motivation which is affected by other inherent factors like salary. According to GMR (2006), many countries face a crisis of teacher morale that is mostly related to poor salaries, working conditions and limited opportunities for professional development. Other problems include the doubtful use of contract teachers and the lack of evidence for introducing performance related pay structures. Kenya is a victim of such. Thus there is all likelihood that the state of affairs can only persist (as we move towards 2015), hence making the achievement of EFA by 2015 a mere wishful thinking.

In regard to teacher deployment, there is need thus to address equal distribution of primary teachers in districts, carry out registration of all pre-school teachers as a symbol of recognition of ECCDE have all untrained teachers trained through in-service courses, put in place adequate staffing norms at all levels to make maximum use of teachers, define the concept of a teacher as a professional within acceptable professional principles (UNESCO, 2000).

HIV/AIDS Pandemic

In many countries, the devastating impact of HIV/AIDS on education systems continues to be inadequately addressed in education planning. “In many cases the focus has been on curriculum reform in education to include teaching on HIV/AIDS prevention rather than an integrated response aimed at addressing the multiple disadvantages faced by children affected by HIV/AIDS.” (GMR, p.192). Education systems could play a key role in creating awareness and curbing HIV/AIDs pandemic and thus increasing school enrolment. For instance in Kenya, access to medicine for families living with HIV/AIDS has improved school attendance.

Despite this impact, many governments in Sub-Sahara Africa have not even developed policies aimed at supporting children who live with HIV or who have lost parents to the disease. AIDS-affected children are failing to go to school, and it’s because their governments are failing them. In sub-Saharan Africa, there are more than 12 million children orphaned by AIDS, not including the millions of children whose parents are terminally ill. While overall school enrollment rates have risen to approximately 66% in the continent, AIDS-affected children have been systematically left behind. According to the report,  children suffer de facto discrimination in access to education from the moment HIV/AIDS afflicts their family. Children leave school to perform household labor or to bereave their parents’ death. Many cannot afford school fees because their parents are too sick to earn a living (HRW, 2005).

HIV/AIDs has not only have had effect on children but also teachers. HIV-related health problems lead to teacher absenteeism (UNESCO, 2005). Although the government has made certain effort in catering for their needs of the infected teachers, the impact could still be far much reaching in terms of provision of quality education.

Inadequate Financial Resources

Financing Education For All (EFA) remains one of the core challenges facing many developing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. Most of these governments depend upon donor support which more often than not, come with strings attached (EI, 2009). These government and oftenly financially strained due to a number of factors ranging from political and economic instability to weak governance. Thus they are not able to support sustainable implementation of Education for all. Kenya continues to face a number of challenges following the introduction of Free Primary education in 2003 and Free Secondary Education in 2008. These challenges are mainly associated with lack of adequate teachers (human resources), and equipment and facilities (physical resources) (UNESCO, 2005). The root cause of all these challenges is lack of adequate financial resources. Kenya is not about to be free from its state of ‘need’, thus pushing far the dream of Education for All by 2015.

If Kenya is to achieve Education for all by 2015, the following are the key areas that require particular attention. These include Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCDE), Primary Education, Secondary Education, Training in other Essential skills required by Youth, Special Education, Girl child education, Non-Formal Education NFE (out of School Education, Adult Education, and Curriculum Development. Various tangible measures have to be put in place through combined effort not only from government, but also involving other development partners.

Education International (EI) (2009). Education For All by 2015. Retrieved November 24 from http://www.ei-ie.org/docs/IRISDocuments/Education/

Global Monitoring Report (GMR) (2007). Education for All by 2015 Will we make it? Paris: UNESCO. Retrieved November, 24 2009 from  http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001548/154820e.pdf.

Human Rights Watch (HRW) (2005). Letting them Fail: Government Neglect and the Right to Education for Children Affected by AIDS. Retrieved November, 20 from http://hrw.org/reports/2005/africa1005

Sisule, T.P. (2002). Poverty in the Eyes of Poor Kenyans: An Insight into the PRSP   Process. Tegemeo Institute, EgertonUniversity.

UNESCO (2000). The EFA 2000 Assessment: Country Reports. Retrieved November,  20 th from http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/kenya/rapport_3.html

UNESCO (2005). Challenges of Implementing Free Primary Education in Kenya: Experience from the Districts. UNESCO Nairobi Office, March, 2005. Retrieved November, 20 2009 from http://www.education.nairobi-unesco.org/

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Challenges and Reforms Facing Kenyan Education System in the 21st Century: Integrating the Principles of Vision 2030 and Constitution 2010

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• Learning, Marginalization, and Improving the Quality of Education in Low-income Countries

17. Kenya: 
Education in Marginalized Communities

Joyce Kinyanjui

© 2022 Chapter Authors, CC BY-NC 4.0 https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0256.17

Introduction

The Kenyan Constitution (Articles 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, and 59) states that all children have a right to free and compulsory basic education, including children with disabilities. Despite these constitutional provisions, education marginalization in Kenya persists. UNESCO (2010) defines education marginalization as a form of acute and persistent disadvantage rooted in underlying social inequalities. In order to know where education marginalization is most likely to occur, one needs to first identify marginalized communities in Kenya.

Under Article 260, the Constitution states that a “ marginalized community” is: (a) A community that, because of its relatively small population or for any other reason, has been unable to fully participate in the integrated social and economic life of Kenya as a whole; (b) A traditional community that, out of a need or desire to preserve its unique culture and identity from assimilation, has remained outside the integrated social and economic life of Kenya as a whole; (c) An indigenous community that has retained and maintained a traditional lifestyle and livelihood based on a hunter or gatherer economy; or (d) Pastoral persons and communities, whether they are—(i) Nomadic; or (ii) A settled community that, because of its relative geographic isolation, has experienced only marginal participation in the integrated social and economic life of Kenya as a whole.

The entirety of Northern Kenya—including upper parts of the eastern region (Moyale, Marsabit, Isiolo), northern and southern parts of the Rift Valley region (Turkana, West Pokot, Samburu, Kajiado, Narok, Transmara), and the northern part of the coastal region (Tana-River)—is occupied by nomadic pastoralists. Fishing nomads are found in parts of Homabay County (around Lake Victoria) and northern parts of the Rift Valley region (around Lake Turkana and Lake Baringo). Hunters and gatherers are mostly found in northern parts of the coastal region ( Lamu district) and parts of the Rift Valley region (Marakwet, Baringo, and Narok districts) (MoEST, 2014). The government recognizes the fact that the educational needs of nomadic communities are generally complex and underserved. It is therefore not surprising that 11 counties—West Pokot, Turkana, Garissa, Isiolo, Kwale, Narok, Marsabit, Mandera, Tana River, Samburu, and Wajir—account for 733,765 (57 percent) of 1,292,675 out-of-school children in the country.

This chapter analyzes the social, cultural, political, and economic factors driving educational marginalization in the above 11 counties in Kenya. The paper also proposes how the government can ensure the right to quality basic education for children from marginalized communities. Gross Enrollment Rate ( GER) will mainly be used to capture the percentage of pupils accessing education. Various recommendations are made in the conclusion that derive from the present findings.

Methodology

The main purpose of this chapter is to identify children and communities who are experiencing education marginalization in Kenya. The researcher used secondary data that were collected through a desk-review of government documents and policies, particularly the Ministry of Education and other line ministries both at national and sub-national levels, the National Gender and Equality Commission, and the National Council for Nomadic Education in Kenya. In addition to official government documents, official international documents—especially from UNICEF and UNESCO—were reviewed.

To generate a comprehensive review on education marginalization in Kenya, the researcher utilized a systematic approach with two key steps, namely:

• Identification of potential documents for review. These were identified through discussions with colleagues and online searches using Google Scholar. Snowballing of bibliographies as a way to search for relevant literature was successfully applied to identify additional documents. Government data from the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics and the Ministries of Education and Health were used extensively.
• Examination of relevance and credibility of the data and documents. This was done by verifying data through multiple sources and the materials referenced.

Once documents were selected, quantitative data were collated, summarized, aggregated, and organized into tables. Qualitative data were synthesized and formed part of the report. Additional grey literature, especially from newspapers and local studies by UNICEF, was also reviewed. One disadvantage of using this methodology is the fact that, in many cases, government data are a couple of years behind, and therefore somewhat outdated.

Education marginalization in Kenya

Since Kenya introduced free primary schooling in 2003, and free secondary education in 2008, the education sector continues to expand at all levels. With regards to primary education, the introduction of Free Primary Education (FPE) in 2003 enabled 1.3 million poor children to benefit from primary education for the first time through the abolishment of fees and levies for tuition (MoEST, 2014; see also Manyasa & Karogo, this volume). The Gross Enrollment Rate in primary education jumped from 86.8 percent in 2002 to 104 percent in 2018, while the GER for secondary schools increased from 35.7 percent in 2008 to 70.3 percent in 2018. The net enrollment rates are the highest ever—77.2 percent for Early Childhood Development and Care (ECDE), 92.4 percent for primary schools, and 53.2 percent for secondary schools. The Pupil Completion Rate (PCR) was 84.2 percent in 2017, and there was a Primary-to-Secondary Transition Rate (PSTR) of 83.3 percent (KNBS, 2019). Despite this expansion, education marginalization continues.

In order to understand education marginalization, one needs to analyze education data. In 2014, a total of 1,292,675 (580,921 boys and 711,754 girls) children aged 6–13 years were not enrolled, either because they never attended school or dropped out (MoEST, 2014). This number was the ninth highest of any country in the world ( UNESCO, 2015). The following 11 out of 47 counties accounted for almost 57 percent of all out-of-school children in the country: West Pokot, Turkana, Garissa, Isiolo, Kwale, Narok, Marsabit, Mandera, Tana River, Samburu, and Wajir (MoEST, 2014). Education access and retention have since increased in these 11 counties, but they remain at the bottom of the pyramid with regards to education attainment.

The 2019 national census established that there are 17,834,572 school-aged children in Kenya (KNBS, 2019). In 2018, more than 850,000 children aged between 6 and 17 years were out of school, with Mandera accounting for 15 percent (12,000) of all children out of school. Turkana accounts for 10 percent, Garissa 8.9 percent, and Wajir 6.7 percent, indicating that these counties are truly at the bottom of the pyramid (Mghenyi, 2018). The most comprehensive and accurate data on education in Kenya is found in the Basic Education Statistical Booklet of 2014 (MoEST, 2014) 1 .

The national Early Childhood Development and Education (ECDE) centers’ Gross Enrollment Rate ( GER) stood at 73.6 percent in 2014. Compared to the national averages, only Garissa (69.4 percent), Marsabit (51.5 percent), Wajir (25.6 percent), and Mandera (20.70 percent) have GER lower than the national average of 73.6 percent (MoEST, 2014). The reason for high ECDE GERs is that, in most centers, children attending ECDE receive free meals.

At the primary level, the numbers begin to decrease. Figure 1, below, presents the Primary Enrollment Rates per county. Only West Pokot (109.4 percent) and Kwale (107.5 percent) had a higher primary GER than the national average of 103.5 percent (MoEST, 2014). The bottom six counties with regards to primary enrollment were Turkana (77.40 percent), Tana River (77.20 percent), Samburu (73.70 percent), Garissa (71.40 percent), Wajir (35.20 percent), and lastly Mandera (29.20 percent).

The secondary GER decreases further when one compares it to the national average. Figure 2 below shows the Secondary Enrollment Rate for counties in Kenya.

Fig. 1. Primary Gross and Net Enrollment Rates for counties in Kenya (MoEST, 2014). Source: the author.

Fig. 2. Secondary Gross and Net Enrollment Rates for marginalized counties (MoEST, 2014). Source: the author.

At the secondary level, 10 out of the 11 counties under study had the worst secondary GER in the country. Mandera had the lowest secondary Gross Enrollment Rate of 9.40 percent, followed by Turkana at 12.10 percent. The national GER was 58.7 percent. Secondary enrollment in these counties is low when one compares the rates to those of counties like Nyeri with a GER of 132 percent, Muranga with a GER of 128 percent, and Tharaka Nithi with a GER of 114 percent.

Enrollment, however, does not tell the whole story. Equally important is retention. This is true for marginalized counties whose ECDE GER was higher than the national average of 73.6 percent. Such counties include West Pokot (98.9 percent), Turkana (97.6 percent), Isiolo (107.7 percent), Kwale (83.7 percent), and Samburu (113.0 percent), where the Gross Enrollment Rate at ECDE level was higher than the national average of 73.6 percent. West Pokot had a primary GER of 100.4 percent, which was higher than the national average of 103.5 percent. However, several counties had high access rates, but low retention levels. In 2014, the national retention rate was 88.2 percent. Turkana had the lowest retention rate at primary level (31.4 percent), followed by Garissa at 40.2 percent, and Narok at 61.4 percent. Out of the 11 marginalized counties, Kwale had the highest retention rate at 77.2 percent (MoEST, 2014).

With regards to primary education, the Mandera, Wajir, Marsabit, Samburu, and Tana River counties, in that order, have the worst education indicators with regards to access and retention. Mandera has a primary access rate of 39.3 percent and a retention rate of 13.6 percent, making it the most marginalized county with regards to education (MoEST, 2014).

Factors contributing to education marginalization

Marginalization in education is linked to factors such as poverty, politics, gender, ethnicity, disability, location, refugee status, and so on. This section looks at how some of these barriers are contributing to education marginalization in the 11 counties identified in the previous section.

There is a high correlation between poverty and education marginalization. 36.1 percent of all Kenyans live below the poverty line (KNBS, 2018). All the counties that experience high rates of education marginalization have higher poverty rates than the national averages except for Narok, 2 which has a poverty rate of 22.6 percent. The following (Figure 3) presents the poverty levels and GER of marginalized counties in Kenya.

Fig. 3. GER and poverty levels in education marginalized counties (KNBS, 2015; 2018).

Turkana County has the highest poverty incidence in Kenya, with 79.4 percent of the residents living below the poverty line. The Mandera and Samburu counties are second and third at 77.6 percent and 75.8 percent respectively.

With regards to extreme poverty, 3 8.6 percent—or 3.9 million people—lived in conditions of abject poverty and were unable to afford the minimum required food-consumption basket (KNBS, 2018). The incidence of extreme poverty at the county level ranges from a low of 0.2 percent in Nyeri to a high of 52.7 percent in Turkana. Likewise, the Samburu (42.2 percent), Mandera (38.9 percent), Busia (26.8 percent), West Pokot (26.3 percent), and Marsabit (23.8 percent) counties recorded a higher extreme poverty incidence. More than one-third (37.5 percent) of the total population living in conditions of extreme poverty reside in these six counties. Turkana County recorded the highest incidence of 66.1 percent (KNBS, 2018).

Poverty contributes to education marginalization in many ways. Children from poor homes in these 11 counties are unlikely to be enrolled in school due to the costs associated with schooling. Education at primary and secondary levels is free in Kenya, but there are still associated costs, such as school uniforms. Perhaps the greatest cost parents incur are levies in the form of examination fees, contributions to the salaries of teachers employed by Boards of Management, and building and other levies that are agreed upon by schools. In addition, the majority of communities living in the 11 counties practice pastoralism. Pastoralism is labor-intensive and children are sometimes withdrawn from school to take care of the family animals. In some cases, the families migrate to very remote areas in search of water and pasture where there are no schools.

Sociocultural barriers

Education marginalization cannot be entirely attributed to poverty. Complex sociocultural challenges affect education opportunities, especially for girls. These challenges include: negative cultural practices like female genital mutilation ( FGM); early and forced marriages; tasks associated with family care and housework; and early pregnancies. In addition, the socializing processes are designed and rigorously applied to instil a feeling of superiority in boys, while girls are groomed to accept subjugation and inferiority with apathy (KNBS, 2015). Girls grow up with feelings of being inferior and suffer from low self-esteem. These two outcomes contribute to girls dropping out of school. Parents also prefer to send their sons to school over their daughters. Subsequently, boys are more likely to complete primary education than girls.

In counties experiencing education marginalization, the number of boys completing primary-level education is more than that of girls. Figure 4 shows the primary-level completion rate in the marginalized counties.

Fig. 4. Primary-level completion rate by gender.

In order to calculate the Gender Parity Index, absolute numbers were used. In Garissa, the Gender Parity Index ( GPI) is 2.02, in Mandera, 2.0, while in Wajir it is 1.94, all in favor of boys. The national GPI primary completion rate is about 0.99.

Gender, teen pregnancy, and early marriages

In 2020, the government of Kenya launched a national campaign against teenage pregnancies, through the National Council for Population and Development (NCPD, 2020). The campaign is focused on galvanizing communities to end teen pregnancies through awareness and advocacy, citing their negative impact on socioeconomic growth.

Data from the Kenya Demographic and Health Survey (2014) show that one in every five girls between 15–19 years is either pregnant or already a mother. As a result, over 13,000 teenage girls drop out of school annually because of pregnancy (KNBS, 2015). As of 2019, based on the latest statistics from the Global Childhood Report ( Save the Children, 2019), Kenya has a teen- pregnancy rate of 82 births per 1000.

Recent media reports show that 449 girls are failing to sit for their final examinations, while others complete examinations in maternity wards. This is a detriment to these girls’ educations, health, and opportunities. The case of Narok County is especially profound, with 40 percent of teenagers being pregnant, compared to Garissa, Wajir, and Lamu at 10 percent (Mghenyi, 2018).

The 11 counties are all characterized by high fertility rates. Wajir and Garissa are the two counties with the highest Total Fertility Rates 4 in Kenya, at 7.8 and 7.2 respectively, against a national average of 3.9. Their GERs are 35.2 percent and 109.2 percent. Kirinyaga has the lowest Total Fertility Rate, at 2.3, and subsequently has the highest GER of 120.2 percent. High fertility rates contribute to increased poverty, as this strains the budgets of poor families. Other effects of high fertility rates include high infant mortality, malnourished children, and lack of education for children, especially girls, which in turn leads to intergenerational transmission of poverty.

Fertility rates decrease as women’s education and wealth increase. Table 1 below shows that the total fertility rate decreases from 6.5 among women with no education to 4.8 among women with some education, and further to 3.0 among women with a secondary or higher education. Fertility is also closely associated with wealth, with women in the lowest quintile (6.4) having more children than those in the highest quintile (2.8) (KNBS, 2015). Wajir, Mandera, and Garissa are located in the northeastern part of the country. This region has the highest total fertility rate, at 6.4.

Table 1. Correlation between poverty and total fertility rate.

In Narok, 33 percent of women aged 15–19 years have had a live birth, while 7.4 percent are expecting their first child. West Pokot (22.8 percent), Tana River (20.4 percent), Samburu (19.7 percent), Isiolo (18 percent), and Turkana (17.6 percent) have higher percentages of girls aged 15–19 having a live birth, compared to the national average of 14.7 percent.

Sociocultural issues, such as female genital mutilation and early marriage, contribute to education marginalization. The government established the Anti-Female-Genital-Mutilation Board, a semi-autonomous government agency in December 2013, following the enactment of the Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act 2011. It is within the Ministry of Public Service, Youth, and Gender Affairs. The fight against FGM has gained momentum recently, with the president promising to end the practice by 2022. Although the timeline may be unrealistic, religious and community leaders are joining the crusade against it.

HIV and AIDs

Kenya is one of the four HIV “high burden” countries in Africa—about 1.5 million people were living with a HIV infection at the end of 2015. Women in Kenya are more vulnerable to HIV infections than Kenyan men, with the national HIV prevalence at 7.0 percent for women and 4.7 percent for men, as per the 2015 HIV Estimate report ( Kenya Ministry of Health, 2017). Young people aged 15–24 years constituted 51 percent of all new adult HIV infections in 2016 ( Kenya Ministry of Health, 2016).

With regards to children below 14 years old living with HIV and AIDs, Turkana was ranked 21 out of 47 counties, with almost 2,000 children with HIV and AIDs. Narok was number 23, Kwale number 26, and Kilifi number 12 (KNBS, 2015). It is worth noting that the HIV and AIDs pandemic is affecting the entire country, and not just the 11 marginalized counties that are the focus of this chapter. The epidemic has also negatively affected the country’s economy by lowering per-capita output by 4.1 percent. Kenya has an estimated 71,034 new HIV infections among adults and about 6,613 new infections among children annually.

Location, agriculture, and education of nomads

The Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs) of Kenya make up 89 percent of the country, encompassing 29 counties and a population of about 16 million people. The ASAL regions are characterized by low and irregular rainfall of less than 500mm per year, high temperatures of over 35° Celsius, and a sparse population whose main economic activity is pastoralism. The 11 counties under study are all located within the ASALs. For decades, these areas were marginalized and seen as unproductive due to persistent drought and famine. Investment in infrastructure was minimal as a result. Insecurity occasioned by cattle rustling and violent incidents due to terrorist attacks by Al-Shabaab have often led to humanitarian situations. Except for Marsabit and Isiolo, the other nine counties located in the northeastern part of Kenya borders with Somalia, Ethiopia, South Sudan, and Northern Uganda, which for many years have also suffered from insecurity.

Kenya is currently experiencing the worst locust invasion in 70 years. Currently, there are 17 counties invaded by locusts. So far, approximately 70,000 hectares of land have already been infested (FAO, 2020). Of the 11 counties under study, Mandera, Wajir, Marsabit, Garissa, Isiolo, Samburu, Turkana, Narok, and West Pokot have had such invasions. Only Tana River and Kwale have not had invasions, but it is predicted that by June 2020, 75 percent of the country will be covered by locusts. In conjunction with the fragile economy and the outbreak of COVID-19, this will lead to major loss of livelihoods. It is expected that many more children may not access education due to increased poverty.

Providing quality education to nomadic communities will enhance their socioeconomic growth. With this in mind, the government has established the National Council for Nomadic Education in Kenya (NACONEK) whose mandate is to steer and coordinate efforts towards quality education for all in nomadic communities. Among the issues the Council is addressing are poor school infrastructure, shortage of teachers, low- quality education, and low access to primary and secondary education.

The mobility of nomadic communities, the hardships associated with the ASALs, and the few teachers with a nomadic background make recruitment, deployment, and retention of teachers difficult. Since the current teacher management policies, including delocalization, 5 have not adequately addressed staffing problems, there is a need to review the whole spectrum of teacher training, recruitment, and deployment.

Refugee education crisis

As of March 2020, there were 494,585 refugees and asylum seekers in Kenya, 51 percent male and 49 percent female. Of these, 53.6 percent are children aged 0–17 years, 43.7 percent are aged between 18–59, and only 2.7 percent are aged beyond 60. The refugee-hosting communities of Kakuma, Kalobeyei, and Dadaab are located in some of the most marginalized and food insecure counties in Kenya. Out of the total refugees and asylum seekers, 84 percent of the refugees and asylum seekers live in rural camps, while 16 percent live in urban areas, mainly Nairobi.

Among the refugee population in Kenya, over half are children of school age (4–18 years) ( UNHCR, 2020). The majority of refugee children are enrolled in pre-primary, primary, secondary, and tertiary institutions located in Dadaab and Kakuma refugee camps and the Kalobeyei settlement established in 2016. Despite significant gains in enrollment at all levels, almost half of school-age children and refugees are still out of school. The gap in enrollment widens with progression through the levels. Only 30 percent of eligible refugees have access to secondary education. In Kenya, 16% have access to technical and vocational education and training, and only 1% of qualified learners acquire places to study in public and private universities across Kenya and abroad each year ( UNHCR, 2020).

According to UNICEF (2018), reasons for low education attainment among refugees include extreme poverty, overcrowded classrooms, inadequate numbers of schools, long distances to schools, poor- quality education, drug abuse, lack of role models—especially for girls—and lack of interest in education due to feelings of hopelessness, occasioned by the fact that there are very few opportunities for meaningful employment.

The refugee scenario is very similar to that of other marginalized communities, as they have large numbers of out-of-school children. However, in Kakuma, refugee children have better education levels than the children from Turkana host communities, when one considers mean years of schooling. 6 Congolese refugees have 8.2 mean years of schooling, South Sudanese refugees have 6.6 years, and Somalis have 5.7 years, compared to 2.7 years for the Turkana. In Garissa, Somali refugees have lower education levels, with an average of 8 years of schooling, compared to Kenyan Somalis with an average of 10.1 years of schooling. Kenyan Somalis have better education levels than Somali refugees because they are able to travel to Nairobi where there are more education opportunities (Betts, Omata, & Sterck, 2018).

The education sector in Dadaab refugee camps consists of pre-schools, primary schools, secondary schools, adult literacy centers, special education schools, accelerated learning centers, vocational training providers, and scholarships for tertiary education. One of the important tertiary education projects is the Borderless Higher Education for Refugees (BHER) project, a multi-partner initiative that delivers university education to refugee and local community populations in Dadaab, Kenya. The project is run by a consortium of four universities (York University, University of British Columbia, Kenyatta University, and Moi University) and is implemented by Windle International Kenya. The BHER project aims to enhance the life chances of vulnerable refugee and local communities, and build educational and teaching capacity in situ . Its ultimate goal is to afford refugees a greater likelihood of successful and productive repatriation to their home country when possible, and raise the quality of education in host/home countries so as to build more peaceful, equitable, and socially inclusive societies ( UNICEF, 2019).

Perhaps the greatest challenge is the inadequate number of learning institutions. For example, within the Dadaab refugee camp, there are only 22 ECDE Centers, 34 primary schools, 12 secondary schools, and 9 education institutions offering Alternative Basic Education (ABE). With regards to Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVETs), there are 15 registered TVETs in Garissa County, 13 of which are private and two of which are public ( UNICEF, 2019). At the Turkana refugee camp, there are 21 primary schools, with 12 schools having an Accelerated Learning Programme (ALP), and five secondary schools and three education institutions offering ABE. At the Kalobeyei settlement, there are five primary schools, two secondary schools and one education institution offering ABE. With regards to TVETs, there are 11 TVET institutions, four of which are private and seven of which are public.

The Kenyan Constitution (2010) and the Basic Education Act (2013) stipulate that access to education is the right of every child in Kenya, including non-citizens. In October 2017, Kenya recognized the need for greater responsibility-sharing to protect and assist refugees and support host states by adopting the Comprehensive National Education Sector Plan 2019: Refugee Response Framework (CRRF) 7 , and in December 2017, signing the Djibouti Declaration. 8 Education, training, and skill development for all refugees and host communities is an important component of the CRRF approach, which places emphasis on the inclusion of displaced populations in national systems. When refugees gain access to education and labor markets, they can build their skills and become self-reliant, contributing to local economies. The Djibouti Declaration also commits IGAD member states and development partners to take collective responsibility to ensure that every refugee, returnee, and member of host communities has access to quality education in a safe learning environment, without discrimination.

In November 2017, President Uhuru Kenyatta rejected a bill that gave refugees living in camps the right to work and use land for business and farming. Without freedom of movement, refugees will remain unable to access education, especially tertiary education, economic opportunities, or employment.

COVID-19 pandemic

The first case of COVID-19 in Kenya was confirmed on March 13 th 2020. One of the first measures taken was the presidential directive to shut down all learning institutions from March 15 th 2020, which affected all schools, colleges, and universities, or about 17.5 million learners.

The government introduced online learning for students in ECDE, primary, and secondary schools. However, very few learners are accessing these digital materials. A recent study by Usawa Agenda (2020) and Uwezo (2020) established that, on average, only 22 out of 100 children are accessing digital learning. The higher the grade the learner is in, the higher the probability of their accessing digital learning. The majority of learners not accessing digital learning are from marginalized counties. The implication is that they will continue lagging behind in terms of learning outcomes. Figure 5 presents findings on the status of digital learning during COVID-19 school closures. Although closure of schools has affected most learners, those from marginalized communities have experienced greater education marginalization (see Figure 5 ).

Fig. 5. Access to digital learning materials during the COVID-19 pandemic. Source: Uwezo (2020).

Education is at the center of Kenya’s future human and economic development ( Kenya Ministry of Education, 2016). It is therefore critical that all children have access to education and quality learning. Where this is not happening, there is the risk of a continued cycle of poverty. The ideals of the country as envisioned in Vision 2030, of having Kenya become a newly industrialized country, may not happen. We have seen that there are many interconnected and continuing causes of marginalization in Kenya, such as geographical location, gender, health, and the current pandemic. And while these factors affect all children in Kenya, we have seen that there is increased impact on the 11 marginalized counties in this review. As such, it is possible—and, indeed, crucial—to find ways of improving the lives of those at the bottom of the pyramid, including the following recommendations.

Recommendations

• Ensure implementation of Vision 2030, especially components that deal with increased investments in ASAL regions for increased economic growth.
• Strengthen institutions like NGEC, which support gender equality in Kenya.
• Strengthen NACONEK to manage and administer quality education that is sensitive to the needs of pastoralists. One way of doing this is by facilitating the integration of emerging technologies, distance education, and other alternative interventions in nomadic areas.
• Incorporate the nomadic pastoral production system into the national curriculum. One of the objectives of education in Kenya is to foster nationalism and patriotism, and promote national unity. One way of doing this is by ensuring that the nomadic pastoral production system and lifestyle is incorporated/reflected in the approved national education curriculum.
• Strengthen and expand education institutions at all levels for increased access and transition to higher levels of learning. The government can address this challenge by expanding the number of low-cost boarding schools in nomadic communities and increasing the number of feeder schools (ECDE and Standard I-III) to enhance proximity to school and also to serve as a catchment for boarding schools.
• Expand school feeding programs to all children in nomadic communities to increase access and retention. Most of the homes in marginalized counties are food-insecure. Children are sometimes forced to participate in child labor in order to look for food.
• The government to sign the Refugee Bill, 2019. The new Bill will revise the encampment policy to allow for a high level of freedom of movement. Refugees can then access education and economic opportunities beyond their camps.
• Review, adopt, and implement the curricula for Non-Formal Education (NFE) for increased access and completion .
• Implement the Borderless Higher Education for Refugees (BHER) project in Kakuma Refugee Camp and Kalobeyei Settlement to ensure equal access to tertiary education for all refugees living in Kenya.

Betts, A., Omata, N., & Sterck, O. (2018). Refugee economies in Kenya . Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford. https://www.refugee-economies.org/assets/downloads/refugee_Economies_in_Kenya_Report_for_website.pdf

Food Agricultural Organization (FAO). (2020). Desert locust situation update 5 March 2020: New swarms forming in Somalia and starting in Kenya . http://www.fao.org/ag/locusts/en/info/info/index.html

Kenya Ministry of Education (MoEST). (2014). 2014 Basic Education Statistics Booklet . Nairobi: Government Printers.

Kenya Ministry of Education. (2016). 2016 Basic Education Statistics Booklet . Nairobi: Government Printers.

Kenya Ministry of Health. (2016). Kenya AIDs response progress report 2016 . https://nacc.or.ke/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Kenya-AIDS-Progress-Report_web.pdf

Kenya Ministry of Health. (2017). Kenya HIV county profiles . https://nacc.or.ke/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Kenya-HIV-County-Profiles-2016.pdf

Kenya National Bureau of Statistic (KNBS). (2015). Kenya demographic and health survey, 2014 . https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/fr308/fr308.pdf

Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS). (2018). Economic survey, 2017 . Nairobi: Government Printers.

Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS). (2019). Economic survey, 2018 . Nairobi: Government Printers.

Mghenyi, C. (2018, August 14). Over 850,000 children out of school in nine counties, Mandera leading. The Star.

National Council for Population and Development (NCPD). (2020). Teenage pregnancy in Kenya: Gloom and doom in education, health . https://ncpd.go.ke/teenage-pregnancy-in-kenya/

Refugee Consortium of Kenya (2019). Refugees and asylum seekers lament limited access to work permits in Kenya . https://www.rckkenya.org/refugees-and-asylum-seekers-lament-limited-access-to-work-permits-in-kenya/

UNESCO. (2010). UNESCO, Education for All: Global monitoring report 2010 . Paris: UNESCO.

UNESCO-UIS. (2015). Fixing the broken promise of Education for All: Findings from the global initiative on out-of-school children . Paris: UNESCO.

UNHCR Kenya. (2018). Kalobeyei integrated socio-economic development programme . https://www.unhcr.org/ke/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2018/12/KISEDP_Kalobeyei-Integrated-Socio-Econ-Dev-Programme.pdf

UNHCR Kenya. (2020). Figures at a glance . https://www.unhcr.org/ke/figures- 
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UNICEF. (2019). Rethinking education and training for youth in refugee hosting communities in Kenya. UNICEF-Nairobi. Unpublished.

UNICEF. (2018). Adolescent and youth employability in Kenya: Situational analysis report. UNICEF. Unpublished.

Uwezo. (2020). Are our children learning? The status of remote-learning among school-going children in Kenya during the Covid-19 crisis . Nairobi: Usawa Agenda.

Save the Children. (2019). Global childhood report, 2019 . https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/node/15264/pdf/global_childhood_report_2019_english.pdf

1 This paper has referred extensively to the BESB 2014 booklet, as the information contained in it is regarded as official government data.

2 Narok County is host to the Massai Mara, the eighth wonder of the world. This has led to increased direct and indirect employment, enhanced standard of living, more investments, infrastructural development, and new business linkages and opportunities. However, for the indigenous Masaai living in rural Narok, these benefits are not always in reach, hence contributing to education marginalization.

3 Households and individuals whose monthly adult equivalent total food and non-food consumption expenditure per person is less than KES 1,954 in rural and peri-urban areas, and less than KES 2,551 in core-urban areas (KNBS, 2018).

4 Fertility rate is defined in this paper as the average number of children born to women during their reproductive years. 

5 The delocalization policy was introduced by the Teachers Service Commission (TSC) to make teachers work outside their home counties.

6 Mean years of schooling: this is the number of completed years of formal education at primary level or higher, not counting years spent repeating individual grades.

7 On September 19th 2016, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a set of commitments to improve the manner in which we respond to large movements of refugees and migrants. These commitments, endorsed by 193 member states, are known as the New York Declaration on Refugees and Migrants. The New York Declaration calls upon UNHCR to develop and initiate the application of the Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework (CRRF). The objectives are to: ease pressure on host countries; enhance refugee self-reliance; expand access to third-country solutions, and support conditions in countries of origin for safe and dignified return.

8 Details about the Djibouti declaration can be found at: https://igad.int/attachments/article/1725/Djibouti%20Declaration%20on%20Refugee%20Education.pdf .

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The duality of the education challenge in Africa: Historical imperatives and 21st-century necessities

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Education in Africa stands at a crossroads, confronting dual challenges related to the juxtaposition of existing deficits with the rapidly evolving demands of the Digital Age. Despite the work across several African countries to turn the tide, the number of out-of-school children across the continent remains stubbornly high. And with the rapid advancement of 21st-century technologies presenting new challenges, such as the increasing necessity for digital fluency, African educational systems must adapt swiftly to remain relevant and competitive.

The selection of education as the African Union’s theme of the year presents a unique opportunity to create the necessary policy space for change. As we mark the start of “Africa Month,” it is one of the reasons why the United Nations Office of the Special Adviser is co-organizing our flagship  Africa Dialogue Series 2024  with the African Union Permanent Observer Mission to the United Nations under the theme “Education through Science, Technology and Innovation toward the Africa We Want.” Echoing the call of Secretary-General António Guterres to  end the business-as-usual approach , we aim to mobilize African policy and decision-makers to harness innovation and boost access to quality education in Africa.

To fast-track such transformation toward unlocking the continent’s full potential for future generations, it is critical to consider the historical and contemporary challenges affecting education in Africa.

Historical imperatives from an existing deficit

When Professor Wole Soyinka, the famed Nigerian Nobel Laureate and scholar, spoke on “Rearming the University Idea” at our  Academic Conference on Africa 2023 , he made it clear that the African educational system has been delivering high-calibre results for decades, citing the successes of African universities “from Makerere through Ibadan, Achimota all the way to Dakar.” Alongside Africa’s rich cultural heritage and traditional teachings that forged well-rounded individuals for many years, this has established the continent as an educational powerhouse for a period.

Unfortunately, political instability, conflicts, mismanagement, external shocks and other crises disrupted the system, leading to forced school closures, reducing access to safe learning environments and creating a  shortage of quality teachers . These challenges impeded academic progress while depriving students of vital social and emotional support received from educational institutions. Over time, this change triggered a cycle of poverty and marginalization, hampering socioeconomic development and stability across African communities.

Despite recent progress, the data on the resulting deficit is sobering. Over 100 million children remain outside the formal education system in Africa, with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)’s  Institute for Statistics highlighting  that one-fifth of children between the ages of six and 11, one-third between the ages of 12 and 14 and nearly 60 per cent of young people between 15 and 17 are not in school in Sub-Saharan Africa. UNESCO also reports that the continent needs more than 6 million teachers to achieve universal primary education by 2030.

However, there is an opportunity to reverse these trends and make significant gains by harnessing the multiplying effect of science, technology and innovation to deliver quality education in Africa.

Modern necessities from emerging technological demands

The continent has made strides towards digital transformation in the past decade. For example, as Sub-Saharan Africa experienced a remarkable  115 per cent increase  in Internet users between 2016 and 2021, over 160 million Africans acquired broadband Internet between 2019 and 2022, facilitating access to various digital services, including online learning. The adoption of digital payment methods has also surged, with nearly  200 million more people  completing digital transactions between 2014 and 2021. This reflects the growing significance of the digital economy and its impact in Africa.

This exponential growth in digital technologies and the advent of new fields, such as big data and artificial intelligence, presents challenges and opportunities for African educational systems. While digitalization could enhance learning outcomes, foster innovation, and expand access to academic resources, it amplifies existing disparities.  The continent’s recent technological boom, however, suggests Africa has the potential to harness this accelerating digital revolution and bring about change, including the transformation of its educational system.

To maximize the opportunities ushered in by this Digital Age, education systems in Africa need to leapfrog into modernity and equip the next generation of Africans for the future of work. This entails fundamentally reimagining educational approaches to cultivate the skills and competencies needed to thrive in a rapidly evolving digital landscape and succeed in the digital economy. It also needs to include initiatives to bridge the digital divide, which remains stark. According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), Internet penetration in Africa was around 28 per cent compared to the global average of 51 per cent in 2019.

As we stressed in our 2023 report “ Solving paradoxes of Africa's development: financing, energy and food systems , ” effective country systems must underpin these initiatives and be ready to invest in the needed infrastructure, skills development, and regulatory frameworks they require. With this impetus, Africa can transform its educational system and unlock inclusive growth, prosperity and durable peace.

Integrated policymaking to address dual challenges.

Addressing these dual challenges requires a nuanced policy mix that tackles existing deficits while addressing the demands of rapid technological advances. We must implement strategies that prioritize educational reform, infrastructure development, teacher training, and digital literacy – all at the same time. Such an integrated policy approach includes the following key components:

• Increasing access to education:  This can be achieved by building more schools in rural and underserved areas, providing scholarships and financial assistance to students, and implementing alternative education models such as community schools and distance learning programmes.
• Enhancing teacher training:  To reach this objective, our continent must invest in comprehensive training programmes that increase the number of teachers while boosting the quality of their skills, including in digital literacy and the ability to teach in increasingly digital classrooms.
• Bridging the digital divide:  To meet this target, initiatives must be in place to rapidly expand reliable Internet access and the availability of digital tools in schools, leveraging partnerships with technology companies and investments in Information Communication Technology infrastructure.
• Curriculum reform:  Our approach must include adapting curricula to incorporate more STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) education and programmes boosting digital skills to better equip students for future challenges in the Digital Age.
• Tackling root causes of crises:  This component is essential in creating an environment of stability and durable peace where education thrives. This includes addressing political instability and conflicts to safeguard the right to education and foster sustainable progress in Africa.

The duality of Africa's educational challenges requires such a forward-thinking policy mix. This is a different approach aiming to address the root causes of underlying issues. It manages development instead of implementing band-aid solutions and projects that manage poverty. So, one of our key objectives at the Africa Dialogue Series this year is to foster an exchange that leads to innovative, implementable policy recommendations that centre on Africa’s long-term progress.

Throughout this Africa Month, let us approach our engagements by leveraging Secretary-General Antonio Guterres’ message as our guiding compass. He said, “We can’t build a future for our grandchildren with a system built for our grandparents.” Let us work together to transform education in Africa by harnessing science, technology, and innovation.

This is how we build the Africa we want. The Africa the world needs.

Cristina Duarte is the Under-Secretary-General and Special Adviser of United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres on Africa .  This op-ed is written for and to be published first by the UN’s  Africa Renewal

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Challenges of getting Education in Kenya

The impact of poverty in Kenya and the rest of Africa especially sub-Saharan Africa, poverty remains one of the biggest challenges compounded by lack of employment opportunities for school graduates and College/university graduates, this act as one of the catylist for rampant drop out of schools as there is no enough motivation to do so.

According to UNICEF there are 13 significant barriers to education in developing countries

• Costs e.g fees, clothing, books
• Indirect costs, i.e opportunity cost of attending school
• Local attitudes and traditional practices
• Health and nutrition
• Crisis and instability
• Distance to school
• Poor quality environment for example, poor infrastructure, overcrowding, sanitation, violence.
• Poor quality content e.g outdated curriculum, inadequate learning materials.
• Ineffective delivery to learners e.g untrained teachers and poor and unmonitored school managements.
• Lack of national legal framework like compulsory education requirements.
• Poor enforcement of legal education policies.
• Inadequate national budget education allocation.
• Isolation of schools from the National Education System.

These barriers are mostly prevalent to girls, children from minority groups, children with disabilities and children living in conflict areas, however, currently, boys are becoming as much as vulnerable as girls on matters of accessing education.

For most of learners in Kenya and Africa in General, walking to school for 3 hours everyday covering 10 kilometres, is a big challenge that take much time and energy from the learners. While they cover such kilometres, they walk with hungry stomachs, in addition to other risk of violence along the journey, especially girls

Developing countries are unable to fund education appropriately as tertiary, college and University education and to some extent secondary education remain unaffordable to a significant number of learners. Corruptions plays a big role in failures of funding education in countries like Kenya as most funds are mismanaged by officials as they go down to learners. As most guardians struggle to put food on tables for their children, education remain a secondary needs.

Poor and ineffective of education like untrained teachers is often compounded by absenteeism of those trained teachers overburdening those untrained teachers.

Lack of water and running water in most of the public institutions is another challenge to learners and teachers especially during this pandemic period. Learners especially girls spend most of their time in a day fetching water, this leads to them sometime skipping classes at least two days per week.

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The Plight of Girls in Kenya: Overcoming Challenges for a Brighter Future.

The situation of little girls in Kenya is a complex issue that requires a multifaceted approach. Poverty, lack of access to education, and cultural norms that perpetuate gender inequality are some of the challenges faced by little girls in Kenya. These challenges have far-reaching effects on the physical, emotional, and psychological well-being of girls in Kenya. For example, child marriage, lack of access to education, and sexual exploitation and abuse can limit a girl's future prospects and perpetuate the cycle of poverty.

Statistics show that less than 20% of girls aged 15-19 in Kenya complete secondary education, and even fewer go on to further education. In regions that experience high poverty rates and low levels of gender equality, as little as 19% of the girls in the region are enrolled in local primary schools. In others, as few as one in 15 girls are enrolled in primary school. These statistics highlight the need for continued efforts to address the barriers to education for girls in Kenya.

Organizations such as Coachability Foundation are working to provide support and resources to girls and families in need. By providing access to education and resources, we can help to empower girls and create a brighter future for them. However, more needs to be done to address the root causes of poverty, lack of access to education, and cultural norms that perpetuate gender inequality. Addressing these issues is critically important for social and economic growth within these regions.

The effects of not having a childhood in little girls in Kenya are far-reaching and can impact their physical, emotional, and psychological well-being. Child marriage, lack of access to education, and sexual exploitation and abuse can limit a girl's future prospects and perpetuate the cycle of poverty. Girls who are victims of sexual exploitation and abuse may experience emotional trauma and long-lasting effects on their mental health.

Education can play a critical role in addressing these issues. By providing access to quality education, girls can gain the skills and knowledge they need to break the cycle of poverty and achieve their full potential. Education can also help to prevent sexual exploitation and abuse by empowering girls to recognize and report abuse. Many organizations are working to provide support and resources to girls and families in need. However, more needs to be done to address the root causes of poverty, sexual exploitation and abuse, and lack of access to education.

The situation of little girls in Kenya requires continued efforts to address the barriers to education and the harmful practices that impact their well-being. By addressing the root causes of poverty, lack of access to education, and cultural norms that perpetuate gender inequality, we can help to empower girls and create a brighter future for them.

Introduction

Throughout this discussion, we have delved into the myriad challenges faced by young girls in Kenya. These adversities encompass poverty, limited access to education, and deeply ingrained cultural norms that perpetuate gender inequality. The consequences of these difficulties extend far beyond the immediate physical realm, seeping into the emotional and psychological well-being of Kenya's girls. One glaring example is child marriage, especially prevalent in Northern Kenya, which compels girls to abandon their education and embrace adult responsibilities at an early age, thus limiting their future prospects and perpetuating the vicious cycle of poverty. Additionally, restricted access to education can hinder the emotional and psychological development of girls and curtail their ability to reach their full potential. Furthermore, girls who suffer sexual exploitation and abuse often endure emotional trauma, leaving enduring scars on their mental health.

Education and Its Barriers

Statistics underscore the grim educational reality for girls in Kenya . Less than 20% of girls aged 15-19 in Kenya complete secondary education, with even fewer progressing to further education[1][2] . This situation is exacerbated in regions grappling with high poverty rates and gender inequality, where enrollment rates plummet. In some areas, as few as one in 15 girls are enrolled in primary school[1][6]. These statistics underscore the pressing need for concerted efforts to eliminate barriers to education for Kenyan girls.

Prominent organizations, including UN Women, UNICEF, and Save the Children, tirelessly provide support and resources to girls and their families. By facilitating access to education and resources, they empower girls, ultimately paving the way for a brighter future. However, addressing the root causes of poverty, lack of educational access, and cultural norms perpetuating gender inequality remains paramount. This entails not only expanding access to education and resources but also dismantling the systemic issues that hinder progress, encompassing healthcare, basic needs, and support systems for families[7][8][9].

When You're a Little Girl in Kenya

Girls in Kenya grapple with an array of challenges that impact their well-being and future opportunities. Notably, poverty, sexual exploitation and abuse, and limited access to education loom large in their lives[2]. Here are some pertinent facts and figures:

Poverty: Over a third of Kenya's population lives on less than $1.90 USD per day, with girls living in poverty more likely to miss school due to resource constraints[1][3].

Sexual Exploitation and Abuse : The peril of sexual exploitation is widespread, encompassing issues like cybercrime against women, stalking, sexual harassment, and sex trafficking[2]. Prolonged drought has exacerbated the risk of gender-based violence, female genital mutilation, and child marriage[3].

Street Girls: Kenya is home to an estimated 250,000 children living on the streets, rendering them susceptible to violence, exploitation, and abuse[4].

These problems are deeply rooted in the complex and multifaceted issues of poverty, education inaccessibility, and cultural norms propagating gender inequality. The repercussions are profound, manifesting as physical, emotional, and psychological burdens on these young girls.

Credit by Annie Spratt @anniespratt

The Cultural Norms Perpetuating Gender Inequality

In Kenya, deeply rooted cultural norms sustain gender inequality through various practices:

Child Marriage: Widespread child marriages in Northern Kenya see at least 23% of Kenyan girls wed before turning 18, with harmful traditions like female genital mutilation and "beading" exacerbating this issue.

Workplace Discrimination: Discrimination within workplaces is pervasive, with women often encountering bias and harassment. Employers' reluctance to hire married women, often tied to maternity leave concerns, worsens this problem.

Domestic Responsibilities: These cultural norms dictate that girls must assume domestic roles, including cooking and cleaning, restricting their access to education and future job opportunities.

These entrenched cultural norms act as significant barriers to gender equality in Kenya. To empower girls and pave the way for a brighter future, it is imperative to challenge and reshape these norms while providing increased access to education and resources[10][11].

Statistics on Sexual Exploitation and Abuse of Girls in Kenya

Sexual exploitation and abuse of girls in Kenya is a grave concern. Key statistics shed light on the issue:

A study in Kenya's 10 districts reported that 58 out of every 100 children have been sexually harassed, with 29% of boys and 24% of girls reporting forced unwanted sexual encounters.

The number of reported crimes of a sexual nature and instances of mass sexual violence within schools highlights the pervasive threat to sexual safety.

A 2014 study by the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics found that 21% of women in Kenya experienced sexual violence, with one in three being unable to access justice[12].

Significantly, online child sexual exploitation and abuse (OCSEA) affects both boys and girls in Kenya. Perpetrators of such exploitation are typically individuals known to the child. However, the reporting of online sexual exploitation and abuse (OSEA) remains challenging, making it difficult to gauge the full extent of these occurrences. Organizations like UN Women, UNICEF, and Equality Now endeavor to provide support and resources to girls and their families, yet addressing the root causes of sexual exploitation and abuse, including deep-seated cultural norms, is critical to protect Kenya's girls effectively.

The Impact of the Challenges

The consequences of these challenges are broad and deeply felt, impacting the physical, emotional, and psychological well-being of girls in Kenya. Child marriage forces young girls to take on adult responsibilities prematurely, effectively ending their educational pursuits and limiting their future prospects. The lack of access to education and employment opportunities also breeds feelings of hopelessness and low self-esteem among girls, affecting their psychological well-being. Additionally, girls who are subjected to sexual exploitation and abuse often bear emotional trauma and long-lasting mental health effects. As they are forced to face adult challenges without proper support, these girls experience health issues related to early pregnancy and childbirth, further compromising their physical well-being.

It is crucial to continuously raise awareness of the difficulties faced by girls in Kenya and work towards providing the necessary resources and support to unlock their full potential. By addressing the root causes of poverty, educational barriers, and cultural norms that perpetuate gender inequality, we can collectively create a brighter future for girls in Kenya.

The Effects of Losing Childhood

The absence of a carefree childhood has profound implications for little girls in Kenya:

Child Marriage: Child marriages prematurely burden girls with adult responsibilities, truncating their education and limiting their future.

Emotional and Psychological Trauma: Victims of sexual exploitation and abuse often grapple with emotional trauma and long-lasting psychological scars.

Health Issues: Forced into early adulthood, these girls may face health problems related to early pregnancies and inadequate access to healthcare, impacting their physical well-being.

These effects underscore the urgency of efforts to address the obstacles to education and the harmful practices that erode the well-being of girls in Kenya.

The challenges faced by little girls in Kenya are multifaceted and deeply ingrained. However, by understanding these challenges and collectively addressing their root causes, we can work towards a brighter, more equitable future for the girls of Kenya. It is imperative to continue raising awareness and offering support and resources to empower these girls to overcome adversity and reach their full potential.

One of the primary objectives of the ASA (After school Projects )in Kisumu, initiated by the Coachability Foundation ( www.coachabilityfoundation.org ), is to ensure that girls in Kisumu, Kenya, have the opportunity to experience a dignified childhood. These projects are dedicated to empowering young girls by providing them with a safe and nurturing environment to explore their artistic and athletic interests after school. By engaging in creative arts and sports activities, these girls not only learn valuable life skills but also regain their right to a joyful and fulfilling childhood

After School Activities Program by Coachability Foundation

Furthermore, these projects aim to instill the importance of mutual respect and equality in both girls and boys. By fostering an environment where boys respect and support girls, they contribute to creating a more equitable society. Through SAS the Coachability Foundation is committed to breaking down gender barriers, fostering respect, and promoting gender equality, thus paving the way for a future where both girls and boys can thrive and coexist in harmony, ultimately creating a more equal and just society.

In conclusion, the plight of little girls in Kenya is a multi-faceted challenge that demands a comprehensive and sustained effort. The combination of poverty, limited access to education, and deeply entrenched gender inequality perpetuated by cultural norms has far-reaching consequences on the well-being of these young girls. Child marriage, lack of educational opportunities, and sexual exploitation and abuse curtail their future prospects and perpetuate the cycle of poverty. These grim statistics underscore the urgent need to address educational barriers and the harmful practices that hinder girls' progress.

Many organizations are working tirelessly to provide support and resources to these girls and their families. While these efforts are commendable, it is crucial to recognize that the root causes of poverty, sexual exploitation and abuse, and limited educational access must also be addressed comprehensively. This includes initiatives related to healthcare, basic needs, and dismantling cultural norms that perpetuate gender inequality. The effects of these challenges extend beyond the physical realm and seep into the emotional and psychological well-being of these girls, affecting their health and self-esteem.

Education is a powerful tool to address these issues. It offers girls the skills and knowledge needed and to recognize and report instances of sexual exploitation and abuse. By expanding access to quality education, organizations can empower girls to reach their full potential.

The situation in Kenya requires continued and collective efforts to break down the barriers to education and tackle the harmful practices that hinder the well-being of girls. Addressing the root causes of these challenges is pivotal for the social and economic growth of these regions. By understanding and confronting these issues, we can work toward a brighter and more equitable future for the girls of Kenya. It is imperative that we continue to raise awareness, offer support, and provide the necessary resources to empower these girls, enabling them to overcome adversity and reach their full potential. Only through these collective efforts can we hope to create a brighter future for the girls of Kenya.

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Girls in Kenya

Plight of girls

Gender inequality

Child marriage

Access to education

Sexual exploitation and abuse

Emotional and psychological well-being

Education barriers

Cultural norms

Support and resources

Dignified childhood

Empowerment

Mutual respect

Equal society

#GirlsInKenya #GenderEquality #ChildMarriage #AccessToEducation #EndPoverty #StopExploitation #EmpowerGirls #EducationForAll #CulturalNorms #SupportGirls #BrighterFuture #Equality #ChildhoodMatters #BreakTheCycle #TogetherForChange #CoachabilityFoundation #KisumuProjects #CreateEquality #EndGenderBias #EmpowermentThroughEducation #coachability

Citations and references.

ACDI/VOCA. (2020). Girls in Northern Kenya Overcome Adversity to Return to School. Retrieved from https://www.acdivoca.org/2020/10/girls-in-northern-kenya-overcome-adversity-to-return-to-school/

Abuya, T., Njuki, R., Warren, C. E., Okal, J., Obare, F., Kanya, L., ... & Askew, I. (2013). A policy analysis of the implementation of a Reproductive Health Vouchers Program in Kenya. BMC public health, 13(1), 1-12.

Bledsoe, C., Hill, A. G., & Geisler, G. (2006). Reproductive mishaps and western contraception: An African challenge to fertility theory. Population and Development Review, 32(1), 17-42.

Darabigdata Darabigdata. (n.d.). Girls' Education in Kenya. Retrieved from https://www.darabigdata.com/girlseducation-kenya

Global Partnership Global Partnership for Education. (2018). Putting Girls' Education First in Kenya. Retrieved from https://www.globalpartnership.org/blog/putting-girls-education-first-kenya

Kimani, E. (2019). Child Marriage in Kenya: a Mixed-Methods Study of Knowledge, Attitudes, Practices and Consequences. Journal of African Economies, 28(1), 71–99.

Njuki, J., & Wyss, K. (2010). Evaluating gender mainstreaming in development projects: the case of the community health funds in Tanzania. Gender and Development, 18(2), 173-190.

Njue, C., Voeten, H. A., & Remes, P. (2011). Disempowerment and Resilience among Young Kenyan Mothers: The Role of Social Networks and Social Support. AIDS care, 23(10), 1307-1314.

Shell-Duncan, B., Wander, K., Hernlund, Y., & Moreau, A. (2011). Legislative lessons: applying social science research to policy change on female genital cutting. Political Science Quarterly, 126(3), 445-475.

The Borgen Project. (n.d.). Girls' Education in Kenya. Retrieved from https://borgenproject.org/girls-education-in-kenya/

UNICEF, UN Women, Equality Now. (2012). Violence against children in Kenya: Findings from a 2010 national survey. New York, NY: UNICEF.

UNICEF. (2017). Kenya: Education for Every Child. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/esa/media/1356/file/UNICEF-Kenya-2017-Child-Poverty.pdf

Weiss Scholarship FoundationWeiss Scholarship Foundation. (n.d.). Importance of Girl Child in Kenya. Retrieved from https://weissscholarshipfoundation.org/blog-post/importance-of-girl-child-in-kenya/

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Evaluation of the feasibility of a midwifery educator continuous professional development (CPD) programme in Kenya and Nigeria: a mixed methods study

• Duncan N. Shikuku 1 , 2 ,
• Hauwa Mohammed 3 ,
• Lydia Mwanzia 4 ,
• Alice Norah Ladur 2 ,
• Peter Nandikove 5 ,
• Alphonce Uyara 6 ,
• Catherine Waigwe 7 ,
• Lucy Nyaga 1 ,
• Issak Bashir 8 ,
• Eunice Ndirangu 9 ,
• Carol Bedwell 2 ,
• Sarah Bar-Zeev 10 &
• Charles Ameh 2 , 11 , 12  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  534 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Midwifery education is under-invested in developing countries with limited opportunities for midwifery educators to improve/maintain their core professional competencies. To improve the quality of midwifery education and capacity for educators to update their competencies, a blended midwifery educator-specific continuous professional development (CPD) programme was designed with key stakeholders. This study evaluated the feasibility of this programme in Kenya and Nigeria.

This was a mixed methods intervention study using a concurrent nested design. 120 randomly selected midwifery educators from 81 pre-service training institutions were recruited. Educators completed four self-directed online learning (SDL) modules and three-day practical training of the blended CPD programme on teaching methods (theory and clinical skills), assessments, effective feedback and digital innovations in teaching and learning. Pre- and post-training knowledge using multiple choice questions in SDL; confidence (on a 0–4 Likert scale) and practical skills in preparing a teaching a plan and microteaching (against a checklist) were measured. Differences in knowledge, confidence and skills were analysed. Participants’ reaction to the programme (relevance and satisfaction assessed on a 0–4 Likert scale, what they liked and challenges) were collected. Key informant interviews with nursing and midwifery councils and institutions’ managers were conducted. Thematic framework analysis was conducted for qualitative data.

116 (96.7%) and 108 (90%) educators completed the SDL and practical components respectively. Mean knowledge scores in SDL modules improved from 52.4% (± 10.4) to 80.4% (± 8.1), preparing teaching plan median scores improved from 63.6% (IQR 45.5) to 81.8% (IQR 27.3), and confidence in applying selected pedagogy skills improved from 2.7 to 3.7, p  < 0.001. Participants rated the SDL and practical components of the programme high for relevance and satisfaction (median, 4 out of 4 for both). After training, 51.4% and 57.9% of the participants scored 75% or higher in preparing teaching plans and microteaching assessments. Country, training institution type or educator characteristics had no significant associations with overall competence in preparing teaching plans and microteaching ( p  > 0.05). Qualitatively, educators found the programme educative, flexible, convenient, motivating, and interactive for learning. Internet connectivity, computer technology, costs and time constraints were potential challenges to completing the programme.

The programme was feasible and effective in improving the knowledge and skills of educators for effective teaching/learning. For successful roll-out, policy framework for mandatory midwifery educator specific CPD programme is needed.

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Introduction

Quality midwifery education underpins the provision of quality midwifery care and is vital for the health and well-being of women, infants, and families [ 1 ]. The recent State of the World’s Midwifery report (SoWMy) (2021) indicates that urgent investments are needed in midwifery, especially quality midwifery education, to improve health outcomes for women and neonates. Despite evidence to support midwifery, midwifery education and training is grossly underfunded in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) with variation in the quality, content and duration of content between and within countries [ 2 ]. Barriers to achieving quality education are: inadequate content, lack of learning and teaching materials, insufficient and poorly trained educators and weak regulation, midwifery educators having no connection with clinical practice or opportunities for updating their knowledge or skills competencies [ 3 , 4 ].

The WHO, UNFPA, UNICEF and the International Confederation of Midwives’ (ICM) seven-step action plan to strengthen quality midwifery education, and ICM’s four pillars for midwives to achieve their potential emphasize strengthening midwifery faculty to teach students as a key priority [ 4 , 5 ]. Consequently, ICM recommends that (i) at least 50% of midwifery education curriculum should be practise-based with opportunities for clinical experience, (ii) midwifery faculty should use fair, valid and reliable formative and summative assessment methods to measure student performance and progress in learning and (iii) midwifery programmes have sufficient and up-to-date teaching and learning resources and technical support for virtual/distance learning to meet programme needs [ 6 ]. To achieve this, WHO’s Midwifery Educator Core Competencies and ICM’s Global Standards for Midwifery Education provide core competencies that midwifery educators must possess for effective practice [ 6 , 7 ]. The WHO’s global midwifery educator survey in 2018–2019 reported that fewer than half of the educators (46%) were trained or accredited as educators [ 5 ]. Educators are important determinants of quality graduates from midwifery programmes [ 7 ]. However, the survey identified that none of the educators felt confident in all of WHO’s midwifery educator core competencies [ 5 ]. Further evidence shows that many midwifery educators are more confident with theoretical classroom teaching than clinical teaching despite advances in teaching methods and have low confidence in facilitating online/virtual teaching and learning [ 4 , 8 , 9 ]. To remain competent, design and deliver competency-based curriculum and strengthen midwifery practice, ICM and WHO emphasize that midwifery faculty should engage in ongoing professional development as a midwifery practitioner, teacher/lecturer and leader [ 6 , 10 , 11 ]. However in many settings there is inadequate provision or access to faculty development opportunities [ 12 ].

Continuous professional development (CPD)

Continuous professional development has been defined as the means by which members of the profession maintain, improve and broaden their knowledge, expertise, and competence, and develop the personal and professional qualities required throughout their professional lives [ 13 ]. This can be achieved through multiple formal educational pathways based on the ICM Global Standards for Midwifery Education whilst incorporating the ICM Essential Competencies for Basic Midwifery Practice [ 6 , 14 ]. There are formal CPD activities where there is structured learning that often follows set curricula, usually approved by independent accreditation services or informal CPD that is usually self-directed learning. Participating in accredited CPD programmes is beneficial to the profession. A requirement of regular CPD renewal by a country to maintain licensure ensures an up-to-date, relevant nursing and midwifery workforce [ 15 ] and increases the legitimacy of CPD [ 16 ]. Structured learning (direct or distant), mandatory training, attending workshops and conferences, accredited college/university courses and trainings, research and peer review activities are opportunities for CPD [ 17 ]. Importantly, these CPD programmes are essential for safe, competent and effective practice that is essential to the universal health coverage (UHC) & maternal and newborn health SDGs agenda particularly in developing countries [ 18 , 19 ].

Whilst regulatory bodies and employers in many countries have requirements for midwives to complete CPD programmes and activities, these programmes and supporting activities are found to be ineffective if CPD is irrelevant to the practitioners’ practice setting, attended only because of monetary or non-monetary benefits, geared towards improving a skill for which there is no demonstrated need, and taken only to meet regulatory requirements rather than to close a competency gap [ 20 ]. In most LMICs, midwifery licensure is permanent, without obligation to demonstrate ongoing education or competence [ 15 ]. Consequently, CPD processes are not in place, and if in place, not fully utilised. A systematic review on CPD status in WHO regional office for Africa member states reported that nurses and midwives are required to attend formalised programmes delivered face-to-face or online, but only16 out of 46 (34.7%) member states had mandatory CPD programmes [ 15 ]. This underscores the need for designing regulator approved midwifery educator CPD programmes to improve the quality of midwifery education in LMICs.

Modes and approaches for delivery of CPD

Face-to-face contact is a common mode of delivery of CPD although mHealth is an emerging platform that increases access, particularly to nurses and midwives in rural areas [ 12 , 21 ]. Emerging platforms and organisations such as World Continuing Education Alliance (WCEA) offer mHealth learning opportunities in LMICs for skilled health personnel to access CPD resources that can improve health care provider knowledge and skills and potentially positively impact healthcare outcomes [ 22 ]. Although there is evidence of capacity building initiatives and CPD for midwifery educators in LMICs [ 23 ], these have been largely delivered as part of long duration (2-year) fellowship programmes and led by international organisations. In addition, these programmes have largely focused on curriculum design, leadership, management, research, project management and programme evaluation skills in health professions education with little on teaching and learning approaches and assessment for educators [ 24 , 25 , 26 ]. Successful CPD initiatives should be (i) accredited by the national regulatory bodies (Nursing and Midwifery Councils); (ii) multifaceted and provide different types of formal and informal learning opportunities and support; (iii) combine theory and clinical practice to develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes and (iv) must be adapted to fit the local context in which participants work and teach to ensure local ownership and sustainability of the initiatives [ 16 ].

Short competency-based blended trainings for educators improve their competence and confidence in delivering the quality midwifery teaching. However, systems for regular updates to sustain the competencies are lacking [ 27 , 28 ]. Evidence on effectiveness of the available CPD initiatives is limited. Even where these initiatives have been evaluated, this has largely focused on the outcomes of the programmes and little attention on the feasibility and sustainability of such programmes in low-resourced settings [ 24 , 25 , 29 ]. As part of global investments to improve the quality of midwifery education and training, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine (LSTM) in collaboration with the UNFPA Headquarters Global Midwifery Programme and Kenya midwifery educators developed a blended midwifery educator CPD programme (described in detail in the methods section). The CPD programme modules in this programme are aligned to the WHO’s midwifery educators’ core competencies [ 7 ] and ICM essential competencies for midwifery practice [ 14 ]. The programme is also aligned to the nursing and midwifery practice national regulatory requirements of Nursing and Midwifery Councils in LMICs such as Kenya and Nigeria, and relevant national policy [ 30 , 31 , 32 ].This programme aimed at sustaining and improving the educators’ competencies in delivery of their teaching, assessments, mentoring and feedback to students. To promote uptake, there is need to test the relevance and practicability of the CPD programme. Feasibility studies are used to determine whether an intervention is appropriate for further testing, relevant and sustainable in answering the question – Can it work [ 33 ]? The key focus of these studies are acceptability of the intervention, resources and ability to manage and implement intervention (availability, requirements, sustainability), practicality, adaptation, integration into the system, limited efficacy testing of the intervention in controlled settings and preliminary evaluation of participant responses to the intervention [ 33 , 34 , 35 ].

This study evaluated the feasibility of the LSTM/UNFPA midwifery educator CPD programme using the Kirkpatrick’s model for evaluating training programmes [ 36 ]. This model is an effective tool with four levels for evaluating training programmes. Level 1 (Participants’ reaction to the programme experience) helps to understand how satisfying, engaging and relevant participants find the experience. Level 2 (Learning) measures the changes in knowledge, skills and confidence after training. Level 3 (Behaviour) measures the degree to which participants apply what they learned during training when they are back on job and this can be immediately and several months after the training. This level is critical as it can also reveal where participants might need help to transfer learning during the training to practice afterwards. Level 4 (Results) measures the degree to which targeted outcomes occur because of training. In this study, participants’ reaction to the programme – satisfaction and relevance of the programme to meeting their needs (level 1) and change in knowledge, confidence and skills after the CPD programme (level 2) were assessed. Also, user perspectives and barriers to implementing the CPD programme were explored.

Study design

This was a mixed methods intervention study using a concurrent nested/embedded/convergent design conducted in Kenya and Nigeria in May and June 2023. This was designed to evaluate the feasibility of the midwifery educator CPD programme. The goal was to obtain different but complementary data to better understand the CPD programme with the data collected from the same participants or similar target populations [ 37 ].

The quantitative component of the evaluation used a quasi-experimental pre-post and post-test only designs to evaluate the effectiveness of the blended CPD programme intervention among midwifery educators from mid-level training colleges and universities from the two countries. Pre and post evaluation of knowledge (online self-directed component) and skills (developing a teaching plan during the face-to-face component) was performed. Post intervention evaluation on programme satisfaction, relevance of CPD programme and microteaching sessions for educators was conducted.

The qualitative component of the evaluation included open-ended written responses from the midwifery educators and master trainers to describe what worked well (enablers), challenges/barriers experienced in the blended programme and key recommendations for improvement were collected. In addition, key informant interviews with the key stakeholders (nursing and midwifery councils and the national heads of training institutions) were conducted. Data on challenges anticipated in the scale up of the programme and measures to promote sustainability, access and uptake of the programme were collected from both educators and key stakeholders.

A mixed methods design was used for its strengths in (i) collecting the two types of data (quantitative and qualitative) simultaneously, during a single data collection phase, (ii) provided the study with the advantages of both quantitative and qualitative data and (iii) helped gain perspectives and contextual experiences from the different types of data or from different levels (educators, master trainers, heads of training institutions and nursing and midwifery councils) within the study [ 38 , 39 ].

The study was conducted in Kenya and Nigeria. Kenya has over 121 mid-level training colleges and universities offering nursing and midwifery training while Nigeria has about 300. Due to the vastness in Nigeria, representative government-owned nursing and midwifery training institutions were randomly selected from each of the six geo-political zones in the country and the Federal Capital Territory. Mid-level training colleges offer the integrated nursing and midwifery training at diploma level while universities offer integrated nursing and midwifery training at bachelor/master degree level in the two countries (three universities in Kenya offer midwifery training at bachelor level). All nurse-midwives and midwives trained at both levels are expected to possess ICM competencies to care for the woman and newborn. Midwifery educators in Kenya and Nigeria are required to have at least advanced diploma qualifications although years of clinical experience are not specified.

It is a mandatory requirement of the Nursing and Midwifery Councils for nurse/midwives and midwifery educators in both countries to demonstrate evidence of CPD for renewal of practising license in both countries [ 40 , 41 ]. A minimum of 20 CPD points (equivalent to 20 credit hours) is recommended annually for Kenya and 60 credit hours for Nigeria every three years. However, there are no specific midwifery educator CPD that incorporated both face-to-face and online modes of delivery, available for Kenya and Nigeria and indeed for many countries in the region. Nursing and midwifery educators are registered and licensed to practice nursing and midwifery while those from other disciplines who teach in the midwifery programme are qualified in the content they teach.

Study sites

In Kenya, a set of two mid-level colleges (Nairobi and Kakamega Kenya Medical Training Colleges (KMTCs) and two universities (Nairobi and Moi Universities), based on the geographical distribution of the training institutions were identified as CPD Centres of Excellence (COEs)/hubs. In Nigeria, two midwifery schools (Centre of Excellence for Midwifery and Medical Education, College of Nursing and Midwifery, Illorin, Kwara State and Centre of Excellence for Midwifery and Medical Education, School of Nursing Gwagwalada, Abuja, FCT) were identified. These centres were equipped with teaching and EmONC training equipment for the practical components of the CPD programme. The centres were selected based on the availability of spacious training labs/classes specific for skills training and storage of equipment and an emergency obstetrics and newborn care (EmONC) master trainer among the educators in the institution. They were designated as host centres for the capacity strengthening of educators in EmONC and teaching skills.

Intervention

Nursing and midwifery educators accessed and completed 20 h of free, self-directed online modules on the WCEA portal and face-to-face practical sessions in the CPD centres of excellence.

The design of the midwifery educator CPD programme

The design of the CPD modules was informed by the existing gap for professional development for midwifery educators in Kenya and other LMICs and the need for regular updates in knowledge and skills competencies in delivery of teaching [ 9 , 15 , 23 , 28 ]. Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine led the overall design of the nursing and midwifery educator CPD programme (see Fig.  1 for summarised steps taken in the design of the blended programme).

This was a two-part blended programme with a 20-hour self-directed online learning component (accessible through the WCEA platform at no cost) and a 3-day face-to-face component designed to cover theoretical and practical skills components respectively. The 20-hour self-directed online component had four 5-hour modules on reflection practice, teaching/learning theories and methods, student assessments and effective feedback and mentoring. These modules had pretest and post-test questions and were interactive with short videos, short quizzes within modules, links for further directed reading and resources to promote active learning. This online component is also available on the WCEA platform as a resource for other nurses and midwifery educators across the globe ( https://wcea.education/2022/05/05/midwifery-educator-cpd-programme/ ).

Practical aspects of competency-based teaching pedagogy, clinical teaching skills including selected EmONC skills, giving effective feedback, applying digital innovations in teaching and learning for educators and critical thinking and appraisal were delivered through a 3-day residential face-to-face component in designated CPD centres of excellence. Specific skills included: planning and preparing teaching sessions (lesson plans), teaching practical skills methodologies (lecture, simulation, scenario and role plays), selected EmONC skills, managing teaching and learning sessions, assessing students, providing effective feedback and mentoring and use of online applications such as Mentimeter and Kahoot in formative classroom assessment of learning. Selected EmONC skills delivered were shoulder dystocia, breech delivery, assisted vaginal delivery (vacuum assisted birth), managing hypovolemic shock and pre-eclampsia/eclampsia and newborn resuscitation. These were designed to reinforce the competencies of educators in using contemporary teaching pedagogies. The goal was to combine theory and practical aspects of effective teaching as well as provide high quality, evidence-based learning environment and support for students in midwifery education [ 4 ]. These modules integrated the ICM essential competencies for midwifery practice to provide a high quality, evidence-based learning environment for midwifery students. The pre and post tests form part of the CPD programme as a standard assessment of the educators.

As part of the design, this programme was piloted among 60 midwifery educators and regulators from 16 countries across Africa at the UNFPA funded Alliance to Improve Midwifery Education (AIME) Africa regional workshop in Nairobi in November 2022. They accessed and completed the self-directed online modules on the WCEA platform, participated in selected practical sessions, self-evaluated the programme and provided useful feedback for strengthening the modules.

The Nursing and Midwifery Councils of Kenya and Nigeria host the online CPD courses from individual or organisation entities on the WCEA portal. In addition, the Nursing Council of Kenya provides opportunities for self-reporting for various CPD events including accredited online CPD activities/programmes, skill development workshops, attending conferences and seminars, in-service short courses, practice-based research projects (as learner, principal investigator, principal author, or co-author) among others. In Nigeria, a certificate of attendance for Mandatory Continuing Professional Development Programme (MCPDP) is required as evidence for CPD during license renewal. However, the accredited CPD programmes specific for midwifery educators are not available in both countries and Africa region [ 15 , 42 ].

Midwifery educator CPD programme design stages

Participants and sample size

Bowen and colleagues suggest that many feasibility studies are designed to test an intervention in a limited way and such tests may be conducted in a convenience sample, with intermediate rather than final outcomes, with shorter follow-up periods, or with limited statistical power [ 34 ].

A convenience random sample across the two countries was used. Sample size calculations were performed using the formula for estimation of a proportion: a 95% confidence interval for estimation of a proportion can be estimated using the formula: \(p\pm 1.96\sqrt{\frac{\text{p}(1-\text{p})}{n}}\) The margin of error (d) is the second term in the equation. For calculation of the percentage change in competence detectable Stata’s power paired proportion function was used.

To achieve the desired level of low margin of error of 5% and a 90% power (value of proportion) to detect competence change after the training, a sample of 120 participants was required. Using the same sample to assess competence before and after training, so that the improvement in percentage competent can be derived and 2.5% are assessed as competent prior to training but not after training (regress), a 90% power would give a 12% improvement change in competence after the training.

A random sample of 120 educators (60 each from Kenya & Nigeria; 30 each from mid-level training colleges and universities) were invited to participate via an email invitation in the two components of the CPD programme (Fig.  2 ). Importantly, only participants who completed the self-directed online modules were eligible to progress to the face-to-face practical component.

Flow of participants in the CPD programme (SDL = self-directed online learning; F2F = face-to-face practical)

For qualitative interviews, eight key informant interviews were planned with a representative each from the Nursing and Midwifery Councils, mid-level training institutions’ management, university and midwifery associations in both countries. Interviews obtained data related to challenges anticipated in the scale up of the programme and measures to promote sustainability, access and uptake of the programme.

Participant recruitment

Only nursing and midwifery educators registered and licensed by the Nursing and Midwifery Councils were eligible and participated. This was because they can access the WCEA website with the self-directed online programme via the Nursing and Midwifery Councils’ websites, only accessible to registered and licensed nurses and midwives.

The recruitment process was facilitated through the central college management headquarters (for mid-level training colleges’ educators) and Nursing and Midwifery Councils (for university participants). Training institutions’ heads of nursing and midwifery departments were requested to share the contact details of all educators teaching midwifery modules, particularly the antepartum, intrapartum, postpartum and newborn care modules in the two countries. A list of 166 midwifery educators from 81 universities and mid-level training colleges was obtained through the Heads of the Department in the institutions.

The research lead, with the assistance by the co-investigator from Nigeria then randomly sampled 120 educators based on institution type and region for representativeness across the countries. Following the selection of participants, the two investigators shared the electronic detailed participant study information sheet and consent form to the potential participants one week before the start of the self-directed online modules. Clear guidance and emphasis on the conduct of the two-part program including completing the mandatory four self-directed online modules was provided. Due to the large number of eligible participants, the recruitment and consenting process was closed after reaching the first 30 participants consenting per institution type and region, with 1–2 educators per institution randomly recruited. This allowed as many institutions to be represented across the country as possible. Participants received a study information sheet and an auto-generated copy of the electronic consent form completed in their emails. Other opportunities for participating in the two-part programme were provided as appropriate for those who missed out. Only those who completed the four online modules were invited for the practical component. A WhatsApp community group for the recruited participants was formed for clarifications about the study, troubleshooting on challenges with online access and completion of the modules before and during the programme.

Self-directed online component

Upon consenting, the contact details of the educators from each level were shared with WCEA program director for generation of a unique identification code to access the self-directed online modules on the WCEA portal. Educators completed their baseline characteristics (demographic and academic) in the online platform just before the modules. Each self-directed online module was estimated to be completed in five hours. Only after completing a module was the participant allowed to progress to the next module. The modules were available for participants to complete at their own time/schedule. An autogenerated certificate of completion with the participant’s post-completion score was awarded as evidence of completing a module. Participants completed a set of 20 similar pretest and posttest multiple choice questions in each module for knowledge check. A dedicated staff from WCEA actively provided technical support for educators to register, access and complete the online modules. At the end of each module, participants completed a self-evaluation on a 5-point Likert scale for satisfaction (0 = very unsatisfied, 1 = unsatisfied, 2 = neutral, 3 = satisfied and 4 = very satisfied) and relevance of the modules (0 = very irrelevant, 1 = irrelevant, 2 = neutral, 3 = relevant and 4 = very relevant). This provided participants’ reactions to the different components of the modules on whether they met the individual educator’s development needs. In addition, participants responded to the open-ended questions at the end of the modules. These were on what they liked about the modules, challenges encountered in completing the modules and suggestions for improvement of the modules. A maximum period of two weeks was given for educators to complete the modules before progressing to the practical component.

Practical component

The practical component was delivered by a pool of 18 master trainers who received a 1-day orientation from the research lead before the training. The master trainers were a blend of experienced midwifery and obstetrics faculty in teaching and clinical practice actively engaged in facilitating EmONC trainings selected from Kenya and Nigeria. Four of these master trainers from Kenya participated in the delivery of both sets of trainings in Kenya and Nigeria.

Only educator participants who completed the self-directed online modules and certified were invited to participate in a 3-day residential practical component. Two separate classes were trained (mid-level and university level educators) per country by the same group of eight master trainers. The sessions were delivered through short interactive lectures; small group and plenary discussions; skills demonstrations/simulations and scenario teaching in small breakout groups; role plays and debrief sessions. Sessions on digital innovations in teaching and learning were live practical sessions with every participant using own laptop. Nursing and Midwifery Councils representatives and training institutions’ managers were invited to participate in both components of the programme.

Participant costs for participating in the two-part CPD programme were fully sponsored by the study. These were internet data for completing the self-directed online component and residential costs – transport, accommodation, and meals during the practical component.

Data collection

Self-directed online knowledge pretests and post-tests results, self-rated measures of satisfaction and relevance of the modules including what they liked about the modules, challenges encountered in accessing and completing the modules and suggestions for improvement data was extracted from the WCEA platform in Microsoft Excel.

On day 1 of the practical component, participants using their personal computers developed a teaching plan. On the last day (day 3), participants prepared a teaching plan and powerpoint presentation for the microteaching sessions. No teaching plan template from the trainers was provided to the participants before the training. However, they used formats from their institutions if available. A standard teaching plan template was provided at the end of the training.

The group of master trainers and participants were divided into groups for the microteaching sessions which formed part of the formative assessment. Each participant delivered a powerpoint presentation on a topic of interest (covered in the teaching plan) to the small group of 13–15 participants. This was followed by a structured session of constructive feedback that started with a self-reflection and assessment. This was followed by peer supportive and constructive feedback from the audience participants and faculty/master trainers identifying areas of effective practice and opportunities for further development. Each microteaching session lasted 10–15 min. Each of the microteaching session presentation and teaching plan were evaluated against a pre-determined electronic checklist by two designated faculty members independently during/immediately after the microteaching session. The checklist was adapted from LSTM’s microteaching assessment of the United Kingdom’s Higher Education Academy (HEA)’s Leading in Global Health Teaching (LIGHT) programme. The evaluation included preparing a teaching plan, managing a teaching and learning session using multiple interactive activities, designing and conducting formative assessments for learning using digital/online platforms, and giving effective feedback and critical appraisal. The master trainers received an orientation training on the scoring checklist by the lead researcher/corresponding author.

Self-rated confidence in different teaching pedagogy skills were evaluated before (on day 1) and after (day 3) the training on a 5-point Likert scale (0 = not at all confident, 1 = slightly confident, 2 = somewhat confident, 3 = quite confident and 4 = very confident). A satisfaction and relevance of practical component evaluation on a 5-point Likert scale was completed by the participants on an online designed form on day 3 after the microteaching sessions of the practical component. This form also had a similar qualitative survey with open-ended questions on what they liked about the practical component, challenges encountered in completing the practical component and suggestions for improvement of the component.

Using a semi-structured interview guide, six qualitative key informant interviews, each lasting about 30–45 min, were conducted by the lead researcher with the Nursing and Midwifery Councils focal persons and training institutions’ managers. These were audio recorded in English, anonymized, and deleted after transcription. These interviews were aimed at getting their perspectives on the programme design, anticipated barriers/enablers with the CPD programme and strategies for promoting uptake of the CPD programme. These interviews were considered adequate due to their information power (indicating that the more information the sample holds, relevant for the actual study, the lower amount of participants is needed) [ 43 ] and upon obtaining data saturation, considered the cornerstone of rigor in qualitative research [ 44 , 45 ].

Assessment of outcomes

Participants’ reaction to the programme (satisfaction and relevance) (Kirkpatrick level 1) was tested using the self-rated 5-point Likert scales. Change in knowledge, confidence and skills (Kirkpatrick level 2) was tested as follows: knowledge through 20 pretest and post-test multiple choice questions per module in the self-directed online modules; confidence in applying different pedagogy skills through the self-rated 5-point Likert scale; and teaching skills through the observed microteaching sessions using a checklist.

Reliability and validity of the data collection tools

The internal consistency (a measure of the reliability, generalizability or reproducibility of a test) of the Likert scales/tools assessing the relevance of the online and practical modules and satisfaction of educators with the two blended modules were tested using the Cronbach’s alpha statistic. The Cronbach’s alpha statistics for the four Likert scales/tools ranged from 0.835 to 0.928, all indicating acceptably good to excellent level of reliability [ 46 ]. Validity (which refers to the accuracy of a measure) of the Likert scales were tested using the Pearson correlation coefficient statistic. Obtained correlation values were compared to the critical values and p-values reported at 95% confidence intervals. All the scales were valid with obtained Pearson correlation coefficients reported − 0.1946, which were all greater than the critical values ( p  < 0.001) [ 46 ]. The semi-structured interview guides for the qualitative interviews with the training institutions’ managers and midwifery councils (regulators) were developed and reviewed by expert study team members with experience in qualitative research.

Data management and analysis

Data from the online/electronic tools was extracted in Microsoft Excel and exported to SPSS version 28 for cleaning and analysis. Normality of data was tested using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test suitable for samples above 50. Proportions of educator characteristics in the two countries were calculated. Differences between the educator characteristics in the two countries were tested using chi-square tests (and Fishers-exact test for cells with counts of less than 5).

For self-rated relevance of CPD programme components and satisfaction with the programme on the 0–4 Likert scales, descriptive statistics were calculated (median scores and proportions). Results are presented as bar graphs and tables. Cronbach alpha and Pearson correlation coefficients were used to test the reliability and validity of the test items respectively.

Change in knowledge in online modules, confidence in pedagogy skills and preparing teaching plans among educators was assessed by comparing pre-training scores and post-training scores. Descriptive statistics are reported based on normality of data. Differences in the scores were analysed using the Wilcoxon signed ranks tests, a non-parametric equivalent of the paired t-test. Differences between educators scores in microteaching by country and institution type were performed by Mann-Whitney U test. Level of competence demonstrated in the teaching plan and microteaching skill was defined as the percentage of the desired characteristics present in the teaching plan and microteaching session, set at 75% and above. The proportion of participants that achieved the desired level of competence in their teaching plan and microteaching skill was calculated. Binary logistic regression models were used to assess for the strengths of associations between individual educator and institutional characteristics (age, gender, qualifications, length of time as educator, training institution and country) and the overall dichotomised competent score (proportion achieved competence in teaching plan and microteaching skills). P-values less than 0.05 at 95% confidence interval were considered statistically significant.

Preparation for qualitative data analysis involved a rigorous process of transcription of recorded interviews with key informants. In addition, online free text responses by midwifery educators on what worked well, challenges encountered, and recommendations were extracted in Microsoft Excel format and exported to Microsoft Word for data reduction (coding) and theme development. Qualitative data was analysed using thematic framework analysis by Braun and Clarke (2006) as it provides clear steps to follow, is flexible and uses a very structured process and enables transparency and team working [ 47 ]. Due to the small number of transcripts, computer assisted coding in Microsoft Word using the margin and comments tool were used. The six steps by Braun and Clarke in thematic analysis were conducted: (i) familiarising oneself with the data through transcription and reading transcripts, looking for recurring issues/inconsistencies and, identifying possible categories and sub-categories of data; (ii) generating initial codes – both deductive (using topic guides/research questions) and inductive coding (recurrent views, phrases, patterns from the data) was conducted for transparency; (iii) searching for themes by collating initial codes into potential sub-themes/themes; (iv) reviewing themes by generating a thematic map (code book) of the analysis; (v) defining and naming themes (ongoing analysis to refine the specifics of each sub-theme/theme, and the overall story the analysis tells); and (vi) writing findings/producing a report. Confidentiality was maintained by using pseudonyms for participant identification in the study. Trustworthiness was achieved by (i) respondent validation/check during the interviews for accurate data interpretation; (ii) using a criterion for thematic analysis; (iii) returning to the data repeatedly to check for accuracy in interpretation; (iv) quality checks and discussions with the study team with expertise in mixed methods research [ 39 , 47 ].

Integration of findings used the parallel-databases variant and are synthesised in the discussion section. In this common approach, two parallel strands of data are collected and analysed independently and are only brought together during interpretation. The two sets of independent results are then synthesized or compared during the discussion [ 39 ].

Quantitative findings

Midwifery educators’ characteristics.

A total of 116 (96.7%) and 108 (90.0%) educators from 81 institutions completed the self-directed online learning and practical component respectively from the two countries. There were no significant differences between countries in educators’ qualifications, when last taught a midwifery class and whether attended any CPD training in the preceding year before the study ( p  > 0.05). Overall, only 28.7% of the educators had a midwifery related CPD training in the preceding year before the study. Midwifery educator characteristics are outlined below (Table  1 ).

Change in knowledge

This was assessed in each of the four self-directed online modules. The results from ranked scores based on Wilcoxon signed ranks test showed significant improvements in educators’ knowledge in all the four online modules completed ( p  < 0.001). The highest mean score improvement was observed in students’ assessment module, 48.1% (SD ± 15.1) to 85.2% (SD ± 15.7), a 37.1% improvement. Improvements in knowledge in the other modules were as follows: reflective practice (27.6%), mentoring and giving effective feedback (27.4%) and teaching methods (19.2%). Overall knowledge score for all modules improved from 52.4% (SD ± 10.4) to 80.4 (SD ± 8.1), p  < 0.001 (Table  2 ).

Relevance of self-directed online modules

The internal consistency of each of the four modules was tested with Cronbach’s alpha. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the four items was 0.837, a good and acceptable level of reliability. All the four modules assessed were valid with calculated Pearson correlation coefficient values greater than the critical value of 0.1946 ( p  < 0.001) at 95% confidence interval.

Educators from the two countries, on a scale of 0–4 rated the online modules as very relevant with a median score of 4 out of 4 (IQR 0) for each of the four modules: reflective practice, teaching methods, students’ assessments and mentoring and giving effective feedback. There were no ratings of 0, 1 and 2 for all the modules (Fig.  3 ).

Educators’ ratings of the relevance of self-directed online modules

Satisfaction with the self-directed online modules

The internal consistency of each of the eight items was tested with Cronbach’s alpha. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the eight items was 0.928, an excellent level of reliability. All the eight items assessed were valid with their obtained Pearson correlation coefficient values greater than the critical value of 0.1946 ( p  < 0.001) at 95% confidence interval.

Each of the eight items rated on satisfaction had a median score of 4 out of 4 (IQR 0). Over 80% of the educators were very satisfied with the online modules’ content as presented in a logical format and informative. Also, the modules helped them to learn something new, updated their knowledge and the materials were useful and valuable for their practice. Over 70% were very satisfied with the modules as they helped them refresh their knowledge and skills with the links and activities embedded in the modules useful in adding to their learning. None of the educators were dissatisfied (rated 0 or 1) with the online modules (Table  3 ).

Change in confidence in different pedagogy skills

The internal consistency of each of the eight items assessed was tested with Cronbach’s alpha using the baseline data. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the eight items was 0.893, a good level of reliability. All the eight items assessed were valid with their obtained Pearson correlation coefficient values greater than the critical value of 0.1946 ( p  < 0.001) at 95% confidence interval.

Changes in confidence before and after the training were compared using the Wilcoxon signed rank test, a parametric equivalent of the paired t-test when data is not normally distributed. The mean score of self-rated confidence of educators on a scale of 0–4 for all the eight skills significantly improved after the training from 2.73 (SD ± 0.68) to 3.74 (SD ± 0.34) ( p  < 0.001). Mean confidence was highest in facilitating a lecture (3.23, SD ± 0.8) and lowest on using digital innovations (Mentimeter) in formative assessment of teaching/learning (1.75, SD ± 1.15) before the training. These improved significantly after the training to 3.84 (SD ± 0.41) for facilitating a lecture and 3.50 (SD ± 0.63) for using digital innovations (Mentimeter) in formative assessment of teaching/learning, p  < 0.001. The mean confidence of educators was largely average before the training and significantly improved after the training in six skills ( p  < 0.001). These were designing learning outcomes using measurable Bloom’s taxonomy verbs, preparing a teaching plan, identifying relevant resources to enhance learning, facilitating a scenario teaching, facilitating a practical simulation/demonstration and giving effective feedback for learning (Table  4 ).

Preparing a teaching plan and microteaching skills

The overall median score in preparing a teaching plan was 63.6% (IQR 45.5) before the training and improved significantly to 81.8% (IQR 27.3) after the training, p  < 0.001. The median scores differed significantly by country before and after the training. Before the training, Kenyan educators had higher median scores (72.7%, IQR 27.3) compared to Nigeria counterparts (54.5%, IQR 36.4), p  < 0.001. After the training, Kenyan educators had significantly higher median scores (81.2%, IQR 18.2) than Nigerian counterparts (72.7%, IQR 18.2), p  = 0.024. However, there were no significant differences in the median scores between the training institutions before and after the training, p  > 0.05. For microteaching, the overall median score was 76.5% (IQR 29.4). There were no significant differences between countries and training institutions in the microteaching scores, p  > 0.05. Kenya educators (82.4%, IQR 29.4) had slightly higher scores than Nigeria (76.5%, IQR 29.4), p  = 0.78. Mid-level educators (79.4%, IQR 29.4) had slightly higher scores than university educators (76.5%, IQR 28.7), p  = 0.515 (Table  5 ).

The inter-rater reliability/agreement of the eight pairs of assessors in both countries were assessed by Cohen Kappa statistic. The Kappa statistics for the eight pairs ranged between 0.806 and 0.917, p  < 0.001, showing near perfect agreement between the pairs of assessors.

Association between independent educator and institutional characteristics and the microteaching skill scores

Categorised skills scores (≥ 75% mean score as competent) showed that 55 (51.4%) and 62 (57.9%) of the educators scored 75% or higher in the teaching plan preparation and microteaching skill assessments respectively. Logistic regression analysis showed that educator’s country, age, gender, qualifications, training institution type and length as educator were not significantly associated with the overall categorised teaching plan or microteaching scores ( p  > 0.05).

Relevance of the practical component

The internal consistency of each of the six skills items was tested with Cronbach’s alpha. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the six items was 0.866, a good level of reliability. All the six skills items assessed were valid with their obtained Pearson correlation coefficient values greater than the critical value of 0.1946 ( p  < 0.001) at 95% confidence interval.

On a self-rating Likert scale of 0–4, the median score for each of the six skills assessed and trained was 4 out of a maximum of 4, indicating that the educators found the different pedagogy skills very relevant after the training. Over 80% of the educators rated the sessions on teaching plan (85.2%), scenario teaching (87.0%), simulation/demonstration teaching (82.4%) and giving effective feedback (85.2%) as very relevant. Over three-quarters (77.8%) of the educators rated the sessions on lecture teaching and use of digital innovations (Mentimeter) in assessment as very relevant (Fig.  4 ).

Relevance of the practical components

Satisfaction with the practical component

The internal consistency of each of the six skills items was tested with Cronbach’s alpha. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the six items was 0.835, a good level of reliability. All the six skills items assessed were valid with their obtained Pearson correlation coefficient values greater than the critical value of 0.1946 ( p  < 0.001) at 95% confidence interval.

On a self-rating Likert scale of 0–4, the median score for each of the six skills assessed was 4 out of a maximum of 4, indicating that educators were very satisfied with the practical skills sessions. Over 70% of the educators were very satisfied with the sessions on giving effective feedback (79.6%), lecture teaching (75.9%), scenario and simulation teaching (73.1% each). Two-thirds of the educators (67.6%) were very satisfied with the digital innovations in teaching (use of Mentimeter) for formative assessment in teaching and learning. All educators were satisfied with the preparing of teaching plan in teaching and learning with the majority (63.0%) as very satisfied while the remaining 37.0% satisfied. None of the educators were dissatisfied with the practical component of the training (Fig.  5 ).

Satisfaction with practical skills

Qualitative findings

What educators liked about the self-directed online modules.

Educators from both levels and countries had similar views on the online component. These are broadly summarised under the sub-themes: (i) educative and relevant for practice, (ii) flexible and convenient learning and (iii) motivating, interesting and interactive.

Educative and relevant for practice

Educators reported the online modules as educative and informative and, improved their knowledge in teaching, assessments, reflective practice and providing effective feedback to students to promote learning as well as increasing their self-confidence and critical thinking skills. Besides, educators found the modules valuable and relevant for their professional growth and practice.

“The modules were well organized, they were relevant to my practice and met my expectations” university midwifery educator, Kenya. “The materials are very rich with current information to guide. Very informative & valuable to my professional growth” university midwifery educator, Nigeria.

Flexible and convenient learning

Educators reported that they could access and complete the online modules at their flexible and convenient time. This flexibility enhanced and stimulated them to complete the informative modules at their comfort times either at home or office without disruption to their schedules.

“(The modules) gave me ample time to read at my own pace and time without any hurry to understand the content well. They were well organised. Also, flexibility of learning and the access to materials was excellent” university midwifery educator, Kenya. “It is flexible and convenient. It empowers the learner to take ownership of the learning process. Learning is personalized” mid-level training college midwifery educator, Nigeria.

Motivating, interesting and interactive

Educators reported that the online modules were well structured, motivating, interesting and had components that promoted interaction for learning. For example, pretests, various quizzes within the modules and posttest questions and the added specific short extra reading segments promoted interaction and learning.

“The intermittent assessment questions. It helped maintain my focus” university midwifery educator, Nigeria . “Very interactive. They were very informative and extra reading assignments complemented the content” university midwifery educator, Kenya .

Challenges encountered with the self-directed online learning modules

Four sub-themes emerged that summarised the challenges experienced by midwifery educators in the two countries to access and complete the self-directed online modules. These are (i) network/internet connectivity, (ii) technology challenges, (iii) electricity power supply and power outages and, (iv) time constraints.

Network/internet connectivity

Network and internet connectivity difficulties and fluctuations was the commonest reported challenge in completing the self-directed online modules by educators from both countries. This affected the access, progress, downloading extra resources embedded within the modules and completing the integrated evaluations within the modules.

“Accessing the modules, problem with submitting forms and exams, had network problem” mid-level training college midwifery educator, Nigeria . “I kept going offline and I would have to restart every time. They were too internet dependent” university midwifery educator, Kenya.

Technology challenges

Technological challenges were observed as well as reported among educators from both countries. These ranged from poor access to emails due to forgotten email addresses, usernames or passwords, difficult access and navigation through the online modules, completing the matching questions that required dragging items, completing the evaluations and downloading certificates after completion of the modules.

“I am not very good with ICT, so I had issues using my laptop” mid-level training college midwifery educator, Nigeria. “Accessibility was difficult. I had to restart the process a number of times. The modules would sometimes take you back more than 20 slides which delayed the completion rate” university midwifery educator, Kenya.

Electricity power supply interruptions and fluctuations

Power interruptions, fluctuations and outages especially in Nigeria were cited as a challenge to complete the online modules. This delayed the completion of the modules as electric power was critical to access and complete the modules on either WCEA app on mobile phones or computers.

“The modules should not start from beginning whenever there is interrupted power supply” MLC midwifery educator, Nigeria. “Network failure due to interrupted power supply” university midwifery educator, Nigeria.

Time constraints

Although educators commented the flexibility with which to complete the online modules, time to complete the online modules was also cited as a challenge in both countries.

“It requires a lot of time, this is a challenge because I am also involved with other activities at the place of work which require my attention” university midwifery educator, Kenya.

What educators liked about the practical component

Educators written feedback on what they liked about the practical component of the CPD programme was categorised into the four sub-themes: new knowledge and relevant for practice; improved knowledge, skills and confidence to teach; enhanced participatory and active learning; individualised support in learning.

New knowledge and relevant for practice

The practical component provided new learning particularly on the use of digital platforms (Mentimeter and Kahoot) for formative assessment to evaluate learning during classroom teaching. In their integrated teaching using both online and face-to-face delivery, use of technology (Mentimeter and Kahoot) in classroom assessment was not a common practice as most of them had not heard about the available online platforms. They found Mentimeter (and Kahoot) to be interesting resources for formative assessments in class to facilitate teaching and learning. The techniques of giving effective feedback using the sandwich and ‘stop, start, continue’ methods were viewed to promote interaction between the educator and the learner for effective learning. Educators also acknowledged new knowledge and skills updates on EmONC relevant for their practice.

“Giving feedback, innovation of the online formative assessment, the teaching plan. I wish we would adapt them for daily application rather than the traditional teacher centered one.” Mid-level training college educator, Kenya . “(I liked) Everything, especially the technological innovations for assessment” Mid-level training college educator, Nigeria .

Improved knowledge, skills and confidence to teach

Educators reported that the practical sessions were interactive and engaging with good combination of theory and practice which facilitated learning. They reported that participating in the practical component enabled them to update and improve their knowledge, skills and confidence in planning and delivering theoretical and practical teaching using multiple methods. Similar improvements were reported on preparing and conducting students’ assessments and giving effective feedback to promote learning. On use of technology in formative assessments, the interactive practical sessions boosted the confidence of educators in using Mentimeter (and Kahoot) online platforms during classroom teaching.

“It helped build my confidence, had hands on practice on clinical skills and teaching skills, learnt about outdated practices and current evidence based clinical and teaching skills.” Mid-level training college educator, Nigeria . “They were very interesting especially the scenarios and skills. I was able to enhance my practical skills and technology in evaluating learning.” University midwifery educator, Kenya .

Enhanced participatory and active learning

The practical component complemented the self-directed online learning for educators. They highly commented and benefitted from the hands-on opportunities to actively engage through return demonstrations during the practical programme. This component also enabled them to brainstorm and contribute actively during the sessions. They highlighted that the practical component enhanced and reinforced learning through active participation in demonstrations, questions, group discussions and plenary sessions.

“This face-to-face module provided me with the opportunity to brainstorm with other educators, facilitators and resource persons. This will enhance my teaching skills.” Mid-level training college midwifery educator, Nigeria . “Interaction with facilitators who could clarify points that I had earlier not understood, interaction with other participants and was also able to learn from them.” University midwifery educator, Kenya .

Individualised support in learning

Educators received individualised peer support and learning during the practical component. They had opportunities within the small breakout groups for peer learning and one-to-one support from the facilitators to update and learn new knowledge and skills.

“A chance to get immediate feedback was availed by the presenters.” University midwifery educator, Kenya . “Facilitators were well informed and gave learners opportunity for return demonstration and support.” Mid-level training college midwifery educator, Kenya .

Challenges encountered with the practical component

Key challenges reported by the mixed group of educators and master trainers across the two countries include: inadequate time, computer technology challenges and poor internet connectivity for practical components.

Inadequate time

Although small breakout sessions were utilised to provide each educator with an opportunity to practice the skills, it was commonly reported that time was inadequate for skills demonstrations and return demonstrations by all educators. This was especially for areas educators had inadequate knowledge and new skills that were observed thus adequate time for teaching and repeat demonstrations for mastery was required. Similar observations were made by the master trainers who felt that some educators had never encountered some of the basic EmONC skills demonstrated or never practised and thus required a longer duration for familiarisation and practice.

“Time was short hence not enough to return demo” Mid-level training college midwifery educator, Kenya . “Some of the things were new and required more time for demonstration and practice.” Mid-level training college midwifery educator, Nigeria .

Computer technology challenges and poor internet connectivity for practical components

Some educators encountered technical difficulties in using computers during the practical component. In some cases, this was compounded by poor network/internet connectivity. This delayed completion of practical components requiring the use of computers including pretests, preparing teaching plans and presentations, post-tests and classroom demonstrations using digital innovations in teaching and learning. However, assistance was provided by the trainers as appropriate to those who needed technical support.

“(There were) technical challenges with use of computers for few participants.” Master trainer, Nigeria . “Slow internet can hinder smooth flow of sessions.” Master trainer, Kenya .

Key areas for additional support

For quality education and training, master trainers generally recommended that all educators should be trained and regularly supported in the basic EmONC course to strengthen their competencies for effective teaching of EmONC skills. Further support in computer technology use including basics in navigation around windows/programmes, formatting in Microsoft Office Word and Powerpoint, literature searching, and referencing were other critical components to be strengthened.

Perspectives from training institutions managers and midwifery regulators

Measures to ensure midwifery educators take specific cpds that have been designed to improve their teaching competencies.

Key informant interviews with the pre-service training institutions’ managers and nursing and midwifery councils from the two countries were conducted and revealed key strategies outlined below that should ensure access and completion of the blended CPD programme specific for educators’ teaching competencies.

Awareness creation, integrating programme into policy and performance appraisal

The aspect of online CPD was highlighted as a new concept in Nigeria. Due to this novelty, the country was reluctant to accredit many online CPD programmes for in-service and pre-service nursing and midwifery personnel. However, the regulatory Nursing and Midwifery Council of Nigeria had established monitoring mechanisms to evaluate its uptake to meet the definition of CPD and is still work in progress.

“For the online, it’s actually a relatively new concept, in fact because of monitoring and evaluation, we have struggled with accepting online CPDs… So, we’re struggling on how to develop a guideline for online CPDs. So, we’re now starting with the WCEA. So far, only the WCEA has that approval to provide CPD…We said let’s look at how this works out before we can extend it to other providers.” Nursing and Midwifery Council, Nigeria .

Both countries emphasized the need to create awareness of the CPD programme for midwifery educators and a policy framework for CPD. Regulators emphasized the need to have the CPD programme as mandatory for all midwifery educators through a policy directive. They suggested that the blended CPD programme should form a mandatory specified proportion of the content addressing their specific competencies. Besides, the training institution recommended that the programme should form part of the educator’s performance appraisal on a regular basis. Active monitoring systems were suggested to be in place to ensure compliance of participation and completion to acquire specific relevant competencies in pedagogy.

“…Ensure that educators take the particular modules before license renewal. Tie modules that are related to midwifery education to the educators and make them mandatory. Yes, we make it as a matter of policy that you should be taking these courses over and over again.” Nursing and Midwifery Council, Nigeria .

It was strongly suggested that attaching incentives as motivators to completing the programme would attract educators to complete the CPD programme. These incentives include certification, recognition for participation in curriculum reviews, national examination setting, facilitating national examinations, promotion and service and eligibility as trainers of trainers to colleagues.

“You attach a course, one training, you cannot guarantee that these courses will be taken. So we find a way to attach something to it. You must have evidence that you attended these programs. So once you attach something like that, they will all flock because there is an incentive to it. Because we say, as an educator, before you go after every examination to examine students, you must have taken these courses.” Nursing and Midwifery Council, Nigeria .

Internet connectivity

Training institutions’ managers suggested investments in internet connectivity for training institutions to support educators access and complete the self-directed online programme. This was also highlighted as a critical challenge for the online component by the educators in both countries.

“The issues of internet connectivity and I think we need to be proactive about it so that we have a way to constantly bring it to the forefront especially in our policies. But connectivity would be a major area to look at as people are using their money.” Mid-level training college manager, Kenya .

Anticipated challenges in the scale-up of the CPD programme

Key challenges anticipated in the roll-out and scale-up of the blended CPD programme were identified as inadequate skills of the educators in the use of information and communication technology during the practical component (including preparation of powerpoint presentations and completing tasks using a computer), and participant costs to attend the practical component (including participants’ residential costs and investments in proctor technology for ensuring academic integrity and monitoring and evaluation tool for educators’ compliance.) It was also emphasized that due to low remuneration of the educators, additional costs from their pocket to undertake the CPD could be a limiting factor for the intended faculty development initiatives. Other challenges included maintaining quality and academic integrity of the programme, potential bias in the selection of educators to attend future CPD programmes that is based on pre-existing relationships and ensuring an adequate pool of in-country trainers of trainers with midwifery competencies to deliver the practical component of the CPD programme.

There were strong suggestions that personal commitment by educators was required for personal and professional development. There were observations that educators sometimes completed the professional development programmes purely for relicensing and not necessarily for professional development. Regulators and institutional managers emphasized that educators need to understand the value of continuous professional development and create time to participate in the targeted CPD programmes to improve their competencies.

“We do advise our nurses, or we continue to inform them that taking these courses shouldn’t be tied to license renewal. It shouldn’t be tied to licence expiration or renewal of licences. You should continue to take these courses to develop yourself and not waiting until your licence expired before you take the courses. Yes, we actually try as much as possible to dissociate the renewal of licences with these courses.” Nursing and Midwifery Council, Nigeria .

Key results

Our study evaluated the feasibility of what the authors believe to be the first blended programme with online and face-to-face learning available in Africa, as a tool to reach midwifery educators in both urban and rural low-resource areas. In addition, our study is in line to an important call by WHO, UNFPA, UNICEF and ICM for an effective midwifery educator with formal preparation for teaching and engages in ongoing development as a midwifery practitioner, teacher/lecturer and leader [ 6 , 7 ]. Consequently, our intervention is part of investments for improving and strengthening the capacity of midwifery educators for quality and competent midwifery workforce as recommended by multiple global reports [ 4 , 5 , 11 ] and other publications [ 12 , 15 , 23 , 42 ]. Our study findings showed that the midwifery educators were very satisfied with the blended CPD programme. Educators rated the programme as highly relevant, educative, flexible, interesting and interactive, improved their knowledge, confidence and practical skills in their professional competencies for practice. Use of digital technology in teaching and students’ assessment was found to be an effective and innovative approach in facilitating teaching and learning. Key challenges experienced by educators included deficiencies in computer technology use, internet/network connectivity for online components, time constraints to complete the blended programme and isolated electric power outages and fluctuations which affected completion of the self-directed online components. Costs for participating and completing the programme, motivation, investments in information and communication technology, quality assurance and academic integrity were highlighted as critical components for the scale-up of the programme by institutional managers and training regulators. Establishment of a policy framework for educators to complete mandatory specific and relevant CPD was recommended for a successful roll-out in the countries.

Interpretation of our findings

Our study findings demonstrated that educators found the theoretical and practical content educative, informative and relevant to their practice. Recent evidence showed that midwifery educators had no/limited connection with clinical practice or opportunities for updating their knowledge or skills [ 15 , 42 ]. This underscores the value and importance of regular opportunities of CPD specific for educators to improve their professional competencies. It has provided these educators with a flexible educational model that allows them to continue working while developing their professional practice.

The use of a blended programme was beneficial as educators’ needs were met. It provided opportunities for educators to reflect, critically think, internalise and complement what was learned in the self-directed online component during the practical phase. This approach has been considered a means to adequately prepare midwifery faculty and improving national midwifery programmes in low-resource and remote settings [ 48 , 49 ]. Use of self-directed online platforms has emerged as a key strategy to improve access to CPD with flexibility and convenience as educators take responsibility for their own learning. Evidence suggests that the flexibility of net-based learning offers the midwifery educators a new and effective educational opportunity that they previously did not have [ 50 , 51 ]. A practical – based learning is important in pre-service education settings where the capacity of midwifery educators needs to be strengthened [ 52 , 53 ]. However, without continuous regular training, the midwives’ competence deteriorate and this in turn threaten the quality of pre-service midwifery education [ 52 , 54 ]. Implementation of this flexible blended educational model allows educators to continue working while developing their professional practice.

The quality of educators is an important factor affecting the quality of graduates from midwifery programmes to provide quality maternal and newborn health services [ 7 ]. Evidence suggests that many midwifery educators are more confident with theoretical classroom teaching than clinical practice teaching and that they also struggle to maintain their own midwifery clinical skills [ 4 , 5 ]. Our findings showed that the programme was effective, and educators improved their knowledge, confidence and skills in teaching, students’ assessment, effective feedback, reflective practice, mentoring and use of digital innovations in teaching and assessments. Our findings are similar to other related models of capacity building midwifery educators in other developing countries [ 24 , 50 , 53 , 55 , 56 , 57 ]. It is expected that educators will apply the learning in their planning for teaching, delivery of interactive and stimulatory teaching, monitoring learning through formative and summative assessments and mentoring their students into competent midwives. This is a pathway for accelerating the achievement of maternal and newborn health SDGs, universal health coverage, ending preventable maternal mortalities and every newborn action plan targets.

The value for CPD on educators’ knowledge, confidence and skills has been demonstrated with opportunities for improvement. Specific CPD targeted to relevant professional competencies is beneficial to the profession, quality of graduates for maternal and newborn health care and global targets. However, further investments in strengthening capacity of educators in EmONC skills and information and communication technology for effective teaching and learning is mandatory. Related challenges with individual technical capacity, technological deficiencies and infrastructure to support the technological advancement have been reported in other studies that have used a blended learning approach [ 58 ]. Resource constraints – financial and infrastructural (e.g. computers) as well as internet access are key challenges to participation in CPD activities especially the self-directed learning [ 16 ]. Designing self-directed modules that can be accessed and completed offline will increase access especially in poorly connected settings with electric power and network coverage.

Strengths and limitations

This study assessed the feasibility a blended midwifery educator CPD programme in low resource settings. This was conducted in a multi-country and multi-site context which provided opportunities for learning across the two countries, two levels of training institutions and specific in-country experiences [ 20 ]. The study served to improve awareness of the availability of the CPD programme so that (1) regulators can ensure that midwifery educators take this as part of mandatory CPD required for relicensing and (2) training institutions can plan to support their educators access/participate in the practical components of the programme after the study. It is a mandatory requirement of the Nursing and Midwifery Councils of Kenya and Nigeria for nurse/midwives and midwifery educators to demonstrate evidence of CPD for renewal of practising license [ 40 , 41 ]. The use of mixed methods research design with multiple evaluations was relevant to address the aims and objectives of the study and ensure methodological rigour, depth and scientific validity as recommended for good practice in designing pilot studies [ 37 , 38 ]. This also enhanced triangulation of findings and enabled the capturing of broad perspectives important in strengthening sustainable implementation of the blended CPD programme [ 39 ]. Preliminary findings were disseminated to participant stakeholders from Kenya and Nigeria at the knowledge management and learning event in Nairobi. This approach enhanced the credibility and trustworthiness of the final findings reported. We believe our study findings from different participants using multiple data collection methods are robust, transparent and trustworthy for generalization to other contexts [ 38 ].The self-directed learning component of the blended CPD programme is hosted on the WCEA platform which is accessible to healthcare professionals in over 60 countries in Africa, Asia and Middle East and accredited for continuous professional development (59). Although our sample size was small, it is sufficient, geographically representative for training institutions across the countries and acceptable for feasibility studies [ 34 ].

The additional cost analysis of implementing the blended midwifery educator CPD programme is relevant and key to the uptake, scale-up and sustainability of the programme but this was not conducted due to limited funding. Different CPD programme funding models exist. In Nigeria, educators are required to meet the costs for accessing and completing the CPD programme components, while in Kenya the cost of accessing the online component is minimal (internet access costs only) and the face-to-face component has to be funded. The cost of implementing the programme should be explored in future studies and optional models for sustainable funding explored with stakeholders.

Implications

Our findings show demand for the CPD programme. Regular continuous professional development could help to bridge the gap between theory and practice and improve the quality of teaching by midwifery educators. A blended CPD programme is effective in improving the teaching and clinical skills of midwifery educators and increasing their confidence in effective teaching. However, midwifery educators require motivation and close support (individual capacity, time, technological infrastructure and policy) if the blended CPD approach is to be mandatory and successfully implemented in resource limited settings. Besides, regular quality assurance modalities including review of content, monitoring and evaluation of uptake of the CPD programme should be undertaken to ensure that updated and relevant content is available.

For quality CPD programmes, hands-on teaching is more effective than didactic classroom teaching and should be used when feasible to transfer clinical skills. Distance education models (self-directed learning) in combination with short residential training and mentoring should be embraced to strengthen capacity strengthening of midwifery educators; and CPD programmes must consider the local context in which participants work and teach [ 16 , 23 ]. Evidence has shown that knowledge and clinical skills are retained for up to 12 months after training [ 54 ]. Taking the CPD programme annually will potentially maintain/improve knowledge, skills and practice by midwifery educators for quality teaching and learning leading to a competent midwifery workforce.

For quality midwifery education and practice, educators need contact with clinical practice to strengthen classroom teaching [ 6 , 7 ]. This will promote and enable students to acquire the skills, knowledge, and behaviours essential to become autonomous midwifery practitioners. Therefore, demonstrating relevant practical clinical CPD should be included in midwifery educator CPD policy. In addition, a business case by the CPD hubs on the sustainability of the face-to-face practical components in the centres is necessary. Stakeholder engagement on cost and sustainability are required as key policy components for the scale-up of the blended midwifery educator CPD programme for impact.

The blended CPD programme was relevant, acceptable and feasible to implement. Midwifery educators reacted positively to its content as they were very satisfied with the modules meeting their needs and rated the content as relevant to their practice. The programme also improved their knowledge, confidence and skills in teaching, students’ assessments and providing effective feedback for learning and using digital/technological innovations for effective teaching and learning. Investments in information and communication technology, quality assurance and academic integrity were highlighted as critical components for the scale-up of the programme. For successful and mandatory implementation of the specific midwifery educator CPD programme to enhance practice, a policy framework by midwifery training regulators is required by countries.

Data availability

The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to the confidentiality of the data but are available from the corresponding author on request.

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Acknowledgements

The study was made possible through the financial support of the Johnson and Johnson Foundation for the three-year “Design, implementation and evaluation of Nursing/Midwifery CPD Educator Programme in Kenya” (2021 – 2023) and the Alliance to Improve Midwifery Education through UNFPA Headquarters. Special acknowledgement to nursing and midwifery educators from mid-level training colleges and universities in Kenya and Nigeria, Ministries of Health, Nursing Council of Kenya, Nursing and Midwifery Council of Nigeria, KMTC headquarters management who participated in the study. Also, we specially appreciate the World Continuing Education Alliance for the dedicated support with the online modules and expert trainers who participated in the delivery of the face-to-face training component: Aisha Hassan, Dr. Mojisola Ojibara, Dr. Eniola Risikat Kadir, Aminat Titi Kadir, Benson Milimo, Esther Ounza, Marthar Opisa, Millicent Kabiru, Sylvia Kimutai, Dr. Joyce Jebet, Dr. Steve Karangau, Dr. Moses Lagat and Dr. Evans Ogoti. Gratitude to Boslam Adacha and Roselynne Githinji for their dedicated support with data preparation for analysis and Dr. Sarah White for her statistical analysis expert guidance and support. Thank you also to Geeta Lal at UNFPA Headquarters. Lastly, the authors would like to acknowledge the special technical and logistical support provided by the LSTM – Kenya team (Onesmus Maina, Martin Eyinda, David Ndakalu, Diana Bitta, Esther Wekesa and Evans Koitaba) and LSTM Nigeria team (Dr. Michael Adeyemi and Deborah Charles) during the trainings.

The study was funded by the Johnson and Johnson Foundation as part of the three-year “Design, implementation and evaluation of Nursing/Midwifery CPD Educator Programme in Kenya” and the Alliance to Improve Midwifery Education through UNFPA. The Johnson and Johnson Foundation were not involved in the research – study design; in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; and in the decision to submit the article for publication.

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Contributions

DNS, SBZ and CA conceived the idea and designed the study protocol; DNS designed the online data collection tools/checklists/assessments, performed data extraction, cleaning, analysis and interpretation of the results, drafted the primary manuscript, reviewed and prepared it for publication; DNS, HM, LM, PN and AU conducted the training intervention, collected data and reviewed the drafts and final manuscript; AL participated in the design of the study, qualitative data analysis, interpretation of findings and reviewed draft manuscripts; CW, LN, IB, EN, CB and SBZ participated in the design of the study procedures and substantively reviewed the drafts and final manuscript. CA reviewed study procedures, data collection tools, provided oversight in investigation, analysis, interpretation and substantively reviewed the manuscript drafts. SBZ and CA obtained funding for the study. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Duncan N. Shikuku .

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Ethics review and approvals were obtained from Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine’s Research Ethics Committee (LSTM REC No. 23 − 004) and in-country ethical approvals from Kenya (MTRH/MU – IREC FAN 0004383; NACOSTI License No: NACOSTI/P/23/25498) and Nigeria (NHREC Approval Number NHREC/01/01/2007- 31/03/2023). Participation in the study was strictly voluntary and did not form part of the educator’s performance appraisals. Not taking part in the study did not disadvantage some educators who consented but missed out. Informed electronic and written consent was obtained from all participants. Unique participant codes were used for identification and all the data collection tools/forms and datasets were de-identified with no participant identifying information. All interviews were conducted at the offices of the respective stakeholders maintaining privacy during data collection process.

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Shikuku, D.N., Mohammed, H., Mwanzia, L. et al. Evaluation of the feasibility of a midwifery educator continuous professional development (CPD) programme in Kenya and Nigeria: a mixed methods study. BMC Med Educ 24 , 534 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05524-w

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Received : 24 January 2024

Accepted : 06 May 2024

Published : 14 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05524-w

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INFLUENCE OF PROVISION OF CURRICULUM SUPPORT MATERIALS ON IMPLEMENTATION OF ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS EDUCATION CURRICULUM IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ISIOLO COUNTY, KENYA

• Abdikadir Buke Dabaso Mount Kenya University
• Dr. Benson Njoroge Mount Kenya University

Statement of the Problem: Curriculum support materials play a crucial role in the implementation of the Islamic Religious Education (IRE) curriculum. However, in Isiolo County, the implementation of the IRE curriculum in public secondary schools is not without challenges. Most schools have lagged behind in syllabus coverage, and students have registered low grades in IRE examinations.

Purpose of the Study: To assess the influence of school dynamics on the implementation of the IRE curriculum in public secondary schools in Isiolo County, Kenya.

Methodology: The study utilized a mixed methodology and descriptive survey design. The target population consisted of 295 respondents, including 23 principals and 272 teachers, with a sample size of 170 determined by Yamane's Formula. Stratified sampling was used to create ten strata based on the wards in Isiolo County, with one principal selected purposively and 16 teachers randomly from each ward, resulting in a sample of 10 principals and 160 teachers. Data was collected through questionnaires for teachers and interviews for principals, and analyzed using thematic analysis for qualitative data and descriptive statistics, frequencies, percentages, and linear regression analysis with SPSS for quantitative data.

Findings: The study established that the implementation of the IRE curriculum remains a challenge in public secondary schools in Isiolo County. Many teachers do not cover the syllabus on time, and classroom pedagogy remains unimproved, characterized by low student performance in IRE in the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). This is attributed to the provision of inadequate curriculum support materials.

Recommendations: Principals should partner with other stakeholders, such as Public Benefits Organizations and donors, to ensure the adequate provision of curriculum support materials.

Keywords: Provision of Curriculum, Support Materials, Islamic Religious, Education Curriculum, Public Secondary Schools. 

Author Biographies

Student, Mount Kenya University, Kenya

Lecturer, Mount Kenya University, Kenya

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