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A PEOPLE'S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES

by Howard Zinn ‧ RELEASE DATE: Jan. 1, 1979

For Howard Zinn, long-time civil rights and anti-war activist, history and ideology have a lot in common. Since he thinks that everything is in someone's interest, the historian—Zinn posits—has to figure out whose interests he or she is defining/defending/reconstructing (hence one of his previous books, The Politics of History ). Zinn has no doubts about where he stands in this "people's history": "it is a history disrespectful of governments and respectful of people's movements of resistance." So what we get here, instead of the usual survey of wars, presidents, and institutions, is a survey of the usual rebellions, strikes, and protest movements. Zinn starts out by depicting the arrival of Columbus in North America from the standpoint of the Indians (which amounts to their standpoint as constructed from the observations of the Europeans); and, after easily establishing the cultural disharmony that ensued, he goes on to the importation of slaves into the colonies. Add the laborers and indentured servants that followed, plus women and later immigrants, and you have Zinn's amorphous constituency. To hear Zinn tell it, all anyone did in America at any time was to oppress or be oppressed; and so he obscures as much as his hated mainstream historical foes do—only in Zinn's case there is that absurd presumption that virtually everything that came to pass was the work of ruling-class planning: this amounts to one great indictment for conspiracy. Despite surface similarities, this is not a social history, since we get no sense of the fabric of life. Instead of negating the one-sided histories he detests, Zinn has merely reversed the image; the distortion remains.

Pub Date: Jan. 1, 1979

ISBN: 0061965588

Page Count: 772

Publisher: Harper & Row

Review Posted Online: May 26, 2012

Kirkus Reviews Issue: Jan. 1, 1979

CURRENT EVENTS & SOCIAL ISSUES | HISTORY | UNITED STATES | POLITICS | GENERAL CURRENT EVENTS & SOCIAL ISSUES | GENERAL HISTORY

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by Howard Zinn ; adapted by Rebecca Stefoff with by Ed Morales

by Howard Zinn with Ray Suarez

by Howard Zinn

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KILLERS OF THE FLOWER MOON

The osage murders and the birth of the fbi.

by David Grann ‧ RELEASE DATE: April 18, 2017

Dogged original research and superb narrative skills come together in this gripping account of pitiless evil.

Greed, depravity, and serial murder in 1920s Oklahoma.

During that time, enrolled members of the Osage Indian nation were among the wealthiest people per capita in the world. The rich oil fields beneath their reservation brought millions of dollars into the tribe annually, distributed to tribal members holding "headrights" that could not be bought or sold but only inherited. This vast wealth attracted the attention of unscrupulous whites who found ways to divert it to themselves by marrying Osage women or by having Osage declared legally incompetent so the whites could fleece them through the administration of their estates. For some, however, these deceptive tactics were not enough, and a plague of violent death—by shooting, poison, orchestrated automobile accident, and bombing—began to decimate the Osage in what they came to call the "Reign of Terror." Corrupt and incompetent law enforcement and judicial systems ensured that the perpetrators were never found or punished until the young J. Edgar Hoover saw cracking these cases as a means of burnishing the reputation of the newly professionalized FBI. Bestselling New Yorker staff writer Grann ( The Devil and Sherlock Holmes: Tales of Murder, Madness, and Obsession , 2010, etc.) follows Special Agent Tom White and his assistants as they track the killers of one extended Osage family through a closed local culture of greed, bigotry, and lies in pursuit of protection for the survivors and justice for the dead. But he doesn't stop there; relying almost entirely on primary and unpublished sources, the author goes on to expose a web of conspiracy and corruption that extended far wider than even the FBI ever suspected. This page-turner surges forward with the pacing of a true-crime thriller, elevated by Grann's crisp and evocative prose and enhanced by dozens of period photographs.

Pub Date: April 18, 2017

ISBN: 978-0-385-53424-6

Page Count: 352

Publisher: Doubleday

Review Posted Online: Feb. 1, 2017

Kirkus Reviews Issue: Feb. 15, 2017

GENERAL HISTORY | TRUE CRIME | UNITED STATES | FIRST/NATIVE NATIONS | HISTORY

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BOOK TO SCREEN

by Elie Wiesel & translated by Marion Wiesel ‧ RELEASE DATE: Jan. 16, 2006

The author's youthfulness helps to assure the inevitable comparison with the Anne Frank diary although over and above the...

Elie Wiesel spent his early years in a small Transylvanian town as one of four children. 

He was the only one of the family to survive what Francois Maurois, in his introduction, calls the "human holocaust" of the persecution of the Jews, which began with the restrictions, the singularization of the yellow star, the enclosure within the ghetto, and went on to the mass deportations to the ovens of Auschwitz and Buchenwald. There are unforgettable and horrifying scenes here in this spare and sombre memoir of this experience of the hanging of a child, of his first farewell with his father who leaves him an inheritance of a knife and a spoon, and of his last goodbye at Buchenwald his father's corpse is already cold let alone the long months of survival under unconscionable conditions. 

Pub Date: Jan. 16, 2006

ISBN: 0374500010

Page Count: 120

Publisher: Hill & Wang

Review Posted Online: Oct. 7, 2011

Kirkus Reviews Issue: Jan. 15, 2006

BIOGRAPHY & MEMOIR | HOLOCAUST | HISTORY | GENERAL BIOGRAPHY & MEMOIR | GENERAL HISTORY

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by Elie Wiesel ; edited by Alan Rosen

by Elie Wiesel ; illustrated by Mark Podwal

by Elie Wiesel ; translated by Marion Wiesel

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Book Review: A People’s History of the United States — from 1492 to the Present by Howard Zinn

I’m not referring to the myriad ways in which the people of the United States (and earlier in the American colonies) have failed to live up to the nation’s founding ideals. It is sad and shameful how majorities have oppressed minorities throughout our history. And how the rich have lorded over the poor. And how racial prejudice, xenophobia, sexism and greed have pushed us apart from each other, isolating groups, blocking the ability for united action.

We could be a much better people. We certainly say we want to be in our founding documents and more than two centuries of official pronouncements.

So Zinn has an important, necessary story to tell in “A People’s History.”

This was especially true in 1980 when his book was first published. Then, it was a tonic to the hyper-propaganda that passed for history in our textbooks and official histories. Yes, history is more than simply a story of the winners, more than simply the account of Important People, more than the narrative of the wealthy and those who seek to be wealthy. That was Zinn’s message, and it was an essential one.

Three decades later, this jaundiced view of American history is more accepted. Many other historians have brought balance to their work, seeing the leaders and the led and recognizing the importance of each. (Indeed, some have gone overboard, arguing that individual events and people play little role in the making of a nation — that they are just blips in a process in which the country is shaped by blind social trends and economic developments.)

America the Flawed is the reality. Not America the Perfect.

Yet, as important as Zinn’s book was and still is, I found it a maddening work to read.

Over the years, I’ve dipped into the book while researching this or that moment in American history, and found it helpful. But reading it from cover to cover for the first time, I realized how utterly lacking in objectivity and political sophistication it is.

Zinn paints a world of black and white. The rich oppress the poor. White oppress blacks. men oppress women. Everything fits into a process in which the powerful CONTROL everyone else.

To which I say: Golly, gee willikers, what a surprise!

In his view, the powerful never do anything except to boost their power. Improvements for the common person are permitted only as a way of blunting social revolution. There is no thought of the common good. No possibility for idealism.

Idealism, for Zinn, doesn’t exist.

Greed does. Oh, yes. Indeed, Zinn sees the rich as one big ball of greed. He doesn’t seem to realize that it’s human nature to be selfish.

He doesn’t seem to recognize that, if you take a dozen poor people and give them a lot of money, they’ll start acting like the rich and powerful. They’ll try to keep their money and use their money to make more money.

There is a willful naiveté to his writing. For him, the solution to oppression is to somehow get rid of the powerful and put everyone on the same level.

That would work. For about a minute.

Then all hell would break out as people jockeyed for advantage. It’s ridiculous to pretend that only powerful people are greedy.

The blindness of Zinn’s vision comes through when he details his utopia. Here’s an excerpt:

“The society’s levers of power would have to be taken away from those whose drives have led to the present state — the giant corporations, the military, and their politician collaborators. We would need — by a coordinated effort of local groups all over the country — to reconstruct the economy for both efficiency and justice, producing in a cooperative way what people need most….Work of some kind would be needed by everyone, including people now kept out of the work force — children, old people, ‘handicapped’ people….Everyone could share the routine but necessary jobs for a few hours a day, and leave most of the time free for enjoyment, creativity, labors of love, and yet produce enough for an equal and ample distribution of goods.”

That really sums it up.

We, as a nation, really do need to reduce the gap between the rich and the poor. We need our government to be more just and more efficient. We need to work together more than at cross purposes.

But, having said that, I have to assert that there is NO way to get close to those goals if, like Zinn, you posit a Marxian Disneyland where everyone is going to be happy and cooperative.

Cooperation is great and essential. But it doesn’t happen in a vacuum. It happens when the powers of some are balanced by the powers of others. And when ideals trump greed — which happens much more than Zinn would ever credit.

Zinn writes as if aggression and competition were sins that humans commit rather than key elements of the human makeup. No question, aggression and competition can be taken too far, but they are what help make humans human. They are survival characteristics. The push to gain is as important as the push to cooperate.

Zinn did an important thing in writing his book.

Now someone needs to write the same book but with a greater sophistication about the realities of power and human aspirations.

Patrick T. Reardon 12.28.10

Written by : Patrick T. Reardon

For more than three decades Patrick T. Reardon was an urban affairs writer, a feature writer, a columnist, and an editor for the Chicago Tribune. In 2000 he was one of a team of 50 staff members who won a Pulitzer Prize for explanatory reporting. Now a freelance writer and poet, he has contributed chapters to several books and is the author of Faith Stripped to Its Essence. His website is https://patricktreardon.com/.

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A People's History of the United States

by Howard Zinn

(Note: I read the original edition of this book; there is now a revised edition available that adds coverage of the 1980s and early 1990s.)

This is a book to read critically and accompanied by other history texts, but I wish everyone with an orthodox education in US history would read this book.

A People's History of the United States is an attempt to balance the scales by writing about the parts of US history that aren't often covered in depth. It focuses particularly on the effects of government policy on the poor, women, and non-whites throughout US history, documents labor movements and equality movements in more depth than one normally sees, and points out the mixed and disappointing records of US cultural heroes. It is, in other words, an attack on assumptions and accepted wisdom about the heroes and important events in history, and on the stories we tell ourselves as a culture.

It is, also, openly biased. Zinn deals with this directly near the beginning of the final chapter:

This makes it a biased account, one that leans in a certain direction. I am not troubled by that, because the mountain of history books under which we all stand leans so heavily in the other direction — so tremblingly respectful of states and statesmen and so disrespectful, by inattention, to people's movements — that we need some counterforce to avoid being crushed into submission.

That's a sentiment with which I agree strongly, but it does mean that you need to already know US history fairly well to read this book. Zinn is writing a survey of his topic, but not a survey of US history. Many of the well-known milestones are left without direct description and simply taken for granted as part of the shared knowledge with the reader while Zinn dives into details relevant to his intent. Furthermore, this book is clearly not balanced in itself, but rather is intended to balance a conventional history. Reading A People's History without that background would leave you with a skewed and incomplete picture.

All that being said, for quantity of information communicated this is one of the most informative books on US history I have ever read. Bias does not get in the way of thorough research, and substantial portions of the text are quotes from original source materials. Zinn is a professional historian and behaves like one. And the nuggets and details that he digs up are fascinating and felt like a stretching and fleshing out of my picture of US history. A People's History is excellent at providing a feel for what life was like for the poor and working class citizen of the country and what their political concerns were (and what events were creating those concerns).

Surprisingly for this sort of serious history book, A People's History is also extremely readable and engrossing. I expected to have to push myself through it, and I found myself finding excuses to pick it up again and postponing other hobbies to read more of it. The text is dense and thoughtful, so this book will take some time to read thoroughly, but it is not boring. Even the quotes from source materials don't break the flow of the work. This is impressive and remarkably hard to pull off. Usually one either gets a light-weight but readable popular treatment or a deep but difficult scholarly treatment, and while Zinn's writing is more aimed at the average reader than not, it doesn't lose that sense of depth.

I don't think there was a bad chapter in this book, with the possible exception of the last two. It's hard to deal with the second half of the 1970s in any coherent fashion in a history written in 1980, and the last chapter is an essay about Zinn's hopes for the future which, while interesting reading, doesn't hold up to the standards of informative detail of the rest of the book. Of the meat of the book, though, I was particularly impressed by the chapters on the Civil War, Reconstruction, the socialist movements of the 1920s and 1930s, and the civil rights movements of the 1960s. I never grasped the place and appeal of Malcolm X in the history of the civil rights movement until I read this book, and I came away realizing just how pitifully uninformed I was about the history of labor movements.

This is a very controversial book. It is partly so for the bias, as Zinn stands rather far from the centrist-right position so in vogue in US politics, but I think more so for Zinn's refusal to give lip service to the shibboleths of US history. This is a book that reminds you that the Revolutionary War was not wildly popular; that the much-acclaimed Founding Fathers were almost all rich, white property holders and created a government of, for, and by rich white property holders; that Lincoln gave campaign speeches in favor of slavery and his public stance was far more ambiguous than one might wish to believe; that FDR was under intense pressure from the left and many of his actions can be seen as compromises to maintain some political status quo and head off even more sweeping reform; and that World War Two was wildly helpful for the profits of corporations and saw an abnormally high number of labor strikes. These are not the sides of those stories normally presented. You don't often hear about the pre-revolutionary and early US politicians playing off poor whites against blacks and Indians as a premeditated political maneuver, or about the reimposition of economic slavery on freed slaves immediately after the Civil War (complete with work contracts that differed from slavery only in the details). This is also why this book is important. One may not give that information the same weight as Zinn, but everyone studying US history should know it.

On the other hand, it must be said that Zinn does not always play fair. I never saw him do this with a central fact, but when it comes to ancillary details around the history he's telling, he occasionally picks and chooses details to support his thesis. Ones that I found particularly jarring included discussion of the flaws of the Nationalist Chinese government and a comment on the popular nature of the Chinese Communist revolution without any mention of the policies the Communists then imposed, and discussion of the popular appeal of the Vietcong in Vietnam and the problems with the US presence in Laos without any mention of Cambodia and the atrocities that happened there. The places where he gets into trouble tend to be ones like this, where he has wandered afield of the US history at the center of the book to follow some thread, but then gets a bit selective about how he follows it. Again, this is not a book to read uncritically; one should be mentally adjusting for Zinn's political position. I find this far easier to do, though, with a work like this where that position is obvious and open than with an account that claims pure objectivity.

Another arguable flaw is that A People's History is also depressing. Some of this is because the history of the poor and oppressed simply is depressing, but I think Zinn is more depressing than he needs to be. He's extremely reluctant to take much hope or pleasure from even the gains that were made and the popular movements that had some success. The chapter on the civil rights movement of the 1960s is one of the best in part because Zinn does let some enthusiasm and triumph show there. I think there were other parts of the book where he could have done the same. On the other hand, this too may be the shock of seeing history from a very different perspective. I don't like feeling that the success of the women's suffrage movement is something of a non-event and let-down, but that may well be the accurate picture.

I'm not a historian, and have an idiosyncratic and strangely biased education in US history (mostly from the opposite bias of my current politics), so I'm not the best person to judge the detailed accuracy of this work as a whole. I'm confident enough, though, to recommend it highly as a book that will make you think. These are bits of US history that I wish I'd been exposed to long ago; the significance and meaning are highly debatable, but one cannot even start the debate and evaluation without the information. The common presentation of US history as a whitewashed national mythology and glorification of cultural heroes does no one any favors.

Rating: 8 out of 10

Reviewed: 2005-10-12

A People’s History of the United States: 1492 – Present

Source or publisher.

• HarperCollins

Content Type

• Multiple updates

Since its original landmark publication in 1980,  A People’s History of the United States  has been chronicling U.S. history from the bottom up.

Known for its lively, clear prose, as well as its scholarly research,  A People’s History  tells U.S. history from the point of view of — and in the words of — America’s women, factory workers, African-Americans, Native Americans, the working poor, and immigrant laborers. As historian Howard Zinn shows, many of our country’s greatest battles — the fights for a fair wage, an eight-hour workday, child labor laws, health and safety standards, universal suffrage, women’s rights, racial equality — were carried out at the grassroots level against bloody resistance. Covering Christopher Columbus’s arrival through President Clinton’s first term,  A People’s History of the United States  features insightful analysis of the most important events in our history.

Library Journal  calls Howard Zinn’s iconic  A People’s History of the United States  “a brilliant and moving history of the American people from the point of view of those. . . whose plight has been largely omitted from most histories.” Packed with vivid details and telling quotations, Zinn’s award-winning classic continues to revolutionize the way American history is taught and remembered.

Frequent appearances in popular media like  The Sopranos ,  The Simpsons ,  Good Will Hunting , and the  History Channel  documentary  The People Speak , testify to Zinn’s ability to bridge the generation gap with enduring insights into the birth, development, and destiny of the nation. [Publisher’s description.]

More than two million copies sold.

The 35th anniversary edition, published in November of 2015, includes a new introduction by Anthony Arnove. He begins,

Howard Zinn fundamentally changed the way millions of people think about history with  A People’s History of the United States.  He would be the first to say, however, that he didn’t do so alone. The book grew out of his awareness of the importance of social movements throughout U.S. history, some of which he played an active role in during the 1960s and 1970s and beyond, namely the Civil Rights Movement, mass mobilizations to end the Vietnam War, as well as other antiwar movements, and the many movements for higher wages and workers’ rights and the rights of women, Latinos, Native Americans, gays and lesbians, and others.

Book Preview, 35th Anniversary Edition (2015)

Table of Contents

Introduction by Anthony Arnove • p. xiii

Chapter 1: Columbus, the Indians, and Human Progress • p. 1

Chapter 2: Drawing the Color Line • p. 23

Chapter 3: Persons of Mean and Vile Condition • p. 39

Chapter 4: Tyranny Is Tyranny • p. 59

Chapter 5: A Kind of Revolution • p. 77

Chapter 6: The Intimately Oppressed • p. 103

Chapter 7: As Long as Grass Grows or Water Runs • p. 125

Chapter 8: We Take Nothing by Conquest, Thank God • p. 149

Chapter 9: Slavery Without Submission, Emancipation Without Freedom • p. 171

Chapter 10: The Other Civil War • p. 211

Chapter 11: Robber Barons and Rebels • p. 253

Chapter 12: The Empire and the People • p. 297

Chapter 13: The Socialist Challenge • p. 321

Chapter 14: War Is the Health of the State • p. 359

Chapter 15: Self-help in Hard Times • p. 377

Chapter 16: A Peoples War? • p. 407

Chapter 17: Or Does It Explode? • p. 443

Chapter 18: The Impossible Victory: Vietnam • p. 469

Chapter 19: Surprises • p. 503

Chapter 20: The Seventies: Under Control? • p. 541

Chapter 21: Carter-Reagan-Bush: The Bipartisan Consensus • p. 563

Chapter 22: The Unreported Resistance • p. 601

Chapter 23: The Coming Revolt of the Guards • p. 631

Chapter 24: The Clinton Presidency • p. 643

Chapter 25: The 2000 Election and the “War on Terrorism” • p. 675

Afterword • p. 683

Bibliography • p. 689

Index • p. 709

Bibliography

Introduction by Howard Zinn

This book, written in a few years, is based on twenty years of teaching and research in American history, and as many years of involvement in social movements. But it could not have been written without the work of several generations of scholars, and especially the current generation of historians who have done immense work in the history of Blacks, Indians, women, and working people of all kinds. It also could not have been written without the work of many people, not professional historians, who were stimulated by the social struggles around them to put together material about the lives and activities of ordinary people trying to make a better world, or just trying to survive.

To indicate every source of information in the text would have meant a book impossibly cluttered with footnotes, and yet I know the curiosity of the reader about where a startling fact or pungent quote comes from. Therefore, as often as I can, I mention in the text authors and titles of books for which the full information is in this bibliography. Where you cannot tell the source of a quotation right from the text, you can probably figure it out by looking at the asterisked books for that chapter. The asterisked books are those I found especially useful and often indispensable.

I have gone through the following standard scholarly periodicals: American Historical Review , Mississippi Valley Historical Review , Journal of American History , Journal of Southern History , Journal of Negro History , Labor History, William and Mary Quarterly , Phylon , The Crisis , American Political Science Review , Journal of Social History.

Also, some less orthodox but important periodicals for a work like this: Monthly Review , Science and Society , Radical America , Akwesasne Notes , Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society , The Black Scholar , Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars , The Review of Radical Political Economics , Socialist Revolution , Radical History Review.

Chapter 1: Columbus, the Indians,and Human Progress

Brandon, William. The Last Americans: The Indian in American Culture . New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974.

Collier, John. Indians the Americas . New York: W. W. Norton, 1947. *

de las Casas, Bartolome. History of the Indies . New York: Harper & Row, 1971. *

Jennings, Francis. The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975. *

Koning, Hans. Columbus: His Enterprise . New York: Monthly Review Press, 1976. *

Morgan, Edmund S. American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia . New York: W. W. Norton, 1975. *

Morison, Samuel Eliot. Admiral of the Ocean Sea . Boston: Little, Brown, 1942.

– -· Christopher Columbus, Mariner . Boston: Little, Brown, 1955.

*Nash, Gary B. Red, White, and Black: The Peoples of Early America . Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1970. *

Vogel, Virgil, ed. This Country Was Ours . New York: Harper & Row, 1972.

Chapter 2: Drawing the Color Line

Aptheker, Herbert, ed. A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States . Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel, 1974. *

Boskin, Joseph. Into Slavery: Radical Decisions in the Virginia Colony . Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1966.

Catterall, Helen. Judicial Cases Concerning American Slavery and the Negro . 5 vols. Washington, Negro University Press, 1937.

Davidson, Basil. The African Slave Trade. Boston: Little, Brown, 1961.

Donnan, Elizabeth, ed. Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America . 4 vols. New York: Octagon, 1965.

Elkins, Stanley. Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976.

Federal Writers Project. The Negro in Virginia . New York: Arno, 1969.

Franklin, John Hope. From Slavery to Freedom: A History of American Negroes . New York: Knopf, 1974.

Jordan, Winthrop. White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550- 1812 . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968. *

Morgan, Edmund S. American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia . New York: W.W. Norton, 1975. *

Mullin, Gerald. Flight and Rebellion: Slave Resistance in Eighteenth-Century Virginia . New York: Oxford University Press, 1974.

Mullin, Michael, ed. American Negro Slavery: A Documentary History . New York: Harper & Row, 1975.

Phillips, Ulrich B. American Negro Slavery: A Survey of the Supply, Employment and Control of Negro Labor as Determined by the Plantation Regime . Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1966.

Redding, J. Saunders. They Came in Chains. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1973. Stampp, Kenneth M. The Peculiar Institution . New York: Knopf, 1956.

Tannenbaum, Frank. Slave and Citizen: The Negro in the Americas . New York: Random House, 1963.

Chapter 3: Persons of Mean and Vile Condition

Andrews, Charles, ed. Narratives of the Insurrections 1675-1690 . New York: Barnes & Noble, 1915.

Bridenbaugh, Carl. Cities in the Wilderness: The First Century of Urban Life in America . New York: Oxford University Press, 1971. *

Henretta, James. “Economic Development and Social Structure in Colonial Boston.”

William and Mary Quarterly , 3rd Series, Vol. 22, January 1965.

Herrick, Cheesman. White Servitude in Pennsylvania: Indentured and Redemption Labor in Colony and Commonwealth . Washington: Negro University Press, 1926.

Hofstadter, Richard. America at 1750: A Social History . New York: Knopf, 1971.

Hofstadter, Richard, and Wallace, Michael, eds. American Violence: A Documentary History . New York: Knopf, 1970.

Mohl, Raymond. Poverty in New York, 1783-1825 . New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.

Morgan, Edward S. American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia . New York: W.W. Norton, 1975. *

Morris, Richard B. Government and Labor in Early America . New York: Harper & Row, 1965. *

Nash, Gary B., ed. Class and Society in Early America . Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1970. *

–· Red, White, and Black: The Peoples of Early America . Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1974. *

–·  “Social Change and the Growth of Prerevolutionary Urban Radicalism,” The American Revolution , ed. Alfred Young. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1976. *

Smith, Abbot E. Colonists in Bondage: White Servitude and Convict Labor in America . New York: W. W. Norton, 1971. *

Washburn, Wilcomb E. The Governor and the Rebel: A History of Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia . New York: W.W. Norton, 1972. *

Chapter 4: Tyranny Is Tyranny

Bailyn, Bernard, and Garrett, N., eds. Pamphlets of the American Revolution . Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965.

Becker, Carl. The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas . New York: Random House, 1958.

Brown, Richard Maxwell. “Violence and the American Revolution,” Essays on the American Revolution , ed. Stephen G. Kurtz and James H. Hutson. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973.

Ernst, Joseph. “‘Ideology’ and an Economic Interpretation of the Revolution,” The American Revolution: Explorations in the History of American Radicalism , ed. Alfred F. Young. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1976.

Foner, Eric. “Tom Paine’s Republic: Radical Ideology and Social Change,” The Ameri- can Revolution: Explorations in the History of American Radicalism , ed. Alfred F. Young. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1976.

Fox-Bourne, H. R. The Life of John Locke , 2 vols. New York: King, 1876.

Greene, Jack P. “An Uneasy Connection: An Analysis of the Preconditions of the American Revolution,” Essays on the American Revolution , ed. Stephen G. Kurtz and James H. Hutson. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973.

Hill, Christopher. Puritanism and Revolution . New York: Schocken, 1964.

Hoerder, Dirk. “Boston Leaders and Boston Crowds, 1765-1776,” The American Revolution: Exp/orations in the History ofAmerican Radicalism , ed. Alfred F. Young. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1976. *

Lemisch, Jesse. “Jack Tar in the Streets: Merchant Seamen in the Politics of Revolution- ary America,” William and Mary Quarterly , July 1968.

Maier, Pauline. From Resistance to Revolution: Colonial Radicals and the Development of American Opposition to Britain, 1765-1776 . New York: Knopf, 1972.

Rude, George. Paris and London in the Eighteenth Century: Studies in Popular Protest . New York: Penguin, 1973.

Chapter 5: A Kind of Revolution

Aptheker, Herbert, ed. A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States . Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel Press, 1974.

Bailyn, Bernard. “Central Themes of the Revolution,” Essays on the American Revolution , ed. Stephen G. Kurtz and James H. Hutson. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973.

—· The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967.

Beard, Charles. An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States . New York: Macmillan, 1935.*

Berlin, Ira. “The Negro in the American Revolution,” The American Revolution: Explorations in the History o fAmerican Radicalism , ed. Alfred F. Young. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1976.

Berthoff, Rowland, and Murrin, John. “Feudalism, Communalism, and the Yeoman Freeholder, Essays on the American Revolution , ed. Stephen G. Kurtz and James Hutson. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973.

Brown, Robert E. Charles Beard and the Constitution . New York: W. W. Norton, 1965.

Degler, Carl. Out of Our Past . Harper & Row, 1970.

Henderson, H. James. “The Structure of Politics in the Continental Congress,” Essays on the American Revolution , ed. Stephen G. Kurtz and James H. Hutson. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973.

Hoffman, Ronald. “The ‘Disaffected’ in the Revolutionary South,” The American Revolution: Explorations in the History of American Radicalism , ed. Alfred F. Young. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1976. *

Jennings, Francis. “The Indians’ Revolution,” The American Revolution: Explorations in the History of American Radicalism , ed. Alfred F. Young. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1976.

Levy, Leonard W. Freedom of Speech and Press in Early American History . New York: Harper & Row, 1963.

Lynd, Staughton. Anti-Federalism in Dutchess County, New York. Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1962. *

___ . Class Conflict, Slavery, and the Constitution . Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1967.

— –· “Freedom Now: The Intellectual Origins of American Radicalism,” The Ameri-can Revolution: Explorations in the History of American Radicalism , ed. Alfred F. Young. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1976.

McLaughlin, William G. “The Role of Religion in the Revolution,” Essays on the American Revolution , ed. Stephen G. Kurtz and James H. Hutson. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973.

Morgan, Edmund S. “Conflict and Consensus in Revolution,” Essays on the American Revolution , ed. Stephen G. Kurtz and James H. Hutson. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973.

Morris, Richard B. “We the People of the United States.” Presidential address, American Historical Association, 1976.

Shy, John. A People Numerous and Armed: Reflections on the Military Struggle for American Independence . New York: Oxford University Press, 1976. *

Smith, Page. A New Age Now Begins: A People’s History of the American Revolution . New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976.

Starkey, Marion. A Little Rebellion . New York: Knopf, 1949. Van Doren, Carl. Mutiny in January. New York: Viking, 1943.

Young, Alfred, ed. The American Revolution: Explorations in the History of American Radicalism . DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1976. *

Chapter 6: The Intimately Oppressed

Barker-Benfield, G. J. The Horrors of the Half-Known Life . New York: Harper & Row, 1976.

Baxandall, Rosalyn, Gordon, Linda, and Reverby, Susan, eds. America’s Working Women . New York: Random House, 1976. *

Cott, Nancy. The Bonds of Womanhood . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977.*

_, Root of Bitterness . New York: Dutton, 1972. *

Farb, Peter. “The Pueblos of the Southwest,” Women in American Life, ed. Anne Scott. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970.

Flexner, Eleanor. A Century of Struggle . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975. *

Gordon, Ann, and Buhle, Mary Jo. “Sex and Class in Colonial and Nineteenth-Century America,” Liberating Women’s History , ed. Berenice Carroll. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975.

Lerner, Gerda, ed. The Female Experience: An American Documentary . Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1977. *

Sandoz, Mari. “These Were the Sioux,” Women in American Life , ed. Anne Scott. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970.

Spruill, Julia Cherry. Women’s Life and Work in the Southern Colonies . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1938.

Tyler, Alice Felt. Freedom’s Ferment . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1944.

Vogel, Lise. “Factory Tracts,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society , Spring 1976.

Welter, Barbara. Dimity Convictions: The American Woman in the Nineteenth Century . Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1976.

Wilson, Joan Hoff. “The Illusion of Change: Women in the American Revolution,” The American Revolution: Explorations in the History of American Radicalism , ed. Alfred F. Young. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1976.

Chapter 7: As Long as Grass Grows or Water Runs

Drinnon, Richard. Violence in the American Experience: Winning the West . New York: New American Library, 1979.

Filler, Louis E., and Guttmann, Allen, eds. The Removal of the Cherokee Nation . Huntington, N.Y.: R. E. Krieger, 1977.

Foreman, Grant. Indian Removal . Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972.

McLuhan, T. C., ed. Touch the Earth: A Self-Portrait of Indian Existence . New York: Simon & Schuster, 1976. *

Rogin, Michael. Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian . New York: Knopf, 1975. *

Van Every, Dale. The Disinherited: The Lost Birthright of the American Indian . New York: Morrow, 1976. *

Chapter 8: We Take Nothing by Conquest, Thank God

Foner, Philip. A History of the Labor Movement in the United States . 4 vols. New York: International Publishers, 1947-1965. *

Graebner, Norman A. “Empire in the Pacific: A Study in American Continental Expansion,” The Mexican War: Crisis for American Democracy , ed. Archie P. McDonald.

__, ed. Manifest Destiny . Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1968.

Jay, William. A Review of the Causes and Consequences of the Mexican War . Boston: B. B. Mussey & Co., 1849.

McDonald, Archie P., ed. The Mexican War: Crisis for American Democracy . Lexington, Mass: D. C. Heath, 1969.

Morison, Samuel Eliot, Merk, Frederick, and Friedel, Frank. Dissent in Three American Wars . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970.

O’Sullivan, John, and Meckler, Alan. The Draft and Its Enemies: A Documentary History . Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1974.

Perry, Bliss, ed. Lincoln: Speeches and Letters . Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1923.

Schroeder, John H. Mr. Polk’s War: American Opposition and Dissent 1846-1848 . Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1973. *

Smith, George Winston, and Judah, Charles, eds. Chronicles of the Gringos: The U.S. Army in the Mexican War 184-1848 . Albuquerque: University ofNew Mexico Press, 1966. *

Smith, Justin. T he War with Mexico . 2 vols. New York: Macmillan, 1919. *

Weems, John Edward. To Conquer a Peace . New York: Doubleday, 1974. *

Weinberg, Albert K. Manifest Destiny: A Study of Nationalist Expansion in American History . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1935.

Chapter 9: Slavery Without Submission, Emancipation Without Freedom

Allen, The Reluctant Reformers . New York: Anchor, 1975.

Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts . New York: International Publishers,1969. *

—, ed. A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States . New York: Citadel, 1974. *

—· Nat Turner’s Slave Rebellion . New York: Grove Press, 1968.

Bond, Horace Mann. “Social and Economic Forces in Alabama Reconstruction,” Journal of Negro History , July 1938.

Conrad, Earl. Harriet Tubman . Middlebury, Vt.: Eriksson, 1970.

Cox, LaWanda and John, eds. Reconstruction, the Negro, and the Old South. New York: Harper & Row, 1973.

Douglass, Frederick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass , ed. Benjamin Quarles. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960.

Du Bois, W. E. B. John Brown . New York: International Publishers, 1962.

Fogel, Robert, and Engerman, Stanley. Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery . Boston: Little, Brown, 1974.

Foner, Philip, ed. The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass . 5 vols. New York: International Publishers, 1975.

Franklin, John Hope. From Slavery to Freedom. New York: Knopf, 1974. *

Genovese, Eugene. Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made . New York: Pantheon, 1974. *

Gutman, Herbert. The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 . New York: Pantheon, 1976. *

—· Slavery and the Numbers Game: A Critique of “Time on the Cross .” Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975. *

Herschfield, Marilyn. “Women in the Civil War.” Unpublished paper, 1977.

Hofstadter, Richard. The American Political Tradition . New York: Knopf, 1973. Killens, John 0., ed. The Trial Record of Denmark Vesey . Boston: Beacon Press, 1970. *

Kolchin, Peter. First Freedom: The Response of Alabama’s Blacks to Emancipation and Reconstruction . New York: Greenwood, 1972.

Lerner, Gerda, ed. Black Women in White America: A Documentary History . New York: Random House, 1973. *

Lester, Julius, ed. To Be a Slave . New York: Dial Press, 1968.

Levine, Lawrence J. Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom . New York: Oxford University Press, 1977. *

Logan, Rayford. The Betrayal of the Negro: From Rutherford B. Hayes to Woodrow Wilson . New York: Macmillan, 1965. *

MacPherson, James. The Negro’s Civil War . New York: Pantheon, 1965. *

—· The Struggle for Equality . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964. *

Meltzer, Milton, ed. In Their Own Words: A History of the American Negro . New York: T. Y. Crowell, 1964-1967. *

Osofsky, Gilbert. Puttin’ on Ole Massa . New York: Harper & Row, 1969.

Painter, Nell Irvin. Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas After Reconstruction . New York: Knopf, 1977.

Phillips, Ulrich B. American Negro Slavery: A Survey of the Supply, Employment and Control of Negro Labor as Determined by the Plantation Regime . Baton Rouge: Louisi- ana State University Press, 1966.

Rawick, George P. From Sundown to Sunup: The Making of the Black Community . Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972.

Rosengarten, Theodore. All God’s Dangers: The Life of Nate Shaw . New York: Knopf, 1974. *

Starobin, Robert S., ed. Blacks in Bondage: Letters of American Slaves . New York: Franklin Watts, 1974.

Tragle, Henry I. The Southampton Slave Revolt of 1831 . Amherst, Mass.: University of Massachusetts Press, 1971.

Wiltse, Charles M., ed. David Walker’s Appeal. New York: Hill & Wang, 1965.

Woodward, C. Vann. Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction . Boston: Little, Brown, 1966. *

Works Progress Administration. The Negro in Virginia . New York: Amo Press, 1969.

Chapter 10: The Other Civil War

Bimba, Anthony. The Molly Maguires . New York: International Publishers, 1970.

Brecher, Jeremy. Strike! Boston: South End Press, 1979.

Bruce, Robert V. 1877: Year of Violence . New York: Franklin Watts, 1959. *

Burbank, David. Reign of Rabble: The St. Louis General Strike of 1877 . Fairfield, N.J.: Augustus Kelley, 1966.

Christman, Henry. Tin Horns and Calico . New York: Holt, 1945. *

Cochran, Thomas, and Miller, William. The Age of Enterprise . New York: Macmillan, 1942. *

Coulter, E. Merton, The Confederate States of America 1861-1865 . Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1950.

Dacus, Joseph A. “Annals of the Great Strikes of the United States,” Except to Walk Free: Documents and Notes in the History of American Labor , ed. Albert Fried. New York: Anchor, 1974.

Dawley, Alan. Class and Community: The Industrial Revolution in Lynn . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976. *

Feldstein, Stanley, and Costello, Lawrence, eds. The Ordeal of Assimilation: A Documentary History of the White Working Class, 1830’s to the 1970’s . New York: Anchor, 1974. *

Fite, Emerson. Social and Industrial Conditions in the North During the Civil War . New York: Macmillan, 1910.

Foner, Philip. A History of the Labor Movement in the United States . 4 vols. New York: International Publishers, 1947-1964.

___, ed. We, the Other People . Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976.

Fried, Albert, ed. Except to Walk Free: Documents and Notes in the History of American Labor. New York: Anchor, 1974. *

Gettleman, Marvin. The Dorr Rebellion. New York: Random House, 1973.

Gutman, Herbert. “The Buena Vista Affair, 1874-1875,” Workers in the Industrial Revolution: Recent Studies of Labor in the United States and Europe, ed. Peter N. Stearns and Daniel Walkowitz. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1974. *

___. Work, Culture and Society in Industrializing Americ a. New York: Random House, 1977.

___. “Work, Culture and Society in Industrializing America, 1815-1919,” American Historical Review, June 1973.

Headley, Joel Tyler. The Great Riots of New York, 1712-1873 . Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970.

Hofstadter, Richard, and Wallace, Michael, eds. American Violence: A Documentary History . New York: Knopf, 1970. *

Horwitz, Morton. The Transformation of American Law, 1780-1860 . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977. *

Knights, Peter R. The Plain People of Boston 1830-1860: A Study in City Growth . New York: Oxford University Press, 1973.

Meyer, Marvin. The Jacksonian Persuasion . New York: Vintage, 1960.

Miller, Douglas T. The Birth of Modern America . Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970.

Montgomery, David. “The Shuttle and the Cross: Weavers and Artisans in the Kensington Riots of 1844,” Journal of Social History , Summer 1972.

Myers, Gustavus. History of the Great American Fortunes . New York: Modem Library, 1936. *

Pessen, Edward. Jacksonian America . Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey, 1969.

—. Most Uncommon Jacksonians . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1967. *

Remini, Robert V. The Age of Jackson . New York: Harper & Row, 1972.

Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. The Age of Jackson . Boston: Little, Brown, 1945.

Steams, Peter N., and Walkowitz, Daniel, eds. Workers in the Industrial Revolution: Recent Studies of Labor in the United States and Europe . New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1974.

Tatum, Georgia Lee. Disloyalty in the Confederacy . New York: A.M.S. Press, 1970.

Wertheimer, Barbara. We Were There: The Story of Working Women in America . New York: Pantheon, 1977. *

Wilson, Edmund. Patriotic Gore: Studies in the Literature of the American Civil War . New York: Oxford University Press, 1962.

Yellen, Samuel. American Labor Struggles . New York: Pathfinder, 1974.

Zinn, Howard. “The Conspiracy of Law,” The Rule of Law , ed. Robert Paul Wolff. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1971.

Chapter 11: Robber Barons and Rebels

Allen, Robert. Reluctant Reformers: Racism and Social Reform Movements in the United States . New York: Anchor, 1975.

Bellamy, Edward. Looking Backward . Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967.

Bowles, Samuel, and Gintis, Herbert. Schooling in Capitalist America . New York: Basic Books, 1976.

Brandeis, Louis. Other People’s Money . New York: Frederick Stokes, 1914.

Carwardine, William. The Pullman Strike . Chicago: Charles Kerr, 1973.

Conwell, Russell H. Acres of Diamonds . New York: Harper & Row, 1915.

Crowe, Charles. “Tom Watson, Populists, and Blacks Reconsidered,” Journal of Negro History , April 1970.

David, Henry. A History of the Haymarket Affair . New York: Collier, 1963.

Feldstein, Stanley, and Costello, Lawrence, eds. The Ordeal of Assimilation: A Documentary History of the White Working Class, 1830’s to the 1970’s . Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor, 1974.

Foner, Philip. A History of the Labor Movement in the United States . 4 vols. New York: International Publishers, 1947-1964. *

–· Organized Labor and the Black Worker 1619-1973 . New York: International Publishers, 1974.

George, Henry. Progress and Poverty . New York: Robert Scholkenbach Foundation, 1937.

Ginger, Ray. The Age of Excess: The U.S. from 1877 to 1914 . New York: Macmillan, 1975.

–· The Bending Cross: A Biography of Eugene Victor Debs . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1949. *

Goodwyn, Lawrence. Democratic Promise: The Populist Movement in America . New York: Oxford University Press, 1976. *

Hair, William Ivy. Bourbonism and Agrarian Protest: Louisiana Politics, 1877-1900 . Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969.

Heilbroner, Robert, and Singer, Aaron. The Economic Transformation of America . New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977.

Josephson, Matthew. The Politicos . New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1963.*

—. The Robber Barons . New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1962. *

Mason, Alpheus T., and Beaney, William M. American Constitutional Law . Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972.

Myers, Gustavus. History of the Great American Fortunes . New York: Modern Library, 1936. *

Pierce, Bessie L. P ublic Opinion and the Teaching of History in the United States . New York: DaCapo, 1970.

Pollack, Norman. The Populist Response to Industrial America . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976.

Smith, Henry Nash. Virgin Land . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970.

Spring, Joel H. Education and the Rise of the Corporate State . Boston: Beacon Press, 1973.

Wasserman, Harvey. Harvey Wasserman’s History of the United States . New York: Harper & Row, 1972.

Woodward, C. Vann. Origins of the New South . Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univer- sity Press, 1972. *

—. Tom Watson, Agrarian Rebel . New York: Oxford University Press, 1963. *

Yellen, Samuel. American Labor Struggles . New York: Pathfinder, 1974. *

Chapter 12: The Empire and the People

Aptheker, Herbert, ed. A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States . New York: Citadel, 1973.

Beale, Howard K. Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power . New York: Macmillan, 1962.

Beisner, Robert. Twelve Against Empire: The Anti-Imperialists, 1898-1902 . New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968.

—. The Spanish-Cuban-American War and the Birth of American Imperialism . 2 vols. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972. *

Francisco, Luzviminda. “The First Vietnam: The Philippine-American War, 1899- 1902,” Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars , 1973.

Gatewood, Willard B. “Smoked Yankees” and the Struggle for Empire: Letters from Negro Soldiers, 1898–1902. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1971.*

Lafeber, Walter. The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion . Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1963.

Pratt, Julius. “American Business and the Spanish-American War,” Hispanic-American Historical Review , 1934.

Schirmer, Daniel Boone. Republic or Empire: American Resistance to the Philippine War . Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman, 1972.

Williams, William Appleman. The Roots of the Modern American Empire . New York: Random House, 1969.

—. The Tragedy of American Diplomacy . New York: Dell, 1972.

Wolff, Leon. Little Brown Brother . Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961.

Young, Marilyn. The Rhetoric of Empire . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968.

Chapter 13: The Socialist Challenge

Aptheker, A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States . New York: Citadel, 1974. *

Braverman, Harry. Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century . New York: Monthly Review, 1975.

Brody, David. Steelworkers in America: The Non-Union Era . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960.

Chafe, William. Women and Equality: Changing Patterns in American Culture . New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.

Cochran, Thomas, and Miller, William. The Age of Enterprise . New York: Macmillan, 1942.

Dancis, Bruce. “Socialism and Women,” Socialist Revolution, January-March 1976.

Dubofsky, Melvyn. We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World . New York: Quadrangle, 1974.

Du Bois, W. E. B. The Souls of Black Folk . New York: Fawcett, 1961.

Faulkner, Harold. The Decline of Laissez Faire 1897-1917 . White Plains, N.Y.: E. Sharpe, 1977.

Flexner, Eleanor. A Century of Struggle. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975. *

Flynn, Elizabeth Gurley. The Rebel Girl . New York: International Publishers, 1973. Foner, Philip, ed. Helen Keller: Her Socialist Years . New York: International Publishers, 1967.

—. A History of the Labor Movement in the United States . 4 vols. New York: International Publishers, 1947-1964. *

Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. Women and Economics . New York: Harper & Row, 1966.

Ginger, Ray. The Bending Cross: A Biography of Eugene Victor Debs . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1969. *

Goldman, Emma. Anarchism and Other Essays . New York: Dover, 1970.

Green, James. Grass-Roots Socialism: Radical Movements in the Southwest, 1895-1943 . Baton Rouge: Louisana State University Press, 1978.

Hays, Samuel. “The Politics of Reform in Municipal Government in the Progressive Era,” Pacific Northwest Quarterly , October 1964. (Reprinted by New England Free Press.)

Haywood, Bill. The Autobiography of Big Bill Haywood . New York: International Publishers, 1929.

Hofstadter, Richard. The American Political Tradition . New York: Random House, 1954.

James, Henry. The American Scene . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1968.

Jones, Mary. The Autobiography of Mother Jones . Chicago: Charles Kerr, 1925. Kaplan, Justin. Mr. Clemens and Mark Twain: A Biography . New York: Simon & Schuster, 1966.

Kolko, Gabriel. The Triumph of Conservatism . New York: Free Press, 1977. *

Kombluh, Joyce, ed. Rebel Voices: An I. W. W. Anthology . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1964. *

Lerner, Gerda, ed. Black Women in White America . New York: Random House, 1973. *

—. The Female Experience: An American Documentary . Indianapolis: Bobbs-Mer- rill, 1977. *

London, Jack. The Iron Heel . New York: Bantam, 1971.

Naden, Corinne J. The Triangle Shirtwaist Fire, March 25, 1911 . New York: Franklin Watts, 1971.

Sanger, Margaret. Woman and the New Race . New York: Brentano’s, 1920.

Schoener, Allon, ed. Portal to America: The Lower East Side, 1870-1925 . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967.

Sinclair, Upton. The Jungle . New York: Harper & Row, 1951.

Sochen, June. Movers and Shakers: American Women Thinkers and Activists, 1900- 1970 . New York: Quadrangle, 1974.

Stein, Leon. The Triangle Fire . Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1965.

Weinstein, James. The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 1900-1918 . Boston: Beacon Press, 1968. *

Wiebe, Robert H. The Search for Order, 1877-1920 . New York: Hill & Wang, 1966.

Zinn, Howard. The Politics of History . Boston: Beacon Press, 1970. *

Chapter 14: War Is the Health of the State

Baritz, Loren, ed. The American Left . New York: Basic Books, 1971.

Chafee, Zechariah, Jr. Free Speech in the United States . New York: Atheneum, 1969. *

Dos Passos, John. 1919 . New York: Signet, 1969.

Du Bois, W. E. B. “The African Roots of War,” Atlantic Monthly , May 1915. Fleming, D. F. The Origins and Legacies of World War I . Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, 1968.

Fussell, Paul. The Great War and Modern Memory . New York: Oxford University Press, 1975. *

Ginger, Ray. The Bending Cross: A Biography of Eugene Victor Debs . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1969.*

Goldman, Eric. Rendezvous with Destiny . New York: Random House, 1956.

Gruber, Carol S. Mars and Minerva: World War I and the Uses of Higher Learning in America . Baton Rouge.: Louisiana State University Press, 1975.

Chapter 15: Self-help in Hard Times

Adamic, Louis. My America, 1928-1938 . New York: Harper & Row, 1938.

Bellush, Bernard. The Failure of the N.R.A. New York: W.W. Norton, 1976. Bernstein, Barton, J., ed. Towards a New Past: Dissenting Essays in American History . New York: Pantheon, 1968.

Bernstein, Irving. The Lean Years: A History of the American Worker, 1920-1933 . Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1960.

—. The Turbulent Years: A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941 . Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1969.

Borden, Morton, ed. Voices of the American Past: Readings in American History . Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1972.

Boyer, Richard, and Morais, Herbert. L abor’s Untold Story . United Front, 1955.

Brecher, Jeremy. Strike! Boston, Mass.: South End Press, 1979. *

Buhle, Paul. “An Interview with Luigi Nardella,” Radical History Review , Spring 1978.

Cloward, Richard A., and Piven, Frances F. Poor People’s Movements . New York: Pantheon, 1977. *

Conkin, Paul. F.D.R. and the Origins of the Welfare State . New York: Crowell, 1967. Curti, Merle. The Growth of American Thought . New York: Harper & Row, 1943.

Fine, Sidney. Sit-Down: The General Motors Strike of 1930-1937 . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1969. *

Galbraith, John Kenneth. The Great Crash: 1929 . Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972. General Strike Committee. The Seattle General Strik e. Charlestown, Mass.: gum press, 1972.

Hallgren, Mauritz. Seeds of Revolt . New York: Knopf, 1934. *

Lerner, Gerda, ed. Black Women in White America: A Documentary History . New York: Random House, 1977. *

Lewis, Sinclair. Babbitt . New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1949.

Lynd, Alice and Staughton, eds. Rank and File: Personal Histories by Working-Class Organizers . Boston: Beacon Press, 1974.

Lynd, Robert and Helen. Middletown . New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1959.

Mangione, Jerre. The Dream and the Deal: The Federal Writers Project, 1935-1943 . Boston: Little, Brown, 1972.

Mills, Frederick C. Economic Tendencies in the United States: Aspects of Pre- War and Post- War Changes . New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1932.

Ottley, Roi, and Weatherby, William J. “The Negro in New York: An Informal History,” Justice Denied: The Black Man in White America , ed. William Chace and Peter Collier. New York: Harm* Brace Jovanovich, 1970.

Painter, Nell, and Hudson, Hosea. “A Negro Communist in the Deep South,” Radical America , July-August 1977.

Rensha, Patrick. The Wobblies . New York: Anchor, 1968.

Rosengarten, Theodore. All God’s Dangers: The Life of Nate Shaw . New York: Knopf, 1974. * Steinbeck, John. The Grapes of Wrath . New York: Viking, 1939.

Swados, Harvey, ed. The American Writer and the Great Depression . Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966.

Terkel, Studs. Hard Times: An Oral History of the Great Depression in America . New York: Pantheon, 1970. *

Wright, Richard. Black Boy . New York: Harper & Row, 1937.

Zinn, Howard. La Guardia in Congress . Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press; 1959.

Chapter 16: A People’s War?

Alperovitz, Gar. Atomic Diplomacy . New York: Vintage, 1967.

Aronson, James. The Press and the Cold War . Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970.

Barnet, Richard J. Intervention and Revolution: The U.S. and the Third World . New York: New American Library, 1969.

Blackett, P. M. S. Fear, War and the Bomb: Military and Political Consequences of Atomic Energy . New York: McGraw Hill, 1948.

Bottome, Edgar. The Balance of Terror: A Guide to the Arms Race . Boston: Beacon Press, 1972.

Butow, Robert. Japan’s Decision to Surrender . Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1954.

Catton, Bruce. The War Lords of Washington . New York: Harcourt Brace, 1948.

Chomsky, Noam. American Power and the New Mandarins . New York: Pantheon, 1969.

Davidson, Basil. Let Freedom Come: Africa in Modern History . Boston: Little, Brown, 1978.

Feingold, Henry L. The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust . New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1970.

Freeland, Richard M. The Truman Doctrine and the Origins of McCarthyism . New York: Knopf, 1971.

Gardner, Lloyd. Economic Aspects of New Deal Diplomacy . Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964.

Griffith, Robert W. The Politics of Fear: Joseph R. McCarthy and the Senate . Rochelle Park, N.J.: Hayden, 1971.

Hamby, Alonzo L. Beyond the New Deal: Harry S. Truman and American Liberalism . New York: Columbia University Press, 1953.

Irving, David. The Destruction of Dresden . New York: Ballantine, 1965.

Kahn, Herman. On Thermonuclear War . New York: Free Press, 1969.

Kolko, Gabriel. The Politics of War: The World and United States Foreign Policy, 1943-1945 . New York: Random House, 1968. *

Lemisch, Jesse. On Active Service in War and Peace: Politics and Ideology in the American Historical Profession . Toronto: New Hogtown Press, 1975.

Mailer, Norman. The Naked and the Dead . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1948.

Miller, Douglas, and Nowak, Marion. The Fifties: The Way We Really Were . New York: Doubleday, 1977.

Miller, Marc. “The Irony of Victory: Lowell During World War II.” Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Boston University, 1977.

Mills, C. Wright. T he Power Elite . New York: Oxford University Press, 1970.

Minear, Richard H. Victor’s Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial . Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1973.

Offner, Arnold. American Appeasement: U.S. Foreign Policy and Germany, 1933-1938 . New York: W.W. Norton, 1976.

Rostow, Eugene V. “Our Worst Wartime Mistake,” Harper’s , September 1945. Russett, Bruce. No Clear and Present Danger . New York: Harper & Row, 1972.

Sampson, Anthony. The Seven Sisters: The Great Oil Companies and the World They Shaped . New York: Viking, 1975.

Schneir, Walter and Miriam. Invitation to an Inquest . New York: Doubleday, 1965.

Sherwin, Martin. A World Destroyed: The Atom Bomb and the Grand Alliance . New York: Knopf, 1975. *

Stone, I. F. The Hidden History of the Korean War . New York: Monthly Review Press, 1969.

United States Strategic Bombing Survey. Japan’s Struggle to End the War . Washington: Government Printing Office, 1946.

Weglyn, Michi. Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America’s Concentration Camps . New York: William Morrow, 1976.

Wittner, Lawrence S. Rebels Against War: The American Peace Movement, 1941-1960 . New York: Columbia University Press, 1969.

Zinn, Howard. Postwar America: 1945-1971 . Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1973. *

—· The Pentagon Papers . 4 vols. Boston: Beacon Press, 1971.

Chapter 17: “Or Does It Explode?”

Allen, Robert. Black Awakening in Capitalist America . Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1969.

Bontemps, Arna, ed. American Negro Poetry . New York: Hill & Wang, 1974. Broderick, Francis, and Meier, August. Black Protest Thought in the Twentieth Century . Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1971.

Cloward, Richard A., and Piven, Frances F. Poor People’s Movements . New York: Pantheon, 1977.

Conot, Robert. Rivers of Blood, Years of Darkness . New York: Morrow, 1968. Cullen, Countee. On These I Stand . New York: Harper & Row, 1947.

Herndon, Angelo. “You Cannot Kill the Working Class,” Black Protest , ed. Joanne Grant. New York: Fawcett, 1975.

Huggins, Nathan I. Harlem Renaissance . New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.

Hughes, Langston. Selected Poems of Langston Hughes . New York: Knopf, 1959.

Lerner, Gerda, ed. Black Women in White America: A Documentary History . New York: Random House, 1977.

Malcolm X. Malcolm X Speaks . New York: Meret, 1965.

Navasky, Victor. Kennedy Justice . New York: Atheneum, 1977.

Perkus, Cathy, ed. Cointelpro: The FBI’s Secret War on Political Freedom . New York: Monad Press, 1976.

Zinn, Howard. P ostwar America: 1945-1971 . Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1973.

—. SNCC: The New Abolitionists . Boston: Beacon Press, 1964.

Chapter 18: The Impossible Victory: Vietnam

Branfman, Fred. Voices from the Plain of Jars . New York: Harper & Row, 1972.

Green, Philip, and Levinson, Sanford. Power and Community: Dissenting Essays in Political Science . New York: Pantheon, 1970. *

Hersch, Seymour. My Lai 4: A Report on the Massacre and Its Aftermath . New York: Random House, 1970.

Kovic, Ron. Born on the Fourth of July . New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976.

Lipsitz, Lewis. “On Political Belief: The Grievances of the Poor,” Power and Community: Dissenting Essays in Political Science , ed. Philip Green and Sanford Levinson. New York: Pantheon, 1970.

Modigliani, Andrew. “Hawks and Doves, Isolationism and Political Distrust: An Analysis of Public Opinion on Military Policy,” American Political Science Review , September 1972.

Pike, Douglas. Viet Cong . Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1966.

Schell, Jonathan. The Village of Ben Sue . New York: Knopf, 1967.

Zinn, Howard. Vietnam: The Logic of Withdrawal . Boston: Beacon Press, 1967.

—. Pentagon Papers . 4 vols. Boston: Beacon Press, 1971. *

Chapter 19: Surprises

Akwesasne Notes. Voices from Wounded Knee, 1973 . Mohawk Nation, Rooseveltown, N.Y.: Akwesasne Notes, 1974.

Baxandall, Rosalyn, Gordon, Linda, and Reverby, Susan, eds. America’s Working Women . New York: Random House, 1976.

Benston, Margaret. “The Political Economy of Women’s Liberation,” Monthly Review , Fall 1969.

Boston Women’s Health Book Collective. Our Bodies, Ourselves . New York: Simon & Schuster, 1976.

Brandon, William. The Last Americans . McGraw-Hill, 1974.

Brown, Dee. B ury My Heart at Wounded Knee . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Win- ston, 1971. *

Brownmiller, Susan. Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape . New York: Simon & Schuster, 1975.

Coles, Robert. Children of Crisis . Boston: Little, Brown, 1967.

Cottle, Thomas J. Children in Jail . Boston: Beacon Press, 1977.

The Council on Interracial Books for Children, ed. Chronicles of American Indian Protest . New York: Fawcett, 1971.

Deloria, Vine, Jr. Custer Died for Your Sins . New York: Macmillan, 1969.

—. We Talk, You Listen. New York: Macmillan, 1970.

Firestone, Shulamith. The Dialectics of Sex . New York: Bantam, 1970.

Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique . New York: W.W. Norton, 1963. Gaylin, Willard. Partial Justice. New York: Knopf, 1974.

Jackson, George. Soledad Brother: The Prison Letters of George Jackson . New York: Coward McCann, 1970.

Lifton, Robert Jay, ed. The Woman in America . Boston: Beacon Press, 1967.

McLuhan, T. C. Touch the Earth: A Self-Portrait of Indian Existence. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1976. *

Mann, Eric. Comrade George: An Investigation into the Life, Political Thought, and Assassination of George Jackson . New York: Harper & Row, 1974.

Mitford, Jessica. Kind and Usual Punishment: The Prison Business . New York: Knopf, 1973. *

Morgan, Robin, ed . Sisterhood Is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings from the Women’s Liberation Movemen t. New York: Random House, 1970.

The Prison Research Project, Urban Planning Aid. The Price of Punishment: Prisons in Massachusetts . Cambridge, Mass.: Urban Planning Aid, 1974.

Rich, Adrienne. Of Woman Born . New York: Bantam, 1977.

Rothman, David J. and Sheila, eds. Sources of American Social Tradition . New York: Basic Books, 1975.

Steiner, Stan. The New Indians . New York: Harper & Row, 1968.

Witt, Shirley Hill, and Steiner, Stan. The Way: An Anthology of American Indian Literature . New York: Knopf, 1974. *

Wicker, Tom. A Time to Die . New York: Quadrangle, 1975.

Zinn, Howard, ed. Justice in Everyday Life . New York: Morrow, 1974.

Chapter 20: The Seventies: Under Control?

Blair, John M. The Control of Oil . New York: Pantheon, 1977.

Dommergues, Pierre. “L’Essor Du conservatisme Americain,” Le Monde Diplomatique , May 1978.

Evans, Les, and Myers, Allen. Watergate and the Myth of American Democracy . New York: Pathfinder Press, 1974. *

Frieden, Jess. “The Trilateral Commission,” Monthly Review , December 1977.

Gardner, Richard. Alternative America: A Directory of 5000 Alternative Lifestyle Groups and Organizations . Cambridge, Richard Gardner, 1976.

Glazer, Nathan, and Kristol, Irving. The American Commonwealth 1976 . New York: Basic Books, 1976.

New York Times. The Watergate Hearings . Bantam, 1973.

U.S., Congress, Senate Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. Hearings . 94th Congress. 1976. *

Chapter 21: Carter-Reagan-Bush: The Bipartisan Concensus

Barlett, Donald, and Steele, James. America: What Went Wrong? Kansas City: Andrews & McMeel, 1992.

Barlett, Donald, and Steele, James. America: Who Really Pays the Taxes? New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994.

Chomsky, Noam. World Orders Old and New . New York: Columbia University Press, 1994.

Croteau, David, and Hoynes, William. By Invitation Only: How the Media Limit the Political Debate . Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 1994.

Danaher, Kevin, ed. 50 Years Is Enough: The Case Against the World Bank . Boston: South End Press, 1994.

Derber, Charles. Money, Murder and the American Dream . Boston: Faber & Faber, 1992.

Edsall, Thomas and Mary. Chain Reaction . New York: W W Norton, 1992.

Ehrenreich, Barbara. The Worst Years of Our Lives . New York: HarperCollins, 1990.

Greider, William. Who Will Tell the People? New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992.

Grover, William F. The President as Prisoner . Albany: State University of New York, 1989.

Hellinger, Daniel, and Judd, Dennis. The Democratic Facade . Pacific Grove, California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1991.

Hofstadter, Richard. The American Political Tradition . New York: Vintage, 1974.

Kozol, Jonathan. Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Schools . New York: Crown Publishers, 1991.

Piven, Frances Fox, and Cloward, Richard. Regulating the Poor . New York: Vintage Books, 1993.

Rosenberg, Gerald N. The Hollow Hope . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.

Savage, David. Turning Right: The Making of the Rehnquist Supreme Court . New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1992.

Sexton, Patricia Cayo. The War on Labor and the Left . Boulder: Westview Press, 1991.

Shalom, Stephen. Imperial Alibis . Boston: South End Press, 1993.

Chapter 22: The Unreported Resistance

Ewen, Alexander, ed. Voice of Indigenous Peoples . Santa Fe, New Mexico: Clear Light Publishers, 1994.

Grover, William, and Peschek, Joseph, ed. Voices of Dissent . New York: HarperCollins, 1993.

Loeb, Paul. Generations at the Crossroads . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1994.

Lofland, John. Polite Protesters: The American Peace Movement of the 1980s . Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1993.

Lynd, Staughton and Alice. Nonviolence in America: A Documentary History . Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1995.

Martinez, Elizabeth, ed. 500 Years of Chicano History . Albuquerque: Southwest Organizing Project, 1991.

Piven, Frances, and Cloward, Richard. Why Americans Don’t Vote . New York: Pantheon Books, 1988.

Vanneman, Reeve, and Cannon, Lynn. The American Perception of Class . Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987.

NOTE: Much of the material in this chapter comes from my own files of social action by organizations around the country, from my collection of news clippings, and from publications outside the mainstream, including: The Nation, In These Times , The Nuclear Resister , Peacework , The Resist Newsletter , Rethinking Schools , Indigenous Thought .

NOTE: Much of the material in this chapter comes from my own files of social action by organizations around the country, from my collection of news clippings, and from publications outside the mainstream, including: T he Nation , In These Times , The Nuclear Resister , Peacework , The Resist Newsletter , Rethinking Schools , Indigenous Thought .

Chapter 23: The Coming Revolt of the Guards

Bryan, C. D. B. Friendly Fire . New York: Putnam, 1976.

Levin, Murray B. The Alienated Voter . New York: Irvington, 1971.

Warren, Donald I. The Radical Center: Middle America and the Politics of Alienation . Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1976.

Weizenbaum, Joseph. Computer Power and Human Reason . San Francisco: Freeman, 1976.

Chapter 24: The Clinton Presidency

Bagdikian, Ben. The Media Monopoly . Boston: Beacon Press, 1992.

Chomsky, Noam. World Orders, Old and New . New York: Columbia University Press, 1994.

Dowd, Doug. Blues for America . New York: Monthly Review Press, 1997.

Garrow, David. Bearing the Cross . New York: Morrow, 1986.

Greider, William. O ne World or Not . New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997.

Kuttner, Robert. Everything for Sale . New York: Knopf, 1997.

Smith, Sam. Shadows of Hope: A Freethinker’s Guide to Politics in the Time of Clinton . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994.

Solomon, Norman. False Hope: The Politics of Illusion in the Clinton Er a. Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 1994.

The State of America’s Children . Washington, D.C.: Children’s Defense Fund, 1994.

Tirman, John. Spoils of War: The Human Cost of the Arms Trade . New York: FreePress, 1997.

Chapter 25: The 2000 Election and the “War on Terrorism”

Ahmad, Eqbal. Terrorism, Theirs and Ours . (Interviews with David Barsamian). New York: Seven Stories Press, 2001.

Brecher, Jeremy, Costello, Tim, and Smith, Brendan. Globalization from Below . Boston: South End Press, 2002.

Chomsky, Noam. 9-11 . New York: Seven Stories Press, 2002.

Ehrenreich, Barbara. Nickeled and Dimed . New York: Henr y Holt, 2001.

Kaplan, Daniel. The Accidental President . New York: HarperCollins, 2000.

Lapham, Lewis. Theater o f War . New York: The New Press, 2002.

Nader, Ralph. Crashing the Part y. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001.

Zinn, Howard. Terrorism and War . (Interviews with Anthony Arnove). New York: Seven Stories Press, 2002.

Related Work

THE PEOPLE SPEAK – EXTENDED EDITION

The People Speak , the feature documentary inspired by  A People’s History of the United States  and based on live readings of  Voices of a People’s History of the United States ,  offers readings and performances of letters, diary entries, speeches, and songs from throughout U.S. history.  Read more .

La otra historia de los Estados Unidos

Translated by Toni Strubel

A People’s History of the United States in Spanish.  Read more .

VOICES OF A PEOPLE’S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES

Voices of a People’s History  is the companion volume to Howard Zinn’s  A People’s History of the United States  featuring selected testimonies to living history—speeches, letters, poems, songs—left by the people who make history happen but who usually are left out of history books.  Voices of a People’s History  is a symphony of our nation’s original voices, rich in ideas and actions, the embodiment of the power of civil disobedience and dissent wherein lies our nation’s true spirit of defiance and resilience.  Read more .

A Young People’s History of the United States

Adapted by Rebecca Stefoff with contributions by Ed Morales

A young adult version of the best-selling A People’s History of the United States . Updated and revised in 2023 with new contributions by Latinx scholar Ed Morales. This edition includes a new chapter, introduction, conclusion and further updates throughout the book expand our understanding of Latinx history in the United States through the political movements and cultural contributions of Latino Americans, as well as expanded coverage of Native history and Asian American activism. Read more .

Voices of a People’s History of the United States in the 21st Century

Edited by Anthony Arnove and Haley Pessin

Read, Learn, & Make History

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A People's History of the United States Paperback – Nov. 17 2015

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With a new introduction by Anthony Arnove, this updated edition of the classic national bestseller reviews the book’s thirty-five year history and demonstrates once again why it is a significant contribution to a complete and balanced understanding of American history.

Since its original landmark publication in 1980, A People's History of the United States has been chronicling American history from the bottom up, throwing out the official version of history taught in schools—with its emphasis on great men in high places—to focus on the street, the home, and the, workplace.

Known for its lively, clear prose as well as its scholarly research, A People's History of the United States is the only volume to tell America's story from the point of view of—and in the words of—America's women, factory workers, African-Americans, Native Americans, the working poor, and immigrant laborers. As historian Howard Zinn shows, many of our country's greatest battles—the fights for a fair wage, an eight-hour workday, child-labor laws, health and safety standards, universal suffrage, women's rights, racial equality—were carried out at the grassroots level, against bloody resistance.

Covering Christopher Columbus's arrival through President Clinton's first term, A People's History of the United States , which was nominated for the American Book Award in 1981, features insightful analysis of the most important events in our history. 

• Print length 784 pages
• Language English
• Publisher Harper Perennial Modern Classics
• Publication date Nov. 17 2015
• Dimensions 13.49 x 3.18 x 20.32 cm
• ISBN-10 0062397346
• ISBN-13 978-0062397348
• See all details

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“[ A People’s History of the United States is] one of the most important books I have ever read in a long life of reading...It’s a wonderful, splendid book--a book that should be read by every American, student or otherwise, who wants to understand his country, its true history, and its hope for the future.” — Howard Fast

“Professor Zinn writes with an enthusiasm rarely encountered in the leaden prose of academic history, and his text is studded with telling quotations from labor leaders, war resisters and fugitive slaves. . . . [It] should be required reading.” — Eric Foner, New York Times Book Review

"Howard Zinn's work literally changed the conscience of a generation. And the series of 'people's histories' derived from this great work have provided new understanding of who we are and what we should aspire to be."  — Noam Chomsky

"A brilliant and moving history of the American people." — Library Journal

"A brilliantly written story about the U.S. through the lives of those too often overlooked." — Time magazine

About the Author

Howard Zinn (1922–2010) was a historian, playwright, and social activist. In addition to A People’s History of the United States , which has sold more than two million copies, he is the author of many books, including the autobiography You Can’t Be Neutral on a Moving Train , The People Speak , and Passionate Declarations . 

Product details

• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Harper Perennial Modern Classics; Reissue edition (Nov. 17 2015)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 784 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0062397346
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0062397348
• Item weight ‏ : ‎ 1.05 kg
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 13.49 x 3.18 x 20.32 cm
• #7 in United States Civil War (Books)
• #7 in History of the U.S. Civil War
• #68 in Social History (Books)

About the author

Howard zinn.

Howard Zinn (1922-2010) was a historian, playwright, and activist. He wrote the classic A People's History of the United States, "a brilliant and moving history of the American people from the point of view of those ... whose plight has been largely omitted from most histories" (Library Journal). The book, which has sold more than two million copies, has been featured on The Sopranos and Simpsons, and in the film Good Will Hunting. In 2009, History aired The People Speak, an acclaimed documentary co-directed by Zinn, based on A People's History and a companion volume, Voices of a People's History of the United States.

Zinn grew up in Brooklyn in a working-class, immigrant household. At 18 he became a shipyard worker and then flew bomber missions during World War II. These experiences helped shape his opposition to war and passion for history. After attending college under the GI Bill and earning a Ph.D. in history from Columbia, he taught at Spelman, where he became active in the civil rights movement. After being fired by Spelman for his support for student protesters, Zinn became a professor of Political Science at Boston University, were he taught until his retirement in 1988.

Zinn was the author of many books, including an autobiography, You Can't Be Neutral on a Moving Train, the play Marx in Soho, and Passionate Declarations. He received the Lannan Foundation Literary Award for Nonfiction and the Eugene V. Debs award for his writing and political activism.

Photographer Photo Credit Name: Robert Birnbaum.

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A People’s History of the United States

Howard zinn, ask litcharts ai: the answer to your questions.

Welcome to the LitCharts study guide on Howard Zinn's A People’s History of the United States . Created by the original team behind SparkNotes, LitCharts are the world's best literature guides.

A People’s History: Introduction

A people’s history: plot summary, a people’s history: detailed summary & analysis, a people’s history: themes, a people’s history: quotes, a people’s history: characters, a people’s history: terms, a people’s history: symbols, a people’s history: theme wheel, brief biography of howard zinn.

Other Books Related to A People’s History of the United States

• Full Title: A People’s History of the United States: 1492-Present
• When Written: Late 1970s
• Where Written: Boston, Massachusetts, USA
• When Published: Fall 1980
• Literary Period: Revisionist history, left-wing history
• Genre: Nonfiction, history
• Antagonist: The Establishment (the elite, powerful people of the United States)
• Point of View: Third person omniscient

Extra Credit for A People’s History of the United States

Hey, if Matt Damon loved it … . Hundreds of famous people have listed A People’s History of the United States as one of their favorite books. One of the book’s more high-profile endorsements came in the 1997 Academy Award-winning film Good Will Hunting . In one scene, Matt Damon, playing a genius, tells Robin Williams to read Zinn’s book, adding, “that book’ll knock you on your ass.” Matt Damon and Ben Affleck, the movie’s screenwriters and stars, had grown up a few doors down from Zinn’s house and were close family friends.

A memorable death-day. Howard Zinn was one of the most beloved historians of the second half of the 20th century. On the day Zinn died, however, relatively few news outlets ran stories about his passing. The reason? On the same day, an even more beloved American writer died: J. D. Salinger.

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Book Reviews

New collection asks: what might the 'people's future' look like.

Arkady Martine

A People's Future of the United States

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This collection of 25 stories from speculative fiction's sharpest voices presents visions of future Americas that are born, bloody and aching, from the peril and difficulty of this present moment.

In his introduction, editor Victor LaValle writes about how this book derives from the project of its namesake, Howard Zinn's A People's History of the United States — the story of this place, as told by its people, all of its people. Indigenous and immigrant, female and queer and poor, rural and urban; a history spoken by the voiceless. This collection is full of futures which belong to the same people Zinn centered.

They are, in majority, not comfortable or easy futures — nor would one expect them to be, derived as they are from the second year of the Trump presidency and its pervasive damage to the marginalized of the United States. Several of these stories are brutal in their plausible despair — but all of them are rich with an undercurrent of, if not resistance, then the profound resilience of human beings, particularly those who have too often been denied rights and voices. As a whole, the collection challenges the ideas of who the people of the future United States might be — and therefore also challenges assumptions about who the people of the United States are now.

While not every story here is equally strong, the best of them all have small acts of defiance and connections between the marginalized at their hearts. Of particular note is Sam Miller's "It Was Saturday Night, I Guess That Makes It All Right," in which a re-closeted gay man in a homophobic, surveillance-culture United States discovers a radical, magical transformative power in orgasm — a power which can both remake the broken and ruined world around him and which seems to be a sexually transmitted disease, spreading like an inverse HIV to pass resistance from one queer person to another, creating a network of rekindled agency rooted in desire across the landscape of post-industrial upstate New York.

Author Interviews

Victor lavalle on mental illness, monsters, survival.

PG-13: Risky Reads

Slaughter in the subway: a tale of new york terror.

Equally powerful is Lizz Huerta's "The Wall," set in Mexico after a militarized, anti-immigrant United States has not only built a border wall but created a method of brainwashing American soldiers to eliminate resistance. The protagonists of this story are the leaders and builders of a new society on the Mexican side of the wall, concerned with water rights, self-sovereignty, and using what forms of indigenous magic they have rediscovered to create a place where even brainwashed border patrol agents might have a chance to become people again.

Information, information technology, and information control feature in most of these futures. This is unsurprising given the current information landscape. The rise of social media and its accompanying privacy concerns, and the accelerating development of corporate-driven surveillance have created deep social tensions and a growing distrust in our systems of understanding truthful and valid communication. For the marginalized, even in this present United States, there is the possibility that allowing governments or corporate entities access to personal information may mean the loss of freedom of expression, freedom of identity, and even loss of life and home. These themes are pressed to their logical limits within the stories in this book.

Maria Davana Headley's "Burn After Reading" imagines a cult of librarians who practice living anthropodermy — preserving the censored world of literature and political thought on their own skins while alive, and then on every surface of their bodies after they die. Malka Older's "Chapter Five: Disruption and Continuity (excerpted)" traces a future history of social movements online through the medium of an invented textbook — which turns out not to be a textbook at all, but a thought experiment in the shape of a textbook, written by a protagonist practicing "virtual history," the subject of the textbook they are writing. And A. Merc Rustad's "Our Aim Is Not To Die" is a moving, terrifying, and hopeful exploration of an autistic person in an ableist, surveillance-controlled future America who discovers an artificial intelligence who might be the closest thing they have to a real ally.

A People's Future of the United States is not a simple read, nor a comfortable one. It begins from the premise that our current precarious situation will almost certainly get much worse. But within all of the futures contained here, there remain people, people whose marginalizations, whose existence on the edges of what some ideologies would think of as America, have given them profound depths of resilience. These futures are not easy. But they show us how we too might find ways to live, and live well, no matter what is coming.

Arkady Martine is a speculative fiction writer, a Byzantinist, and a city planner — the latter two as Dr. AnnaLinden Weller. She tweets @ArkadyMartine.

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A People's History of the United States: 1492 to Present Paperback – August 21, 2001

Library Journal calls Howard Zinn’s iconic A People's History of the United States “a brilliant and moving history of the American people from the point of view of those…whose plight has been largely omitted from most histories.” Packed with vivid details and telling quotations, Zinn’s award-winning classic continues to revolutionize the way American history is taught and remembered. Frequent appearances in popular media such as The Sopranos , The Simpsons , Good Will Hunting , and the History Channel documentary The People Speak testify to Zinn’s ability to bridge the generation gap with enduring insights into the birth, development, and destiny of the nation.

• Print length 720 pages
• Language English
• Publisher HarpPerenM
• Publication date August 21, 2001
• Dimensions 1.25 x 5.25 x 7.75 inches
• ISBN-10 0060937319
• ISBN-13 978-0060937317
• See all details

Editorial Reviews

From the back cover.

Known for its lively, clear prose as well as its scholarly research, A People's History of the United States is the only volume to tell America's story from the point of view of -- and in the words of -- America's women, factory workers, African Americans, Native Americans, working poor, and immigrant laborers.

Covering Christopher Columbus's arrival through President Clinton's first term, A People's History of the United States features insightful analysis of the most important events in our history. Revised, updated, and featuring a new afterword by the author, this is "a brilliant and moving history of the American people" (Library Journal).

About the Author

Howard Zinn (1922-2010) was a historian, playwright, and social activist. His many books include A People's History of the United States , which has sold more than two million copies.

Product details

• Publisher ‏ : ‎ HarpPerenM; First PB Edition, First Printing (August 21, 2001)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 720 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0060937319
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0060937317
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 1.35 pounds
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 1.25 x 5.25 x 7.75 inches
• #208 in Democracy (Books)
• #4,020 in United States History (Books)

About the author

Howard zinn.

Howard Zinn (1922-2010) was a historian, playwright, and activist. He wrote the classic A People's History of the United States, "a brilliant and moving history of the American people from the point of view of those ... whose plight has been largely omitted from most histories" (Library Journal). The book, which has sold more than two million copies, has been featured on The Sopranos and Simpsons, and in the film Good Will Hunting. In 2009, History aired The People Speak, an acclaimed documentary co-directed by Zinn, based on A People's History and a companion volume, Voices of a People's History of the United States.

Zinn grew up in Brooklyn in a working-class, immigrant household. At 18 he became a shipyard worker and then flew bomber missions during World War II. These experiences helped shape his opposition to war and passion for history. After attending college under the GI Bill and earning a Ph.D. in history from Columbia, he taught at Spelman, where he became active in the civil rights movement. After being fired by Spelman for his support for student protesters, Zinn became a professor of Political Science at Boston University, were he taught until his retirement in 1988.

Zinn was the author of many books, including an autobiography, You Can't Be Neutral on a Moving Train, the play Marx in Soho, and Passionate Declarations. He received the Lannan Foundation Literary Award for Nonfiction and the Eugene V. Debs award for his writing and political activism.

Photographer Photo Credit Name: Robert Birnbaum.

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…And Read All Over

A blog about language and linguistics by Joe McVeigh

Book review: An Indigenous Peoples’ History of the United States by Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz

One of the most viewed posts on this blog is my review/comparison of the books A People’s History of the United States by Howard Zinn and A Patriot’s History of the United States by Schweikart and Allen. I intended to read through both books and compare them chapter by chapter, but I gave up after a while – mostly because it was clear that the latter book was simply an attempt to rewrite history to confirm social conservatives’ belief that they are the best. It was propaganda for nationalists.

Whatever those two books are, neither of them hold a candle to An Indigenous Peoples’ History of the United States by Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz. This book is heavy . The history related by Dunbar-Ortiz is raw and you need to know about it if you want to call yourself an American. Let’s get into it.

Dunbar-Ortiz explains in the introduction that people need to rethink what they have been taught about American history. US history is not as positive as they think because it is a history of settler colonialism and genocide. Her book is designed to question how acknowledging the reality of US history – white supremacist ideologies, slavery, government-condoned murder of Indigenous peoples – can work to transform the today’s society (p. 2). Dunbar-Ortiz starts by reframing the origin narrative of the US, which says that Manifest Destiny gave Europeans the belief system they needed to claim that they had a right to the lands that they “discovered” and to remove or kill the Indigenous people already living there (p. 3).

Taking the true history of the US into account, which is something that Dunbar-Ortiz points out that previous histories of America have not done, will force us to take responsibility for the effects that actions in the past are having on the present. And Dunbar-Ortiz’s book is not about to let you put aside responsibility. Trust me. In fact, Dunbar-Ortiz shows that failing to account for the history of Indigenous peoples in the US (I’m looking at you, Schweikart and Allen) has always been wrong and it has played a central role in the murderous colonialism pursued by the US government throughout history:

Awareness of the settler-colonialism context of US history writing is essential if one is to avoid the laziness of the default position and the trap of a mythological unconscious belief in manifest destiny. The form of colonialism that the Indigenous peoples of North America have experienced was modern from the beginning: the expansion of European corporations, backed by government armies, into foreign areas, with subsequent expropriation of lands and resources. Settler colonialism is a genocidal policy. […] The objective of US colonialist authorities was to terminate their existence as peoples – not as random individuals. […] The United States as a socioeconomic and political entity is a result of this centuries-long and ongoing colonial process. Today’s Indigenous nationals and communities are societies formed by their resistance to colonialism, through which they have carried their practices and histories. It is breathtaking, but no miracle, that they have survived as peoples. (pp. 6-7)

After the introduction, An Indigenous Peoples’ History is set up in a chronological format. For me, each chapter filled in gaps in my knowledge of US history – gaps from things that I wasn’t taught in school or from things that I was taught incorrectly. For example, most of us think that there was an end to the Revolutionary War and then the country got started in creating itself as a political power. But Dunbar-Ortiz gives us a good reality check here. In describing what happened after the United States won the Revolutionary War against the British in 1783, she says:

Wars continued for another century, unrelentingly and without pause, and the march across the continent used the same strategy and tactics of scorched earth and annihilation with increasingly deadly firepower. Somehow, even “genocide” seems an inadequate description for what happened, yet rather than viewing it with horror, most Americans have conceived of it as their country’s manifest destiny. (p. 79)

It’s not just that my teachers didn’t teach me this. This kind of stuff just isn’t out there, although hopefully it is more these days. And I hope that An Indigenous Peoples’ History gets as much press as possible so people are able to also fill in the gaps left by their high school textbooks.

Dunbar-Ortiz also sets some stereotypes straight when she points out that alcohol has been a tool of colonialists throughout history and around the world. It’s not just Native Americans that are prone to alcohol abuse, it’s subjugated people everywhere as colonialists make alcohol readily and cheaply available so that they (and usually their Christian missionaries) can take advantage of dysfunctional conditions and further place communities into submission. Now you know.

As Dunbar-Ortiz moves through US history, she defines the identity of non-Indigenous people as being militaristic at its core:

The cumulative effect goes beyond simply the habitual use of military means and becomes the very basis for US American identity. The Indian-fighting frontiersmen and the “valiant” settlers in their circled covered wagons are the iconic images of that identity. (p. 94)

So it’s no surprise that the US frequently embarks on international military interventions. In fact, the US militaristic/colonialist identity is, according to Dunbar-Ortiz, the result of centuries of European colonialism and imperialism (p. 96). When it comes to the US, the narrative of American exceptionalism is defined and reinforced to exclude Indigenous people and non-whites from the story (pp. 104-105, 107). This narrative gets told over and over again throughout US history so that it becomes a basis for American identity, but it is grounded in a myth in order to avoid the realities of history.

Those realities of US history, which Dunbar-Ortiz’s book points out, are not for the faint of heart. They are real and they are gruesome. Trigger warning, here are some of them:

The US forces arrived on the edge of Prophet’s Town at dawn on November 6, 1811. Seeing no alternative to overriding his brother’s instructions, Tenskwatawa led an assault before dawn the following morning. Only after some two hundred of the Indigenous residents had fallen did the troops overpower them, burning the town, destroying the granary, and looting, even digging up graves and mutilating the corpses. This was the famous “battle” of Tippecanoe that made [William Henry] Harrison a frontier hero to the settlers and later helped elect him president. (p. 86)

In the aftermath of “the Battle of Horseshoe Bend,” as it is known in US military annals, [Andrew] Jackson’s troops fashioned reins for their horses’ bridles from skin stripped from the Muskogee bodies, and they saw to it that souvenirs from the corpses were given to “to the ladies of Tennessee”. (p. 99)

In adopting total war in the West, Sherman brought in its most notorious avatar, George Armstrong Custer, who proved his mettle right away by leading an attack on unarmed civilians on November 27, 1868 […] All told, the Seventh Cavalry murdered over a hundred Cheyenne women and children that day, taking ghoulish trophies afterward. (pp. 145-6)

And those aren’t even the worst ones in the book, let alone the history of the US. Lest you think that those horrors all belong to the past, Dunbar-Ortiz shows that today “One in three Native American women has been raped or experienced attempted rape, and the rate of sexual assault on Native American women is more than twice the national average” (p. 214).

The theme of movement is central in America history and culture. It even turns up in discussions about Superman being the quintessential American because he is literally unrestrained in his movement. But back to reality, Dunbar-Ortiz shows that the expansion of US territory from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific – from sea to shining sea – was not natural at all and that it mostly involved settlers being accompanied by military regiments, especially in the goldfields of California and the Willamette Valley region of the Pacific Northwest. Dunbar-Ortiz asks:

Why then does the popular US historical narrative of a “natural” westward movement persist? The answer is that those who still hold to the narrative remain captives of the ideology of “manifest destiny,” according to which the United States expanded across the continent to assume its preordained size and shape. This ideology normalizes the successive invasions and occupations of Indigenous nations and Mexico as not being colonialist or imperialist, rather simply ordained progress. In this view, Mexico was just another Indian nation to be crushed. (p. 118)

Dunbar-Ortiz brings this knowledge to bear on the present day by taking a critical look at modern society and beliefs. She talks about the “race to innocence” in the US, or the assumption that new immigrants and their children cannot be responsible for what happened in the country’s past. She points out that the effects of the past can be seen in today’s society – in the “trillions spent on war machinery, military bases, and personnel instead of social services and quality public education” and in the profit margins of corporations which pay minimal taxes and in the repression and oppression of poor people and activists. And how white immigrants and their children benefit from the US’s settler-colonial past, while non-whites are harmed by it. As Dunbar-Ortiz points out, the US has not come to terms with its past and these are symptoms of a “deeply troubled society” (p. 229).

If these examples are too abstract for you, just look around for concrete symptoms of our troubled society:

Here’s a story about Michigan trying to make English its official language. There are twelve federally recognized native American nations in Michigan. https://www.thesouthend.wayne.edu/features/article_fd6d5dba-4692-11e8-b1e7-6b84e7e66f05.html

Here’s a story about armed Trump supporters asking Arizona state representative and Navajo Eric Descheenie if he is in the US “legally.” https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/trump-supporters-navajo-legislator-legal/

Here’s a story about Cahokia, which was the largest city in the US before 1400 AD and was located across the Mississippi River from St. Louis. You may know it as the mound city. Early (non-indigenous) archeologists tried to attribute the building of the city to literally any group of people besides American Indians. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/white-settlers-buried-truth-about-midwests-mysterious-mound-cities-180968246/

Here’s a story about how Native Americans were murdered because they had more money than the white people around them. https://www.npr.org/2018/04/06/600136534/largely-forgotten-osage-murders-reveal-a-conspiracy-against-wealthy-native-ameri

Here’s a story about two Native American teenagers being detained on a college campus tour because some lady thought they looked like “they don’t belong”: https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/may/04/native-american-students-colorado-state-college-tour-police . And here are Native people talking about the hate and violence they’ve received for just being: https://twitter.com/John_A_Little/status/993984296561111040 .

Here’s a story about mapping out the missing and murdered Indigenous women in the US and Canada and how many problems there are in finding and identifying them: https://rewire.news/article/2018/04/27/mapping-missing-murdered-native-women-want-story-meaning/ . The hashtag is #MMIW .

I found Dunbar-Ortiz’s book informative and enjoyable (if that’s the right word considering the topic). I highly recommend it. If I had to levy a criticism against it, I would say that it could have a used a few maps. My knowledge of US geography is quite good, but a few historical maps would have helped show the movement and displacement of Indigenous peoples through history. You can find An Indigenous Peoples’ History of the United States here .

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Jim Crow Laws

By: History.com Editors

Updated: January 22, 2024 | Original: February 28, 2018

Jim Crow laws were a collection of state and local statutes that legalized racial segregation . Named after a Black minstrel show character, the laws—which existed for about 100 years, from the post- Civil War era until 1968—were meant to marginalize African Americans by denying them the right to vote, hold jobs, get an education or other opportunities. Those who attempted to defy Jim Crow laws often faced arrest, fines, jail sentences, violence and death.

Black Codes

The roots of Jim Crow laws began as early as 1865, immediately following the ratification of the 13th Amendment , which abolished slavery in the United States.

Black codes were strict local and state laws that detailed when, where and how formerly enslaved people could work, and for how much compensation. The codes appeared throughout the South as a legal way to put Black citizens into indentured servitude, to take voting rights away, to control where they lived and how they traveled and to seize children for labor purposes.

The legal system was stacked against Black citizens, with former Confederate soldiers working as police and judges, making it difficult for African Americans to win court cases and ensuring they were subject to Black codes.

These codes worked in conjunction with labor camps for the incarcerated, where prisoners were treated as enslaved people. Black offenders typically received longer sentences than their white equals, and because of the grueling work, often did not live out their entire sentence.

Ku Klux Klan

During the Reconstruction era, local governments, as well as the national Democratic Party and President Andrew Johnson , thwarted efforts to help Black Americans move forward.

Violence was on the rise, making danger a regular aspect of African American life. Black schools were vandalized and destroyed, and bands of violent white people attacked, tortured and lynched Black citizens in the night. Families were attacked and forced off their land all across the South.

The most ruthless organization of the Jim Crow era, the Ku Klux Klan , was born in 1865 in Pulaski, Tennessee , as a private club for Confederate veterans.

The KKK grew into a secret society terrorizing Black communities and seeping through white Southern culture, with members at the highest levels of government and in the lowest echelons of criminal back alleys.

Jim Crow Laws Expand

At the start of the 1880s, big cities in the South were not wholly beholden to Jim Crow laws and Black Americans found more freedom in them.

This led to substantial Black populations moving to the cities and, as the decade progressed, white city dwellers demanded more laws to limit opportunities for African Americans.

Jim Crow laws soon spread around the country with even more force than previously. Public parks were forbidden for African Americans to enter, and theaters and restaurants were segregated.

Segregated waiting rooms in bus and train stations were required, as well as water fountains, restrooms, building entrances, elevators, cemeteries, even amusement-park cashier windows.

Laws forbade African Americans from living in white neighborhoods. Segregation was enforced for public pools, phone booths, hospitals, asylums, jails and residential homes for the elderly and handicapped.

Some states required separate textbooks for Black and white students. New Orleans mandated the segregation of prostitutes according to race. In Atlanta, African Americans in court were given a different Bible from white people to swear on. Marriage and cohabitation between white and Black people was strictly forbidden in most Southern states.

It was not uncommon to see signs posted at town and city limits warning African Americans that they were not welcome there.

Ida B. Wells

As oppressive as the Jim Crow era was, it was also a time when many African Americans around the country stepped forward into leadership roles to vigorously oppose the laws.

Memphis teacher Ida B. Wells became a prominent activist against Jim Crow laws after refusing to leave a first-class train car designated for white people only. A conductor forcibly removed her and she successfully sued the railroad, though that decision was later reversed by a higher court.

Angry at the injustice, Wells devoted herself to fighting Jim Crow laws. Her vehicle for dissent was newspaper writing: In 1889 she became co-owner of the Memphis Free Speech and Headlight and used her position to take on school segregation and sexual harassment.

Wells traveled throughout the South to publicize her work and advocated for the arming of Black citizens. Wells also investigated lynchings and wrote about her findings.

A mob destroyed her newspaper and threatened her with death, forcing her to move to the North, where she continued her efforts against Jim Crow laws and lynching.

Charlotte Hawkins Brown

Charlotte Hawkins Brown was a North Carolina-born, Massachusetts-raised Black woman who returned to her birthplace at the age of 17, in 1901, to work as a teacher for the American Missionary Association.

After funding was withdrawn for that school, Brown began fundraising to start her own school, named the Palmer Memorial Institute.

Brown became the first Black woman to create a Black school in North Carolina and through her education work became a fierce and vocal opponent of Jim Crow laws.

Isaiah Montgomery

Not everyone battled for equal rights within white society—some chose a separatist approach.

Convinced by Jim Crow laws that Black and white people could not live peaceably together, formerly enslaved Isaiah Montgomery created the African American-only town of Mound Bayou, Mississippi , in 1887.

Montgomery recruited other former enslaved people to settle in the wilderness with him, clearing the land and forging a settlement that included several schools, an Andrew Carnegie -funded library, a hospital, three cotton gins, a bank and a sawmill. Mound Bayou still exists today, and is still almost 100 percent Black.

Jim Crow Laws in the 20th Century

As the 20th century progressed, Jim Crow laws flourished within an oppressive society marked by violence.

Following World War I , the NAACP noted that lynchings had become so prevalent that it sent investigator Walter White to the South. White had lighter skin and could infiltrate white hate groups.

As lynchings increased, so did race riots, with at least 25 across the United States over several months in 1919, a period sometimes referred to as “ Red Summer .” In retaliation, white authorities charged Black communities with conspiring to conquer white America.

With Jim Crow dominating the landscape, education increasingly under attack and few opportunities for Black college graduates, the Great Migration of the 1920s saw a significant migration of educated Black people out of the South, spurred on by publications like The Chicago Defender , which encouraged Black Americans to move north.

Read by millions of Southern Black people, white people attempted to ban the newspaper and threatened violence against any caught reading or distributing it.

The poverty of the Great Depression only deepened resentment, with a rise in lynchings, and after World War II , even Black veterans returning home met with segregation and violence.

Jim Crow in the North

The North was not immune to Jim Crow-like laws. Some states required Black people to own property before they could vote, schools and neighborhoods were segregated, and businesses displayed “Whites Only” signs.

In Ohio, segregationist Allen Granbery Thurman ran for governor in 1867 promising to bar Black citizens from voting. After he narrowly lost that political race, Thurman was appointed to the U.S. Senate, where he fought to dissolve Reconstruction-era reforms benefiting African Americans.

After World War II , suburban developments in the North and South were created with legal covenants that did not allow Black families, and Black people often found it difficult or impossible to obtain mortgages for homes in certain “red-lined” neighborhoods.

When Did Jim Crow Laws End?

The post-World War II era saw an increase in civil rights activities in the African American community, with a focus on ensuring that Black citizens were able to vote. This ushered in the civil rights movement , resulting in the removal of Jim Crow laws.

In 1948 President Harry Truman ordered integration in the military, and in 1954, the Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that educational segregation was unconstitutional, bringing to an end the era of “separate-but-equal” education.

In 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act , which legally ended the segregation that had been institutionalized by Jim Crow laws.

And in 1965, the Voting Rights Act halted efforts to keep minorities from voting. The Fair Housing Act of 1968, which ended discrimination in renting and selling homes, followed.

Jim Crow laws were technically off the books, though that has not always guaranteed full integration or adherence to anti-racism laws throughout the United States. Several recent pieces of legislation—such as House Bill 1020 in Mississippi, which aimed to disenfranchise the majority-Black capital city of Jackson by creating a new judicial district overseen by white leaders—are often compared to Jim Crow laws.

The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow. Richard Wormser . Segregated America. Smithsonian Institute . Jim Crow Laws. National Park Service . “Exploiting Black Labor After the Abolition of Slavery.” The Conversation . “Hundreds of black Americans were killed during 'Red Summer.' A century later, still ignored.” Associated Press/USA Today . “Here's What's Become Of A Historic All-Black Town In The Mississippi Delta.” NPR . 

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Interim Clinical Considerations for Use of COVID-19 Vaccines: Appendices, References, and Previous Updates

Some 2023-2024 COVID-19 vaccines will expire in summer 2024. Expiration dates vary by manufacturer and vaccine. Always check the expiration date or beyond-use date/time to ensure it has not passed. Never use expired vaccine or diluent .

See the Interim Clinical Considerations for Use of COVID-19 Vaccines in the United States for information on interchangeability of COVID-19 vaccines .

• New guidance on COVID-19 vaccination and pemivibart (Pemgarda™), a monoclonal antibody authorized for COVID-19 pre-exposure prophylaxis in people who are moderately or severely immunocompromised and meet the FDA-authorized conditions for use .

Appendix A. People who received COVID-19 vaccine outside the United States

Everyone ages 6 months and older vaccinated outside the United States should receive at least 1 dose of an updated (2023–­2024 Formula) COVID-19 vaccine regardless of past COVID-19 vaccination history (e.g., vaccine type[s], vaccine manufacturer[s], number of doses) unless they received an updated (2023­­–2024 Formula) COVID-19 vaccine that is FDA-approved or FDA-authorized (i.e., Moderna, Novavax, Pfizer-BioNTech) or listed for emergency use by the World Health Organization (WHO) . COVID-19 vaccines that are listed for emergency use by WHO, but are not approved or authorized by FDA, have not been evaluated for efficacy or safety by CDC or ACIP.

Recommendations for people who were vaccinated outside the United States, but have not received an updated (2023–­­2024 Formula) COVID-19 vaccine are as follows:

• Previously received doses of COVID-19 vaccines that are FDA-approved, FDA-authorized or listed for emergency use by WHO: Administer 1 age-appropriate dose of an updated (2023–­­2024 Formula) COVID-19 vaccine at least 8 weeks after the last COVID-19 vaccine dose ( Table 1 ). NOTE : People ages 65 years and older should receive 1 additional dose of updated (2023–2024 Formula) COVID-19 vaccine ( Table 1 ).
• Previously received doses of COVID-19 vaccines that are  not FDA-approved, FDA-authorized, or listed for emergency use by WHO: The doses do not count towards vaccination in the United States and these people are considered unvaccinated; initiate vaccination at least 8 weeks after the last COVID-19 vaccine dose ( Table 1 ).
• Previously received doses of COVID-19 vaccines that are FDA-approved, FDA-authorized, or listed for emergency use by WHO: The doses count towards vaccination in the United States; administer the number of age-appropriate doses of an updated (2023–2024 Formula) mRNA COVID-19 vaccine based on the schedule in Table 1 or Table 2 .
• Previously received doses of COVID-19 vaccines that are not FDA-approved, FDA-authorized, or listed for emergency use by WHO: The doses do not count towards vaccination in the United States and these people are considered unvaccinated; initiate vaccination at least 8 weeks after the last COVID-19 vaccine dose Table 1 or Table 2 .

Special situation: If unable to determine if a previously received vaccine dose was an updated (2023­–­2024 Formula) COVID-19 vaccine, do not count and follow guidance for administering an updated (2023­–­2024 Formula) COVID-19 vaccine dose.

Appendix B. Vaccine administration errors and deviations

A vaccine administration error is any preventable event that might cause or lead to inappropriate use of vaccine or to patient harm.

The package insert or EUA fact sheet for healthcare providers  should be referenced for detailed information on storage and handling, dosing and schedule, dose preparation, and administration of COVID-19 vaccines. The information provided below on managing vaccine administration errors should not be interpreted as a recommendation or promotion of unauthorized use of the vaccines.

For all vaccine administration errors:

• Inform the recipient of the vaccine administration error.
• Consult with the state immunization program and/or immunization information system (IIS) to determine how the dose should be entered into the IIS.
• Determine how the error occurred and implement strategies to prevent it from happening again. A discussion on strategies to prevent errors can be found in the “Vaccine Administration” chapter of Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (Pink Book). Additional resources can be found on CDC’s vaccine administration  web page, including a job aid for preventing errors.
• Follow the revaccination guidance in the table below, using an age-appropriate COVID-19 vaccine product. Then continue with the recommended schedule for subsequent dose(s) unless otherwise noted in Table B.

COVID-19 vaccine administration errors—even those not associated with an adverse event—should be reported to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS). To file an electronic report, see the  VAERS website .

Table B. Interim recommendations for COVID-19 vaccine administration errors and deviations

* In addition to the minimum age, for children who are not moderately or severely immunocompromised, some experts suggest delaying the repeat dose for  8 weeks after the invalid dose based on the potential for increased reactogenicity and the rare risk of myocarditis and pericarditis associated with mRNA COVID-19 vaccines.

† If the administration error resulted in a higher-than-authorized vaccine dose, in general a subsequent dose may still be administered at the recommended interval. However, if local or systemic side effects following vaccination are clinically concerning (outside of the expected side effect profile) or are ongoing at the time of the subsequent dose, this dose might be delayed, but this decision should be assessed on a case-by-case basis.

‡ FDA authorization allows for dosing options in certain situations when a child ages from a younger to older age group; see Transitioning from a younger to older age group . If the dosing is in accordance with the FDA EUA, it is not considered an error and VAERS reporting is not indicated.

§ For people ages 6 months–64 years who are not moderately or severely immunocompromised, some experts suggest delaying the dose for 8 weeks after the dose given in error based on the potential for increased reactogenicity and the rare risk of myocarditis and pericarditis observed in mRNA (Moderna or Pfizer-BioNTech) and Novavax COVID-19 vaccine recipients, particularly males ages 12–39 years. For additional information, see Considerations for extended intervals for COVID-19 vaccine doses .

¶ As of the date of this update, current manufacturer contact information is:

• Pfizer-BioNTech: 1-877-VAX-CO19 (1-877-829-2619)
• Moderna: 1-866-MODERNA (1-866-663-3762)
• Novavax: 1-844-NOVAVAX (1-844-668-2829)

See the package inserts and EUA fact sheets  for the most up-to-date manufacturer information.

# Vaccine doses administered up to 4 days before the minimum interval may be counted and do not need to be repeated.

References and Previous Updates

• ACIP COVID-19 Vaccine Recommendations | CDC
• COVID-19 Vaccines | FDA
• COVID-19 Vaccine Emergency Use Instructions (EUI) Resources | CDC
• ACIP General Best Practice Guidelines for Immunization

March 1, 2024

• All people ages 65 years and older should receive 1 additional dose of any updated (2023–2024 Formula) COVID-19 vaccine (i.e., Moderna, Novavax, Pfizer-BioNTech). For detailed guidance, see Table 1 and Table 2 .
• Updated information for reporting adverse events to VAERS following administration of a COVID-19 vaccine.

February 12, 2024

• Post-vaccination reaction information updated in sections on pre-vaccination counseling and safety considerations for mRNA and Novavax vaccines to better align with EUA fact sheets for healthcare providers and package inserts.
• Information on the availability of the V-safe safety monitoring system for updated (2023–2024 Formula) Moderna, Novavax, and Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccines added to the section on reporting of vaccine adverse events.

January 18, 2024

• Updated guidance on COVID-19 vaccine administration errors and deviations (Appendix B)

November 3, 2023

• Guidance added to COVID-19 vaccination schedules for correct dosage and administration of updated (2023–2024 Formula) Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine in children ages 6 months–11 years.

October 24, 2023

• Age transitions: Updated guidance for children who transition during the initial COVID-19 vaccination series from age 4 years to age 5 years and children who are moderately or severely immunocompromised and transition from age 11 years to age 12 years to receive the age-appropriate dosage based on their age on the day of vaccination.
• Interchangeability of COVID-19 vaccines: Clarification of circumstances in which administration of COVID-19 vaccine doses from different manufacturers may be considered when doses from the same manufacturer are recommended.

October 6, 2023

• Initial vaccination: 2 doses of updated (2023–2024 Formula) Novavax COVID-19 Vaccine
• Previously vaccinated with any Original monovalent or bivalent COVID-19 vaccine (Moderna, Novavax, Pfizer-BioNTech, Janssen): 1 dose of updated (2023–2024 Formula) Novavax Vaccine
• People who are moderately or severely immunocompromised may receive 1 or more additional updated (2023–­­2024 Formula) Novavax vaccine doses.
• People ages 12 years and older have the option of receiving either the updated (2023–2024 Formula) mRNA (Moderna, Pfizer-BioNTech) or updated (2023–2024 Formula) Novavax vaccine.

September 15, 2023

• Everyone ages 5 years and older is recommended to receive 1 dose of updated (2023–­2024 Formula) mRNA COVID-19 vaccine
• Initial vaccination: should receive either 2 doses of updated (2023­–2024 Formula) Moderna or 3 doses of updated (2023–­2024 Formula) Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine
• Received previous mRNA doses: need 1 or 2 doses of updated (2023–­2024 Formula) Moderna or updated (2023­–­2024 Formula) Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, depending on the number of prior doses
• Initial vaccination: should receive a 3-dose series of updated (2023–­2024 Formula) Moderna or updated (2023–­2024 Formula) Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine
• Received previous mRNA doses: need 1 or 2 doses of updated (2023­–2024 Formula) Moderna or updated (2023–­2024 Formula) Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, depending on the number of prior doses
• May receive 1 or more additional updated (2023–­­2024 Formula) mRNA COVID-19 vaccine doses
• Bivalent mRNA COVID-19 vaccines are no longer recommended in the United States
• Updated guidance for COVID-19 vaccination and myocarditis or pericarditis
• Updated guidance for COVID-19 vaccination and Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome (MIS) in children (MIS-C) and in adults (MIS-A)
• Reorganization and consolidation of sections on contraindications and precautions, including allergic reactions to COVID-19 vaccines

May 12, 2023

• Guidance for use of Janssen COVID-19 Vaccine has been removed as the vaccine is no longer available in the United States

May 1, 2023

• At the time of initial vaccination, people ages 6 months and older are recommended to receive 3 bivalent mRNA doses
• People ages 6 months and older who previously received only monovalent doses are recommended to receive 1 or 2 bivalent mRNA vaccine doses, depending on age and vaccine product
• People who previously received a bivalent mRNA vaccine dose(s) have the option to receive 1 or more additional bivalent mRNA doses

April 22, 2023

• At the time of initial vaccination, depending on vaccine product, children ages 6 months–4 years are recommended to receive 2 or 3 bivalent mRNA vaccine doses; children age 5 years are recommended to receive 1 or 2 bivalent mRNA vaccine doses
• People ages 6 years and older who are unvaccinated or previously received only monovalent vaccine doses are recommended to receive 1 bivalent mRNA vaccine dose
• People ages 65 years and older may receive 1 additional bivalent mRNA vaccine dose

March 16, 2023

• New recommendation for children ages 6 months–4 years who previously completed a 3-dose monovalent Pfizer-BioNTech primary series to receive 1 bivalent Pfizer-BioNTech booster dose at least 2 months after completion of the monovalent primary series.
• Vaccination providers are now required to report cases of myocarditis and pericarditis after receipt of a Janssen COVID-19 Vaccine to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS).

January 27, 2023

• As of January 26, 2023, EVUSHELD TM is not currently authorized for SARS-CoV-2 pre-exposure prophylaxis in the United States.

December 9, 2022

• New recommendation for children ages 6 months–4 years who complete a Moderna primary series to receive 1 bivalent Moderna booster dose at least 2 months after completion of the primary series.
• Children age 5 years who complete a Moderna primary series may receive either the previously authorized bivalent Pfizer-BioNTech booster dose or the newly authorized bivalent Moderna booster dose at least 2 months after completion of the Moderna primary series.
• The previously authorized 3-dose Pfizer-BioNTech primary series for children ages 6 months–4 years has been revised as follows: a monovalent Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine is administered for the first and second doses, followed by 1 bivalent Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine as the third primary series dose, at least 8 weeks after the second monovalent primary series dose. A booster dose is not authorized for children in this age group who receive a Pfizer-BioNTech 3-dose primary series, including children who previously received a 3-dose monovalent Pfizer-BioNTech primary series.

October 19, 2022

• Guidance for use of a monovalent Novavax COVID-19 booster dose in people ages 18 years and older in limited situations

October 12, 2022  

• Recommendations for use of a bivalent Moderna booster dose in people ages 6–17 years
• Recommendations for use of a bivalent Pfizer-BioNTech booster dose in people ages 5–11 years

September 23, 2022

• Reorganization and consolidation of the Interim Clinical Considerations to enhance usability. COVID-19 vaccination schedules and guidance are unchanged.

September 2, 2022

• Recommendations for use of a bivalent Moderna booster dose in people ages 18 years and older
• Recommendations for use of a bivalent Pfizer-BioNTech booster dose in people ages 12 years and older
• Updated guidance for observation periods following COVID-19 vaccination
• Updated guidance on COVID-19 vaccination and multisystem inflammatory syndrome (MIS) in children (MIS-C) and in adults (MIS-A)

August 22, 2022

• Guidance for primary series vaccination using Novavax COVID-19 Vaccine in adolescents ages 12–17 years
• Reorganization of Janssen COVID-19 Vaccine guidance into an appendix

August 11, 2022

• Updated guidance on COVID-19 vaccination following exposure to SARS-CoV-2

July 20, 2022

• Guidance for primary series vaccination using Novavax COVID-19 Vaccine in adults ages 18 years and older
• Updated guidance on COVID-19 vaccination and myocarditis and pericarditis

June 30, 2022

• New clinical considerations for coadministration of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines and orthopoxvirus vaccines

June 24, 2022

• New guidance for use of Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine in children and adolescents ages 6–17 years

June 19, 2022

• New guidance for use of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine in children ages 6 months–4 years
• New guidance for use of Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine in children ages 6 months–5 years
• Reorganization of sections on COVID-19 vaccination recommendations and schedules
• Addition of new section in Special populations for infants and young children

May 20, 2022

• New guidance for use of a Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine booster dose in children ages 5–11 years
• People ages 12 years and older who are moderately or severely immunocompromised
• People ages 50 years and older
• Updated guidance for people who are moderately or severely immunocompromised and are treated with B-cell-depleting therapies
• Clarification of COVID-19 vaccination guidance for multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) and adults (MIS-A)
• Updated guidance for primary series vaccination after SARS-CoV-2 infection

April 21, 2022

• Added considerations for the option to receive a second COVID-19 vaccine booster dose
• Updated guidance for COVID-19 vaccination after SARS-CoV-2 infection

March 30, 2022

• Added guidance that people ages 12 years and older who are moderately or severely immunocompromised may choose to receive a second booster dose using an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine at least 4 months after the first booster dose
• Added guidance that adults ages 50 years and older who are not moderately or severely immunocompromised may choose to receive a second booster dose using an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine at least 4 months after the first booster dose
• Added guidance that people ages 18–49 years who are not moderately or severely immunocompromised and who received Janssen COVID-19 Vaccine as both their primary series dose and booster dose may receive a second booster dose using an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine at least 4 months after the first Janssen booster dose
• Further clarification of safety issues including those related to multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) and adults (MIS-A) and myocarditis
• Updated information on the availability of Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine supplied in a vial with a red cap (0.25 mL dosage volume) and Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine supplied in a vial with a blue cap (0.5 mL dosage volume) for administration of a 50 µg booster dose.

February 22, 2022

• Added considerations for an 8-week interval between the first and second doses of a primary mRNA vaccine schedule

February 11, 2022

• Clarification of existing recommendation to receive a 3-dose mRNA vaccine primary series followed by a booster dose for a total of 4 doses
• New guidance to shorten the interval between completion of the mRNA vaccine primary series and the booster dose to at least 3 months (instead of 5 months)
• New guidance for those who received the Janssen COVID-19 Vaccine primary series to receive an additional dose and a booster dose, for a total of 3 doses to be up to date
• Updated guidance that it is no longer necessary to delay COVID-19 vaccination following receipt of monoclonal antibodies or convalescent plasma
• Updated guidance on receiving a booster dose if vaccinated outside the United States
• Updated contraindication and precaution section to include history of myocarditis or pericarditis after an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine as a precaution
• Reorganized and condensed multiple sections

January 6, 2022

• Updated guidance for use of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine as a booster in people ages 12–17 years
• Updated guidance for administration of a COVID-19 vaccine booster dose at least 5 months after completion of an mRNA vaccine (Pfizer-BioNTech or Moderna) primary series
• Updated guidance for use of an additional primary dose for moderately or severely immunocompromised people ages 5–11 years who received a Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine primary series
• Updated recommendations for people who received COVID-19 vaccines outside the United States that are not FDA-authorized or approved

December 23, 2021

• Updated information about a second formulation of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine that is authorized for use in persons ages 12 years and older
• Updated information on vaccinating people during quarantine after a known SARS-CoV-2 exposure or during COVID-19 outbreaks
• Update to alert providers of possible false positive Rapid Plasma Reagin (RPR; non-treponemal) test results in some people after COVID-19 vaccines
• Updated information on vaccine administration errors and deviations

December 17, 2021

• Updated guidance on use of Janssen (Johnson & Johnson) COVID-19 Vaccine

December 10, 2021

• Updated guidance for use of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine as a booster dose in persons aged 16 years and older

November 29, 2021

• Updated recommendations for receipt of a COVID-19 vaccine booster dose

November 19, 2021

• Updated guidance for COVID-19 booster doses in recipients of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines

November 17, 2021

• Updated guidance in section on People who received COVID-19 vaccine outside the United States
• Updated guidance in section on People who received COVID-19 as part of a clinical trial

November 3, 2021

• Recommendations and clinical guidance for use of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine in children aged 5-11 years including updated section on Vaccination of children and adolescents
• Updated guidance on COVID-19 vaccine dosing and schedule
• Updated guidance for myocarditis and pericarditis after mRNA COVID-19 vaccination in new section on Considerations for mRNA COVID-19 vaccines: Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna
• New guidance for people who received passive antibody products in section on COVID-19 vaccination and SARS-CoV-2 infection
• Updated guidance in section on People who received COVID-19 as part of a clinical trial in the United States
• Updated guidance on Considerations for COVID-19 vaccination in moderately and severely immunocompromised people
• Updated guidance in section on Contraindications and precautions
• Updated Table in Appendix A: Vaccine administration errors and deviations
• Updated Appendix B: Triage of people with a history of allergies or allergic reactions
• Updated Appendix C: Ingredients included in COVID-19 vaccines
• Updated Appendix D: Potential characteristics of allergic reactions, vasovagal reactions, and vaccine side effects following COVID-19 vaccination

October 25, 2021

• Updated guidance in section on Considerations for use of a COVID-19 booster dose.
• New section added on Overview of COVID-19 vaccines recommendations.
• Updated guidance in section on COVID-19 vaccine dosage and schedule.
• Updated guidance in section on People vaccinated for prevention of COVID-19 outside the United States.
• Updated guidance in section on COVID-19 vaccination and SARS-CoV-2 infection for People with prior or current SARS-CoV-2 infection; People with a history of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) or adults (MIS-A); People who received passive antibody products; and Vaccinated people who subsequently develop COVID-19.
• New guidance on Considerations for COVID-19 revaccination in the section on Considerations for COVID-19 vaccination in moderately and severely immunocompromised people.
• Updated Table in Appendix A: Vaccine administration errors and deviations.

September 27, 2021

• New section on Considerations for use of a Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine booster dose after completion of a Pfizer-BioNTech primary vaccine series.

September 15, 2021

• Updated information in the section on COVID-19 vaccination and SARS-CoV-2 infection.
• Updated information in the section on Vaccinating people with a known COVID-19 exposure or during COVID-19 outbreaks.
• New section on Vaccinating people receiving medical care unrelated to COVID-19.
• New section on Vaccinating people undergoing SARS-CoV-2 screening.

August 31, 2021

• New Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommendation for use of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved Pfizer-BioNTech (COMIRNATY) COVID-19 Vaccine in persons aged ≥16 years.
• Updated information in Key points to reflect currently available evidence.
• Updated information on COVID-19 vaccines in the Background section.
• Updated information in the section on Considerations for use of an additional dose of COVID-19 vaccine following a primary vaccine series.
• Updated laboratory testing information on timing of immune-based tests for tuberculosis infection in relation to COVID-19 vaccine administration.

August 25, 2021

• New section on people vaccinated for COVID-19 as part of a clinical trial in the United States.
• Updated considerations for use of an additional mRNA COVID-19 vaccine dose after an initial 2-dose COVID-19 mRNA vaccine series for immunocompromised people.

August 13, 2021

• New section on considerations for use of an additional dose of COVID-19 vaccine.
• New section on considerations for use of an additional mRNA COVID-19 vaccine dose after an initial 2-dose mRNA COVID-19 primary vaccine series for immunocompromised people.

August 11, 2021

• Updated considerations for people who are pregnant, lactating, trying to get pregnant now, or might become pregnant in the future.

August 6, 2021

• Updated considerations for COVID-19 vaccination in people with a history of Guillain-Barré syndrome.
• Updated information on vaccine administration errors and deviations in Appendix A (Table).

July 16, 2021

• Updated considerations regarding mRNA vaccine dosing intervals.
• Updated considerations for immunocompromised people.

July 2, 2021

• New section on considerations for use of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines in people with a history of myocarditis or pericarditis added to considerations for vaccination of people with certain underlying medical conditions.
• New information on the occurrence of myocarditis or pericarditis following vaccination with mRNA COVID-19 vaccines added to patient counseling.

June 1, 2021

• Information on cases of myocarditis and pericarditis occurring after mRNA COVID-19 vaccination, particularly in adolescents and young adults.
• Information on the efficacy of the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine in adolescents aged 12–15 years in patient counseling section.
• Updated data on local and systemic symptoms following vaccination with mRNA COVID-19 vaccines in patient counseling section.
• Clarification in contraindications and precautions and Appendix B of guidance for people with a history of an immediate allergic reaction to a vaccine or injectable therapy that contains a component also contained in a COVID-19 vaccine.
• Updated list of ingredients in COVID-19 vaccines (i.e., lack of metals) in Appendix C.
• Correction of footnote numbering.

May 14, 2021

• Updated information for authorized age groups to include vaccination of adolescents aged 12–15 years with Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine.
• Updated information on coadministration of COVID-19 vaccines with other vaccines.
• A new section on persons with a history of multisystem inflammatory syndrome added to considerations for vaccination of people with certain underlying medical conditions.
• Updated recommendation for timing of COVID-19 vaccine administration in persons with a history of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia.
• Updated information on vaccination of children and adolescents.

April 27, 2021

• The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices’ updated interim recommendation for the use of the Janssen (Johnson & Johnson) COVID-19 Vaccine.
• Clarification that COVID-19 vaccination is recommended for all people 16 years and older added to key points and vaccine administration.
• Updated information about the Janssen COVID-19 Vaccine added to background.
• Requirements to be considered fully vaccinated added to vaccine administration and interchangeability of COVID-19 vaccine products.
• New section added for people vaccinated with COVID-19 vaccines not authorized in the United States.
• Clarification on COVID-19 vaccination and SARS-CoV-2 infection. People with prolonged post-COVID-19 symptoms should be offered COVID-19 vaccination.
• New section added on antiviral therapy and COVID-19 vaccination.
• Information on requesting a consultation from the Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment COVIDvax project added to considerations for vaccination of people with certain underlying medical conditions.
• New section added on considerations for use of the Janssen COVID-19 Vaccine in certain populations.
• Updated information and recommendations for vaccination of pregnant or lactating people.
• Updated recommendations for vaccination of children and adolescents.
• Updated information related to axillary lymphadenopathy added to patient counseling for mRNA COVID-19 vaccines.
• Updated information on the Janssen COVID-19 Vaccine added to patient counseling.
• Updated recommendations related to contraindications (polysorbate allergy) and precautions (most people with a precaution can and should be administered vaccine) for COVID-19 vaccines.

April 16, 2021

• Recommended pause in the use of Janssen (Johnson & Johnson) COVID-19 Vaccine.
• Recommendations for clinicians related to occurrence of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST) with thrombocytopenia after receipt of Janssen COVID-19 Vaccine.

March 5, 2021

• Public health recommendations for vaccinated people have been moved to: www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/fully-vaccinated-guidance.html .

March 3, 2021

• Clinical considerations added for use of Janssen (Johnson & Johnson) COVID-19 Vaccine.
• Updated recommendations for fully vaccinated people who subsequently develop COVID-19.
• Updated recommendations related to COVID-19 vaccination timing for immunocompromised people.
• Updated contraindications and precautions to mRNA COVID-19 vaccines.
• Updated information on interpretation of SARS-CoV-2 antibody test results after vaccination.

February 10, 2021

• New recommendations for preventing, reporting, and managing mRNA COVID-19 vaccine administration errors (Appendix A).
• Clarification on contraindications and precautions. People with a known (diagnosed) allergy to PEG, another mRNA vaccine component, or polysorbate, have a contraindication to vaccination. People with a reaction to a vaccine or injectable therapy that contains multiple components, one of which is PEG, another mRNA vaccine component or polysorbate, but in whom it is unknown which component elicited the immediate allergic reaction have a precaution to vaccination.
• Updated information on delayed, local injection-site reactions after the first mRNA vaccine dose. These reactions are neither a contraindication nor a precaution to the second dose.
• Updated quarantine recommendations for vaccinated people. Fully vaccinated people who meet criteria will no longer be required to quarantine following an exposure to someone with COVID-19. Additional considerations for patients and residents in healthcare settings are provided.
• Additional information and updated recommendations for testing for TB infection. TB testing can be done before or at the same time as mRNA COVID-19 vaccination, or otherwise delayed for ≥4 weeks after the completion of mRNA COVID-19 vaccination.

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