5. what are the contents of research reports

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Research report guide: Definition, types, and tips

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5 March 2024

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From successful product launches or software releases to planning major business decisions, research reports serve many vital functions. They can summarize evidence and deliver insights and recommendations to save companies time and resources. They can reveal the most value-adding actions a company should take.

However, poorly constructed reports can have the opposite effect! Taking the time to learn established research-reporting rules and approaches will equip you with in-demand skills. You’ll be able to capture and communicate information applicable to numerous situations and industries, adding another string to your resume bow.

• What are research reports?

A research report is a collection of contextual data, gathered through organized research, that provides new insights into a particular challenge (which, for this article, is business-related). Research reports are a time-tested method for distilling large amounts of data into a narrow band of focus.

Their effectiveness often hinges on whether the report provides:

Strong, well-researched evidence

Comprehensive analysis

Well-considered conclusions and recommendations

Though the topic possibilities are endless, an effective research report keeps a laser-like focus on the specific questions or objectives the researcher believes are key to achieving success. Many research reports begin as research proposals, which usually include the need for a report to capture the findings of the study and recommend a course of action.

A description of the research method used, e.g., qualitative, quantitative, or other

Statistical analysis

Causal (or explanatory) research (i.e., research identifying relationships between two variables)

Inductive research, also known as ‘theory-building’

Deductive research, such as that used to test theories

Action research, where the research is actively used to drive change

• Importance of a research report

Research reports can unify and direct a company's focus toward the most appropriate strategic action. Of course, spending resources on a report takes up some of the company's human and financial resources. Choosing when a report is called for is a matter of judgment and experience.

Some development models used heavily in the engineering world, such as Waterfall development, are notorious for over-relying on research reports. With Waterfall development, there is a linear progression through each step of a project, and each stage is precisely documented and reported on before moving to the next.

The pace of the business world is faster than the speed at which your authors can produce and disseminate reports. So how do companies strike the right balance between creating and acting on research reports?

The answer lies, again, in the report's defined objectives. By paring down your most pressing interests and those of your stakeholders, your research and reporting skills will be the lenses that keep your company's priorities in constant focus.

Honing your company's primary objectives can save significant amounts of time and align research and reporting efforts with ever-greater precision.

Some examples of well-designed research objectives are:

Proving whether or not a product or service meets customer expectations

Demonstrating the value of a service, product, or business process to your stakeholders and investors

Improving business decision-making when faced with a lack of time or other constraints

Clarifying the relationship between a critical cause and effect for problematic business processes

Prioritizing the development of a backlog of products or product features

Comparing business or production strategies

Evaluating past decisions and predicting future outcomes

• Features of a research report

Research reports generally require a research design phase, where the report author(s) determine the most important elements the report must contain.

Just as there are various kinds of research, there are many types of reports.

Here are the standard elements of almost any research-reporting format:

Report summary. A broad but comprehensive overview of what readers will learn in the full report. Summaries are usually no more than one or two paragraphs and address all key elements of the report. Think of the key takeaways your primary stakeholders will want to know if they don’t have time to read the full document.

Introduction. Include a brief background of the topic, the type of research, and the research sample. Consider the primary goal of the report, who is most affected, and how far along the company is in meeting its objectives.

Methods. A description of how the researcher carried out data collection, analysis, and final interpretations of the data. Include the reasons for choosing a particular method. The methods section should strike a balance between clearly presenting the approach taken to gather data and discussing how it is designed to achieve the report's objectives.

Data analysis. This section contains interpretations that lead readers through the results relevant to the report's thesis. If there were unexpected results, include here a discussion on why that might be. Charts, calculations, statistics, and other supporting information also belong here (or, if lengthy, as an appendix). This should be the most detailed section of the research report, with references for further study. Present the information in a logical order, whether chronologically or in order of importance to the report's objectives.

Conclusion. This should be written with sound reasoning, often containing useful recommendations. The conclusion must be backed by a continuous thread of logic throughout the report.

• How to write a research paper

With a clear outline and robust pool of research, a research paper can start to write itself, but what's a good way to start a research report?

Research report examples are often the quickest way to gain inspiration for your report. Look for the types of research reports most relevant to your industry and consider which makes the most sense for your data and goals.

The research report outline will help you organize the elements of your report. One of the most time-tested report outlines is the IMRaD structure:

Introduction

...and Discussion

Pay close attention to the most well-established research reporting format in your industry, and consider your tone and language from your audience's perspective. Learn the key terms inside and out; incorrect jargon could easily harm the perceived authority of your research paper.

Along with a foundation in high-quality research and razor-sharp analysis, the most effective research reports will also demonstrate well-developed:

Internal logic

Narrative flow

Conclusions and recommendations

Readability, striking a balance between simple phrasing and technical insight

How to gather research data for your report

The validity of research data is critical. Because the research phase usually occurs well before the writing phase, you normally have plenty of time to vet your data.

However, research reports could involve ongoing research, where report authors (sometimes the researchers themselves) write portions of the report alongside ongoing research.

One such research-report example would be an R&D department that knows its primary stakeholders are eager to learn about a lengthy work in progress and any potentially important outcomes.

However you choose to manage the research and reporting, your data must meet robust quality standards before you can rely on it. Vet any research with the following questions in mind:

Does it use statistically valid analysis methods?

Do the researchers clearly explain their research, analysis, and sampling methods?

Did the researchers provide any caveats or advice on how to interpret their data?

Have you gathered the data yourself or were you in close contact with those who did?

Is the source biased?

Usually, flawed research methods become more apparent the further you get through a research report.

It's perfectly natural for good research to raise new questions, but the reader should have no uncertainty about what the data represents. There should be no doubt about matters such as:

Whether the sampling or analysis methods were based on sound and consistent logic

What the research samples are and where they came from

The accuracy of any statistical functions or equations

Validation of testing and measuring processes

When does a report require design validation?

A robust design validation process is often a gold standard in highly technical research reports. Design validation ensures the objects of a study are measured accurately, which lends more weight to your report and makes it valuable to more specialized industries.

Product development and engineering projects are the most common research-report examples that typically involve a design validation process. Depending on the scope and complexity of your research, you might face additional steps to validate your data and research procedures.

If you’re including design validation in the report (or report proposal), explain and justify your data-collection processes. Good design validation builds greater trust in a research report and lends more weight to its conclusions.

Choosing the right analysis method

Just as the quality of your report depends on properly validated research, a useful conclusion requires the most contextually relevant analysis method. This means comparing different statistical methods and choosing the one that makes the most sense for your research.

Most broadly, research analysis comes down to quantitative or qualitative methods (respectively: measurable by a number vs subjectively qualified values). There are also mixed research methods, which bridge the need for merging hard data with qualified assessments and still reach a cohesive set of conclusions.

Some of the most common analysis methods in research reports include:

Significance testing (aka hypothesis analysis), which compares test and control groups to determine how likely the data was the result of random chance.

Regression analysis , to establish relationships between variables, control for extraneous variables , and support correlation analysis.

Correlation analysis (aka bivariate testing), a method to identify and determine the strength of linear relationships between variables. It’s effective for detecting patterns from complex data, but care must be exercised to not confuse correlation with causation.

With any analysis method, it's important to justify which method you chose in the report. You should also provide estimates of the statistical accuracy (e.g., the p-value or confidence level of quantifiable data) of any data analysis.

This requires a commitment to the report's primary aim. For instance, this may be achieving a certain level of customer satisfaction by analyzing the cause and effect of changes to how service is delivered. Even better, use statistical analysis to calculate which change is most positively correlated with improved levels of customer satisfaction.

• Tips for writing research reports

There's endless good advice for writing effective research reports, and it almost all depends on the subjective aims of the people behind the report. Due to the wide variety of research reports, the best tips will be unique to each author's purpose.

Consider the following research report tips in any order, and take note of the ones most relevant to you:

No matter how in depth or detailed your report might be, provide a well-considered, succinct summary. At the very least, give your readers a quick and effective way to get up to speed.

Pare down your target audience (e.g., other researchers, employees, laypersons, etc.), and adjust your voice for their background knowledge and interest levels

For all but the most open-ended research, clarify your objectives, both for yourself and within the report.

Leverage your team members’ talents to fill in any knowledge gaps you might have. Your team is only as good as the sum of its parts.

Justify why your research proposal’s topic will endure long enough to derive value from the finished report.

Consolidate all research and analysis functions onto a single user-friendly platform. There's no reason to settle for less than developer-grade tools suitable for non-developers.

What's the format of a research report?

The research-reporting format is how the report is structured—a framework the authors use to organize their data, conclusions, arguments, and recommendations. The format heavily determines how the report's outline develops, because the format dictates the overall structure and order of information (based on the report's goals and research objectives).

What's the purpose of a research-report outline?

A good report outline gives form and substance to the report's objectives, presenting the results in a readable, engaging way. For any research-report format, the outline should create momentum along a chain of logic that builds up to a conclusion or interpretation.

What's the difference between a research essay and a research report?

There are several key differences between research reports and essays:

Research report:

Ordered into separate sections

More commercial in nature

Often includes infographics

Heavily descriptive

More self-referential

Usually provides recommendations

Research essay

Does not rely on research report formatting

More academically minded

Normally text-only

Less detailed

Omits discussion of methods

Usually non-prescriptive 

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• Research Report: Definition, Types + [Writing Guide]

One of the reasons for carrying out research is to add to the existing body of knowledge. Therefore, when conducting research, you need to document your processes and findings in a research report. 

With a research report, it is easy to outline the findings of your systematic investigation and any gaps needing further inquiry. Knowing how to create a detailed research report will prove useful when you need to conduct research.  

What is a Research Report?

A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.

In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of the research process that clearly highlights findings, recommendations, and other important details. Reading a well-written research report should provide you with all the information you need about the core areas of the research process.

Features of a Research Report 

So how do you recognize a research report when you see one? Here are some of the basic features that define a research report. 

• It is a detailed presentation of research processes and findings, and it usually includes tables and graphs. 
• It is written in a formal language.
• A research report is usually written in the third person.
• It is informative and based on first-hand verifiable information.
• It is formally structured with headings, sections, and bullet points.
• It always includes recommendations for future actions. 

Types of Research Report 

The research report is classified based on two things; nature of research and target audience.

Nature of Research

• Qualitative Research Report

This is the type of report written for qualitative research . It outlines the methods, processes, and findings of a qualitative method of systematic investigation. In educational research, a qualitative research report provides an opportunity for one to apply his or her knowledge and develop skills in planning and executing qualitative research projects.

A qualitative research report is usually descriptive in nature. Hence, in addition to presenting details of the research process, you must also create a descriptive narrative of the information.

• Quantitative Research Report

A quantitative research report is a type of research report that is written for quantitative research. Quantitative research is a type of systematic investigation that pays attention to numerical or statistical values in a bid to find answers to research questions. 

In this type of research report, the researcher presents quantitative data to support the research process and findings. Unlike a qualitative research report that is mainly descriptive, a quantitative research report works with numbers; that is, it is numerical in nature. 

Target Audience

Also, a research report can be said to be technical or popular based on the target audience. If you’re dealing with a general audience, you would need to present a popular research report, and if you’re dealing with a specialized audience, you would submit a technical report. 

• Technical Research Report

A technical research report is a detailed document that you present after carrying out industry-based research. This report is highly specialized because it provides information for a technical audience; that is, individuals with above-average knowledge in the field of study. 

In a technical research report, the researcher is expected to provide specific information about the research process, including statistical analyses and sampling methods. Also, the use of language is highly specialized and filled with jargon. 

Examples of technical research reports include legal and medical research reports. 

• Popular Research Report

A popular research report is one for a general audience; that is, for individuals who do not necessarily have any knowledge in the field of study. A popular research report aims to make information accessible to everyone. 

It is written in very simple language, which makes it easy to understand the findings and recommendations. Examples of popular research reports are the information contained in newspapers and magazines. 

Importance of a Research Report 

• Knowledge Transfer: As already stated above, one of the reasons for carrying out research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge, and this is made possible with a research report. A research report serves as a means to effectively communicate the findings of a systematic investigation to all and sundry.  
• Identification of Knowledge Gaps: With a research report, you’d be able to identify knowledge gaps for further inquiry. A research report shows what has been done while hinting at other areas needing systematic investigation. 
• In market research, a research report would help you understand the market needs and peculiarities at a glance. 
• A research report allows you to present information in a precise and concise manner. 
• It is time-efficient and practical because, in a research report, you do not have to spend time detailing the findings of your research work in person. You can easily send out the report via email and have stakeholders look at it. 

Guide to Writing a Research Report

A lot of detail goes into writing a research report, and getting familiar with the different requirements would help you create the ideal research report. A research report is usually broken down into multiple sections, which allows for a concise presentation of information.

Structure and Example of a Research Report

This is the title of your systematic investigation. Your title should be concise and point to the aims, objectives, and findings of a research report. 

• Table of Contents

This is like a compass that makes it easier for readers to navigate the research report.

An abstract is an overview that highlights all important aspects of the research including the research method, data collection process, and research findings. Think of an abstract as a summary of your research report that presents pertinent information in a concise manner. 

An abstract is always brief; typically 100-150 words and goes straight to the point. The focus of your research abstract should be the 5Ws and 1H format – What, Where, Why, When, Who and How. 

• Introduction

Here, the researcher highlights the aims and objectives of the systematic investigation as well as the problem which the systematic investigation sets out to solve. When writing the report introduction, it is also essential to indicate whether the purposes of the research were achieved or would require more work.

In the introduction section, the researcher specifies the research problem and also outlines the significance of the systematic investigation. Also, the researcher is expected to outline any jargons and terminologies that are contained in the research.  

• Literature Review

A literature review is a written survey of existing knowledge in the field of study. In other words, it is the section where you provide an overview and analysis of different research works that are relevant to your systematic investigation. 

It highlights existing research knowledge and areas needing further investigation, which your research has sought to fill. At this stage, you can also hint at your research hypothesis and its possible implications for the existing body of knowledge in your field of study. 

• An Account of Investigation

This is a detailed account of the research process, including the methodology, sample, and research subjects. Here, you are expected to provide in-depth information on the research process including the data collection and analysis procedures. 

In a quantitative research report, you’d need to provide information surveys, questionnaires and other quantitative data collection methods used in your research. In a qualitative research report, you are expected to describe the qualitative data collection methods used in your research including interviews and focus groups. 

In this section, you are expected to present the results of the systematic investigation. 

This section further explains the findings of the research, earlier outlined. Here, you are expected to present a justification for each outcome and show whether the results are in line with your hypotheses or if other research studies have come up with similar results.

• Conclusions

This is a summary of all the information in the report. It also outlines the significance of the entire study. 

• References and Appendices

This section contains a list of all the primary and secondary research sources. 

Tips for Writing a Research Report

• Define the Context for the Report

As is obtainable when writing an essay, defining the context for your research report would help you create a detailed yet concise document. This is why you need to create an outline before writing so that you do not miss out on anything. 

• Define your Audience

Writing with your audience in mind is essential as it determines the tone of the report. If you’re writing for a general audience, you would want to present the information in a simple and relatable manner. For a specialized audience, you would need to make use of technical and field-specific terms. 

• Include Significant Findings

The idea of a research report is to present some sort of abridged version of your systematic investigation. In your report, you should exclude irrelevant information while highlighting only important data and findings. 

• Include Illustrations

Your research report should include illustrations and other visual representations of your data. Graphs, pie charts, and relevant images lend additional credibility to your systematic investigation.

• Choose the Right Title

A good research report title is brief, precise, and contains keywords from your research. It should provide a clear idea of your systematic investigation so that readers can grasp the entire focus of your research from the title. 

• Proofread the Report

Before publishing the document, ensure that you give it a second look to authenticate the information. If you can, get someone else to go through the report, too, and you can also run it through proofreading and editing software. 

How to Gather Research Data for Your Report  

• Understand the Problem

Every research aims at solving a specific problem or set of problems, and this should be at the back of your mind when writing your research report. Understanding the problem would help you to filter the information you have and include only important data in your report. 

• Know what your report seeks to achieve

This is somewhat similar to the point above because, in some way, the aim of your research report is intertwined with the objectives of your systematic investigation. Identifying the primary purpose of writing a research report would help you to identify and present the required information accordingly. 

• Identify your audience

Knowing your target audience plays a crucial role in data collection for a research report. If your research report is specifically for an organization, you would want to present industry-specific information or show how the research findings are relevant to the work that the company does. 

• Create Surveys/Questionnaires

A survey is a research method that is used to gather data from a specific group of people through a set of questions. It can be either quantitative or qualitative. 

A survey is usually made up of structured questions, and it can be administered online or offline. However, an online survey is a more effective method of research data collection because it helps you save time and gather data with ease. 

You can seamlessly create an online questionnaire for your research on Formplus . With the multiple sharing options available in the builder, you would be able to administer your survey to respondents in little or no time. 

Formplus also has a report summary too l that you can use to create custom visual reports for your research.

Step-by-step guide on how to create an online questionnaire using Formplus  

• Sign into Formplus

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create different online questionnaires for your research by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus. 

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on Create new form to begin. 

• Edit Form Title : Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “Research Questionnaire.”
• Edit Form : Click on the edit icon to edit the form.
• Add Fields : Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for questionnaires in the Formplus builder. 
• Edit fields
• Click on “Save”
• Form Customization: With the form customization options in the form builder, you can easily change the outlook of your form and make it more unique and personalized. Formplus allows you to change your form theme, add background images, and even change the font according to your needs. 
• Multiple Sharing Options: Formplus offers various form-sharing options, which enables you to share your questionnaire with respondents easily. You can use the direct social media sharing buttons to share your form link to your organization’s social media pages.  You can also send out your survey form as email invitations to your research subjects too. If you wish, you can share your form’s QR code or embed it on your organization’s website for easy access. 

Conclusion  

Always remember that a research report is just as important as the actual systematic investigation because it plays a vital role in communicating research findings to everyone else. This is why you must take care to create a concise document summarizing the process of conducting any research. 

In this article, we’ve outlined essential tips to help you create a research report. When writing your report, you should always have the audience at the back of your mind, as this would set the tone for the document. 

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Home Market Research

Research Reports: Definition and How to Write Them

Reports are usually spread across a vast horizon of topics but are focused on communicating information about a particular topic and a niche target market. The primary motive of research reports is to convey integral details about a study for marketers to consider while designing new strategies.

Certain events, facts, and other information based on incidents need to be relayed to the people in charge, and creating research reports is the most effective communication tool. Ideal research reports are extremely accurate in the offered information with a clear objective and conclusion. These reports should have a clean and structured format to relay information effectively.

What are Research Reports?

Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing the information gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the form of surveys or qualitative methods .

A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research. It is most often considered to be a true testimony of all the work done to garner specificities of research.

The various sections of a research report are:

• Background/Introduction
• Implemented Methods
• Results based on Analysis
• Deliberation

Learn more: Quantitative Research

Components of Research Reports

Research is imperative for launching a new product/service or a new feature. The markets today are extremely volatile and competitive due to new entrants every day who may or may not provide effective products. An organization needs to make the right decisions at the right time to be relevant in such a market with updated products that suffice customer demands.

The details of a research report may change with the purpose of research but the main components of a report will remain constant. The research approach of the market researcher also influences the style of writing reports. Here are seven main components of a productive research report:

• Research Report Summary: The entire objective along with the overview of research are to be included in a summary which is a couple of paragraphs in length. All the multiple components of the research are explained in brief under the report summary.  It should be interesting enough to capture all the key elements of the report.
• Research Introduction: There always is a primary goal that the researcher is trying to achieve through a report. In the introduction section, he/she can cover answers related to this goal and establish a thesis which will be included to strive and answer it in detail.  This section should answer an integral question: “What is the current situation of the goal?”.  After the research design was conducted, did the organization conclude the goal successfully or they are still a work in progress –  provide such details in the introduction part of the research report.
• Research Methodology: This is the most important section of the report where all the important information lies. The readers can gain data for the topic along with analyzing the quality of provided content and the research can also be approved by other market researchers . Thus, this section needs to be highly informative with each aspect of research discussed in detail.  Information needs to be expressed in chronological order according to its priority and importance. Researchers should include references in case they gained information from existing techniques.
• Research Results: A short description of the results along with calculations conducted to achieve the goal will form this section of results. Usually, the exposition after data analysis is carried out in the discussion part of the report.

Learn more: Quantitative Data

• Research Discussion: The results are discussed in extreme detail in this section along with a comparative analysis of reports that could probably exist in the same domain. Any abnormality uncovered during research will be deliberated in the discussion section.  While writing research reports, the researcher will have to connect the dots on how the results will be applicable in the real world.
• Research References and Conclusion: Conclude all the research findings along with mentioning each and every author, article or any content piece from where references were taken.

Learn more: Qualitative Observation

15 Tips for Writing Research Reports

Writing research reports in the manner can lead to all the efforts going down the drain. Here are 15 tips for writing impactful research reports:

• Prepare the context before starting to write and start from the basics:  This was always taught to us in school – be well-prepared before taking a plunge into new topics. The order of survey questions might not be the ideal or most effective order for writing research reports. The idea is to start with a broader topic and work towards a more specific one and focus on a conclusion or support, which a research should support with the facts.  The most difficult thing to do in reporting, without a doubt is to start. Start with the title, the introduction, then document the first discoveries and continue from that. Once the marketers have the information well documented, they can write a general conclusion.
• Keep the target audience in mind while selecting a format that is clear, logical and obvious to them:  Will the research reports be presented to decision makers or other researchers? What are the general perceptions around that topic? This requires more care and diligence. A researcher will need a significant amount of information to start writing the research report. Be consistent with the wording, the numbering of the annexes and so on. Follow the approved format of the company for the delivery of research reports and demonstrate the integrity of the project with the objectives of the company.
• Have a clear research objective: A researcher should read the entire proposal again, and make sure that the data they provide contributes to the objectives that were raised from the beginning. Remember that speculations are for conversations, not for research reports, if a researcher speculates, they directly question their own research.
• Establish a working model:  Each study must have an internal logic, which will have to be established in the report and in the evidence. The researchers’ worst nightmare is to be required to write research reports and realize that key questions were not included.

Learn more: Quantitative Observation

• Gather all the information about the research topic. Who are the competitors of our customers? Talk to other researchers who have studied the subject of research, know the language of the industry. Misuse of the terms can discourage the readers of research reports from reading further.
• Read aloud while writing. While reading the report, if the researcher hears something inappropriate, for example, if they stumble over the words when reading them, surely the reader will too. If the researcher can’t put an idea in a single sentence, then it is very long and they must change it so that the idea is clear to everyone.
• Check grammar and spelling. Without a doubt, good practices help to understand the report. Use verbs in the present tense. Consider using the present tense, which makes the results sound more immediate. Find new words and other ways of saying things. Have fun with the language whenever possible.
• Discuss only the discoveries that are significant. If some data are not really significant, do not mention them. Remember that not everything is truly important or essential within research reports.

Learn more: Qualitative Data

• Try and stick to the survey questions. For example, do not say that the people surveyed “were worried” about an research issue , when there are different degrees of concern.
• The graphs must be clear enough so that they understand themselves. Do not let graphs lead the reader to make mistakes: give them a title, include the indications, the size of the sample, and the correct wording of the question.
• Be clear with messages. A researcher should always write every section of the report with an accuracy of details and language.
• Be creative with titles – Particularly in segmentation studies choose names “that give life to research”. Such names can survive for a long time after the initial investigation.
• Create an effective conclusion: The conclusion in the research reports is the most difficult to write, but it is an incredible opportunity to excel. Make a precise summary. Sometimes it helps to start the conclusion with something specific, then it describes the most important part of the study, and finally, it provides the implications of the conclusions.
• Get a couple more pair of eyes to read the report. Writers have trouble detecting their own mistakes. But they are responsible for what is presented. Ensure it has been approved by colleagues or friends before sending the find draft out.

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Uncomplicated Reviews of Educational Research Methods

• Writing a Research Report

.pdf version of this page

This review covers the basic elements of a research report. This is a general guide for what you will see in journal articles or dissertations. This format assumes a mixed methods study, but you can leave out either quantitative or qualitative sections if you only used a single methodology.

This review is divided into sections for easy reference. There are five MAJOR parts of a Research Report:

1.    Introduction 2.    Review of Literature 3.    Methods 4.    Results 5.    Discussion

As a general guide, the Introduction, Review of Literature, and Methods should be about 1/3 of your paper, Discussion 1/3, then Results 1/3.

Section 1 : Cover Sheet (APA format cover sheet) optional, if required.

Section 2: Abstract (a basic summary of the report, including sample, treatment, design, results, and implications) (≤ 150 words) optional, if required.

Section 3 : Introduction (1-3 paragraphs) •    Basic introduction •    Supportive statistics (can be from periodicals) •    Statement of Purpose •    Statement of Significance

Section 4 : Research question(s) or hypotheses •    An overall research question (optional) •    A quantitative-based (hypotheses) •    A qualitative-based (research questions) Note: You will generally have more than one, especially if using hypotheses.

Section 5: Review of Literature ▪    Should be organized by subheadings ▪    Should adequately support your study using supporting, related, and/or refuting evidence ▪    Is a synthesis, not a collection of individual summaries

Section 6: Methods ▪    Procedure: Describe data gathering or participant recruitment, including IRB approval ▪    Sample: Describe the sample or dataset, including basic demographics ▪    Setting: Describe the setting, if applicable (generally only in qualitative designs) ▪    Treatment: If applicable, describe, in detail, how you implemented the treatment ▪    Instrument: Describe, in detail, how you implemented the instrument; Describe the reliability and validity associated with the instrument ▪    Data Analysis: Describe type of procedure (t-test, interviews, etc.) and software (if used)

Section 7: Results ▪    Restate Research Question 1 (Quantitative) ▪    Describe results ▪    Restate Research Question 2 (Qualitative) ▪    Describe results

Section 8: Discussion ▪    Restate Overall Research Question ▪    Describe how the results, when taken together, answer the overall question ▪    ***Describe how the results confirm or contrast the literature you reviewed

Section 9: Recommendations (if applicable, generally related to practice)

Section 10: Limitations ▪    Discuss, in several sentences, the limitations of this study. ▪    Research Design (overall, then info about the limitations of each separately) ▪    Sample ▪    Instrument/s ▪    Other limitations

Section 11: Conclusion (A brief closing summary)

Section 12: References (APA format)

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About research rundowns.

Research Rundowns was made possible by support from the Dewar College of Education at Valdosta State University .

• Experimental Design
• What is Educational Research?
• Writing Research Questions
• Mixed Methods Research Designs
• Qualitative Coding & Analysis
• Qualitative Research Design
• Correlation
• Effect Size
• Instrument, Validity, Reliability
• Mean & Standard Deviation
• Significance Testing (t-tests)
• Steps 1-4: Finding Research
• Steps 5-6: Analyzing & Organizing
• Steps 7-9: Citing & Writing

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Section 1- Evidence-based practice (EBP)

Chapter 6: Components of a Research Report

Components of a research report.

Partido, B.B.

Elements of  research report

The research report contains four main areas:

• Introduction – What is the issue? What is known? What is not known? What are you trying to find out? This sections ends with the purpose and specific aims of the study.
• Methods – The recipe for the study. If someone wanted to perform the same study, what information would they need? How will you answer your research question? This part usually contains subheadings: Participants, Instruments, Procedures, Data Analysis,
• Results – What was found? This is organized by specific aims and provides the results of the statistical analysis.
• Discussion – How do the results fit in with the existing  literature? What were the limitations and areas of future research?

Formalized Curiosity for Knowledge and Innovation Copyright © by partido1. All Rights Reserved.

Chapter 12: Writing Research Proposals and Reports

Research is of no use unless it gets to the people who need to use it.

— Chris Whitty [1]

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, students should be able to do the following:

• Outline the main components of a research proposal.
• Explain the purpose of a method section in a research proposal.
• Identify key ethical considerations that need to be addressed in a research proposal.
• Outline the structure and format of a scholarly research report.

INTRODUCTION

Just as research is conducted for a variety of purposes, such as to explore or to explain a phenomenon of interest, as discussed at the start of this book, research is also carried out with its eventual target audience in mind, as implied by the opening quote. Basic research is generally undertaken for an academic audience, and research findings are disseminated (communicated) in reports that form the basis of conference talks or published works such as books, chapters, or journal articles read by scholars in affiliated disciplines. Disciplines recommend their own writing style for academic papers and reports. Three common documentation styles used in the social sciences throughout North America are American Psychological Association (APA) style,  American Sociological Association (ASA) style, and Modern Language Association (MLA) style. All three provide direction for quoting and paraphrasing the work of others, for setting up the format of documents (e.g., spacing, headers, and the presentation of material in tables and figures), and for referencing sources. APA format is based on the most current edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . MLA style is based on the most current edition of the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers , and ASA is based on the American Sociological Association Style Guide . Consult with your instructor, your course syllabus, your library’s writing resources, or the instructions for contributors at a journal to determine the exact style you should use for preparing course work, research proposals, or research reports.

Research Proposals versus Reports

Most everyone who takes a research methods course or who plans to carry out basic research for an honours project, an independent study, or graduate studies (e.g., master’s research or a research-based dissertation for a doctorate degree) is expected to develop a research proposal. Similarly, researchers and other academics who wish to carry out studies at universities, in community settings, and in the private or business sector typically submit a research proposal to an ethics board and/or to a funding agency prior to beginning the research project. A research proposal is a comprehensive plan, created in advance of carrying out research, that details what a research project is about and what the process entails for obtaining the data needed to address the research questions and objectives. Included in the proposal is a description of the relevant literature, the main research questions or hypotheses the study hopes to address, the methods for obtaining data, and anticipated ethical considerations. A research report , in contrast, is written after research is conducted. The report is a detailed account that describes the area of interest, provides the specific research questions or hypotheses addressed in the study, spells out the methods used to obtain the data, and communicates the main results from the study. In addition, a research report discusses the findings in relation to the wider literature on the subject matter, indicates any limitations of the study, and offers suggestions for future research on that topic. The next section provides you with some guidance for what to include in a research proposal.

The Research Proposal

A research proposal is meant to address two primary questions: (1) What purpose does the research serve? and (2) How will the research be carried out to meet the intended objective? The research purpose is articulated in the introduction section and the planned process for carrying out the research is detailed in the method section. A research proposal is usually divided into five main sections consisting of an introduction, a method section, a section on data analysis and dissemination, a section on ethical considerations, and a listing of prospective references. These sections are described in detail below.

Introduction

To explain the research purpose in a manner that is accessible to a wide audience of readers, a researcher should frame the general research interest within a theoretical context, briefly describe what other researchers have done and found on the topic, state the current research interest, and explain how the present study will contribute to the literature by posing specific research questions and/or by testing hypotheses. Begin with a broad opening statement that identifies the area of interest. For example, a student of mine who planned to compare the portrayal of masculinity in the lyrics of country versus hip-hop songs began by pointing out the increasing popularity of both genres of music and went on to point out the earnings and prevalence of the two genres in order to introduce the general topic (Holub, 2012). After introducing the general topic, a researcher can begin to narrow the topic by linking the topic to previous research on the proposed area of interest. This is where central concepts are discussed and the theoretical context is established. Continuing with the previous example, my student went on to point out prevalent masculinity themes identified in previous research on lyrics of music from the two genres. The same student ended the introduction by noting that the proposed study would compare depictions of masculinity across genres to see if there were common underlying features. A qualitative study with an exploratory focus is going to include a general question, such as “Are there similarities in the way masculinity is depicted in country and hip-hop music lyrics?” In contrast, a quantitative study with a more descriptive focus would likely include a directional hypothesis, such as “H1: The proposed study predicts that masculinity will be more evident in hip-hop than in country music lyrics.” Ask yourself the following questions as you prepare the introductory section:

• What is my broad area of interest?
• Did I identify a narrow focus within this area of interest?
• Did I summarize the relevant literature in this area?
• Did I include clear conceptual definitions for the main concepts?
• Is a theoretical context established for my study?
• What will my research contribute to this area?
• What is my research question or hypothesis?

The method section outlines who the participants will be and how they will be selected. In addition, the method section includes details about the setting and materials needed to conduct the study, the procedures for carrying out the study, and the main variables examined in the study, as discussed in more detail below.

Participants and How They Will be Obtained or Sample Selection

First, if the study will include research participants, such as interview participants, survey respondents, or experimental subjects, a researcher needs to detail who the potential research participants will be and how they will be identified and recruited. In addition, the researcher should note any relevant criteria that may be used to include or exclude participants. For example, an honours student working under one of the author’s supervision examined the prevalence of aggressive and dangerous forms of driving in a sample of 300 university students (Haje & Symbaluk, 2014). In an ethics application, Bruno Haje proposed that participants would be recruited from the university’s research subject pool in accordance with the department’s procedures for online survey research participation. Bruno also pointed out that since this study was specifically about driving behaviours, participants would need to be volunteers who drive a motor vehicle at least on occasion.

Note that not all forms of research involve research participants. A researcher planning to use unobtrusive methods, such as physical trace analysis, or wanting to carry out a content analysis would instead describe proposed units of analysis. Recall Gackenbach et al.’s (2011) study on the video game player’s online dream diary. Although there was a person to whom the dreams belonged, it was the content of 447 of his 831 dream postings that constituted the units of analysis. In a qualitative study, this section is usually titled sample selection. Here, a researcher articulates how the sample (e.g., of dream postings) will be obtained, including any inclusion or exclusion criteria that will determine eligibility (Padgett, 2012). For example, of the 831 posted dreams, a dream was included in the analysis if it was more than 50 but fewer than 500 words, had a clear date as to when it occurred, included an activity blog entry from the night before the dream, and fit one of the defined dream categories, resulting in a sample of 447 dreams (Gackenbach et al., 2011).

Setting and Materials

In addition to describing the participants and how they will be recruited or the units of analysis, the method section also indicates the proposed setting or location for data collection and any materials needed to carry out the study. Research is often carried out at a university where the primary researcher holds a faculty position. However, if the study is an in-depth qualitative interview, the setting may be the respondent’s place of residence or a public location that the respondent feels comfortable in and one that provides some degree of needed privacy, such as a booth in a local coffee shop. Similarly, if the study involves ethnographic fieldwork, the research setting is likely to be wherever that group or process is located and can best be examined from within a natural context.

Materials for a study include items that need to be purchased ahead of time to carry out the study. For example, to carry out my master’s research on pain perception and endurance, I needed to purchase a heart rate monitor to assess participants, for health and safety reasons, throughout the exercise. I also needed equipment that could be used to assist in the measurement of pain endurance. Specifically, participants performed an isometric sitting exercise above a box with a pressure plate. A participant who was too tired to continue sat down on the box, thereby activating the pressure plate to stop a timer that recorded endurance.

As another example, an online ethnography might require a computer, internet access, and possibly some kind of registration or software needed to gain access to a group of interest, such as through a membership or user account. Finally, a researcher conducting an interview-based study might wish to use incentives to compensate interviewees for their time and would therefore need to purchase gift cards or prepare some comparable remuneration in advance of the study.

Main Variables

Next, researchers describe the main variables or measures of interest. If the approach is quantitative, as in the case of an experimental method, this section describes the dependent variables. (The independent variables are discussed as part of the procedures for how the manipulation will be carried out.) For example, in the pain study, the main dependent variable was pain endurance, defined as the length of a time a participant was able to maintain an isometric sitting exercise in minutes and seconds. Each dependent variable should be listed, along with the operational definition for how it will be measured. For a quantitative survey, each main variable is likely to be measured using a question or multiple questions on a self-report questionnaire. For example, in a study on aggressive driving, aggressive behaviour might be measured using Deffenbacher et al.’s (2002) shortened version of the Driver Anger Expression Inventory, consisting of 21 items. The inventory assesses verbally aggressive behaviour (e.g., yelling at other drivers), physically aggressive behaviour (e.g., giving someone the finger), and/or constructive expressions of anger (e.g., thinking about other things). Survey items are usually summarized in this section and the full inventory is included in an appendix. If the measures are already established, you can report on the reliability and validity of the measure as described in the literature.

Alternatively, if a study is based on a qualitative content analysis, an in-depth interview, or an unstructured observation, this section elaborates on how the researcher plans to identify main themes and patterns from the data once it is collected and transcribed, as opposed to operationalizing variables ahead of time. This section is sometimes called coding procedures and it can take the place of the main variables and procedures sections. For example, a researcher who wishes to examine a television series for depictions of violence enacted by the main characters might indicate a plan to use an open coding scheme to detail every separate and distinct act of violence committed by a main character as a first-cycle coding method. This can be followed by second phase of coding directed at identifying main themes and categorizing the patterns to the violence identified in the first round of coding. Similarly, an ethnographer might plan to use descriptive coding for field notes and documents collected on a group of interest that will be later subjected to a more structured coding process. A qualitative researcher might also adopt existing coding schemes from the established literature to conduct a content analysis. When possible, the researcher should articulate the coding schemes and tie them back to the theoretical context in which they developed. Since the content of any method section is going to vary considerably depending on the approach and methodology (e.g., quantitative survey versus qualitative interview), you should examine published journal articles based on the same methodology you plan to use for a more definitive sense of what you need to include here.

Finally, the procedures section outlines the detailed plan for carrying out the study as the last main component of the method section. This section needs to include enough detail that a reader could replicate the study exactly, based on how it is described in writing. For example, if a researcher intends to conduct online survey research, the procedures will detail how the participants are to access the online survey through a link they receive in an email invitation sent to their university email account. Once a participant clicks on the study link, what happens next? The procedures walk the reader through the study. For an online survey, the first page that is likely to appear on the screen following the link to the study is the informed consent statement. The procedures will then go into detail about how the online consent form describes the study, provides details about what is expected of participants, notes the benefits and risk of participation, indicates that participation is voluntary, and explains how privacy will be maintained and what the plans are for dissemination of findings. The procedures also indicate how consent is obtained. In the case of an online survey, potential participants are likely to be asked to click on a box that reads something like “I agree to participate in this study” or “I do not agree to participate in this study.” Procedures can also note that upon agreeing to participate in the study, the participants then receive the first screen page of the survey. What happens to those who choose not to participate? The procedures should also note that participants who do not consent to participate instead receive a debriefing statement that provides additional details about the study and contact information for the principal researcher.

In addition to describing the process leading up to survey access, the procedures also describe the survey instrument by noting how many questions are on the questionnaire, indicating whether questions are grouped into sections, noting the topic of each section, and listing the order in which the information will be received by the participant. For example, perhaps the questionnaire begins with 10 items that assess background information, followed by a 5-item personality scale or a 12-item behaviour inventory. The procedures also note what happens once participants complete the survey. In most cases, after completing an online survey, participants will receive the debriefing statement mentioned above. Finally, a copy of the questionnaire in its entirety, along with the consent form and debriefing statement, should be attached at the end of the proposal as an appendix.

Again, we would advise you to look at how the procedures are described in a couple of published journal articles, based on studies like the one you are planning, for additional ideas on what you need to include as necessary steps. Ask yourself the following questions as you prepare the method section:

• Did I indicate who the target participants will be and how I plan to obtain them?
• If I don’t have participants, did I explain what my units of analysis will be and how I plan to sample for them?
• Did I explain any relevant inclusion or exclusion criteria for selection?
• Have I noted where the proposed study will take place?
• Have I identified all materials that need to be obtained in advance of the study?
• For a quantitative study, have I listed and operationalized all main variables I plan to examine in my study?
• For a qualitative study, have I explained how I plan to code or categorize the information I will be collecting?
• Have I explained all steps I will undertake to carry out the study?

Data Analysis and Dissemination

In addition to describing the main variables and/or coding procedures, a research proposal also includes a brief section outlining the plan for data analysis and dissemination of findings. A quantitative study is likely to include statistical analysis using a software package especially designed for the social sciences, such as IBM SPSS or Stata statistical software. Data analysis in a qualitative study may be carried out by developing codes through transcription and textual analysis, or it can be assisted through specialized software programs such as NVivo, which helps to manage data by treating units of analysis as cases and organizing ideas, concepts, and themes into codes so that patterns and trends can be made apparent (Jackson & Bazeley, 2019). Here researchers can also indicate any strategies they plan to use to establish reliability, including inter-rater reliability and methods for obtaining rigour. Finally, a proposal outlines the plan for what will be done with the data once it is collected. Perhaps the researcher intends to report on the findings at an upcoming conference by presenting a conference poster (see Appendix B: Sample Student Poster for an example) or submit the main findings to a journal for peer review and possible publication.

Ethical Considerations

If a researcher plans to undertake a study that will include university students (or any humans) as research participants, as in the case of an experimental design, a survey project, an in-depth qualitative interview, or a focus group, the researcher would need to first obtain ethical approval through a university’s research ethics board. Even in the case of non-reactive research, if a researcher wishes to carry out a project that will in some way involve a university’s assets (directly or indirectly), as in the case of non-participatory observation in public spaces on campus, ethical approval will need to be sought from that university’s research ethics board. A research proposal always includes relevant ethical concerns along with the ways in which the planned study will address the concerns.

Minimal Risk for Harm

Recognizing that all research involving humans has at least a minimum potential for harm, a researcher should identify whether the proposed study can be judged as a minimal risk. While it is up to the research ethics board to determine whether the study is deemed minimal risk, a researcher can and should provide rationale for why the proposed project should be assessed as such. For example, a researcher who plans to conduct a survey on driving may indicate that there are no anticipated risks associated with participating in the proposed study. However, since the participants are disclosing information about their own driving habits, there is a minimal risk that participants may experience psychological discomfort when answering questions about the extent to which they engage in dangerous or aggressive driving practices. Specifically, participants could feel remorse or embarrassment while responding to certain questions. In addition, participants could later reflect on responses given and regret having disclosed information about their driving.

Mitigating Minimal Risk of Harm

To help mitigate this potential likelihood of harm, a researcher can include explicit information in the initial consent form to give the potential participants an idea of the type of questions they can anticipate being asked during the survey. For example, participants might be informed that they will be asked to report on safe and unsafe driving practices. In addition, the researcher can even include examples of specific items on the survey (e.g., Question #25 asks “How often do you send or receive text messages while stopped at a red light?”).

Researchers can also include a statement within the questionnaire itself that reiterates that participation is voluntary, that participants may skip over questions they do not want to answer, and that they can choose to end their participation at any time without penalty. Finally, a researcher can include additional self-help resources with the debriefing statement, such as resources for driver education and training.

Addressing Beneficence

Recall from chapter 3 the importance of designing a study in a manner that minimizes harm while maximizing the overall benefit of the research. Where possible, a research proposal should include a statement about the benefits of the proposed study for the researcher. For example, might the research help to fulfill the requirements for an honours project or a master’s thesis? In addition, it is important to list potential benefits for the participants, such as the opportunity to learn more about themselves or research processes. Finally, the proposal should also indicate benefits to the wider research community and/or society more generally. For example, may the proposed study contribute toward our understanding of some group, phenomenon, or process?

Upholding Privacy and Confidentiality

A researcher also needs to detail the planned procedures for upholding privacy through the anonymity of participants, how safe and secure storage of data will be achieved, and how confidentiality will be upheld in the disclosure of findings. For example, a researcher will need to note whether any personally identifying information is going to be collected and, if so, how the researcher plans to safeguard the identity of individual participants. Note that participants need to be made aware of this prior to providing consent.

Part of the process of ensuring privacy includes a consideration and disclosure of who is going to participate in data collection (e.g., Will research assistants help to collect information?); who is expected to access to the data once it is collected (e.g., Will anyone other than the principal researcher assist in the transcription or coding?); and where data is going to be stored (e.g., Will the data be transferred onto a computer file that will be kept on a password-protected computer in a locked office of the principal researcher? Will field notes be kept in a locked cabinet in the secure office of the principal researcher?). A research ethics board will ask for information on these items as well as additional information, including how long any sensitive data will need to be stored (the recommended length being about two years) and how the data will eventually be disposed of (e.g., Will the notes be shredded?).

Prospective References

Finally, a research proposal ends with a list of relevant references. References included in a research proposal help to establish a scholarly context for the planned study. The references help identify, for example, the appropriate and relevant theories, theorists, and concepts that inform the proposed research. In addition, references can help to validate the proposed methodology. For example, perhaps the researcher plans to use a grounded theory approach such as one described by Kathy Charmaz in 2014.

References are listed on a separate page in a standard citation format such as the one provided by the seventh edition of the American Psychological Association’s (2020) publication manual (APA format). In APA format, an author of a book is listed by last name, followed by first initials, year of publication, title, edition (if applicable, and then the publisher according to specific rules for style and punctuation. As illustrated here, in APA format, only the first word of the title of a book is capitalized, and the title appears in italics. MLA and ASA format are similar, as shown below.

APA format :

Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Sage.

ASA format:

Charmaz, Kathy. (2014). Constructing Grounded Theory. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

MLA format:

Charmaz, Kathy. Constructing Grounded Theory . 2nd ed., Sage, 2014.

Activity: Research Proposals Review

Test Yourself

• What are the two primary questions addressed by a research proposal?
• Does the introduction section in a research proposal begin with a broad or narrow statement?
• In which section of a research proposal would you expect to find information on the setting and materials for a study?
• Which subsection of a research proposal walks the reader through the study?
• What suggestions might researchers propose to mitigate the risk of harm to participants?

THE RESEARCH REPORT

A research report is a formalized summary of a completed research project. A research report is written in a standard format that you can use to describe the research you have carried out for an undergraduate research class, an honours project, an independent study, a community-based project or some kind of field placement. This format includes a title page, an abstract, an introduction, a method section, a results section, a discussion section, references, and if applicable, tables, figures, and an appendix, as described in detail in this section and demonstrated in Appendix A: Sample Student Report . Research reports submitted to an academic journal may require additional elements depending on the journal submission guidelines, the most common of which are referred to below and discussed in more detail in this APA Sample Professional Paper produced by the Purdue Online Writing Lab.

The title page is much more than just a placeholder for the title of the study—it not only identifies what was studied, it provides additional information that helps to locate and establish the study within the greater context of the discipline in which it is situated. First, a title page includes a long title that summarizes what the study was about. There is no required minimum or maximum word length; however, the title should contain enough information to give the reader a sense of the specific research objectives. For example, “Sleep Quality” as a title would help identify the area of interest but not what the study was about. In contrast, Semplonius and Willoughby’s (2018) full title, “Psychosocial Adjustment Throughout University: A Longitudinal Investigation of the Roles of Sleep Quality and Emotion Dysregulation,” informs readers that the relationship between sleep and emotions is being studied over time.

In addition to the full title, a title page for a student report usually includes the names of student authors, the university, the course, the instructor, and the due date. Meanwhile, a professional paper submitted to a journal for publication usually includes the names of authors listed in order according to who contributed most to the research project and a running head , which is a shortened version of the title that appears in the header of the manuscript. Further down the page, title pages for professional papers also often include an author note that includes a recognition statement for the source of any relevant funding and how to correspond with the principal researcher for more information about the study. The recognition statement cites the source of support for the study, such as an external research grant (e.g., the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council) or an internal source of funding (e.g., a research fund from within a department or school, or a university’s research office). The correspondence statement lists the name and email address of the main contact person or the principal researcher for the study so that interested readers and other researchers can reach the person for more information about the study.

Located at the beginning of a research project, an abstract is a brief overview of the research project. It summarizes what the research is about, how many participants there were and how they were obtained (or what the units of analysis were), what the procedures were for carrying out the study, what the design consisted of, and what the main findings were. This can be considered the most important section in the entire report, as it is generally the first and sometimes the only section that is read by other academics and researchers conducting searches for relevant articles of interest. Although it appears at the beginning of a report, it should be the last thing the researcher writes, to ensure that it is both succinct (i.e., usually 150–250 words) and comprehensive. This is one of the most difficult sections to write, as it needs to include a lot of information in what amounts to only a few sentences. A good strategy for writing an abstract that is under 250 words is to first write an abstract that includes all relevant information (this will likely be about 300–400 words on your first try), and then rework it a few times, paring it down word by word, until it is as concise as possible.

If submitting an article for publication, journals may also require a short list of relevant keywords beneath the abstract, which are concepts used to locate the article via database searches once it is in print. Keywords also give the reader additional insight into the study. For example, readers interested in the interrelations between sleep , depression , emotion dysregulation , and alcohol might benefit from reading Semplonius and Willoughby’s (2018) study.

An introduction section follows the abstract. Like the research proposal, an introduction in a research report should include a general opening and a broad discussion of the research interest and area, followed by a narrowing of the research topic. In addition, the research topic should be situated within the relevant literature, and the theoretical context and key concepts should all be well articulated. After summarizing the relevant literature, the introduction ends with a statement of the research problem, key question(s), issues explored, and/or hypotheses tested.

For example, in a research project on pain that I conducted for my master’s research, the broad opening statement in the journal article I published was “Pain is a fundamental fact of life” (Symbaluk et al., 1997, p. 258). From there, the introduction narrowed to discuss forms of acute and chronic pain in everyday life. It further narrowed as we brought in the social psychology of pain and established how monetary incentives and social modelling have been used in experimental research to increase pain endurance. It continued to narrow as we identified gaps in the literature and explained how this experiment was the first to look at the role of self-efficacy and pain perception as potential mediators for the anticipated effects of money and modelling on pain endurance. The introduction ended with specific hypotheses, including one predicting that pain endurance would increase as a function of money for participants who were exposed to pain-tolerant social models.

Note that the introduction section for a qualitative research project also summarizes the relevant literature and ties that literature to the research interests of the present study. However, in lieu of hypotheses, this section is likely to conclude with a statement of the research objective or the main question (or questions) explored in the study that follow logically from the literature review (Pyrczak & Bruce, 2017). For example, a qualitative study conducted by one of my students in an introduction to research methods course focused on the reproduction of common stereotypes in popular media. Finlay’s (2012) research question was “Does the popular television series Crime Scene Investigation promote or resist common stereotypical media representations of gender?”

The method (sometimes called methodology) section of the research report is next. The method section is generally the longest in a report, as it contains subsections on the participants or selection of a sample, setting and materials, procedures or coding scheme, dependent or main variables, and data analysis.

Participants and How They Were Obtained or Sample and Sample Selection

For research involving humans as participants, this section notes how many participants were included in the study, who the participants were, and how they were obtained. For example, Sabbane et al. (2009) experiment on the effects of anti-smoking warnings on attitudes and smoking intentions included 178 teenagers ( N = 178) as participants. Specifically, participants were males and females between the ages of 12 and 17 who were non-smokers ( n = 158) or occasional smokers ( n = 15) recruited, with parental consent, from Secondary I classes in a Montreal secondary school.

As a second example, Boyd et al. (2009) analyzed the content of media representations of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), more commonly known as “mad cow disease” for the first 10 days following an outbreak in Alberta on May 20, 2003. Their sampling frame consisted of The Globe and Mail and the National Post (as leading national papers), as well as The Lethbridge Herald (as a local Alberta newspaper) and the Edmonton Journal (as a regional newspaper). The sampling procedure involved online searches of these papers for articles on mad cow disease identified through keywords. From this potential sample, articles were included if they met additional criteria. For example, articles that only peripherally mentioned BSE (i.e., it was not the focus of the study) were excluded, resulting in 309 articles in the sample used (Boyd et al., 2009).

Finally, as a third example, Dr. Rosemary Ricciardelli interviewed 14 men as part of a study on the role of hair in self-identification. The interviewees were recruited through convenience sampling via four means of advertising the study, including business card advertisements for the study given out and left in coffee shops and shopping centres in the Greater Toronto Area, an email invitation sent out to students in a small suburban university, an advertisement in Fab magazine, and an ad in a free gay publication (Ricciardelli, 2011).

As addressed in the research proposals section above, the setting refers to the location where the data collection takes place. For example, in a study looking at the meaning of recovery from the perspective of Canadian consumers receiving mental health services, Piat et al. (2009) conducted interviews at major mental health service sources, including the Wellington Centre of the Douglas Mental Health University Institute, the Canadian Mental Health Association Waterloo/Wellington-Dufferin branches, and at the Programme d’encadrement clinique et d’hébergement. If the setting does not apply, as might be the case if the study was conducted over the internet, then this section would refer to materials only.

The materials refer to the main instruments and supplies used to carry out the procedures of the study. In an experiment, whatever is manipulated as the independent variable likely constitutes a material that requires preparation in advance of the study. For example, in a study on social-information processing as a function of psychopathic traits, Wilson et al. (2008) showed participants artificially created characters and then examined recall and recognition. The characters were profiles developed ahead of time that consisted of eight stimulus characters created with images of faces from the Pictures of Facial Affect (POFA) series put together with descriptions that contained a name, an occupation, and a set of likes and dislikes.

Note that indexes, scales, and other items used to compose a questionnaire given as part of survey research are generally described as main variables or measures after the procedures (not as materials needed to carry out the study).

The procedures section of a research report details how the study was carried out. This subsection within the methods is written in the past tense, and it includes a description of all phases of the study, beginning with any instructions given to participants and the consent process, followed by details on the type of techniques employed to gather data and to later examine it. For example, if interviews were conducted, the researcher needs to indicate how many times each participant was interviewed and the time frame over which data collection (interviewing) took place. Alternatively, if observations occurred, when, where, and under what conditions did these take place? As another example, if an experiment was employed, how did participants experience the independent variable? Instead, if the study was based on ethnography, how did the researcher access the setting? Who were the gatekeepers and how was the gatekeeping process navigated? How was rapport with group members established? What role did the researcher engage in for data collection purposes (e.g., participant observation)? What methods were used to collect data? How did the researcher disengage from the setting at the completion of the study?

Note that if the study was based on content analysis, instead of procedures, a research report could include a section on coding procedures or a coding scheme. Similarly, if the study was based on secondary analysis of existing data, this section would outline why and how that source was selected and obtained, and how the archival material was organized and synthesized for subsequent data analysis (Neuman & Robson, 2024).

Main Variables or Measures

A research report always includes a section that outlines the main variables examined in the study. If the study is an experiment, the dependent variables are listed along with their operationalized definitions. For example, in the pain experiment I conducted for my master’s research, pain perception was operationalized as the time elapsed prior to the first sensation of pain in seconds, and pain endurance referred to how long a participant held an isometric sitting position in minutes and seconds (Symbaluk et al., 1997).

As another example, in a study looking at alcohol content as a mediating factor for brand preference, Segal and Stockwell (2008) employed measures of intoxication and enjoyment completed by participants after they drank two low-alcohol- or two regular-alcohol-content beers. Their measures section included a description of an objective variable based on blood-alcohol content assessed using a standard instrument called the Alco-Sensor IV, and it included a description of three subjective measures. Each subjective measure was listed along with appropriate citations for the originating source and an account of the measure. For example, one measure was The Sensation Scale, which they note was originally developed by Maisto et al. (1980) and consists of 31 items about the effects of alcohol. The measures section also notes that participants scored the items using Likert responses ranging from 0 (not at all) to 9 (extremely), with the higher ratings referring to higher intoxication.

If the study is based on qualitative research, as would be the case for in-depth interviews or most focus group sessions, the research report might not have a section for the main variables or measures. This is because concepts, themes, and main ideas may emerge during data collection and analysis in response to open-ended questions. However, if interviews or focus-group sessions are more structured, a researcher may include the questions or describe items that compose an interview guide as part of a section titled interview guide (in lieu of main variables).

Data Analysis

The last part of the method section of a research report details how data analysis was carried out. For example, if content analyses employed the frequency of occurrence of certain categories of events, how were the categories developed? Specifically, did the researcher use categories already established in the literature, modify categories based on previous literature, or develop new ones? Were categories counted once or every time there was an instance of that category? And how was reliability assessed? Did the researchers employ inter-coder reliability and, if so, what was the reliability rate achieved?

As another example, the process for data analysis in an ethnographic study of young homeless men in Calgary was described as follows: “Interviews were transcribed verbatim and checked for accuracy against the digital recordings. A thematic framework was agreed upon by the authors (SP and LM), based on the reported significance of daily routines, coping strategies, and access to services. This was used along with an open coding strategy to recursively analyze these findings using NVivo 7, a qualitative analysis software (QRS International, 2007). Data analysis was concurrent with data collection and uncovered common themes among the interviewees” (Persaud et al., 2010, p. 345).

Writing Resources

Academic writing is challenging. You want to be clear and concise, avoiding jargon and unnecessary details, while at the same time having to explain complex practices and procedures that go into conducting social research. The good news is that most universities have writing centres with online resources and expert staff to help you learn how to write research reports and other forms of scholarly communication. As an example, the University of York Writing Centre has created a useful video on how to write a methods section:

[Video transcript – See Appendix D 12.1 ] Methods: structure is by University of York Writing Centre. Used with permission.

Alongside free online resources, s everal universities also provide students with tools like Grammarly, a writing assistant that uses artificial intelligence to give you immediate feedback on your writing.

The results section of a research report outlines the main findings of the study in the appropriate technical terms. If there are several dependent variables or measures, each variable might be listed as a subheading in this section. Note that the results section states only facts, as succinctly as possible. In the case of quantitative research, the results section for an experiment is likely to report on findings based on tests of differences between means using t -tests for two groups or analysis of variance for variation between and within more than two groups or categories. The results section for quantitative survey research is likely to describe main variables (e.g., using measures of central tendency and variability), as well as report on tests for associations between variables of interest, such as correlations, regression analysis, or nonparametric measures of correlation.

The results section may include figures and tables, as discussed below, if they are necessary to help the reader understand the information being shared. If they are instead supplementary information that may distract a reader from the content, they can instead go in an appendix at the end of the report. When submitting a report to a journal for publication, you may also ask to include figures and tables after the references at the end of a report; an editor then styles and includes them to the text when preparing the file for publication. In each of these instances, the text of your paper should include a “callout” referencing each figure or table, which should be labelled sequentially, to draw the reader’s attention to this information (e.g., for an example of a pie chart included in the text, see Figure 12.1; to review how a table may appear in an appendix, see Appendix A of this book).

Coding and the Development of Categories

In a qualitative research report, results typically document the findings from the coding methods employed in the study. The coding methods involve stages or phases, beginning with initial codes. As described in various earlier chapters, data obtained in a study are assigned labels or codes. Specifically, a code “is most often a word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of language-based or visual data” (Saldaña, 2021, p. 5). Recall that qualitative data includes a range of information, from narrative and text based on interviews and field notes to drawings and images presented in magazine ads, shown through character portrayals on television, and so on. A posting on RateMyProfessor.com, for example, might contain the passage “She really knows her stuff,” coded as “instructor” and “knowledge” since the passage refers to the instructor and it contains a comment about an attribute of the instructor. To begin with, each unit of data is usually assigned its own specific code.

After the initial codes are determined, the next phase includes going back over the data to determine if there are patterns in the data that can be coded into categories based on their common elements. For example, perhaps lots of comments refer to the instructor. Some of the comments might pertain to instructor attributes, such as comments about the instructor’s knowledge of the subject matter and comments about the instructor’s willingness to help students. Other items might have to do with an instructor’s grading, such as “The instructor is a hard marker” or “The instructor grades fairly.” Finally, other comments might pertain to assignments in the course, such as “This course has a lot of papers!” One large category to emerge from this data might be “comments about the instructor.” Another category might be “comments about the course content.” Within the “comments about the instructor” category, other subcategories could also be identified. For example, there may be a subcategory for “instructor attributes.” Within the subcategory for “instructor attributes,” researchers could also list codes for “clarity,” “helpfulness,” “knowledge,” and so on.

Qualitative data analysis is a lengthy process that eventually culminates in the development of themes, as Saldaña (2021) points out, “a theme can be an outcome of coding, categorization, or analytic reflection, but it is not something that is, in itself, coded” (p. 19). Results from qualitative studies, then, highlight main themes or claims that are descriptive outcomes identifying the main overall findings that emerged from the data collection and analysis processes. To substantiate the results, qualitative researchers need to carefully articulate each of the coding stages and categories that developed within each stage. Each main theme is generally discussed within its own subsection in the results, similar to how each main dependent variable is discussed for a quantitative study.

Results from research studies are often depicted in figures . Figures are charts or graphs used to display results based on how a variable is measured. A pie chart, for example, is used to depict the results in a picture format for a single, qualitative variable that is measured at the nominal level. For example, a researcher doing a content analysis on gender portrayals in the media might use a pie chart to convey that there are more males than females depicted as central characters on television. Or a researcher conducting an online survey on attitudes toward healthcare might use a pie chart to describe the respondents who completed the survey. Perhaps the largest slice of the pie indicates that many participants were married, followed by single, common-law, divorced, and separated (see figure 12.1). If none of the respondents claimed they were in a category (e.g., widowed), that category would not be included in the pie chart.

If it is important to indicate the frequency distribution for the categories of a variable, a bar graph would be used instead of a pie chart, since it emphasizes the number of respondents in each category of a variable and it can even be used to show the concurrent pattern of findings for two variables measured at the nominal level. In figure 12.2 we can still determine that more than half of the participants in this fictitious study on the effectiveness of a drug treatment program were married (86 + 11 = 97 out of 181). However, we can also note that there may be a relationship between treatment completion and marital status, since a higher proportion of respondents who were in a relationship (married or common-law) completed treatment relative to participants who were single or divorced (see figure 12.2).

Bar graphs can also be used to display the distributions of responses across or within categories of a nominal variable, shown in percentages. For example, figure 12.3 shows the percentage of respondents in each marital status category who completed or failed to complete treatment. This figure more clearly illustrates the relationship between relationship status and treatment completion, as it is now obvious to the reader that the clear majority of those in relationships completed treatment, whereas those who are not in relationships appear to have just slightly higher than a 50-50 chance of success (see figure 12.3).

Tables are typically summaries of the main findings from quantitative research, such as the percentage of respondents who gave answers in each category of a variable on a questionnaire or the differences in means between groups on dependent measures. For example, Symbaluk and Howell’s (2010) study showed that students gave higher ratings to teaching-award winning instructors than to research-award winners on the popular website RateMyProfessors.com. In the results section, a table compared teaching-award and research-award recipients by listing the mean rating given by students for easiness, helpfulness, and clarity for the two groups of instructors (see table 12.1). Tables are also especially useful for indicating patterns in data over time (Nardi, 2006).

In the discussion section of a research report, researchers summarize and elaborate on the main findings, highlight the importance of the findings, and tie them back into the wider literature. In addition, the discussion section notes limitations of the current study and identifies directions for future research. Since the results section focuses only on the findings, the discussion section is where the researcher can indicate what the results mean and whether the results are consistent with prior expectations, previous research, and/or the hypotheses tested in the study. In addition, researchers can elaborate on what the findings mean, why they are important, and how they can best be interpreted within the context of existing literature. A research report is often described as having the overall shape of an hourglass. Just as the introduction section began broad and narrowed to the focus of the current study, wherein the methods and the results sections are exclusive to the present study, the discussion broadens again until it finally generalizes back to the wider topic of interest.

After discussing the results in relation to the original research questions and wider literature, limitations are raised and suggestions for improvements are provided. All studies have strengths and weaknesses. Usually, a researcher will point out a few of the methodological limitations of the current study. Perhaps the sample size was smaller than desired, or perhaps the sampling method used was not ideal but was necessary under the present circumstances. Even if the most appropriate sampling method was used, as might be the case for a sample of convenience employed in an interview-based study on centenarians (people who live to be more than 100 years of age), inherent limitations such as the resulting inability to generalize the findings should be mentioned in the discussion. If secondary sources are used, there may be restrictions in terms of what can be explored given the different originating purpose of data collection. Usually, a researcher will indicate ways to improve on the present study or offer suggestions for future studies given the limitations discussed. A discussion typically ends with a statement of direction for academics interested in conducting further research in this area. Note that some authors choose to include a conclusion section as a separate section to end the report. A conclusion section summarizes the contributions of the present study and provides suggestions for future research and/or includes directives for policy initiatives.

The last section of a research report is a list of the sources cited throughout the report. The list is generally double-spaced in accordance with the rest of the report and is written in a standard style, such as the one provided by the most current version of the American Psychological Association’s (2020) style guide discussed earlier on.

Research on the Net

APA is the most commonly used citation style in the social sciences. Most, if not all, academic libraries provide students with online resources and staff support to help with citation questions. Additionally, the American Psychological Association’s APA Style website provides examples of how to reference sources , including less commonly used sources like social media posts and audiovisual materials such as podcasts and YouTube videos. The website also provides guidance on how to set up tables and figures , and how to format your paper .

• What seven sections compose a standard academic research report?
• Why is an abstract so important?
• What is provided at the end of an introduction?
• What five subsections are described in the method section of a research report?
• Which section(s) include figures or tables?
• Where would a researcher indicate whether the findings obtained were the ones anticipated prior to the onset of the study?

OTHER ITEMS

Other optional items that may be included in a research report are an appendix and a list of acknowledgements.

The appendix is a section or placeholder where a researcher can include additional information that may be relevant to other researchers, such as a scale or index used to construct questionnaire items, an interview guide used to assist a moderator in a focus group, a set of instructions provided to participants in an experiment, or a coding scheme adapted from the literature for use in a content analysis. Since the appendix is an extra section, it is generally not included in the page count for a research report.

List of Acknowledgements

A list of acknowledgements is sometimes included to pay tribute to individuals and organizations that helped to support the research. For example, research assistants, graduate students, or paid assistants who are not primary researchers or contributing authors are generally acknowledged at the end of the report. The researcher can also list agencies, groups, or organizations that provided funding in the form of grants, scholarships, and/or awards, along with any individual or organization that provided necessary materials, such as meeting space, for carrying out the study.

• Why is a list of acknowledgements important to include in a research report?

Activity: Research Reports Review

Chapter summary.

• Outline the main components of a research proposal. A research proposal includes five main sections: an introduction, a method section, a section on data analysis and dissemination, a section on ethical considerations, and a listing of prospective references.
• Explain the purpose of a method section in a research proposal. The method section outlines who the participants will be and how they will be selected or how the sample will be obtained. In addition, a method section includes information on the setting and materials needed to conduct the study, the procedures for carrying out the study, and the main variables that are examined in the study.
• Identify key ethical considerations that need to be addressed in a research proposal. If a researcher plans to conduct research using humans as participants, the proposal should indicate why the study can be deemed minimal risk and how the minimal risk will be mitigated. The proposal should also include a statement that outlines the benefits of the study for participants, for the researchers, and for the wider academic community. Finally, the proposal should also include a discussion about how privacy and confidentiality will be upheld in the planned study.
• Outline the structure and format of a scholarly research report. A research report includes a title page, an abstract, an introduction, a method section, a results section, a discussion section, and references. The method section includes subsections on participants and how they were selected or the sample and how it was obtained, the setting and materials, the main variables or measures, and how data analysis was conducted.

RESEARCH REFLECTION

• Suppose you are interested in studying the prevalence of texting while driving. What method do you think would be most suitable for examining this phenomenon? If you were going use that method to study texting while driving, what ethical considerations would you need to address in a research proposal?
• Suppose you are interested in learning about effective strategies used by university students to prepare for final exams. Indicate what you would include in a research proposal in the section on participants. Specifically, who would your sample comprise and how you would go about obtaining participants?
• Suppose you want to explore the ways in which people treat their pets in comparison to how they treat members of their immediate family in an exploratory study for your master’s thesis. What kind of method would you employ to study this topic? Based on your choice of method, what sorts of information would you need to include in the results section of a research report based on the findings?

LEARNING THROUGH PRACTICE

Objective: To develop a research outline

Directions:

• First, decide on one area of the mass media where you wish to examine gender, such as music, television, or social media.
• Next, identify relevant secondary sources for data on gender within the selected area of the mass media. For example, if you want to study gender in music, a relevant source would be music lyrics in songs within a genre, such as rap.
• Develop one or two general research questions that you could (potentially) examine using the secondary source identified in the previous step.
• Explain whether your study will be based on qualitative or quantitative research. Justify your approach.
• Describe the main method you plan to use to examine your question of interest. For example, will you be conducting a content analysis?
• Describe a main research question or hypothesis examined in the article.
• Describe the method or methods used to answer the question of interest.
• Explain whether this article has provided you with any ideas or guidance for how to develop your own study in the area.
• Do you think this source of data is a good one to include in your eventual sample? Why or why not?
• Describe the sampling procedure you would use to conduct your planned study.
• Examining the secondary source of data with your research questions in mind, what kind of data analysis do you think you would need to do? Explain the procedures for how you would carry out this analysis on a larger scale in your eventual study.

RESEARCH RESOURCES

• For step-by-step instructions on how to write research proposals and reports, refer to chapters 6 and 7 in Symbaluk, D., Hall, R., & Champoux, G. (2019). Navigating an undergraduate degree in the social sciences: Tips and strategies . MacEwan Open Books.
• For more information on ways to code qualitative data (e.g., descriptive coding, process coding, emotion coding, axial coding, theoretical coding), refer to Saldaña, J. (2021). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (4th ed.). Sage.
• To learn how to code qualitative data using NVivo software, refer to Jackson, K., & Bazeley, P. (2019). Qualitative data analysis with NVivo (3rd ed.) . Sage.
• To learn about data analysis based on qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods, refer to Bergin, T. (2018). An introduction to data analysis: Quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods . Sage.
• Opening quote by Professor Chris Whitty, chief scientific advisor for the Department of Health, published on January 1, 2019, from the National Institute for Health Research home page at nihr.ac.uk. ↵

A comprehensive plan created in advance of carrying out research that details what the purpose of the project is and what the process will be for obtaining data.

A detailed account, following research, that describes the research interest, questions or hypotheses addressed, methods used, and findings from the study.

A brief overview of a research project, which describes the participants or units of observation, the design, the procedures, and the main findings in no more than 250 words.

Charts or graphs used to display results based on how a variable is measure.

Summaries of main findings from quantitative research, such as the percentage of respondents who gave answers in each category of a variable on a questionnaire or the differences in means between groups on dependent measures.

Research Methods: Exploring the Social World in Canadian Context Copyright © 2024 by Diane Symbaluk & Robyn Hall is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

• Research Report
• Post last modified: 11 January 2022
• Reading time: 25 mins read
• Post category: Research Methodology

What is Research Report?

Research reporting is the oral or written presentation of the findings in such detail and form as to be readily understood and assessed by the society, economy or particularly by the researchers.

As earlier said that it is the final stage of the research process and its purpose is to convey to interested persons the whole result of the study. Report writing is common to both academic and managerial situations. In academics, a research report is prepared for comprehensive and application-oriented learning. In businesses or organisations, reports are used for the basis of decision making.

Table of Content

• 1 What is Research Report?
• 2 Research Report Definition
• 3.1 Preliminary Part
• 3.2 Introduction of the Report
• 3.3 Review of Literature
• 3.4 The Research Methodology
• 3.5 Results
• 3.6 Concluding Remarks
• 3.7 Bibliography
• 4 Significance of Report Writing
• 5 Qualities of Good Report
• 6.1 Analysis of the subject matter
• 6.2 Research outline
• 6.3 Preparation of rough draft
• 6.4 Rewriting and polishing
• 6.5 Writing the final draft
• 7 Precautions for Writing Research Reports
• 8.1.1 Technical Report
• 8.1.2 Popular Report
• 8.2.1 Written Report
• 8.2.2 Oral Report

Research Report Definition

According to C. A. Brown , “A report is a communication from someone who has information to someone who wants to use that information.”

According to Goode and Hatt , “The preparation of report is the final stage of research, and it’s purpose is to convey to the interested persons the whole result of the study, in sufficient detail and so arranged as to enable each reader to comprehend the data and to determine for himself the validity of the conclusions.”

It is clear from the above definitions of a research report, it is a brief account of the problem of investigation, the justification of its selection and the procedure of analysis and interpretation. It is only a summary of the entire research proceedings.

In other words, it can be defined as written documents, which presents information in a specialized and concise manner.

Contents of Research Report

Although no hard and fast rules can be laid down, the report must contain the following points.

• Acknowledgement
• Table of contents
• List of tables
• List of graphs
• Introduction
• Background of the research study
• Statement of the problem
• Brief outline of the chapters
• Books review
• Review of articles published in books, journals, periodicals, etc
• Review of articles published in leading newspapers
• Working papers / discusssion paper / study reports
• Articles on authorised websites
• A broad conclusion and indications for further research
• The theoretical framework (variables)
• Model / hypothesis
• Instruments for data collection
• Data collection
• Pilot study
• Processing of data
• Hypothesis / model testing
• Data analysis and interpretation
• Tables and figures
• Conclusions
• Shortcomings
• Suggestions to the problems
• Direction for further research

Preliminary Part

The preliminary part may have seven major components – cover, title, preface, acknowledgement, table of contents, list of tables, list of graphs. Long reports presented in book form have a cover made up of a card sheet. The cover contains title of the research report, the authority to whom the report is submitted, name of the author, etc.

The preface introduces the report to the readers. It gives a very brief introduction of the report. In the acknowledgements author mention names of persons and organisations that have extended co-operation and helped in the various stages of research. Table of contents is essential. It gives the title and page number of each chapter.

Introduction of the Report

The introduction of the research report should clearly and logically bring out the background of the problem addressed in the research. The purpose of the introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. A clear statement of the problem with specific questions to be answered is presented in the introduction. It contains a brief outline of the chapters.

Review of Literature

The third section reviews the important literature related to the study. A comprehensive review of the research literature referred to must be made. Previous research studies and the important writings in the area under study should be reviewed. Review of literature is helpful to provide a background for the development of the present study.

The researcher may review concerned books, articles published in edited books, journals and periodicals. Researcher may also take review of articles published in leading newspapers. A researcher should study working papers/discussion papers/study reports. It is essential for a broad conclusion and indications for further research.

The Research Methodology

Research methodology is an integral part of the research. It should clearly indicate the universe and the selection of samples, techniques of data collection, analysis and interpretation, statistical techniques, etc.

Results contain pilot study, processing of data, hypothesis/model testing, data analysis and interpretation, tables and figures, etc. This is the heart of the research report. If a pilot study is planned to be used, it’s purpose should be given in the research methodology.

The collected data and the information should be edited, coded, tabulated and analysed with a view to arriving at a valid and authentic conclusion. Tables and figures are used to clarify the significant relationship. The results obtained through tables, graphs should be critically interpreted.

Concluding Remarks

The concluding remarks should discuss the results obtained in the earlier sections, as well as their usefulness and implications. It contains findings, conclusions, shortcomings, suggestions to the problem and direction for future research. Findings are statements of factual information based upon the data analysis.

Conclusions must clearly explain whether the hypothesis have been established and rejected. This part requires great expertise and preciseness. A report should also refer to the limitations of the applicability of the research inferences. It is essential to suggest the theoretical, practical and policy implications of the research. The suggestions should be supported by scientific and logical arguments. The future direction of research based on the work completed should also be outlined.

Bibliography

The bibliography is an alphabetic list of books, journal articles, reports, etc, published or unpublished, read, referred to, examined by the researcher in preparing the report. The bibliography should follow standard formats for books, journal articles, research reports.

The end of the research report may consist of appendices, listed in respect of all technical data. Appendices are for the purpose of providing detailed data or information that would be too cumbersome within the main body of the research report.

Significance of Report Writing

Report writing is an important communication medium in organisations. The most crucial findings might have come out through a research report. Report is common to academics and managers also. Reports are used for comprehensive and application oriented learning in academics. In organisations, reports are used for the basis of decision making. The importance of report writing can be discussed as under.

Through research reports, a manager or an executive can quickly get an idea of a current scenario which improves his information base for making sound decisions affecting future operations of the company or enterprise. The research report acts as a means of communication of various research findings to the interested parties, organisations and general public.

Good report writing play, a significant role of conveying unknown facts about the phenomenon to the concerned parties. This may provide new insights and new opportunities to the people. Research report plays a key role in making effective decisions in marketing, production, banking, materials, human resource development and government also. Good report writing is used for economic planning and optimum utilisation of resources for the development of a nation.

Report writing facilitates the validation of generalisation. A research report is an end product of research. As earlier said that report writing provides useful information in arriving at rational decisions that may reform the business and society. The findings, conclusions, suggestions and recommendations are useful to academicians, scholars and policymakers. Report writing provides reference material for further research in the same or similar areas of research to the concerned parties.

While preparing a research report, a researcher should take some proper precautions. Report writing should be simple, lucid and systematic. Report writing should be written speedily without interrupting the continuity of thought. The report writing should sustain the interest of readers.

Qualities of Good Report

Report writing is a highly skilled job. It is a process of analysing, understanding and consolidating the findings and projecting a meaningful view of the phenomenon studied. A good report writing is essential for effective communication.

Following are the essential qualities of good report:

• A research report is essentially a scientific documentation. It should have a suggestive title, headings and sub-headings, paragraphs arranged in a logical sequence.
• Good research report should include everything that is relevant and exclude everything that is irrelevant. It means that it should contain the facts rather than opinion.
• The language of the report should be simple and unambiguous. It means that it should be free from biases of the researchers derived from the past experience. Confusion, pretentiousness and pomposity should be carefully guarded against. It means that the language of the report should be simple, employing appropriate words, idioms and expressions.
• The report must be free from grammatical mistakes. It must be grammatically accurate. Faulty construction of sentences makes the meaning of the narrative obscure and ambiguous.
• The report has to take into consideration two facts. Firstly, for whom the report is meant and secondly, what is his level of knowledge. The report has to look to the subject matter of the report and the fact as to the level of knowledge of the person for whom it is meant. Because all reports are not meant for research scholars.

Steps in Writing Research Report

Report writing is a time consuming and expensive exercise. Therefore, reports have to be very sharply focused in purpose content and readership. There is no single universally acceptable method of writing a research report.

Following are the general steps in writing a research report:

Analysis of the subject matter

Research outline, preparation of rough draft, rewriting and polishing, writing the final draft.

This is the first and important step in writing a research report. It is concerned with the development of a subject. Subject matter should be written in a clear, logical and concise manner. The style adopted should be open, straightforward and dignified and folk style language should be avoided.

The data, the reliability and validity of the results of the statistical analysis should be in the form of tables, figures and equations. All redundancy in the data or results presented should be eliminated.

The research outline is an organisational framework prepared by the researcher well in advance. It is an aid to logical organisation of material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report. In the process of writing, if need be, outline may be revised accordingly.

Time and place of the study, scope and limitations of the study, study design, summary of pilot study, methods of data collection, analysis interpretation, etc., may be included in a research outline.

Having prepared the primary and secondary data, the researcher has to prepare a rough draft. While preparing the rough draft, the researcher should keep the objectives of the research in mind, and focus on one objective at a time. The researcher should make a checklist of the important points that are necessary to be covered in the manuscript. A researcher should use dictionary and relevant reference materials as and when required.

This is an important step in writing a research report. It takes more time than a rough draft. While rewriting and polishing, a researcher should check the report for weakness in logical development or presentation. He should take breaks in between rewriting and polishing since this gives the time to incubate the ideas.

The last and important step is writing the final draft. The language of the report should be simple, employing appropriate words and expressions and should avoid vague expressions such as ‘it seems’ and ‘there may be’ etc.

It should not used personal pronouns, such as I, We, My, Us, etc and should substitute these by such expressions as a researcher, investigator, etc. Before the final drafting of the report, it is advisable that the researcher should prepare a first draft for critical considerations and possible improvements. It will be helpful in writing the final draft. Finally, the report should be logically outlined with the future directions of the research based on the work completed.

Precautions for Writing Research Reports

A research report is a means of conveying the research study to a specific target audience. The following precautions should be taken while preparing a research report:

• Its hould belong enough to cover the subject and short enough to preserve interest.
• It should not be dull and complicated.
• It should be simple, without the usage of abstract terms and technical jargons.
• It should offer ready availability of findings with the help of charts, tables and graphs, as readers prefer quick knowledge of main findings.
• The layout of the report should be in accordance with the objectives of the research study.
• There should be no grammatical errors and writing should adhere to the techniques of report writing in case of quotations, footnotes and documentations.
• It should be original, intellectual and contribute to the solution of a problem or add knowledge to the concerned field.
• Appendices should been listed with respect to all the technical data in the report.
• It should be attractive, neat and clean, whether handwritten or typed.
• The report writer should refrain from confusing the possessive form of the word ‘it’ is with ‘it’s.’ The accurate possessive form of ‘it is’ is ‘its.’ The use of ‘it’s’ is the contractive form of ‘it is.
• A report should not have contractions. Examples are ‘didn’t’ or ‘it’s.’ In report writing, it is best to use the non-contractive form. Therefore, the examples would be replaced by ‘did not’ and ‘it is.’ Using ‘Figure’ instead of ‘Fig.’ and ‘Table’ instead of ‘Tab.’ will spare the reader of having to translate the abbreviations, while reading. If abbreviations are used, use them consistently throughout the report. For example, do not switch among ‘versus,’ and ‘vs’.
• It is advisable to avoid using the word ‘very’ and other such words that try to embellish a description. They do not add any extra meaning and, therefore, should be dropped.
• Repetition hampers lucidity. Report writers must avoid repeating the same word more than once within a sentence.
• When you use the word ‘this’ or ‘these’ make sure you indicate to what you are referring. This reduces the ambiguity in your writing and helps to tie sentences together.
• Do not use the word ‘they’ to refer to a singular person. You can either rewrite the sentence to avoid needing such a reference or use the singular ‘he or she.’

Types of Research Report

Research reports are designed in order to convey and record the information that will be of practical use to the reader. It is organized into distinct units of specific and highly visible information. The kind of audience addressed in the research report decides the type of report.

Research reports can be categorized on the following basis:

Classification on the Basis of Information

Classification on the basis of representation.

Following are the ways through which the results of the research report can be presented on the basis of information contained:

Technical Report

A technical report is written for other researchers. In writing the technical reports, the importance is mainly given to the methods that have been used to collect the information and data, the presumptions that are made and finally, the various presentation techniques that are used to present the findings and data.

Following are main features of a technical report:

• Summary: It covers a brief analysis of the findings of the research in a very few pages. 
• Nature: It contains the reasons for which the research is undertaken, the analysis and the data that is required in order to prepare a report. 
• Methods employed: It contains a description of the methods that were employed in order to collect the data. 
• Data: It covers a brief analysis of the various sources from which the data has been collected with their features and drawbacks 
• Analysis of data and presentation of the findings: It contains the various forms through which the data that has been analysed can be presented. 
• Conclusions: It contains a brief explanation of findings of the research. 
• Bibliography: It contains a detailed analysis of the various bibliographies that have been used in order to conduct a research. 
• Technical appendices: It contains the appendices for the technical matters and for questionnaires and mathematical derivations. 
• Index: The index of the technical report must be provided at the end of the report.

Popular Report

A popular report is formulated when there is a need to draw conclusions of the findings of the research report. One of the main points of consideration that should be kept in mind while formulating a research report is that it must be simple and attractive. It must be written in a very simple manner that is understandable to all. It must also be made attractive by using large prints, various sub-headings and by giving cartoons occasionally.

Following are the main points that must be kept in mind while preparing a popular report:

• Findings and their implications : While preparing a popular report, main importance is given to the findings of the information and the conclusions that can be drawn out of these findings.
• Recommendations for action : If there are any deviations in the report then recommendations are made for taking corrective action in order to rectify the errors.
• Objective of the study : In a popular report, the specific objective for which the research has been undertaken is presented.
• Methods employed : The report must contain the various methods that has been employed in order to conduct a research.
• Results : The results of the research findings must be presented in a suitable and appropriate manner by taking the help of charts and diagrams.
• Technical appendices : The report must contain an in-depth information used to collect the data in the form of appendices.

Following are the ways through which the results of the research report can be presented on the basis of representation:

• Writtenreport
• Oral report

Written Report

A written report plays a vital role in every business operation. The manner in which an organization writes business letters and business reports creates an impression of its standard. Therefore, the organization should emphasize on the improvement of the writing skills of the employees in order to maintain effective relations with their customers.

Writing effective written reports requires a lot of hard work. Therefore, before you begin writing, it is important to know the objective, i.e., the purpose of writing, collection and organization of required data.

Oral Report

At times, oral presentation of the results that are drawn out of research is considered effective, particularly in cases where policy recommendations are to be made. This approach proves beneficial because it provides a medium of interaction between a listener and a speaker. This leads to a better understanding of the findings and their implications.

However, the main drawback of oral presentation is the lack of any permanent records related to the research. Oral presentation of the report is also effective when it is supported with various visual devices, such as slides, wall charts and whiteboards that help in better understanding of the research reports.

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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

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Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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5 Initial Elements of Report Writing

Published by Grace Graffin at November 19th, 2021 , Revised On October 9, 2023

Is it time to write your first report? Try not to dread too much on it. Think of the report writing process as a fun project and break it into stages. College students are asked to write a report for a particular audience; if not in college, you may be asked to write one at your job. Whatsoever the reason and premises, it is essential to learn the basics of report writing to draft an immaculate one.

Introduction to Report Writing:  

The report itself refers to giving an account of something you have seen, observed, or found out. In the academics and professional world, a report refers to any document that elaborates an event or a thesis that has been investigated through formal research methodologies. Moreover, research is a systematic study of an event, natural phenomenon, material, or condition to find out the facts and underlying reasons. Therefore, for academic research, thesis or dissertation, you have to write an elaborate report that is an integral part of a college degree.

According to the definition, a report is any formal document that explains a topic using facts, figures, charts, graphs, and other aids to support the arguments and findings.

Precisely, a report is any write-up that explains the findings of research in a set standard format. You need to get familiar with report writing skills and techniques to write a flawless paper and secure a good grade.

Types of Report:  

Some of the types of reports are:

Informational:  

The informational reports are the reports that are aimed to inform and instruct. The audience who reads such a report is informed about an occurrence, situation, and event. Since the report writers do not critically evaluate a problem in the informational report, there are no conclusions, limitations, or suggestions included.

Analytical:

The analytical reports critically analyze the information, and thus it includes conclusions and recommendations, etc. When writing this report, the report writers aim not only to inform the reader but provide the perspective of good or bad, right or wrong about the certain situation.

Persuasive:

The persuasive reports are called an extension of the analytical reports as the report writers take a side based on the analysis of a situation that he has made. Moreover, the writer aims to convince the audience to believe and conform with his notion. The persuasive reports are usually written at businesses, as their purpose is to sell an idea, product, or service.

Difference between Report and Essay:

From the above-mentioned definition of report writing and its types, you might have become confused about how, if,  reports differ from essay writing . Reports and essays are two different kinds of writings; here it is how.

The purpose of the report is to elaborate and explain research or study that you can carry out yourself. On the other hand, writing an essay aims to describe ideas or research carried out by other people. Even if you have carried out a study yourself, you will write an essay about the arguments you have already made. Elaborately or precisely, an essay does not directly include any practical research.

• Graphic aids: 

In the report writing, you can add charts, graphs, images, or other graphic aids to substantiate the arguments or findings of the research. In the essay, you cannot add any kind of graphic aid whatsoever the reason it could be.

• Table of contents:

While it is required for the reports to have a table of contents , you do not need to add a table of content for essays.

• Recommendations: 

Reports, except informational reports, include recommendations, but essays do not constitute any recommendations.

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Elements of Report Writing:  

1.     executive summary:  .

The executive summary is a precise overview of the report that gives a quick preview of what the report is all about. It includes a glimpse of the outline, problem statement , methodology , findings , and limitations. Although abstract and executive summary are used interchangeably, there exists a fine difference between them both. Abstract and executive summary both constitute the same elements but differ in length: abstract is shorter than the executive summary. The executive summary is the comprehensive description or the overview of the paper. Moreover, abstracts are written for content that is to be published in a journal.

Anyways, the executive summary or abstract contains the following elements:

• Background: 

The background includes an overview of the event or a more generalized description of a concept.

• Problem statement:

You will write a sentence or two to define the problem that urged you to carry out the research. The problem can be any mere observation or literature gap that you have identified from the literature.

The executive summary will also include the methodology employed to do the research. It will mention the type and approach of sampling and analysis, i.e., qualitative and quantitative .

It will provide the main results, conclusions, and findings of the research.

One thing that you must remember in mind

2.    Introduction:  

The next element of the report writing is the introduction. It is a significant part of the report that introduces the reader to the broad value of the research. While the executive summary is a brief overview, the introduction part of the research is a detailed overview. In the introduction, you will describe the context and background and provide the significance of the report. In this section, you will also highlight the research objectives and aim that you want to achieve. Shed some light on the problem and the driving reason behind the research. You will also mention the method that you have used to carry out the investigation. Briefly mention the answer to the problem that you have dug out a thorough investigation in the research.

3.    Findings:  

The findings of the report will contain the main conclusions that you have extracted as a result of the research. You will mention your findings and can include graphical aids if they support them. To cut the story short, it is the place where you will pen down the details of the observations that you found out from the event, object, or situation.

4.    Discussion:

In the discussion session, you will discuss and analyze the finding of the research. The discussion tackles two areas. First, it elaborates the findings; second, it makes the recommendations.

In this section, you will make the comparisons, check the result along with different scales, and extend the discourse by making speculations based on facts and identifying the covert reasons for specific phenomena. In the discussion, it is imperative to put the explanations in a logical and systematic manner to avoid any inadequacies. Moreover, in the discussion section, when you are explaining your findings, they must be aided with sufficient facts.

5.    Conclusion:

Last but not least, you will end up your report with the conclusion that sums up the whole story of the research. In conclusion, it is important to maintain a hierarchy of ideas in order of importance of details. In a way, it is more like an essay conclusion that rephrases the introduction. It is the gist of the report that precisely describes the main conclusions, mentions major issues to the given situation and the report writer’s interpretation of that. When writing the conclusion, you must cut corners and focus on what is important and valuable to discuss.

Also Read: Things You Should Know About Report Writing

In a nutshell

While students/employees respond in many ways to write different assignments, report writing is something they usually find daunting. If you know what to do in report writing, you will find it exciting to craft a good report and get all the praise from your supervisor. The five pillars of report writing include an executive summary, introduction, findings, discussion, and conclusion. Keep them in your mind while writing your report, and you will be able to write a perfect one.

Good Luck with your report writing!

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the different types of report writing.

Different types of report writing include research reports, business reports, technical reports, investigative reports, and academic reports, each serving specific purposes like analysis, documentation, or communication.

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In this article, we are sharing multiple patterns of template for essays along with some useful tips to make the structure of your essay strong and clear.

Not sure about how to organize an essay? This article is designed to provide a brief yet compact view to master the skill of organization of essay.

Before diving into the how-to, grasping what critical discussion entails is essential. Essay writing help often emphasises the importance of this step. Critical discussion requires a deeper level of analysis where you explain a topic and evaluate and dissect its various facets.

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Home » Research Methodology » Contents and Layout of Research Report

Contents and Layout of Research Report

Contents of research report.

The researcher must keep in mind that his research report must contain following aspects:

• Purpose of study
• Significance of his study or statement of the problem
• Review of literature
• Methodology
• Interpretation of data
• Conclusions and suggestions
• Bibliography

These can be discussed in detail as under:

(1) Purpose of study:

Research is one direction oriented study. He should discuss the problem of his study. He must give background of the problem. He must lay down his hypothesis of the study. Hypothesis is the statement indicating the nature of the problem. He should be able to collect data, analyze it and prove the hypothesis . The importance of the problem for the advancement of knowledge or removed of some evil may also be explained. He must use review of literature or the data from secondary source for explaining the statement of the problems.

(2) Significance of study:

Research is re-search and hence the researcher may highlight the earlier research in new manner or establish new theory. He must refer earlier research work and distinguish his own research from earlier work. He must explain how his research is different and how his research topic is different and how his research topic is important. In a statement of his problem, he must be able to explain in brief the historical account of the topic and way in which he can make and attempt. In his study to conduct the research on his topic.

(3) Review of Literature :

Research is a continuous process. He cannot avoid earlier research work. He must start with earlier work. He should note down all such research work, published in books, journals or unpublished thesis. He will get guidelines for his research from taking a review of literature . He should collect information in respect of earlier research work. He should enlist them in the given below:

• Author/researcher
• Title of research /Name of book
• Year of publication
• Objectives of his study
• Conclusion/suggestions

Then he can compare this information with his study to show separate identity of his study. He must be honest to point out similarities and differences of his study from earlier research work.

(4) Methodology:

It is related to collection of data. There are two sources for collecting data; primary and secondary. Primary data is original and collected in field work, either through questionnaire interviews. The secondary data relied on library work. Such primary data are collected by sampling method . The procedure for selecting the sample must be mentioned. The methodology must give various aspects of the problem that are studied for valid generalization about the phenomena. The scales of measurement must be explained along with different concepts used in the study.

While conducting a research based on field work, the procedural things like definition of universe, preparation of source list must be given. We use case study method , historical research etc. He must make it clear as to which method is used in his research work. When questionnaire is prepared, a copy of it must be given in appendix.

(5) Interpretation of data :

Mainly the data collected from primary source need to be interpreted in systematic manner. The tabulation must be completed to draw conclusions. All the questions are not useful for report writing . One has to select them or club them according to hypothesis or objectives of study .

(6) Conclusions/suggestions:

Data analysis forms the crux of the research problem . The information collected in field work is useful to draw conclusions of study. In relation with the objectives of study the analysis of data may lead the researcher to pin point his suggestions. This is the most important part of study. The conclusions must be based on logical and statistical reasoning. The report should contain not only the generalization of inference but also the basis on which the inferences are drawn. All sorts of proofs, numerical and logical, must be given in support of any theory that has been advanced. He should point out the limitations of his study.

(7) Bibliography:

The list of references must be arranged in alphabetical order and be presented in appendix. The books should be given in first section and articles are in second section and research projects in the third. The pattern of bibliography is considered convenient and satisfactory from the point of view of reader.

(8) Appendices:

The general information in tabular form which is not directly used in the analysis of data but which is useful to understand the background of study can be given in appendix.

Layout of the Research Report

There is scientific method for the layout of research report . The layout of research report means as to what the research report should contain. The contents of the research report are noted below:

• Preliminary Page

(1) Preliminary Pages:

These must be title of the research topic and data. There must be preface of foreword to the research work. It should be followed by table of contents. The list of tables, maps should be given.

(2) Main Text:

It provides the complete outline of research report along with all details. The title page is reported in the main text. Details of text are given continuously as divided in different chapters.

• (a) Introduction
• (b) Statement of the problem
• (c) The analysis of data
• (d) The implications drawn from the results
• (e) The summary

(a) Introduction :

Its purpose is to introduce the research topic to readers. It must cover statement of the research problem , hypotheses, objectives of study, review of literature, and the methodology to cover primary and secondary data, limitations of study and chapter scheme. Some may give in brief in the first chapter the introduction of the research project highlighting the importance of study. This is followed by research methodology in separate chapter.

The methodology should point out the method of study, the research design and method of data collection.

(b) Statement of the problem :

This is crux of his research. It highlights main theme of his study. It must be in nontechnical language. It should be in simple manner so ordinary reader may follow it. The social research must be made available to common man. The research in agricultural problems must be easy for farmers to read it.

(c) Analysis of data :

Data so collected should be presented in systematic manner and with its help, conclusions can be drawn. This helps to test the hypothesis . Data analysis must be made to confirm the objectives of the study.

(d) Implications of Data :

The results based on the analysis of data must be valid. This is the main body of research. It contains statistical summaries and analysis of data. There should be logical sequence in the analysis of data. The primary data may lead to establish the results. He must have separate chapter on conclusions and recommendations. The conclusions must be based on data analysis. The conclusions must be such which may lead to generalization and its applicability in similar circumstances. The conditions of research work limiting its scope for generalization must be made clear by the researcher.

(e) Summary :

This is conclusive part of study. It makes the reader to understand by reading summary the knowledge of the research work. This is also a synopsis of study.

(3) End Matter:

It covers relevant appendices covering general information, the concepts and bibliography. The index may also be added to the report.

Related posts:

• Writing the Research Report
• Preparing a Research Report
• Referencing a Research Report
• Steps Involved in Drafting a Research Report
• The Research Problem
• The Purpose of Research
• Significance of Research
• The Basic Types of Research
• Classification and Tabulation of Data in Research
• Documentary Sources of Information in Research

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Types of Research Reports

What is a Research Report?

A research report is a concise document that summarizes the findings, methods, and conclusions of a research study or investigation. There are various types of research reports available for different purposes.

It typically includes details on the research question, methodology, data analysis, and results, providing a structured and informative account of the research process and outcomes.

Table of Contents

• Market Research
• Experimental
• Descriptive
• Exploratory
• Explanatory

Types of Research Report Writing

Limitations, key highlights.

• A research report is a document that gives a quick overview of a research study.
• Types of research reports offer a standardized format and structure, making it easier for readers to navigate and comprehend the information.
• They are useful in fields like academia, business, healthcare, social sciences, and more.
• Different types of report writing determine the report’s primary purpose, i.e., if it should be short, long, or for internal purposes, etc.

Different Types Of Research Reports

1. technical or scientific reports.

Technical and scientific reports communicate research findings to experts and professionals in a particular field.

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Characteristics:

• These reports include technical jargon, detailed methodologies, and in-depth analysis.
• They often have a standardized format for peer review.

 2. Popular Reports

Popular reports are designed for a general audience and aim to inform, educate, or entertain on a wide range of topics.

• Includes clear and jargon-free language
• Uses storytelling, visuals, and anecdotes to engage readers
• Prioritizes readability over deep analysis.

3. Survey Reports

Survey reports include data collected through surveys and focus on presenting insights and opinions on specific issues or questions.

• Contains information on survey methodology, including sample size and data collection methods.
• Presents statistical summaries like percentages and charts.

4. Market Research Reports

Market research reports provide insights into consumer behavior, market trends, and industry analysis.

• Includes market surveys, competitor analysis, and consumer demographics.
• Helps businesses in making strategic decisions.

5. Case Study Reports

Case study reports focus on an in-depth examination of a single entity, often to explore complex, real-life situations.

• Includes detailed descriptions of the case, data collection methods, and analysis.
• Common in business and psychology fields.

6. Analytical Research Reports

Analytical research reports involve a deep analysis of data to uncover patterns, trends, or relationships.

• Uses statistical tools and software to analyze data comprehensively
• Common in fields like economics and social sciences.

7. Review or Literature Survey Reports

Literature review reports provide an overview of existing research on a specific topic, highlighting gaps and trends.

• Synthesizes findings from various sources and provides a historical context
• Often offers recommendations for future research.

8. Experimental Research Reports

Experimental research reports involve controlled experiments to test hypotheses and determine if the results support or reject the hypothesis.

• Uses random sampling and control groups to minimize bias.
• Includes detailed descriptions of the experiment, hypothesis, methods, and statistical analyses.

9. Descriptive Research Reports

Descriptive research reports aim to provide a comprehensive picture of a phenomenon, group, or situation. They seek to answer the “what” and “how” questions.

• Typically, it relies on observations, surveys, and content analysis.
• Focuses on describing and summarizing data.

10. Exploratory Research Reports

Exploratory research reports are conducted when there is little prior knowledge about a subject. They aim to identify key variables and research questions.

• Involves open-ended interviews, focus groups, and literature reviews.
• Findings are preliminary, serving as a basis for further research.

11. Explanatory Research Reports

Explanatory research reports seek to understand the relationships between variables and explain why certain phenomena occur.

• Uses experimental designs, surveys, and statistical analyses.
• Provides in-depth insights into the research problem.

12. Policy or White Papers

Policy or white papers aim to inform policymakers, stakeholders, and the public about specific issues and recommend actions.

• Presents research findings in a concise and accessible manner
• Often consists of policy recommendations.

Components of Research Reports

These are some common components you must know while writing different types of research reports.

1. Title Page:

• Title of the Report
• Institutional Affiliation

2. Abstract: Add a concise summary of the research, including the research question or objective, methodology, key findings, and implications. Typically, it should be no more than 150-250 words.

3. Table of Contents: Include a list of sections and subsections with page numbers.

4. List of Figures and Tables: If your research includes numerical data, add all the statistics and tables along with their corresponding page numbers. It is similar to a table of contents for quantitative data.

5. List of Abbreviations and Symbols: Include any abbreviations or symbols you have used in the report and their meanings.

6. Introduction:

• Provide background information on the topic.
• State the research question or objective.
• Explain the significance and purpose of the study.
• Provide an outline of the report’s structure.

7. Literature Review:

• Review relevant literature and previous research on the topic.
• Identify gaps in existing knowledge.
• Explain how your study contributes to the field.

8. Methodology:

• Describe the research methods and techniques that you used.
• Explain the sampling methods, data collection, and data analysis procedures.
• Discuss any ethical considerations.

9. Results:

• Present the findings of your research.
• Use tables, figures, charts, and graphs to illustrate key points.
• Include descriptive and inferential statistics as needed.

10. Discussion:

• Interpret the results and relate them to the research question.
• Discuss the implications of your findings.
• Compare your results to previous research.
• Address any limitations of your study.

11. Conclusion:

• Summarize the main findings and their significance.
• Restate the research question and how it was addressed.
• Suggest areas for future research.

12. References: Include a list of all the sources cited in your report in a standardized citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).

Let us see an example of a research report.

Research Report: The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on the Labor Market

This research study explores the profound changes occurring in the labor market due to the increasing adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies. The study examines the potential benefits and challenges AI poses for the workforce, job displacement, and the skills required in the future job market.

List of Figures and Tables

Introduction, literature review, methodology.

• Figure 1: Trend in AI Adoption by Industry (Page 7)
• Table 1: Summary of Job Displacement Data (Page 9)
• Figure 2: Projected Growth of AI-Related Occupations (Page 11)

The introduction section provides an overview of the research topic. It explains the significance of studying the impact of AI on the labor market, outlines the research questions, and previews the structure of the report.

The literature review section reviews existing research on the effects of AI on employment and the labor market. It discusses the different perspectives on whether AI will create new jobs or lead to job displacement. It also explores the skills and education required for the future workforce.

This section explains the research methods used, such as data collection methods, sources, and analytical techniques. It outlines how data on AI adoption, job displacement, and future job projections were gathered and analyzed.

The results section presents the key findings of the study. It includes data on the extent of AI adoption across industries, job displacement rates, and projections for AI-related occupations.

The discussion section interprets the results in the context of the research questions. It analyzes the potential benefits and challenges AI poses for the labor market, discusses policy implications, and explores the role of education and training in preparing the workforce for the AI era.

In conclusion, this research highlights the transformative impact of artificial intelligence on the labor market. While AI brings opportunities for innovation and efficiency, it also presents challenges related to job displacement and workforce adaptation. Preparing for this evolving job landscape is crucial for individuals and policymakers.

Given below are various types of research reports writing that researchers and organizations use to present findings, progress, and other information.

Here is why the different types of research reports are important.

• Research reports are a primary means of sharing new knowledge and insights with the academic and scientific community. They contribute to the growth of human understanding in various fields.
• They provide a detailed and structured account of the research process, including methods, data, analysis, and conclusions. This documentation is crucial for transparency, replication, and future reference.
• These reports hold researchers accountable for their work. They provide a transparent record of the study, allowing others to assess the validity and reliability of the research.
• These often influence policy decisions, business strategies, and practical applications. For instance, medical research informs healthcare practices, while market research guides business decisions.

Listed below are some limitations of different types of research reports.

• Research reports can be influenced by the researcher’s biases, preferences, or the funder’s interests. It’s essential to assess the methodology critically.
• Findings in research reports may not always be directly applicable to other contexts or populations.
• Certain research reports are not available to everyone due to several barriers, making it hard for people to access important information.
• The process of conducting research, writing a report, and getting it published can be time-consuming.

Final Thoughts

Different types of research reports are important for sharing knowledge, making smart choices, and moving forward in different areas of study. It’s vital for both researchers and those who use research to grasp the different kinds of reports, what goes into them, and why they matter.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. Are research reports the same as research papers? Answer: Research reports and research papers share similarities but have distinct purposes and structures. Research papers are often more academic and can vary in structure, while research reports are typically more structured and cater to a broader audience.

Q2. How do I choose the right type of research report for my study? Answer: The choice of research report type depends on your research goals, audience, and the nature of your study. Consider whether you are conducting scientific research, market analysis, academic research, or policy analysis, and select the format that aligns with your objectives.

Q3. Can research reports be used as references in other research reports? Answer: Yes, research reports can be cited and used as references in other research reports as long as they are credible sources. Citing previous research reports adds depth and credibility to your work.

Recommended Articles

This article lists all the types of research reports available for research methodologies. We have also included its format, example, and several report-writing methods. For similar articles, you can check the following articles,

• Types of Research Methodology
• Types of Quantitative Research
• Quantitative Research Examples
• What is Qualitative Data Analysis

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Research Report: Definition

The primary objective of a research report is to communicate the results of a research study to a wider audience, including other researchers, policymakers, and practitioners. Research reports play a crucial role in advancing knowledge and understanding in various fields of study. They provide a detailed and accurate account of the research process and outcomes, and they serve as a reference source for future research.

The structure of a research report typically follows a standard format. The introduction sets the context and background for the research and outlines the research questions or objectives. The literature review provides an overview of existing research on the topic and identifies gaps in the literature that the research aims to address. The methodology section describes the research design and methods used to collect and analyze data. The results section presents the findings of the study, often using tables, charts, and graphs. The discussion section interprets and contextualizes the findings and compares them to previous research. Finally, the conclusion summarizes the key findings and implications of the research, highlighting any limitations and recommendations for future research.

A research report can take various forms, depending on the field of study and the research question. For example, it may be a quantitative or qualitative report, a literature review report, or a case study report. A research report should be clear, concise, and objective regardless of the form.

Research reports are essential for various reasons. First, they provide a detailed and accurate account of the research process and outcomes, which can inform policy and practice in various settings. Second, research reports contribute to the development of knowledge and understanding in a particular field or discipline. They provide a reference source for other researchers in the field, and they can inspire new research questions and directions. Finally, research reports are a crucial component of academic and professional careers. They demonstrate research skills, expertise, and contributions to the field.

Tips for writing an excellent research report

Writing a research report can be a challenging task, but it is a crucial component of academic and professional research. An excellent research report should be clear, concise, and well-structured, with a focus on presenting accurate and objective findings. Here are some tips for writing an excellent research report:

• Start with a clear research question: A good research report starts with a clear and focused research question. The question should be specific and relevant to the field of study, and it should guide the research design, methodology, and analysis.
• Develop a strong methodology: The methodology section is the backbone of a research report. It should provide a clear and detailed description of the research design, sampling strategy, data collection and analysis procedures, and any ethical considerations.
• Use clear and concise language: The language used in a research report should be clear, concise, and jargon-free. Avoid using complex sentences and technical terms that may be difficult for readers to understand.
• Structure the report logically: A research report should be well-structured and follow a logical sequence of sections, such as an introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Each section should be clearly labeled and should flow smoothly into the next.
• Present data accurately and effectively: The results section should present data accurately and effectively, using tables, graphs, and charts where appropriate. The data should be clearly labeled and easy to read, and the analysis should be presented in a way that is easy to understand.
• Provide a thorough discussion of findings: The discussion section should provide a thorough and critical analysis of the findings, comparing them to previous research and discussing their implications for the field. The discussion should also highlight any limitations of the study and suggest avenues for future research.
• Follow the guidelines and formatting requirements: It is essential to follow the guidelines and formatting requirements provided by the journal or publisher for the research report. This includes formatting, referencing, and citation styles.

A research report is a vital tool in disseminating research results to academic, professional, and public audiences. It provides a detailed analysis of the research problem, research questions, methodology, findings, and conclusions. Research reports are crucial in advancing knowledge and understanding in various fields of study, informing policy and practice, and contributing to academic and professional careers.

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Writing up a Research Report

• First Online: 10 November 2021

Cite this chapter

• Stefan Hunziker 3 &
• Michael Blankenagel 3  

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A research report is one big argument how and why you came up with your conclusions. To make it a convincing argument, a typical guiding structure has developed. In the different chapters, distinct issues need to be addressed to explain to the reader why your conclusions are valid. The governing principle for writing the report is full disclosure: to explain everything and ensure replicability by another researcher.

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Hunziker, S., Blankenagel, M. (2021). Writing up a Research Report. In: Research Design in Business and Management. Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-34357-6_4

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Contents of the research report.

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After reading this article you will learn about the contents of a research report. It includes:- 1. Introduction 2. Method 3. Results of the Study 4. Discussion 5. Summary or Abstract 6. References 7. Appendix.

1. Introduction:

The research report should ordinarily start with a statement of the problem selected for investigation. The reporter should introduce the background and nature of the problem under investigation.

Although quite a few times the study might be posing a simple empirical question about human behaviour or might be directed toward a practical problem or some policy-issue, the researcher must place the question or the issue into a larger, theoretical or practical context. This helps the readers to appreciate why the problem is of a general significance and theoretic import.

If the enquiry was planned with a view to making some contribution to certain aspects of social theory, the reporter should summarise the theory or conceptual scheme within which the reporter/researcher is working. Regardless of the nature of the study, it is important that an intelligent but, may be, a non-professional person would be able to understand the nature of problem and appreciate its larger relevance.

The report should not contain a lot of jargon except when there is no feasible alternative to it, certain constraints warranting its use. The reader is not always prepared to intelligibly appreciate the problem of research, he is often not conversant with the relevant theoretic structure.

Hence, it is important that the general reader is gradually led up to the formal theoretic statement of the problem. Intelligible examples are necessary for illustrating theoretic ideas and the technical terms.

It is extremely desirable that a summary of the current state of knowledge in the area of investigation is presented, once the problem of the study is explained. The summary should comprise allusions to the previous researches conducted in the problem-area, and pertinent theories relating to the phenomena (if any).

A researcher must have familiarized himself with the previous work in the field before designing the study. Most of the literature search should have been done by the time the researcher is ready to write the report.

If the researcher was required to recast his study in a somewhat different framework than his initial problem would warrant, he would need to give references he had not previously consulted.

That is, he will be obliged to go back to the literature which in the light of the above shift has become relevant. Review of previous work should comprise only the pertinent findings and insights relating to the issue the researcher is dealing with.

If such a review article already exists, the researcher will do well to simply address his readers to the review article and present only the bare highlights in the report. Books and articles need to be cited with the author’s last name and year of publication.

Towards the end of the section on introduction, it is desirable that the researcher introduces his own study in a brief overview. This affords a smooth transition into the method section which follows the introductory section.

2. Method (Design of Study):

The readers of the report do like to know in detail how the research was carried out and what its basic design was like. Suppose the research involved experimentation, the readers would like to know the nature of experimental manipulation; the method and points at which measurements were taken and so on.

The readers also need to know, in case of the descriptive and exploratory studies, how the data were collected, the nature of questions asked, the strategies adopted by interviewers during the collection of data, the training they had and the recording procedure adopted for recording of responses.

The readers also need to know how the observations or replies to questions were translated into measures of the variables with which the enquiry was concerned, in the main, e.g., what questions were asked to estimate the degree of ‘commitment’ or alienation.

In regard to the sample covered by the study with a view to arriving at general conclusions about the population which the sample supposedly represents, the readers are expected to be told about the general character of the subjects, the number of them covered by the sample, mode of selection etc.

Information on these points is crucial for understanding the probable limits of generalizability of the findings, i.e., whether there is any justifiable basis for extending the sample findings to the population.

This information can betray the biases of the researcher in selecting the subjects for the study. Thus, the claim of the researcher as to generalizability of findings to population at large could be evaluated.

Although meaningful studies based on a small number of cases barely representing a specifiable population are possible, nevertheless, the number of characteristics of the respondent on which the findings are based must be plainly reported so that readers are enabled to arrive at their own verdict regarding the applicability of the given findings to other groups similarly placed in the social structure.

If the researcher has conducted a complex experiment, the report should include some description of the study as it was seen from the viewpoint of the subjects.

This would involve a description of the subjects, the experimental setting, and the variables assessed. The sequence of events in a chronological order also needs to be presented to the reader, who, in a sense, is carried through the experience as though he was a subject.

Even if the reporter customarily reproduces the complete questionnaire/schedule or testing scales in the appendix to the report, a summary of stimulus items, a sample of questionnaire items and scale-items should be included in this section of the report. All this goes a long way toward giving the reader a feel of what it would have been like to be a subject.

This has an important bearing on the interpretation of study results, and understandably, the reader is placed thereby in a position to judge the worth of the study results. In quite a few studies the subject/participants are called upon to co­operate actively in the research enterprise.

The report should advisedly make a mention of how the participants in the research were compensated for their time and effort and if there was deception practiced on them in the course of the study. Such unethical practices like deception or misinformation about the procedure cannot unfortunately be dispensed with in certain studies.

The readers need to be told how these human participants were told about these practices afterwards, the amount of freedom afforded to subjects in the matter of withdrawing their participation, subjection to threats, concealed observations of them, strategies for protecting their anonymity etc., should also be faithfully reported.

3. Results of the Study:

The section is closed generally with statement that informs the conclusions reached as also the qualifications imposed upon them by the conceptual and practical difficulties faced by the researcher in executing the study-design in a manner he would ideally have desired.

But if the researcher wishes to present different kinds of results before he is able to integrate them or draw any inferences based on them or if he wants to discuss certain matters in the final discussion then the discussion section is better presented separately.

Of course, even here there cannot be a pure results section without an attendant discussion. Before the researcher can present his main results there are, in the main, ‘ two preliminary things that must concern him. Firstly, he needs to present proof that his study has ensured the conditions for testing the hypotheses and/or for answering the research questions.

For example, if the study required of the researcher that he produce two groups radically differing from each other in the character of their emotions, the report must demonstrate that the ratings on the two groups were conclusively different and it was not that the difference occasioned as a matter of chance.

In case the investigation required observers to record behaviour of the judges entrusted with rating the responses, the report should present quantitative proof of reliability of the recordings or ratings.

The result section should usually begin with a discussion on the safeguards and strategies adopted by the researcher to negate bias and unreliability in the course of the study. It is quite possible that some of these matters would have already found a place in the meth od section.

It is equally likely that in some studies discussion on these matters is rightly postponed to the final discussion section, where researcher tries to adduce alternative explanations of the study results.

What should be included at the beginning of the results section so that the readers are satisfied that the stage was successfully set for testing the research hypotheses, is a decision which would be governed by an understanding of the overall state of study results. No hard and fast rules lead to this decision.

Secondly, the method of data-analysis is a matter to be dealt with at the beginning of the results section. The researcher needs to describe the procedure adopted by him in converting his observations into data that may be readily analysed and the procedure adopted for coding and articulation of different observer’s ratings.

The readers must be told next, about the statistical analysis itself. If this analysis was unconventional or unorthodox and warranted certain statistical assumptions, a detailed discussion giving out the rationale for it, is called for. This could be the place in the report to afford the readers an overview of the results section, if it is fairly complicated.

The general rule of reporting research findings is to commence with the central findings and then move on to the more peripheral ones. This rule is also applicable to the sub-sections and it is advisable that the basic findings are stated first, followed by elaborations of them, as needed.

If the beginning is made with the most central results, the progress in reporting should follow the line suggested below:

(1) The researcher should remind the readers in a conceptual mould, about the question he is asking. For example, is democratic classroom atmosphere more conducive to learning by students as compared to the authoritarian atmosphere?

(2) Secondly, the reporter should remind the readers of the actual operations performed or the actual behaviour measured (which was assumed to be the empirical referent of learning or democratic atmosphere, in our example).

(3) The answer to the question which surfaced as a result of the study should be made known to the readers immediately and unequivocally.

(4) Relevant supporting numbers or figures, substantiating the study result should be given out. For example, x 2 = 11.2, df = 2. This should be followed by an elaboration of the overall conclusions. Limitations imposed upon these conclusions by certain factors which might have operated to produce results that may not be expected in a larger class of such situations should be honestly spelt out.

(5) It is necessary that every finding involving a comparison, e.g., between democratic and authoritarian classroom atmospheres, between certain groups or relationship between variables should be accompanied by its statistical level of significance. Failing this, the readers would have no basis of knowing whether or not the findings may be attributed to the chance factor.

The inferential statistics though important, do no constitute the core of the narrative and should be subordinated to the substantive results. The real purpose of descriptive statistics or indices should be to present to the readers the behaviour of people as vividly as possible. Effective reporting aims at giving to the readers a ‘feel’ of the observed behaviour.

(6) Ordinarily, in a detailed research report intended for a knowledgeable readership, every finding considered sufficiently important as to merit some emphasis should be accompanied by a table or graph or figure showing the relevant data. Thus, the reader is in a position to grasp the findings by reading the narration or by looking at the tables or figures, embodying result of interest.

As the writing on the section on results progresses, the reporter should continually keep summarizing and updating the readers’ fund of information lest they should be required to look back time and again, to keep in touch with the major points of the researcher’s thesis.

Towards the end of this section, is demonstrated the statistical reliability of the results. It is often useful to illustrate how particular individuals covered by the study behaved. Besides the illustrative function, this adds richness to the study-findings.

4. Discussion:

Especially for the more complex studies having more abstract and extensive implications, discussion constitutes a separate section. The section on discussion forms a coherent narration with the introductory section of the report.

Concerns of central importance to the researcher in view of his problem and hence embodied in the introduction section should appear again in the discussion for the discussion proceeds from the specific matters about the study through the more abiding and general concerns to the most inclusive generalization the researcher wishes to make.

Each of the new statements made in the discussion section should contribute something fresh to the reader’s understanding of the problem. The inferences that may be drawn from the findings should be clearly presented. These may often be at a high level of abstraction. If this be the case, the conceptual or theoretic linkages would need to be explicated.

Let us take an example. If the investigator has found better performance in terms of learning on the part of students, in classroom situations characterized by a ‘democratic’ atmosphere (democratic atmosphere in the classroom may be said to be characterized tentatively by the freedom allowed to students in respect of choosing the problems for discussion, electing the discussion leader, counter questioning the teacher, etc.), the investigator may conclude that in other situations where such freedom is allowed to participants, i.e., of choosing their problems for discussion or electing their own discussion leader, etc., similar effects will be seen.

However, the researcher may wish to carry his inference to a higher level of abstraction, especially if there is some partially developed theory to which it may be possible to link his finding or if there have been other studies in which the specific phenomena are different but these can be understood in terms of the same abstract principle.

For example, the investigator may find that the teachers in general feel dissatisfied or unhappy despite the improvement in their salary scales because the ‘others’ in comparable jobs whose salary scales too were subjected to an upward revision appear to them to have benefitted more by this scale revision.

The investigator may treat this state of affairs (characterized by dissatisfaction among teachers despite improvement in salary scales) as an instance of the more abstract concept of ‘relative’ deprivation.

On the basis of this abstract concept, the researcher may be able to link up the finding of his study to those of some other study which reported that in a community hit by a natural disaster some people who had themselves suffered loss of property and bereavement went out to help certain other families because the loss and bereavement suffered by these families as viewed by those who went out to help, was much greater compared to their own.

This phenomenon though different from the earlier one in concrete content, can be understood in terms of the same abstract principle which explains the dissatisfaction among teachers despite the increased objective gain.

The people who had incurred loss and bereavement in the second example compared their losses to those of the ‘significant others’ in the community and found that their own losses were much less or that they were much better compared to the ‘others’, and hence developed sympathy for these ‘others’ although objectively viewed, they themselves needed to be sympathized with.

The questions that still lie unanswered may also be alluded to. It is quite in order at this point to compare the results of the study with those reported by other investigators. The possible short-comings of the study should be honestly brought out.

The readers must be told about the conditions that might have limited the extent of legitimate generalization. Here, the readers should be reminded of the characteristics of the sample studied as also about the possibility that it might differ from the ‘population’ or ‘universe’ to which the researcher might want to generalize.

The specific characteristics of the method employed by the researcher which might have influenced the results or some factors that might have led to atypical results merit mention. The researcher should not, however, try to invest long involved long involved theories to explain away every ‘bump’ in the data.

On the contrary, if the study results suggest the beginnings of a new theory which injects amazing clarity into the data and affords a very meaningful view of the problem- area, it would be advisable to rewrite the entire report beginning with the new theory. The aim of scientific reporting is to provide the most informative, instructive and compelling framework for the study right from the first sentence.

5. Summary or Abstract:

In a way, the title of research report itself serve as part of the summary or abstract. Ideally, it conveys the content of the study as accurately and clearly as possible. A potential reader can on this basis decide whether or not to go ahead to read it. Those titles that mention both the dependent and independent variables are obviously the most informative ones.

6. References:

The section on references comprises a list of all books and articles cited in the text of the research report. These books and articles are arranged alphabetically according to the author’s last name, a format that corresponds to the way in which they are cited in a book.

The reference should clearly indicate the name of the author, the title of the book or article, the journal in which it appears, the publisher, place of publication and the year of publication.

7. Appendix:

The appendix to a report consists of copies of materials used in the study, like questionnaire, attitude scale, stimulus materials, drawings of apparatuses, etc. This is expected to help a person who would like to replicate the study.

A second appendix might contain tables of data which are too extensive and seemingly too marginal to be included in the body of the report. This is in the nature of a good turn done to the potential researchers, for this enables them to explore the researcher’s data in fine detail and to answer certain questions about the results that might not have occurred to the researcher.

Related Articles:

• Principles of a Good Research Report
• Research Report: Introduction, Definition and Report Format

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Sustaining Zero-Fare Public Transit in a Post COVID-19 World: Conduct of Research Report (2024)

Chapter: phase ii - scenario development.

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

PHASE II—SCENARIO DEVELOPMENT Task 4. Development of Scenarios and Evaluation Introduction The objective of this task was to develop and evaluate scenarios for a transition to zero-fare transit, which will help explain the benefits/risks of zero-fare transit to a wider audience. Approach Scenario Development The research team developed four detailed scenarios that serve as examples of a transition to zero- fare transit. The scenarios reflect commonly encountered contexts and agency characteristics as identified in the previous phase of the project, including: • Agency Size: Rural/Tribal, Small Urban, Large Urban/Metro (Larger agencies appear to have a larger dependency on fares for ongoing operations and have very limited data available; based on FTA funding category population ranges.) • Funding Sources: 5307, 5311, Sales Tax, State Funds, Local/County Funds, Development District (Some funding outside of FTA funds may be at risk due to decision-maker reprioritization impacted by fare-free operation.) • Modes/Transit Services Operated Fare-Free: Demand Response, ADA/Paratransit, Micro- transit, Bus, Streetcar, Light Rail, Commuter Rail, Heavy Rail (Micro-transit has potential challenges associated with the cost of no-shows, and rail has been separated from bus/paratransit in some fare-free implementations.) • Peak-Hour Capacity Demands: Heavy/Capacity loading in peak periods (Higher loads during peak hours bring the risk of overcrowding with fare-free operation.) • Fare Recovery: Low, Medium, High (Higher fare recovery appears to reflect greater dependence on fares for ongoing operations.) • Regional Services: Inconsistent fare-free policies (Fares collected in some modes/transit services or geographic areas and not in others may greatly impact cost savings for fare collection and intended fare-free policy outcomes.) • Service Agreements/Fare Dependence: Intra-agency service coordination agreements or direct funding for university, major employer, or resort service (Direct funding for service may be at risk if there is no fare charged; in addition, some agencies are more dependent on fares than others.). Deliverables A technical memorandum was developed as a deliverable, including the findings of the scenario development and evaluation. Appendix C comprises the comprehensive draft of the conducted research to define the four scenarios for test analysis, describe the proposed method for calculating costs and benefits, and conduct an initial analysis of the four scenarios to further inform the next steps in this research. Additionally, a high-level summary of the findings and considerations is provided below for concise understanding. 10 

Scenarios Development Building on the previous discussion of the characteristics and context for fare-free implementation, the four scenarios were developed loosely modelled after real-world agencies and settings found while conducting the research. • Rural/Tribal – This scenario is reflective of small rural transit districts that often have fairly low fare revenues and a high cost of fare collection. Capacity issues are generally not critical, and the sensitivity to outside funding is minimal. Ridership is often low, and the proportion of low-income riders may be higher than other types of systems. • Small Urban/Rural with University Support – Transit agencies operating near large college/university campuses have a great opportunity for ridership and are often financial partners with the institutions in various forms. This scenario is reflective of the importance to an agency of preserving these financial partnerships (which could also be large employer agreements or municipal/county support) if fare-free service is implemented. Systems serving colleges and universities often have high concentrations of ridership on the routes linking student housing to the campus. • Regional – This scenario is reflective of the risk of having a part of a regional system go fare-free while another part does not. In this case, the urban portion of the system has discussed not continuing fare-free operation. Many of the benefits of fare-free operation in one area can be fully or partially negated if an adjacent area does not continue fare-free operations. If any fares are collected, then the fare collection processes must all be in place. This also greatly impacts the intended policy goals. The differing needs of a system with both urban and rural elements can drive conflicting goals. • Urban – Services may include bus, paratransit, and fixed guideway services. This scenario is reflective of the importance of fares in the overall finances of a larger urban area. These areas also have a greater potential for security issues and increased paratransit service costs (paratransit fare being double the fixed route fare). This alternative also includes participation by a development district and streetcar operation. In this specific example, the agency serves parts of two states, which carries the risk of different support for fare- free implementation and the subsequent loss of benefits. Vehicle overcrowding is also a consideration. Potential Benefits and Costs The research findings have revealed a broad range of positive and negative considerations in the implementation of a fare-free operation. It is important to note that these considerations are both quantitative and qualitative. The degree to which these different aspects are considered and weighted is a policy decision at the state and/or local level. The following lists the potential benefits and costs: • Operations Efficiency and Ridership • Cost Impacts/Savings • Funding/Financing • Transportation Equity • Air Quality/Greenhouse Gases 11 

Scenario Analysis and Evaluation The primary purpose of the scenario analysis and the ultimate practitioners’ tool is to provide inputs needed for informed decision-making, rather than offer a definitive recommendation. The research team envisioned the development of the free-fare policy analysis and accompanying spreadsheet tool to be built on the following key areas, tailored to the specific context: 1. State DOT and agency goals with fare-free program – Define the desirable end state. 2. Cost and operations data inputs – This is dependent on local conditions and context. 3. Operations efficiency and ridership – Benefits and challenges with operations, including ridership. Note that fare elasticity for partial fare-free operation is not currently available in the literature. 4. Cost impacts and savings – Based on applicable costs incurred or that can be reduced/eliminated. 5. Funding/financing – Understanding of risk to existing funding and financing opportunities. 6. Transportation equity – Based on specific inputs for historic transportation investments, social capital outlays/underinvestment, regional demographics, community, and ridership profiles. 7. Possible second-order impacts – Identify risks of unintended consequences from fare-free implementation. 8. Mitigation – Identify steps to improve the likelihood of fare-free operation success. 9. Resulting analysis outputs that include: a reasonable ridership range; estimated cost per new rider; benefit-cost ratio; and summary of service-specific and other regional aspects (qualitative or quantitative) related to fare-free operation applicable to that specific agency. The scenario analysis tested the approach and allowed a thorough review of scenarios approximating actual agencies. In addition to this test, the analysis revealed the following: • Replacing revenue from lost fares is critical to ongoing maintenance, vehicle replacement, and future service improvements. • The potential impact of increased paratransit ridership (resulting from fare-free implementation) could be a critical part of the analysis. Understanding the latent demand for this service is essential. These trips cannot be denied and are often the most expensive part of the service to provide. • A strictly quantitative (costs/cost savings) analysis only tells a part of the story. More often than not, it shows a negative picture of fare-free implementation. • The ability to easily compare alternatives (side-by-side) with the tool will be important. For example, it would be very informative to show the impact of losing the university partnership with the system in the analysis. • Articulating the agency goals is essential to success. Understanding reasonable expectations and risks related to these goals is the objective of the practitioners’ tool. Task 5. Phase II Report and In-Person Meeting Introduction The objective of this task is to document the findings of the scenario development and scenario evaluation. The establishment of the scenarios for analysis and the evaluation methodology served as preparation for the in-person project panel meeting. The key objective of the in-person meeting was to review the Phase II findings and prepare for the completion of the practitioner-ready tool. 12 

Approach The research team developed the second interim report covering the methods and findings of the second phase of the project. The follow-up in-person panel meeting provided a great opportunity to have an interactive discussion with the NCHRP staff and project panel and gain feedback on the findings so far, gaps to be addressed in Phase II, and any initial guidance on the development of the practitioner-ready tool that will be developed in Phase III. Deliverables The research team submitted the Phase II report, minutes from the in-person project panel meeting, and an annotated outline of the Phase III plan. The in-person panel meeting proved to be a valuable contribution to the research and the utility of the final products with an added focus on partial fare-free implementation, interim review of the Practitioners’ Tool, additional outreach to tribal agencies, and updates to the data table. In addition, the research team had the opportunity to coalesce around several themes for the final deliverables that bring focus to our effort and drive the presentation of the results. Several overall elements in the implementation of fare-free service have risen to the top. Fare-free service has the potential to be an important part of achieving policy goals, including the improvement of equity, operations, passenger experience, and ridership. In most cases, net cost savings will not be realized, and some cost elements may increase (increased paratransit utilization and increased service needs). • Overall. In general, research shows that fare-free transit can have success in addressing policy goals. Cost savings are possible, but there is also the potential for a net cost increase (particularly if the agency operates an ADA complementary paratransit service) and loss of revenue (beyond the loss of fare revenues). Additional funding will likely be needed to address the net cost increase and/or loss of revenue and its impact on operations and capital replacements. Fare-free transit can have a mix of positive and negative impacts on equity, operations, passenger comfort, security, and operator job satisfaction. Fare-free transit typically increases ridership, but ridership increases may be limited by factors such as the fare policies of other transit operators in or adjacent to the service area and impacts on service levels and capital investments resulting from reduced revenues. • Improve equity. Fare-free service eliminates a financial barrier, especially for unbanked/low-income passengers. Generally, removing financial barriers to the use of transit systems will increase access to the service and, by extension, the ability for community members to access jobs and other destinations. However, if the loss of fare revenues ultimately results in service cuts and/or delayed capital investments, unbanked/low-income passengers might experience adverse impacts of a different kind. • Improve operations. Elimination of fares can reduce passenger loading times and, therefore, dwell times. Reduced dwell times might lead to shorter travel times and more reliable service. However, if passenger loads increase to a point at which overcrowding occurs regularly, such overcrowding might increase the amount of time that passengers need to maneuver on board the transit vehicle. More time might be needed at transit stops to ensure that passengers who wish to alight have enough time to make their way to the door of the vehicle. In addition, overcrowding can have an adverse impact on passenger 13 

comfort. • Improve operator working conditions. Elimination of fares can simplify operator tasks and eliminate fare disputes, which can improve the working environment for operators. However, if fare-free transit increases passenger/passenger altercations and/or increases the number of disruptive passengers, operators may be tasked with managing a greater number of altercations and disruptions. Establishing sound policies regarding all-day riders and behavior supported by the presence of supervisors and other transit personnel as needed (particularly in early phases of implementation) can help ensure success. • Improve passenger experience. Elimination of fares can simplify the use of the transit system and allow passengers to use it without financial cost. However, some agencies that have implemented fare-free transit have reported increased ridership of disruptive riders and increased passenger/passenger altercations; either situation can increase passenger discomfort and contribute to the perception that transit is less safe/secure. • Increase ridership. Research shows that fare-free transit can increase ridership—particularly ridership among unbanked/low-income community members. Ridership increases are potentially limited by fare policies of other transit operators in or adjacent to the service area, service cuts resulting from reduced funding, and capital improvements delayed due to reduced funding (e.g., deferred vehicle replacement). Be aware that increased ridership of ADA complementary paratransit services resulting from fare-free implementation can have a significant adverse impact on operating costs. 14 

The COVID-19 pandemic has been difficult for transit agencies seeking to serve the needs of the public while sustaining a safe environment for employees and passengers. Building and maintaining ridership are never easy, and the impacts of the pandemic were dramatic on ridership starting in March 2020.

NCHRP Web-Only Document 409: Sustaining Zero-Fare Public Transit in a Post COVID-19 World: Conduct of Research Report , from TRB's National Cooperative Highway Research Program, is designed to assist transit authorities that are considering continuing or moving to fare-free service.

The document is a supplement to NCHRP Research Report 1126: Sustaining Zero-Fare Public Transit in a Post COVID-19 World: A Guide for State DOTs .

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N.Y. Law Mandating That Delivery Services Share More Customer Data With Restaurants Violates First Amendment

From today's opinion by Judge Analisa Torres (S.D.N.Y.) in  Doordash, Inc. v. City of New York : When a diner orders food from a restaurant using the online platform of a third-party food delivery service …, the restaurant generally receives only the individual's first name, the first initial of her surname, and the order's contents—the minimum information required to fulfill the order. 

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More Americans – especially young adults – are regularly getting news on TikTok

A small but growing share of U.S. adults are regularly getting news on TikTok. In fact, since 2020, no social media platform we’ve studied has seen faster growth in the share of Americans who regularly turn to it for news, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis.

In just four years, the share of adults who say they  regularly get news from TikTok has grown about fivefold, from 3% in 2020 to 17% in 2024.

TikTok, primarily known for short-form video sharing, is especially popular among teens – 63% of whom report ever using the platform – and young adults .

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to understand the ways Americans get news in a digital age. We surveyed 10,658 U.S. adults from July 15 to Aug. 4, 2024. Everyone who took part in this survey is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), a group of people recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses who have agreed to take surveys regularly. This kind of recruitment gives nearly all U.S. adults a chance of selection. Surveys were conducted either online or by telephone with a live interviewer. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other factors. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and the survey  methodology .

In the past, we have conducted similar research about Americans’ use of social media for news. This survey continues to explore the same topics, but our approach has evolved to use  slightly different question wording, starting in our 2020 survey . As a result, some of these measures cannot be directly compared with findings prior to 2020. These changes in question wording reflect the Center’s efforts to  improve the way we measure news consumption .

Pew Research Center is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts, its primary funder. This is the latest report in Pew Research Center’s ongoing investigation of the state of news, information and journalism in the digital age, a research program funded by The Pew Charitable Trusts, with generous support from the John S. and James L. Knight Foundation.

Young adults also stand out when it comes to turning to TikTok for news. Today, 39% of adults under 30 say they regularly get news there, compared with much smaller shares of adults ages 30 to 49 (19%), 50 to 64 (9%) and 65 and older (3%).

News consumption is also trending upward when looking at TikTok users, specifically. Around half of TikTok users (52%) now say they regularly get news there, up from 43% last year and just 22% in 2020. TikTok users are now more likely to get news from TikTok than Facebook users are to get news from Facebook. Still, TikTok users are less likely than users of X (formerly Twitter) to get news on the site.

Note: This is an update of a post originally published Nov. 15, 2023. Here are the  questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its  methodology .

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Rebecca Leppert is a copy editor at Pew Research Center .

Katerina Eva Matsa is a director of news and information research at Pew Research Center .

Many Israelis say social media content about the Israel-Hamas war should be censored

Whatsapp and facebook dominate the social media landscape in middle-income nations, germans stand out for their comparatively light use of social media, majorities in most countries surveyed say social media is good for democracy, social media fact sheet, most popular.

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ABOUT PEW RESEARCH CENTER  Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan, nonadvocacy fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It does not take policy positions. The Center conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, computational social science research and other data-driven research. Pew Research Center is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts , its primary funder.

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