write a chemistry research paper

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Scientific Writing

It is critical to understand the important elements of a scientific paper and how to most effectively describe research results in the context of your manuscript. While writing your paper can seem like an afterthought compared to years of work in the lab, the way you convey your findings can have a profound impact on editors, reviewers, and your readers. Here are some resources to help you maximize the potential of your next ACS paper.

Mastering the Art of Scientific Publication

ACS editors are highly experienced researchers full of valuable observations from years of running top journals. We’ve collected a number of their top suggestions about making your research stand out and clearly conveying your findings into a virtual issue entitled "Mastering the Art of Scientific Publication." Visit the issue to learn more about writing cover letters, employing best practices for citations, writing compelling results and methods sections, choosing the best title, and much more.

Before You Write Your Paper

Writing a good paper starts well before you type the first letter. Link your data together to tell a story to your peers (and the world). And remember to start early! Don’t wait until all the data is complete, because your results may take you in a new direction with additional controls or experiments. Find out more with these ACS Author University videos:

How to Write a Scientific Article: Find the Story

How to write a scientific article: when should you start writing your research article, getting started writing your paper.

With your story in mind, the next step is turning that into a written document that is ready to share. In the ACS Author University videos below, ACS editors share their tips for starting with an outline, preparing your figures, and much more, so you can use your time efficiently and produce a top-quality draft.

How Do You Start Writing a Paper? Create an Outline

How do you start writing a paper create the figures, how do you start writing a paper tips from acs editors.

Best of luck with your next paper! We hope you’ll consider submitting to an ACS journal when it’s ready.

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CHEM 2800: Intro to Research Chemistry

Writing a scientific paper.

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Writing a scientific research paper may seem like a daunting task, but with a little bit of practice and review of sound examples, you will be well on your way.  Such writing usually follows a standard format with simple structure that is both logical and easy to understand. This standard format is important as it reflects "the scientific method of deductive reasoning: define the problem, create a hypothesis, devise an experiment to test the hypothesis, conduct the experiment, and draw conclusions." ( ACS Style Guide ). 

In this page, we will examine the various components of the research paper including: the title ,  abstract , introduction , materials and methods , results , discussion , conclusion , and the bibliography of works cited.

Structure of the Research Paper

• Introduction
• Materials & Methods

The Title reflects the keywords and main concepts in your paper in a very succinct manner.  The title should be short and meaningful such that is accurate and clear to the reader. "The title serves two main purposes: to attract the potential audience and to aid retrieval and indexing. Therefore, include several keywords. The title should provide the maximum information for a computerized title search." ( ACS Style Guide ).

The Abstract is a concise summary of the key concepts, scope, findings and conclusions of the paper and should briefly state the purpose of your research. Important note: the abstract is typically the last element written for of your research writing so as to accurately reflect the full content of the research.  " Although an abstract is not a substitute for the article itself, it must be concise, self-contained, and complete enough to appear separately in abstract publications." (ACS Style Guide, 3rd Ed. - Chap. 2, p. 21)

The Introduction gets right to the heart of the matter. It clearly outlines the problem/hypothesis you investigated and the compelling reason for completing the research. The introduction should review the relevant background research literature published on this topic and how it relates to your current research. According the ACS Style Guide, the introduction should "state how your work differs from or is related to the work previously published, " as well as "demonstrate the continuity from the previous work to yours." (ACS Style Guide, 3rd Ed. - Chap. 2, p. 22).

Now is the time for detail! The Materials and Methods (aka "Experimental") section of the research paper is a thorough explanation of the experimental procedures and processes employed in gathering data and to test your hypothesis.  Strong detail here is crucial so that other scientists may repeat and replicate your research work.  In this section, you should include a descriptive list of:

• Materials and apparatus used during experimentation,
• Type(s) of controls and how they were established, 
• Key processes and methods employed, and
• If applicable, establish where or under what conditions the study was conducted.

To ensure completeness in this section, it is best to consult the specific requirements presented within a particular style guide or review a publisher's format preferences. It should be noted that this section may also be called the "Experimental Methods" or "Theoretical Basis"  section depending the type of research conducted or publisher preferences. (ACS Style Guide, 3rd Ed. - Chap. 2, p. 22).

Structure of the Research Paper Continued

The  Results  section is a summary of the data that was collected. In this section you will:

• Discuss variables (independent & dependent), controls, samples sizes, etc.
• Summarize the statistical analysis used to understand the raw data 
• Utilize tables, graphs, equations and figures to appropriately display data to provide visual clarity

This section should accurately reflect the statistical treatment of the data and should serve as visual, mathematical summary of the aggregate data. Do not present the raw data.  ( ACS Style Guide ).

The  Discussion  section is where you will review the results objectively and begin to define the implications of the results in light of the original purpose of the research and the current knowledge in the subject area under study. This is also the place in which you identify the limitations of the research work. "The purpose of the discussion section is to interpret and compare the results.... was the problem resolved?, what has been contributed?" (ACS Style Guide, 3rd Ed. - Chap. 2, p. 23). 

The  Conclusion  section is a complimentary partner of the discussion section and seeks to put the interpretation of the results into greater context of the original problem and includes suggestions for future research.  Be careful however, "do not repeat discussion points or include irrelevant material. Conclusions should be based on the evidence presented." (ACS Style Guide, 3rd Ed. - Chap. 2, p. 23-24). 

Finally, in most research work, the written article concludes with a summary of the main points of the research as well as an acknowledgement of individuals, organizations and funders critical to the success and support of the research. Be generous here, especially as this is your opportunity to thank those who helped you complete the difficult work that went into your research.

For most students, the  Bibliography of References  (or Works Cited) is often one of the most under attended and considered sections.  A wise student will pay considerable attention to this section and will invest significant time early in the investigative process to organize, annotate and refine this body of sources. A well attended bibliography will serve as the foundation and academic mortar which holds together your own research.  In this section of your writing, you will appropriately credit the supporting work by all  authors (scientists, researchers and organizations) whose efforts served to reinforce and inform your own work.

Make sure to pay careful attention to the specific format style required to credit authors both as in-text citations and in the concluding bibliography. "The accuracy of the references is the [publishing] author’s responsibility. Errors in references are one of the most common errors found in scientific publications and are a source of frustration to readers."  (ACS Style Guide, 3rd Ed. - Chap. 2., p. 24). For further insight and detail, see the page on  Citation Help  or create an account directly with a reference manager like  RefWorks or Zotero .

ACS Style Guide

• The Scientific Research Paper: Effective Scholarly Communication In this chapter, the different types of book and journal presentations are described, along with the components of the standard format for reporting original research.
• The Editorial Process Publishing a manuscript, whether intended for a journal or a book, is a process. It has four stages: the draft manuscript, manuscript review, the final manuscript, and processing of accepted manuscripts. This chapter provides an overview of each of these stages as they evolve in scientific, technical, and medical (STM) publishing.
• Effective Writing Style & Word Usage Every writer has a personal style, but all good writing tends to observe guidelines and conventions that communicate meaning clearly and exactly to readers. Scientific writing, in particular, must be precise and unambiguous to be effective. This chapter presents guidelines for correct sentence structure and word usage.
• Peer Review Process Peer review is a process used by scientific publications to assist editors in evaluating manuscripts, particularly for scientific merit. Editors of peer-reviewed books and journals send manuscripts to several reviewers and request their opinions on originality and scientific importance of the topic, the quality of the work performed, and the appropriateness for the specific journal.
• References This chapter presents style conventions for citing references within a manuscript and for listing complete reference citations. Many of the references in the examples were created to illustrate a style point under discussion; they may not be real references.

Preparing Your Article to Publish

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A guide to research question writing for undergraduate chemistry education research students

Welcome to chemistry education research

There is no doubt that there are particular challenges associated with chemistry students taking up a project that brings together familiar aspects of chemistry with aspects of social sciences that are likely unfamiliar. There is a new world of terminology and literature and approaches that may initially seem insurmountable. However, as chemistry students, you bring something unique to the discussion on education: your expertise in chemistry and your experience of being a chemistry student. The combination of discipline speciality and focus on education has given rise to a new genre of education research, known as discipline based education research, or DBER ( NRC, 2012 ). The focus on chemistry, known as chemistry education research , intends to offer insights into issues affecting teaching and learning of chemistry from the perspective of chemistry, and offers enormous insight into factors affecting learning in our discipline. This journal ( www.rsc.org/cerp ) along with the Journal of Chemical Education published by the American Chemical Society (http://pubs.acs.org/journal/jceda8) and Chemistry Teacher International published for IUPAC (http://www.degruyter.com/view/j/cti) focus on discipline specific issues relating to chemistry education, and their prominence in being associated with major societies in chemistry indicates the high status chemistry education and chemistry education research has attained with the family of chemistry sub-disciplines.

In an attempt to help students new to chemistry education research take some first steps in their research work, this editorial focuses on the important early stage of immersing in project work: deciding what it is you want to research. Other sources of information relating to project work include the associated editorials in this journal describing more fully other parts of conducting research ( Seery et al. , 2019 ), as well as thinking about how theses published as part of university studies compare to education research publications ( Lawrie et al. , 2020 ). These editorials should be useful to students in the planning and writing stages of their research work respectively and, like all articles published in this journal, are free to access. Guidance on completing a literature review in chemistry education research is available online ( Seery, 2017 ).

What do you want to find out? Defining your research question

The “good” news is that this initial experience is very common. The task at the beginning stage of your first project is to determine what general area you would like to research, and narrow this down iteratively until you decide on a particular question you would like to answer. We will go through this process below, but an important thing to keep in mind at this stage is that work on your first project is both about the research you will do and also what you learn about doing research. Choosing a topic of interest is important for your own motivation. But regardless of the topic, doing a project in this field will involve lots of learning about the research processes and this research field. These associated skills and knowledge will likely be of most benefit to you after you complete your dissertation and go on into a future career and further studies.

Deciding on your research topic

Choosing what you want to work on when you are not quite sure of the menu to select from is very difficult. Start by writing down what kinds of things interest you that could form general topics of study. You could structure these using the following prompts:

• What from your own learning experience was satisfactory or unsatisfactory? When did you feel like you really understood something, or when did you feel really lost? Sketch out some thoughts, and discuss with some classmates to see if they had similar experiences. The task is to identify particular topics in chemistry or particular approaches of teaching that emerge, and use those as a basis for narrowing your interest to a specific theme.

• What issues from the media are topical in relation to education? Perhaps there have been changes to assessment approaches in schools, or there is a focus on graduate employability? What issues relating to education are emerging in reaction to the impact of COVID-19? Is there something current that interests you that you would like to focus on?

• Are there societal issues that are important to you? Perhaps you would like to explore the experience or performance of particular groups within education, or look at historical data and research trends. You might wish to explore education policy and subsequent impact in chemistry education.

It is likely that several broad topics will emerge that will be of interest to you. But you only have one year and one project, so you will need to choose one! So before you choose, take a shortlist of about three broad topics that interest you and find out a little more about them. The aim here is to dip your toe in the water of these topics and get a feel for what kinds of things people do, and see which one piques your interest most, and which one has most potential for a meaningful and achievable research project.

To find out a little more, you should engage in preliminary reading. This is not a literature review – the task here is to find one or two recent articles associated with each topic. To achieve this, you could go directly to one of the journal pages linked above and type in some search terms. With each article of interest you retrieve, use the following prompts to guide your reading:

1. The introduction to the article usually sets the context of the research, with some general issues relating to the research in this topic, while the final section of the paper (“limitations” or “conclusions” sections) give some specific detail on what needs further study. Read over these sections: are the issues being discussed of interest to you?

2. The experimental or methods section of the article usually describes the sample used in the study. If you were to research in this area, can you see how questions you are interested in would translate to your setting? While we will discuss scope of research more carefully below, the task here is to put yourself in the moment of doing a research project to think: what would I do? And then ask; does that moment pique your interest?

3. The results and discussion section of the article describes data the researchers report and what they think it means in the wider context of the research area. Again, while the data that you get in your project will depend on what you set out to do, use this reading to see what kind of data is impressing you, and whether you find the discussion of interest.

This kind of “sampling” of the vast literature available is a little ad hoc , but it can be useful to help bring focus on the kinds of research that are feasible and help refine some conversations that you can have with your research supervisor. While embarking on a new project will always have a big “unknown” associated with it, your task is to become as familiar as possible with your chosen topic as you can in advance, so that you are making as informed a decision as possible about your research topic. Once you have – you are ready to continue your research!

From research topic to research question

While we don’t often explicitly state the research question in chemistry research, scientists do have an implicit sense that different questions lean on different areas of theory and require different methods to answer them. We can use some of this basis in translating the context to chemistry education research; namely that the research question and the underpinning theory are clearly interdependent, and the research question we ask will mandate the approaches that we take to answer it.

In fact, in (chemistry) education research, we are very explicit with research questions, and setting out the research question at the start of a study is a major component of the research process ( White, 2008 ). As you will find repeatedly in your project, all the components of a research process are interdependent, so that the research question will determine the methods that will determine the kinds of data you can get, which in turn determine the question you can answer. The research question determines what particular aspect within a general research topic you are going to consider. Blaikie (2000, p. 58) wrote (emphasis in original):

“In my view, formulating research questions is the most critical and, perhaps, the most difficult part of a research design… Establishing research questions makes it possible to select research strategies and methods with confidence. In other words, a research project is built on the foundation of research questions .”

So there is a lot of pressure on research questions! The good news is that while you do need to start writing down your research question near the beginning of the project, it will change during the early stages of scoping out projects when considering feasibility, and as you learn more from reading. It could change as a result of ethical considerations ( Taber, 2014 ). And it will probably change and be fine-tuned as you refine your instruments and embark on your study. So the first time you write out a research question will not be the last. But the act of writing it out, however bluntly at the start, helps set the direction of the project, indicates what methods are likely to be used in the project (those that can help answer the question), and keeps the project focussed when other tempting questions arise and threaten to steer you off-course. So put the kettle on, get out a pen and a lot of paper, and start drafting your first research question!

Defining your research question

To assist your thinking and guide you through this process, an example is used to show how this might happen in practice. In this example, a student has decided that they want to research something related to a general topic of work-experience in chemistry degree programmes. The student had previously completed some work experience in an industrial chemistry laboratory, and knows of peers who have completed it formally as part of their degree programme. The student's experience and anecdotal reports from peers are that this was a very valuable part of their undergraduate studies, and that they felt much more motivated when returning to study in formal teaching at university, as well as having a much clearer idea on their career aspirations after university.

Stage 1: what type of question do you want to answer?

Some foreshadowed questions that might emerge in early stages of this research design might include:

• What kinds of industrial experience options are available to chemistry students?

• What experiences are reported by students on industrial experience?

• Why do some students choose to take up industrial placements?

• How does a students’ perception of their career-related skills change as a result of industrial experience?

• How do students on industrial experience compare to students without such experience?

All of these questions – and you can probably think of many more – are specific to the general topic of industrial experience. But as they stand, they are too broad and need some focussing. To help, we will first think about the general kind of research we want to do ( White, 2008 ).

Types of research

A second broad area of research is explanatory research, which tends to answer questions that start with “how” or “why”. Explanatory research has less of a focus on the subject of the research, and more on the processes the subjects are engaged with, seeking to establish what structures led to observed outcomes so that reasons for them can be elucidated.

A third broad area of research is comparative research, which tends to compare observations or outcomes in two or more different scenarios, using the comparison to identify useful insights into the differences observed. Many people new to education research seek to focus on comparative questions, looking to answer the generic question of is “X” better than “Y”? This is naturally attractive, especially to those with a scientific background, but it is worthwhile being cautious in approaching comparative studies. Even in well-designed research scenarios where research does find that “X” is indeed better than “Y” (and designing those experimental research scenarios is fraught with difficulty in education studies), the question immediately turns to: “but why”? Having richer research about descriptions or explanations associated with one or both of the scenarios is necessary to begin to answer that question.

Let us think again about our foreshadowed questions in the context of general types of question. The aim here is to simply bundle together foreshadowed questions by question type, and using the question type, begin to focus a little more on the particular aspects of interest to us. The intention here is to begin to elaborate on what these general questions would involve in terms of research (beginning to consider feasibility), as well as the kinds of outcomes that might be determined (beginning to consider value of research).

The descriptive questions above could be further explored as follows:

• What kinds of industrial experience options are available to chemistry students? In answering this question, our research might begin to focus on describing the types of industrial experience that are available, their location, their length, placement in the curriculum, and perhaps draw data from a range of universities. In this first iteration, it is clear that this question will provide useful baseline data, but it is unlikely to yield interesting outcomes on its own.

• What experiences are reported by students on industrial experience? In answering this question, we are likely going to focus on interviewing students individually or in groups to find out their experience, guided by whatever particular focus we are interested in, such as questions about motivation, career awareness, learning from placement, etc. This research has the potential to uncover rich narratives informing our understanding of industrial placements from the student perspective.

The explanatory questions above can be further explored as follows:

• How does students’ perception of their career-related skills change as a result of industrial experience? In answering this question, our research would remain focussed on student reports of their experiences, but look at it in the context of their sense of career development, their awareness of development of such skills, or perhaps identifying commonalities that emerge across a cohort of students. This research has the potential to surface such issues and inform the support of career development activities.

• Why do some students choose to take up industrial placements? In answering this question, our research would likely involve finding out more about individual students’ choices. But it is likely to uncover rich seams that can be explored across cohorts – do particular types of students complete placements, or are there any barriers to identify regarding encouraging students to complete placements? “Why” questions tend to throw up a lot of follow-on questions, and their feasibility and scope need to be attended to carefully. But they can offer a lot of insight and power in understanding more deeply issues around particular educational approaches.

The comparative question above can be further explored as follows:

• How do students on industrial experience compare to students without such experience? In answering this question, research might compare educational outcomes or reports of educational experience of students who did and did not complete industrial experience, and draw some inference from that. This type of question is very common among novice researchers, keen to find out whether a particular approach is better or worse, but extreme caution is needed. There may be unobservable issues relating to students who choose particular options that result in other observable measures such as grades, and in uncovering any differences in comparing cohorts, care is needed that an incorrect inference is not made. Handle comparisons with caution!

At this stage, you should pause reading, and dwell on your research topic with the above considerations in mind. Write out some general research areas that have piqued your interest (the foreshadowed questions) and identify them as descriptive, explanatory, or comparative. Use those headline categories to tease out a little more what each question entails: what would research look like, who would it involve, and what information would be obtained (in general terms). From the list of questions you identify, prioritise them in terms of their interest to you. From the exercise above, I think that the “how” question is of most interest to me – I am an educator and therefore am keen to know how we can best support students’ return to studies after being away on placement. I want to know more about difficulties experienced in relation to chemistry concepts during that reimmersion process so that I can make changes and include supports for students. For your research area and your list of foreshadowed questions, you should aim to think about what more focussed topics interest and motivate you, and write out the reason why. This is important; writing it out helps to express your interest and motivation in tangible terms, as well as continuing the process of refining what exactly it is you want to research.

Once you have, we can begin the next stage of writing your research question which involves finding some more context about your research from the literature.

Stage 2: establishing the context for your research

Finding your feet, types of context.

Let's make some of this tangible. In focussing my foreshadowed questions, I have narrowed my interest to considering how students on work experience are aware of their career development, how they acknowledge skills gained, and are able to express that knowledge. Therefore I want to have some theoretical underpinnings to this – what existing work can I lean on that will allow me to further refine my question.

As an example of how reading some literature can help refine the question, consider the notes made about the following two articles.

• A 2017 article that discusses perceived employability among business graduates in an Australian and a UK university, with the latter incorporating work experience ( Jackson and Wilton, 2017 ): this study introduces me to the term “perceived employability”, the extent to which students believe they will be employed after graduation. It highlights the need to consider development of career awareness at the individual level. It discusses the benefits of work experience on perceived employability, although a minimum length is hinted at for this to be effective. It introduces (but does not measure) concepts of self-worth and confidence. Data to inform the paper is collected by a previously published survey instrument. Future work calls for similar studies in other disciplines.

• A 2017 article that discusses undergraduate perceptions of the skills gained from their chemistry degree in a UK university ( Galloway, 2017 ): this study reports on the career relevant skills undergraduate students wished to gain from their degree studies. This study informs us about the extent to which undergraduates are thinking about their career skills, with some comparison between students who were choosing to go on to a chemistry career and those who were considering some other career. It identifies career-related skills students wished to have more of in the chemistry curriculum. Most of the data is collected by a previously published survey. This work helps me locate my general reading in the context of chemistry.

Just considering these two articles and my foreshadowed question, it is possible to clarify the research question a little more. The first article gives some insight into some theoretical issues by introducing a construct of perceived employability – that is something that can be measured (thinking about how something can be measured is called operationalisation). This is related to concepts of self-worth and confidence (something that will seed further reading). Linking this with the second article, we can begin to relate it to chemistry; we can draw on a list of skills that are important to chemistry students (whether or not they intend to pursue chemistry careers), and the perceptions about how they are developed in an undergraduate context. Both articles provide some methodological insights – the use of established surveys to elicit student opinion, and the reporting of career-important skills from the perspective of professional and regulatory bodies for chemistry, as well as chemistry students.

Taking these two readings into account, we might further refine our question. The original foreshadowed question was:

“ How does students’ perception of their career-related skills change as a result of industrial experience? ”

If we wished to draw on the literature just cited, we could refine this to:

“ How does undergraduate chemistry students’ perceived employability and awareness of career-related skills gained change as a result of a year-long industrial placement? ”

This step in focussing is beginning to move the research question development into a phase where particular methods that will answer it begin to emerge. By changing the phrase “perception” to “perceived employability”, we are moving to a particular aspect of perception that could be measured, if we follow methods used in previous studies. We can relate this rather abstract term to the work in chemistry education by also incorporating some consideration of students’ awareness of skills reported to be important for chemistry students. We are also making the details of the study a little more specific; referring to undergraduate chemistry students and the length of the industrial placement. This question then is including:

– The focus of the research: perception of development of career skills.

– The subject of the research: undergraduate chemistry students on placement.

– The data likely to be collected: perceived employment and awareness of career related skills.

It is likely that as more reading is completed, some aspects of this question might change; it may become more refined or more limited in scope. It may change subject from looking at a whole cohort to just one or two individual student journeys. But as the question crystallises, so will the associated methodology and it is important in early readings not to be immediately swayed in one direction or another. Read as broadly as you can, looking at different methods and approaches, and find something that lines up with what it is you want to explore in more detail.

Stage 3: testing your research question

Personal biases.

Whatever we like to tell ourselves, there will always be personal bias. In my own research on learning in laboratories, I have a bias whereby I cannot imagine chemistry programmes without laboratory work ( Seery, 2020 ). If I were to engage in research that examined, for example, the replacement of laboratory work with virtual reality, my personal bias would be that I could not countenance that such an approach could replace the reality of laboratory work. This is a visceral reaction – it is grounded in emotion and personal experience, rather than research, because at the time of writing, little research on this topic exists. Therefore I would need to plan carefully any study that investigated the role of virtual reality in laboratory education to ensure that it was proofed from my own biases, and work hard to ensure that voices or results that challenged my bias were allowed to emerge. The point is that we all have biases, and they need to be openly acknowledged and continually aired. I suggest to my students that they write out their own biases related to their research early in their studies as a useful checkpoint. Any results that come in that agree with the tendency of a bias are scrutinised and challenged in detail. This can be more formally done by writing out a hypothesis, which is essentially a prediction or a preconception of what a finding might be. Hypotheses are just that – they need to be tested against evidence that is powerful enough to confirm or refute them.

Bias can also emerge in research questions. Clearly, our research question written in the format: “why are industrial placements so much better than a year of lecture courses?” is exposing the bias of the author plainly. Biases can be more subtle. Asking leading questions such as “what are the advantages of…” or “what additional benefits are there to…” are not quite as explicitly biased, but there is an implicit suggestion that there will be advantages and benefits. Your research question should not pre-empt the outcome; to do so negates the power of your research. Similarly, asking dichotomous questions (is placement or in-house lecturing best?) implies the assumption that one or the other is “best”, when the reality is that both may have distinct advantages and drawbacks, and a richer approach is to explore what each of those are.

Question scope

Feasibility relates to lots of aspects of the project. In our study on industrial experience, the question asks how something will change, and this immediately implies that we will at least find out what the situation was at the beginning of the placement and at some point during or after the placement. Will that be feasible? Researchers should ask themselves how they will access those they wish to research. This becomes a particular challenge if the intention is to research students based in a different institution. The question should also be reviewed to ensure that it is feasible to achieve an answer with the resources you have to hand. Asking for example, whether doing an industrial placement influences future career choices would be difficult to answer as it would necessitate tracking down a sufficient sample of people who had (and had not) completed placements, and finding a robust way of exploring the influence of placement on their career choice. This might be feasible, but not in the timeframe or with the budget you have assigned to you. Finally, feasibility in terms of what you intend to explore should be considered. In our example research question, we have used the term “perceived employability”, as this is defined and described in previous literature with an instrument that can elicit some value associated with it. Care is needed when writing questions to ensure that you are seeking to find something that can be measured.

Of course researchers will naturally over-extend their research intentions, primarily because that initial motivation they have tapped into will prompt an eagerness to find out as much as possible about their topic of study. One way of addressing this is to write out a list of questions that draw from the main research question, with each one addressing some particular aspect of the research question. For our main research question:

we could envisage some additional related questions:

(a) Are there differences between different types of placement?

(b) Are the observations linked to experience on placement or some other factors?

(c) What career development support did students get during placement?

(d) How did students’ subsequent career plans change as a result of placement?

And the list could go on (and on). Writing out a list of related questions allows you to elaborate on as many aspects of the main question as you can. The task now is to prioritise them. You may find that in prioritising them, one of these questions itself becomes your main question. Or that you will have a main question and a list of subsidiary questions. Subsidiary questions are those which relate to the main question but take a particular focus on some aspect of the research. A good subsidiary question to our main question is question (a), above. This will drill down into the data we collect in the main question and elicit more detail. Care should be taken when identifying subsidiary questions. Firstly, subsidiary questions need to be addressed in full and with the same consideration as the main questions. Research that reports subsidiary question findings that are vague or not fully answered is poor, and undermines the value and power of the findings from the main research questions. If you don’t think you can address it in the scope of your study, it is best to leave it out. Secondly, questions that broaden the scope of the study rather than lead to a deeper focus are not subsidiary questions but rather are ancillary questions. These are effectively new and additional questions to your main research, and it is unlikely that you will have the time or scope to consider them in this iteration. Question (d) is an example of an ancillary question.

Question structure

The length of a research question is the subject of much discussion, and in essence, your question needs to be as long as it needs to be, but no longer. Questions that are too brief will not provide sufficient context for the research, whereas those that are too long will likely confuse the reader as to what it is you are actually looking to do. New researchers tend to write overly long questions, and tactics to address this include thinking about whether the question includes too many aspects. Critiquing my own question, I would point out that I am asking two things in one question – change in perceived employability and change in awareness of career-related skills gained – and if I were to shorten it, I could refer to each of those aspects in subsidiary questions instead. This would clarify that there are two components to the research, and while related, each will have their own data collection requirements and analysis protocols.

Research questions should be written as clearly as possible. While we have mentioned issues relating to language to ensure it is understandable, language issues also need to be considered in our use of terms. Words such as “frequent” or “effective” or “successful” are open to interpretation, and are best avoided, using more specific terms instead ( Kane, 1984 ). The word “significant” in education research has a specific meaning derived from statistical testing, and should only be used in that context. Care is needed when referring to groups of people as well. Researching “working class” students’ experiences on industrial placement is problematic, as the term is vague and can be viewed as emotive. It is better to use terms that can be more easily defined and better reflect a cohort profile (for example, “first generation” refers to students who are the first in their family to attend university) or terms that relate to government classifications, such as particular postcodes assigned a socio-economic status based on income.

As well as clarity with language, research questions should aim to be as precise as possible. Vagueness in research questions relating to what is going to be answered or what the detail of the research is in terms of sample or focus can lead to vagueness in the research itself, as the researcher will not have a clear guide to keep them focussed during the research process. Check that your question and any subsidiary questions are focussed on researching a specific aspect within a defined group for a clear purpose.

Moving on from research question writing

• Blaikie N., (2000), Designing social research , Oxford: Blackwell.
• Galloway K. W., (2017), Undergraduate perceptions of value: degree skills and career skills, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract. , 18 (3), 435–440.
• Jackson D. and Wilton N., (2017), Perceived employability among undergraduates and the importance of career self-management, work experience and individual characteristics, High. Educ. Res. Dev. , 36 (4), 747–762.
• Kane E., (1984), Doing Your Own Research: Basic Descriptive Research in the Social Sciences and Humanities , London: Marion Boyars.
• Lawrie G. A., Graulich N., Kahveci A. and Lewis S. E., (2020), Steps towards publishing your thesis or dissertation research: avoiding the pitfalls in turning a treasured tome into a highly-focussed article for CERP, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract. , 21 (3), 694–697.
• NRC, (2012), Discipline-based education research: Understanding and improving learning in undergraduate science and engineering , National Academies Press.
• RSC, (2015), Accreditation of Degree Programmes , Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.
• Seery M. K., (2009), The role of prior knowledge and student aptitude in undergraduate performance in chemistry: a correlation-prediction study, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract. , 10 (3), 227–232.
• Seery M. K., (2017), How to do a literature review when studying chemistry education. Retrieved from http://michaelseery.com/how-to-do-a-literature-review-when-studying-chemistry-education/.
• Seery M. K., (2020), Establishing the Laboratory as the Place to Learn How to Do Chemistry, J. Chem. Educ. , 97 (6), 1511–1514.
• Seery M. K., Kahveci A., Lawrie G. A. and Lewis S. E., (2019), Evaluating articles submitted for publication in Chemistry Education Research and Practice, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract. , 20 , 335–339.
• Taber K. S., (2014), Ethical considerations of chemistry education research involving ‘human subjects’, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract. , 15 (2), 109–113.
• White P., (2008), Developing Research Questions: A Guide for Social Scientists , Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.

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• 04 December 2020
• Correction 09 December 2020

How to write a superb literature review

Andy Tay is a freelance writer based in Singapore.

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Literature reviews are important resources for scientists. They provide historical context for a field while offering opinions on its future trajectory. Creating them can provide inspiration for one’s own research, as well as some practice in writing. But few scientists are trained in how to write a review — or in what constitutes an excellent one. Even picking the appropriate software to use can be an involved decision (see ‘Tools and techniques’). So Nature asked editors and working scientists with well-cited reviews for their tips.

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Correction 09 December 2020 : An earlier version of the tables in this article included some incorrect details about the programs Zotero, Endnote and Manubot. These have now been corrected.

Hsing, I.-M., Xu, Y. & Zhao, W. Electroanalysis 19 , 755–768 (2007).

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Ledesma, H. A. et al. Nature Nanotechnol. 14 , 645–657 (2019).

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Brahlek, M., Koirala, N., Bansal, N. & Oh, S. Solid State Commun. 215–216 , 54–62 (2015).

Choi, Y. & Lee, S. Y. Nature Rev. Chem . https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-020-00221-w (2020).

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How to Write an Effective Chemistry Research Paper (Part 2)

In this article, we describe the scientific conventions and writing styles followed in Chemistry papers.

Beginning a Sentence

Avoid starting a sentence with a symbol or numerical value.

✖ 0.5 g of NaOH was added to 5 ml of DW, and the solution was heated.

✔︎ After addition of 0.5 g of NaOH to 5 ml of DW, the solution was heated.

Pedagogical Phrases

Avoid including phrases which address the process of learning and not the science of the experiment.

This experiment helped us learn about…

The goal of this experiment was to learn about…

Although such sentences are preferred in Original Articles, scientific reports/communication should ideally focus only on the data and results.

Illogical Constructions

Check that a modifier phrase or the pronoun “it” actually refers to the intended subject.

To avoid dangling modifiers and unclear antecedents, think about the subject.

✖ Being coated with grease, I cleaned the flask before adding reagents.

Was I coated with grease or the flask?

The flask was coated with grease, and so,

✔︎ Because the flask was coated with grease, it was cleaned before adding reagents.

Personal Pronouns

Because scientific experiments demonstrate facts that do not depend on the observer, reports should avoid using the first and second person (I/we/our/us).

✖ I filtered the solution and noticed production of a yellow powder.

✔︎ Filtration of the solution, yielded a yellow powder.

However, when referring to your own results or conclusions, it is better to use the first or second person.

While AB et al. report X value, the authors’ data indicates Y value.

AB et al. report X value, but our data yield Y value.

Active Voice

When possible, replace passive voice with active voice for clarity.

✖ Passive: There was some solid that did not dissolve.

✔︎ Active: Some solid did not dissolve.

Personification

Do not personify compounds and equipments.

✖ The spectrum shows two bands of equal intensity.

✔︎ Two bands of equal intensity appear in the spectrum.

Plural Nouns

Usage of verbs when mentioning amount of chemical reagent and terms like data (singular: datum) and spectra (spectrum) is often confused.

A quantity used is a singular subject, even when that quantity is in a plural form of units.

✖  While the solution boiled, 5.0 g of KBr were added.

✔︎ While the solution boiled, 5.0 g of KBr was added.

Verb Tense and “Verbing” a Noun

Usually the journal guidelines specify the tense to be followed in each section of the manuscript.

Use past tense to describe a procedure:

Hydrochloric acid was added to the flask slowly in order to prevent decomposition of the product.

Use present tense to describe a scientific fact:

Hydrochloric acid is a caustic substance that must be used with caution.

“Verbing” a noun, i.e., turning a noun into a verb makes the sentence unclear and should be avoided.

✖ X complexes to Y

✔︎ X forms complexes with Y

Abbreviations, Formulae, and Numerals

Define abbreviations for chemical compounds or ligands at the first instance. However, standard organic abbreviations (e.g., Me = methyl, Pr = iso -propyl) can be used. Use chemical formulae for standard compounds but not when the name is shorter or more precise.

• NaOH (aq) for sodium hydroxide
• Caffeine for C 8 H 10 N 4 O 2

Long compound names can be numbered if repeated many times. The number should be bold or underlined, defined when first presented and appear in parenthesis when used as an adjective.

Investigations into 8-hydroxyquinoline (1) and 4-iodo-8-hydroxyquinoline (2) are described. Recrystallization of 1 and 2 …

Use a leading zero for values less than unity and avoid values with many zero (use scientific notation instead) for decimals.

✖ .15 mm,  ✔︎ 0.15 mm

✖ 0.000024 mM, ✔︎ 2.3 × 10 –4  mM

Chemical Names

The names of chemicals are not capitalized, unless they are trade names (e.g., “Tylenol”).

✖ The reaction of Cobalt (II) was…

✔︎ The reaction of cobalt (II) was…

Terms and Expressions

Use terms like “ synthesizing ” new compounds and “ preparing ” solutions, avoid terms like “products were created .” With/Using/By/On—avoid using these interchangeably, as they might be incorrect in some cases

Spectra are measured “ with / using ” and not “ on ” a spectrometer.

Spectrometers, colorimeters, etc. should be referred to as “instruments” not “machines.” 

The intransitive verb “ react ” is the most used term in chemistry papers. It should not have an object and should not have a passive voice. Chemical reagents react with each other, they are not reacted.

✖ A and B were reacted to produce C and D.

✔︎ The reaction of A and B, potassium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid, produced C and D.

A hypothesis can be “ tested ”; however, for most laboratory work, the terms “measured,” “investigated,” “determined,” “calculated,” and “obtained” are better.

✖ The absorbance of the solution was tested using…

✔︎ The absorbance of the solution was measured using…

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Chemistry Writing Guide

Introduction, writing assignments, discipline-specific strategies, watch out for..., professor's comments and websites.

Writing in chemistry is similar to writing in other disciplines in that your paper must have a clear purpose that explains why you are writing, a thesis statement or main idea that defines the problem to be addressed, and background information wherever necessary. In addition, you should include evidence in the form of figures, graphs, and tables to support your argument.

You will be asked to write an abstract -- a single-spaced paragraph summary that briefly states the purpose of the experiment, important results (and how the results were obtained), and conclusions. Ideally, the abstract can be thought of as one or two sentences from each section of the paper that form a cohesive paragraph that summarizes the entire paper. The abstract should be single spaced unless you receive other instructions from your professor.

When writing an abstract, you should avoid too much experimental detail (e.g. concentration of stock solutions used) or preliminary results (i.e. "raw" data). In addition, make certain that the purpose of the experiment is stated clearly and early in the abstract. Ideally, it should be stated in the first or second sentence.

Lab Reports

There are six main sections in a chemistry paper: introduction, experimental section, results section, discussion section, conclusion, and list of references. As with most disciplines, the introduction should include your background knowledge of the experiment, including theory and past research, the relevance of your research, and the thesis statement. You may also state in your introduction any general conclusions you discovered, but try to avoid making your introduction longer than a page. The purpose of the introduction in a chemical journal is to provide (1) a literature review of what has been published on the subject to justify the importance of your research, (2) an explanation of any unusual experimental approaches, and (3) any background information or explanations that will help the reader understand your experiment and your results. Ultimately, the introduction should explain how the experimental approach you chose allows you to find the numerical or qualitative results you are looking for. For example, if you're going to determine if the substance you synthesized is a particular compound by examining its UV-Vis spectrum, you should find in the literature or a reference book the maximum wavelength of the compound and present it in the introduction. The experimental section focuses on the details of the experiment. Be certain to include enough information so that the reader could repeat the experiment and obtain similar results within the limits of uncertainty. The following should be addressed in this section: treatment of data (e.g. calculations or computations used to generate graphs) and an identification of instruments and sources of materials used (e.g. synthesized within the lab or bought from Aldrich, Sigma, or Fluka). For commercially available equipment, the manufacturer and the model should be mentioned (e.g. JASCO UV-Vis Spectrophotometer). The results section should include any figures, graphs, and tables that summarize the data. The material in this section should be presented in the order that best defends the thesis and the order in which they will be addressed in the discussion section. The order in which the data was collected is rarely important. For example, just because the data for graph N was collected before that of graph M does not mean that M shouldn't be presented first if it makes the presentation of data more coherent. In the results section, graphs are usually listed as figures. Tables are numbered and given specific titles (must include concentrations, volumes, etc.), which are placed at the top of the table. Figures (graphs or any other visuals) are numbered and given a caption, not a title. The caption should be several sentences long and explain what the figure is, what result is found from the figure, and the importance of the result. Captions are placed below the figure. For a results section, the text, tables, and figures should mirror each other. That is, the text must include all of the important information given in the graphs and tables, but in written form. If a table or figure is included in the report, it must be specifically referenced in the text as at the end of this sentence (Table 1). It might also be worthwhile to note that figures and tables are usually submitted to a journal and also to a professor with the tables and figures attached to the end of the report, not interspersed throughout the text. Journals insert your figures and tables according to their page format. In the discussion section, you should explain your results and observations and illustrate how they support your thesis, discuss any possible sources of error, and suggest potential future research stemming from your results. You may also want to mention any past research in the field that may pertain to your experiment's results.

Something to think about: results and discussion sections are often combined in chemical journals. In that case, each result is presented and then its relevance is explained. If you are writing a results section alone, you should only present, not interpret, your results. For example, a statement like, "The UV-Vis spectrum of the complex showed a peak at 291 nm" is a statement of your numerical result and is appropriate for a results section. A statement like, "The peak at 291 nm indicates that the complex changed conformation" is interpretive and belongs in a discussion section. Your conclusion should contain a brief summary of the paper and must state important results (e.g. yield of product) and assess the research with respect to the purpose. This section may be combined with the discussion section; that is, the last paragraph of the discussion section may act as a conclusion. In the reference section you must list all non-original sources used in the paper in the order in which they appear with the appropriate number. Citations should be made according to the format of the journal to which you will submit your paper. For a Swarthmore class, the Journal of the American Chemical Society format is appropriate. Unlike other disciplines, citations in a chemistry paper are usually not in-text or parenthetical, but incorporated using superscripts as at the end of this sentence. 1 It is sometimes appropriate in a discussion section to refer to other researchers by name and end the sentence with a reference. For example, "Khmelnitksy, et al. found that trypsin denatures in 2-propanol." 2

• Chemistry papers should be written in passive voice (unless you receive other instructions from your professor).
• Abbreviations or acronyms must be explained the first time they are used.
• Figures, graphs, and tables must be titled and referenced in the text.
• References (including textbooks and lab manuals) must be cited and numbered consecutively with the superscript number corresponding to that reference in the reference section of the paper. The use of superscript suffices as the mode of reference because it eliminates the need for in-text citations and footnotes.

I. Organization: As for all lab reports, chemistry reports are very structured and must be highly organized in a logical way. Organization of results is especially important. Your results and discussion sections, as well as tables and figures, should be organized in a way that leads the reader to draw the same conclusion that you did based on your data. Don't just tack on a graph at the end of the paper or arbitrarily put your results into a table. Think about how you can use tables to make comparisons between your data and literature or reference values. Think about the format of your tables and the chronology of your results section. How can you present your results so that the reader is already convinced of your conclusion before you explicitly state it?

II. Repetition: If you've already said it once, or it's already been published somewhere else, don't say it again. You can refer to other parts of your paper instead of repeating explanations or facts. If you've already written an experimental methods section, you've already explained your procedure; there is no need to provide procedural details again when you talk about results. If the procedure you used came from a published article, provide a short summary, explain any alterations, and then give the citation. Also, if you explain someone else's experimental results in the introduction, it is acceptable to write statements like, "As discussed above, Khmelnitsky, et al. found contradictory results" in your results section. Journals have page limits. Repetitious or unnecessary words or figures are unwelcome.

III. Distraction: Remember that the whole point of writing a chemistry paper is to present results and prove your conclusion based on those results. There are a lot of numbers, facts, and procedure information that you can easily get bogged down by. Just remember that ultimately you have to convince the reader that your conclusion is accurate. If you feel overwhelmed by the amount of information you have to include, try making a flow chart that shows the logical progression of your procedure. Or create your figures and tables first, and then use them as an outline or guide to write your results section. Take a look at published articles to get a sense of how others organize papers and what kinds of phrases and sentence structure are useful and accepted.

Courses Taught: General Chemistry, Organic I and II laboratories

Particular stylistic issues you should keep in mind:

"Write as concisely as possible. Know the meanings of the words you use and choose the best word for your purpose."

Grammar/spelling and word choice pet peeves:

• Using "this" and "that' as undefined pronouns
• Using "so" without "that" or "as"
• Misspelling of terms that are presented in the manual

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100+ Great Chemistry Research Topics

Table of contents

• 1 What are the best chemistry research topics?
• 2 5 Tips for Writing Chemistry Research Papers
• 3 Chemical Engineering Research Topics
• 4 Organic Сhemistry Research Topics
• 5 Іnorganic Сhemistry Research Topics
• 6 Biomolecular Сhemistry Research Topics
• 7 Analytical Chemistry Research Topics
• 8 Computational Chemistry Research Topics
• 9 Physical Chemistry Research Topics
• 10 Innovative Chemistry Research Topics
• 11 Environmental Chemistry Research Topics
• 12 Green Chemistry Research Topics
• 13.1 Conclusion

Do you need a topic for your chemistry research paper? Are you unsure of where to start? Don’t worry – we’re here to help. In this post, we’ll go over a series of the best chemistry research paper topics as well as Tips for Writing Chemistry Research Papers on different topics. By the time you finish reading this post, you’ll have plenty of ideas to get started on your next research project!

There are many different subfields of chemistry, so it can be tough to find interesting chemistry topics to write about. If you’re struggling to narrow down your topic, we’ll go over lists of topics in multiple fields of study.

What are the best chemistry research topics?

Doing research is important to help scientists learn more about the world around us. By researching different compounds and elements, we can learn more about how they interact with one another and how they can be used to create new products or improve existing ones.

There are many different topics that you can choose to research in chemistry. Here are just a few examples:

• The history of chemistry and how it has evolved over time
• How different chemicals react with one another
• How to create new compounds or improve existing ones
• The role of chemistry in the environment
• The health effects of different chemicals

5 Tips for Writing Chemistry Research Papers

Once you have chosen a topic for your research paper , it is important to follow some tips to ensure that your paper is well-written and accurate. Here are a few tips to get you started:

• Start by doing some background research on your topic. This will help you understand the basics of the topic and give you a good foundation to build your paper on.
• Make sure to cite all of the sources that you use in your paper. This will help to show where you got your information and will also help to add credibility to your work.
• Be sure to proofread your paper before you submit it. This will ensure that there are no errors and that your paper is clear and concise.
• Get help from a tutor or friend if you are struggling with your paper. They may be able to offer helpful advice or feedback.
• Take your time when writing your research paper . This is not a race, and it is important to make sure that you do a good job on your research.

By following these tips, you can be sure that your chemistry research paper will be a success! So what are you waiting for? Let’s go over some of the best research paper topics out there.

Chemical Engineering Research Topics

Chemical Engineering is a branch of engineering that deals with the design and application of chemical processes. If you’re wondering how to choose a paper topic, here are some ideas to inspire you:

• How to create new alloy compounds or improve existing ones
• The health effects of the food industry chemicals
• Chemical engineering and sustainable development
• The future of chemical engineering
• Chemical engineering and the food industry
• Chemical engineering and the pharmaceutical industry
• Chemical engineering and the cosmetics industry
• Chemical engineering and the petrochemical industry

These are just a few examples – there are many more possibilities out there! So get started on your research today. Who knows what you might discover!

Organic Сhemistry Research Topics

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing molecules. There are many different organic chemistry research topics that a student could choose to focus on and here are just a few examples of possible research projects in organic chemistry:

• Investigating new methods for synthesizing chiral molecules
• Studying the structure and reactivity of carbon nanotubes
• Investigating metal complexes with organometallic ligands
• Designing benzene derivatives with improved thermal stability
• Exploring new ways to control the stereochemistry of chemical reactions
• Studying the role of enzymes in organic synthesis
• Investigating new strategies for combating drug resistance
• Developing new methods for detecting explosives residues
• Studying the photochemistry of organic molecules
• Studying the behavior of organometallic compounds in biological systems

Іnorganic Сhemistry Research Topics

Inorganic Chemistry is the study of the chemistry of materials that do not contain carbon. Unlike other chemistry research topics, these include elements such as metals, minerals, and inorganic compounds. If you are looking for inorganic chemistry research topics on inorganic chemistry, here are some ideas to get you started:

• How different metals react with one another
• How to create new alloys or improve existing ones
• The role of inorganic chemistry in the environment
• Inorganic chemistry and sustainable development
• The future of inorganic chemistry
• Inorganic chemistry and the food industry
• Inorganic chemistry and the pharmaceutical industry
• Atomic structure progressive scale grading
• Inorganiс Сhemistry and the cosmetics industry

Biomolecular Сhemistry Research Topics

Biomolecular chemistry is the study of molecules that are important for life. These molecules can be found in all living things, from tiny bacteria to the largest animals. Researchers who work in this field use a variety of techniques to learn more about how these molecules function and how they interact with each other.

If you are looking for essential biomolecular chemistry research topics, here are some ideas to get you started:

• The structure and function of DNA
• The structure and function of proteins
• The role of carbohydrates in the body
• The role of lipids in the body
• How enzymes work
• The role of biochemistry in heart disease
• Cyanides and their effect on the body
• The role of biochemistry in cancer treatment
• The role of biochemistry in Parkison’s disease treatment
• The role of biochemistry in the immune system

The possibilities are endless for someone willing to dedicate some time to research.

Analytical Chemistry Research Topics

Analytical Chemistry is a type of chemistry that helps scientists figure out what something is made of. This can be done through a variety of methods, such as spectroscopy or chromatography. If you are looking for research topics, here are some ideas to get you started:

• How food chemicals react with one another
• Mass spectrometry
• Analytical aspects of gas and liquid chromatography
• Analytical chemistry and sustainable development
• Atomic absorption spectroscopy methods and best practices
• Analytical chemistry and the pharmaceutical industry in Ibuprofen consumption
• Analytical chemistry and the cosmetics industry in UV protectors
• Dispersive x-ray analysis of damaged tissues

Analytical chemistry is considered by many a complex science and there is a lot yet to be discovered in the field.

Computational Chemistry Research Topics

Computational chemistry is a way to use computers to help chemists understand chemical reactions. This can be done by simulating reactions or by designing new molecules. If you are looking for essential chemistry research topics in computational chemistry, here are some ideas to get you started:

• Molecular mechanics simulation
• Reaction rates of complex chemical reactions
• Designing new molecules: how can simulation help
• The role of computers in the study of quantum mechanics
• How to use computers to predict chemical reactions
• Using computers to understand organic chemistry
• The future of computational chemistry in organic reactions
• The impacts of simulation on the development of new medications
• Combustion reaction simulation impact on engine development
• Quantum-chemistry simulation review

Computers are cutting-edge technology in chemical research and this relatively new field of study has a ton yet to be explored.

Physical Chemistry Research Topics

Physical chemistry is the study of how matter behaves. It looks at the physical and chemical properties of atoms and molecules and how they interact with each other. If you are looking for physical chemistry research topics, here are some ideas to get you started:

• Standardization of pH scales
• Structure of atom on a quantum scale
• Bonding across atoms and molecules
• The effect of temperature on chemical reactions
• The role of light in in-body chemical reactions
• Chemical kinetics
• Surface tension and its effects on mixtures
• The role of pressure in chemical reactions
• Rates of diffusion in gases and liquids
• The role of entropy in chemical reactions

Here are just a few samples, but there are plenty more options! Start your research right now!

Innovative Chemistry Research Topics

Innovative chemistry is all about coming up with new ideas and ways to do things. This can be anything from creating new materials to finding new ways to make existing products. If you are looking for ground-breaking chemistry research topics, here are some ideas to get you started:

• Amino acids side chain effects in protein folding
• Chemistry in the production of nanomaterials
• The role of enzymes in chemical reactions
• Photocatalysis in 3D printing
• Avoiding pesticides in agriculture
• Combining chemical and biological processes
• Gene modification in medicinal chemistry
• The role of quantum mechanics in chemical reactions
• Astrochemical research on extraterrestrial molecules
• Spectroscopy signatures of pressurized organic components

If you need a hand, there are several sites that also offer research papers for sale and can be a great asset as you work to create your own research papers.

Whatever route you decide to take, good luck! And remember – the sky’s the limit when it comes to research! So get started today and see where your studies may take you. Who knows, you might just make a breakthrough discovery!

Environmental Chemistry Research Topics

Environmental Chemistry is the study of how chemicals interact with the environment. This can include anything from the air we breathe to the water we drink. If you are looking for environmental chemistry research topics, here are some ideas to get you started:

• Plastic effects on ocean life
• Urban ecology
• The role of carbon in climate change
• Air pollution and its effects
• Water pollution and its effects
• Chemicals in food and their effect on the body
• The effect of chemicals on plant life
• Earth temperature prediction models

A lot of research on the environment is being conducted at the moment because the environment is in danger. There are a lot of environmental problems that need to be solved, and research is the key to solving them.

Green Chemistry Research Topics

Green chemistry is the study of how to make products and processes that are environmentally friendly. This can include anything from finding new ways to recycle materials to developing new products that are biodegradable. If you are looking for green chemistry research topics, here are some ideas to get you started:

• Recycling and reuse of materials
• Developing biodegradable materials
• Improving existing recycling processes
• Green chemistry and sustainable development
• The future of green chemistry
• Green chemistry and the food industry
• Green chemistry and the pharmaceutical industry
• Green chemistry and the cosmetics industry

A more environmentally friendly world is something we all aspire for and a lot of research has been conducted on how we can achieve this, making this one of the most promising areas of study. The results have been varied, but there are a few key things we can do to make a difference.

Controversial Chemistry Research Topics

Controversial chemistry is all about hot-button topics that people are passionate about. This can include anything from the use of chemicals in warfare to the health effects of different chemicals. If you are looking for controversial topics to write about , here are some ideas to get you started:

• The use of chemicals in warfare
• Gene modification in human babies
• Bioengineering
• How fast food chemicals affect the human brain
• The role of the government in regulating chemicals
• Evolution of cigarette chemicals over time
• Chemical effects of CBD oils
• Antidepressant chemical reactions
• Synthetic molecules replication methods
• Gene analysis

Controversial research papers often appear in the media before it has been peer-reviewed and published in a scientific journal. The reason for this is that the media is interested in stories that are new, exciting, and generate a lot of debate.

Chemistry is an incredibly diverse and interesting field, with many controversial topics to write about. If you are looking for a research topic, consider the examples listed in this article. With a little bit of effort, you are sure to find a topic that is both interesting and within your skillset.

In order to be a good researcher, it is important to be able to think critically and solve problems. However, innovation in chemistry research can be challenging. When thinking about how to innovate, it is important to consider both the practical and theoretical aspects of your research. Additionally, try to build on the work of others in order to create something new and unique. With a little bit of effort, you are sure to be able to find a topic that is both interesting and within your skillset.

Happy writing!

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WashU Libraries

Chemistry writing resources.

• Writing a Research Paper or Lab Report

Parts of a Reference

Formatting for different types of references, citation management software.

• Return to Main Chemistry Guide

When using sources and references, it is important and necessary to give credit to the original author and work by properly citing the source. Citing sources and references properly allows for the correct reference to be located.  In order to cite correctly and obtain the proper full-text article it is necessary to know the different parts that make up a citation to obtain access to the article.

Primary literature like journal articles will be the most common kind of reference used when writing lab reports and research papers.

When citing a journal article using the American Chemical Society (ACS) format, the citation contains the following elements: 

An ACS reference citation lists information in the following order and formatting for journal articles :

• Author: The authors are listed by their last name then their first and middle initials in regular font in the order they appear in the byline
• Title of Article: The title of the article is written in regular font*
• Journal:  The title of the Journal is italicized; journal abbreviations can be found at https://cassi.cas.org/search.jsp
• Year: The year the article was published is formatted in bold font
• Volume: The volume of the article comes after the year and is italicized
• Issue: If the article has an issue number, it is listed after the volume, is not italicized, and is enclosed in parentheses
• Page Numbers:  The page numbers of the cited article are listed in regular font

* depending on the journal, the title of the article is not always included as part of the reference

References should be cited in the text of a paper in one of the following ways: with an italicized number, a superscript number, or withe first author name and year of publication.  References should be numbered sequentially; when citing more than one reference, each reference should be listed with an increasing number and should be separated with a comma.  As always, check the publication or with your instructor for the proper or desired style for citations and reference lists.

Different types of references (e.g. Journal Articles vs. Books) have different citation formats.  

Proper formatting for different reference sources can be found in Chapter 14 , Table 14-2 of the ACS Style Guide, and formatting styles of common references can be found below.

Format 1:  Author 1, Author 2, Author 3, etc.  Title of Article.  Journal Abbreviation Year, Volume , Pages cited.

Nguyen, S. T.; Johnson, L. K.; Grubbs, R. H.; Ziller, J. W. Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP) of Norbornene by a Group VIII Carbene Complex in Protic Media. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992 , 114 (10), 3974–3975.

Format 2:   Author 1, Author 2, Author 3, etc.  Journal Abbreviation Year, Volume , Pages cited.

Nguyen, S. T.; Johnson, L. K.; Grubbs, R. H.; Ziller, J. W. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992 , 114 (10), 3974–3975.

Authors are listed by their last name then their first and middle initials in the order they appear in the byline.

Article titles are not required in reference citations, but inclusion of the title can be useful for indicating the contents of a paper and for helping to locate the specific reference. Some ACS publications include the article title in journal references, and some do not.  So, it is important when citing references to check the requirements of the publication.

The minimum amount of information required for a book citation is the author or editor, book title, publisher, city of publication, and year of publication. Page numbers can and should be included when specific pages in a book are being cited, but are not necessary if the book is being cited as a whole.

Book Chapter/Book with Editors: Author 1; Author 2 Title of Chapter. In Title of Book ;   Editor 1, Editor 2, Eds. Name of Publisher: City, Year of Publication; Page Numbers.

Minch, Eric Dynamics and Complexity in Systems Biology Modeling: Theoretical Challenges in Metabolic Simulation. In Bioinformatics and Genomes Currents Perspectives ; Andrade, M.A. ed. Horizon Scientific: Norfolk, England. 2003; pp123-140.

Author 1, Author 2 Title of Book ; Editor 1, Editor 2, Eds. Name of Publisher: City, Year of Publication; Page Numbers.

Perez-Iratxeta, Carolina; Andrade, Miguel A. In Bioinformatics and Genomes Currents Perspectives ; Andrade, M.A. ed. Horizon Scientific: Norfolk, England. 2003; pp 141-152.

Note:  In some cases the title of the chapter is included and may be useful for finding the specific chapter or work being referenced.  The use of the word "In" prior to the title of the book is used to indicate that the authors wrote part of the book, but not the whole book.

Book without editors: Author 1, Author 2 Title of Book ; Name of Publisher: City, Year of Publication; Page Numbers.

Carpenter, Barry K. Determination of Organic Reaction Mechanisms ; Wiley: New York, 1984.

Book in a Series: Author 1, Author 2 . Title of Chapter. In Title of Book ; Editor 1, Editor 2, Eds.; Name of Publisher: City, Year of Publication; Volume, Page Numbers.

Vogt, Emil; Hansen, Anne S.; Kjaergaard, Henrick, G.  Local Modes of Vibration: The Effect of Low-Frequency Vibrations. In Molecular Spectroscopy: A Quantum Chemistry Approach ; Ozaki, Y.; Wojcik, M.J.; Popp, J; Eds.; Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KgaA: Weinham, Germany, 2019; Volume 2, pp 389-424.

Author 1, Author 2. Title of  Website. URL (date accessed)

Nyant, Anak.  Physical Chemistyr: 7 tips to Approach Problems in Physical Chemistry. https://www.toppr.com/bytes/7-tips-to-excel-in-physical-chemistry/ (accessed January 8, 2020)

The ACS Style Guide. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/bk-2006-STYG (accessed January 5, 2020)

Note: Required information for a website includes the site title, URL, and access date. The author of the site should be included if available

Author 1, Author 2 Name of Patent. Country and Patent Number, Date of Patent Submission.

Straubinger, R.M., Sharma, A., Mayhew, E. Taxol Formulation. United States US5415869A, May 16, 1995.

Citation of reference management software provides a method for keeping track of articles, books, web pages, and more as you find them during the course of your research or literature searching.  Most citation management software provides similar and useful functions that may include: 

• storing all references in one location 
• providing organization and management of many references
• sharing references or collections of references with collaborators
• generating bibliographies or reference lists in the proper format/style for a giving manuscript or discipline
• allowing writers to use a "cite while write" function

The library has a gude that provides some guidance on picking the citation management software that will work best for you 

How to Chose: Zotero, Mendeley, or Endnote

• Can gather citations for PDF content
• Can easily gather citations for non-PDF content (e.g. websites, artwork, manuscripts)
• Works well with many catalogs and databases
• Can drag and drop a PDF into Zotero to create a citation record
• Can sync online and desktop libraries
• Can create groups with other Zotero users to create shared libraries
• Zotero has useful guides and online support:  www.zotero.org/support/
• WUSTL Libraries has a helpful guide and provides support for Zotero:  libguides.wustl.edu/zotero
• Works well with catalogs and Elsevier databases
• Can drag and drop and PDF into Mendeley to create a citation record
• Mendeley has an integrated PDF viewer
• Can find related references online through your Mendeley account (automatic look up process)
• Can collaborate and join “Groups” in Mendeley online that have similar research interests to share references and/or libraries
• Can create Groups with other Mendeley users to share libraries
• Can share and edit a library or annotate PDFs with another Mendeley user simultaneously. 
• Mendeley has excellent online support:  www.mendeley.com/guides
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• Next: Return to Main Chemistry Guide >>
• Last Updated: Apr 30, 2024 2:49 PM
• URL: https://libguides.wustl.edu/chemwriting

Journals, books & databases

• Author & reviewer hub
• Author guidelines & information
• Prepare your article
• Experimental reporting requirements

Experimental details and characterisation required for journal articles

Guidance on reporting experimental procedures and compound characterisation

We believe that where possible, all data associated with the research in a manuscript should be Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable (FAIR), enabling other researchers to replicate and build on that research. We strongly encourage authors to deposit the data underpinning their research in appropriate repositories and make it as openly accessible as possible.

For all submissions to our journals, any data required to understand and verify the research in an article must be made available on submission. To comply, we suggest authors deposit their data in an appropriate repository. Where this isn’t possible, we ask authors to include the data as part of the article Supplementary Information. If necessary data are not made available, authors may be requested to provide these as part of the peer-review process, or in light of any post-publication concerns.

Please see our Data sharing guidance and policy for more details on specific data types and recommended repositories.

Some journals may also have additional subject requirements for both sharing and/or publishing supporting data, so please ensure you check the journal-specific guidelines.

On this page

General guidance, presentation of experimental data, post-acquisition processing of data.

• Data citation

Human and animal welfare

Biomolecules, characterisation of compounds and materials, computational studies and modelling, electrophoretic gels and blots, fluorescence sensors, inorganic and organometallic compounds, macromolecular structure and sequence data.

• Magnetic measurements 

Nanomaterials

Organic compounds, polymers and macromolecules, synthetic procedures, system models, x-ray crystallography, view all guidelines for preparing and formatting your article.

Please note, these guidelines are relevant to all of our journals. Make sure that you check your chosen journal’s web pages for specific guidelines too.

These experimental reporting requirements apply to both new compounds and known compounds prepared by a new or modified method.

It is the authors’ responsibility to provide descriptions of the experiments in enough detail to enable other skilled researchers to accurately reproduce the work.

Experimental procedures, compound characterization data, research materials necessary to enable the reproduction of an experiment and references to the associated literature should be provided in the experimental section of the manuscript.

Standard techniques and methods used throughout the work should be stated at the beginning of the experimental section; descriptions of these are not needed.

For known compounds synthesised via a literature procedure, authors should provide a reference to previously published characterization data.

Sources of starting materials obtained need not be identified unless the compound is not widely available, or the source is critical for the experimental result. Only non-standard apparatus should be described and commercially available instruments can be referred to by their stock numbers.

The accuracy of primary measurements should be stated. Figures should include error bars where appropriate, and results should be accompanied by an analysis of experimental uncertainty. Care should be taken to report the correct number of significant figures throughout the manuscript.

Any unusual hazards associated with the chemicals, procedures or equipment should be clearly identified.

For studies that involve the use of live animals or human subjects please refer to our Human and Animal Welfare policy .

Please see the sections below for detailed information about how to present specific types of data.

Data associated with particular compounds should be listed after the name of the compound concerned, following the description of its preparation. If comparison is to be made with literature values, these should be quoted in parentheses - for example, mp 157 °C (from chloroform) (lit., 19 156 °C), or ν max /cm -1 2020 and 1592 (lit., 24 2015 and 1600).

The suggested order in which the most commonly encountered data for a new compound should be cited follows:

Melting point

Optical rotation, refractive index, elemental analysis, uv absorptions, ir absorptions.

• NMR spectrum
• Mass spectrum

You can find more information about each of these below:

The following information is a guide to the presentation of experimental data, including appropriate formats for citation.

Yield should be presented in parentheses after the compound name (or its equivalent). Weight and percentage should be separated by a comma – for example, the lactone (7.1 g, 56%).

The melting point should be presented in the form mp 75 °C (from EtOH) - that is, the crystallisation solvent in parentheses. If an identical mixed melting point is to be recorded, the form mp and mixed mp 75 °C is appropriate.

The units should be stated in the preamble to the Experimental section – for example, [ α ] D values are given in 10 −1 deg cm 2 g −1 . This should be shown in the form [α] D 22–22.5 (c 0.95 in EtOH) – that is, concentration and solvent in parentheses.

Given in the form n D 22 1.653.

For the presentation of elemental analyses, both forms (Found: C, 63.1; H, 5.4. C 13 H 13 NO 4 requires C, 63.2; H, 5.3%) and (Found: C, 62.95; H, 5.4. Calc. for C 13 H 13 NO 4 : C, 63.2; H, 5.3%) are acceptable. Analyses are normally quoted to the nearest 0.1%, but a 5 in the second place of decimals is retained.

If a molecular weight is to be included, the appropriate form is: [Found: C, 63.1; H, 5.4%; M (mass spectrum), 352 (or simply M+, 352). C 13 H 13 NO 4 requires C, 63.2; H, 5.3%; M, 352].

We encourage authors to provide instrumental details and the chromatograms of the performed measurements in the Supplementary Information where possible.

These should be given in the form λmax(EtOH)/nm 228 (ε/dm 3  mol -1  cm -1  40 900), 262 (19 200) and 302 (11 500). Inflections and shoulders are specified as 228infl or 262sh. Alternatively the following form may be used: λmax (EtOH)/nm 228, 262 and 302 (ε/dm 3  mol -1  cm -1  40 900, 19 200 and 11 500); log ε may be quoted instead of ε.

IR absorption should be presented as follows: ν max /cm -1  3460 and 3330 (NH), 2200 (conj. CN), 1650 (CO) and 1620 (CN). The type of signal (s, w, vs, br) can be indicated by appended letters (for example 1760vs).

For all NMR spectra δ values should be used, with the nucleus indicated by subscript if necessary (for example, δ H , δ C ). A statement specifying the units of the coupling constants should be given in the preamble to the Experimental section – for example,  J  values are given in Hz. Instrument frequency, solvent, and standard should be specified. For example: δ H (100 MHz; CDCl3; Me4Si) 2.3 (3 H, s, Me), 2.5 (3 H, s, COMe), 3.16 (3 H, s, NMe) and 7.3–7.6 (5 H, m, Ph).

A broad signal may be denoted by br, such as 2.43 (1 H, br s, NH). Order of citation in parentheses: (i) number of equivalent nuclei (by integration), (ii) multiplicity (s, d, t, q), (iii) coupling constant – for example,  J 1,2  2,  J A B 4, (iv) assignment; italicisation can be used to specify the nuclei concerned (for example, CH3CH2). The proton attached to C-6 may be designated C(6)H or 6-H; the methyl attached to C-6, 6-Me or C(6)Me.

Mutually coupled protons in  1 H NMR spectra should be quoted with precisely matching J values, in order to assist thorough interpretation. In instances of any ambiguities when taking readings from computer printouts, mean  J  values should be quoted, rounded to the nearest decimal point.

Mass spectrometry data

Mass spectrometry data should be given in the form:  m/z  183 (M + , 41%), 168 (38), 154 (9), 138 (31) etc. The molecular ion may be specified as shown if desired. Relative intensities should be shown in parentheses (% only included once). Other assignments may be included in the form  m/z  152 (33, M − CH 3 CONH 2 ). Metastable peaks may be listed as: M* 160 (189→174), 147 (176→161), etc. The type of spectrum (field desorption, electron impact, etc.) should be indicated. Exact masses quoted for identification purposes should be accurate to within 5 ppm (EI and CI) or 10 ppm (FAB or LSIMS).

Authors might be asked during peer review to provide the original unprocessed data to the editors/reviewers of the journal.

All image acquisition and processing tools (including their settings) should be clearly stated in the manuscript. The amount of post-acquisition processing of data should be kept to a minimum. Any type of alteration such as image processing, cropping and groupings should be clearly stated in the figure caption and the Supplementary Information (SI) - clearly describing the process of alteration. Data manipulation (for example, normalisation or handling of missing values) should be noted.

Image processing changes should be applied to the entire image as well as all other images it is compared to. Processed images should still represent all the original data (with no data missing) and touch-up tools should be avoided.

Genuine and relevant signals in spectra should not be lost due to image enhancement.

Microscopy images of cells from multiple fields should not be compared but shown as single images (at least as part of the deposited data or in the SI).

Data Citation

For author-generated datasets that are directly associated with the article, we encourage authors to add data citations as bibliographic references within the article and the Data Availability Statement (DAS). Within the DAS, the citation should be given alongside information on datasets associated with the study and where to find them.

For datasets associated with previous studies, we encourage authors to add data citations as bibliographic references within the main text as they are mentioned. Data citation is encouraged as an alternative to informal references or mentions of local identifiers.

Suggested reference format for data citations:

[A. Name, B. Name and C. Name], [Name of repository / type of dataset], [Deposition number], [Year], [DOI, or URL if not available, of the dataset].

An example:

P. Cui, D. P. McMahon, P. R. Spackman, B. M. Alston, M. A. Little, G. M. Day and A. I. Cooper, 2019, CCDC Experimental Crystal Structure Determination: 1915306, DOI: 10.5517/ccdc.csd.cc22912j

Please also refer to the guidelines from the relevant repository on which information to provide in a citation.

When a study involves the use of live animal subjects, authors should adhere to the Animal Research: Reporting In Vivo Experiments (ARRIVE) 2.0 guidelines. When a study involves the use of human subjects, authors should adhere to the general principles set out in the Declaration of Helsinki .

Authors must include in the "methods/experimental" section of the manuscript a statement that all experiments were performed in compliance with the relevant guidelines. The statement must name the institutional/local ethics committee that has approved the study, and where possible the approval or case number should be provided.

Details of all guidelines followed should be provided. A statement regarding informed consent is required for all studies involving human subjects. Reviewers may be asked to comment specifically on any cases in which concerns arise.

For studies involving the use of animal subjects, authors are encouraged to make the completed ARRIVE 2.0 checklist available during peer review, for example by sharing it as part of the Supplementary Information (SI) or citing the deposited item.

The journals’ editorial teams reserve the right to request additional information in relation to experiments on vertebrates or higher invertebrates as necessary for the evaluation of the manuscript e.g., in the context of appropriate animal welfare or studies that involve death as an experimental endpoint.

Authors and referees should note the following guidelines for articles reporting electrochemical data and setup of batteries. It is the authors’ responsibility to ensure that the following information is provided in the main manuscript or Supplementary Information as appropriate.

The setup used for electrochemical testing should be clearly specified in the Experimental Information. For example, full or half cells, reference electrode (if used), testing temperature, etc.

When reporting electrochemical performance data, the authors should clearly state how many experimental runs these data are based on. The electrochemical performance value calculations should be clearly explained (including information on using charging or discharging values). All electrochemical data should be reported to an appropriate number of significant figures, along with standard deviation and error bars on graphs.

When reporting electrode performance values , the thickness of the electrode and the mass percentage of all electrode components (active material, additive, binder, etc.), the total mass of the electrode, and the geometric area of the electrode should be provided.

When reporting device-level performance values, the mass percentage of all battery components (active material, additive, binder, casing, current collector, electrolyte, separator, etc.), the total mass of the battery, and the geometric area of the electrode should be reported.

The mass percent and theoretical capacity of the active material should be provided if the theoretical capacity of the studied material is known. The theoretical capacity should be used to calculate C-rate. Alternatively, a rigorous use of A g -1 is recommended.

Pre-cycling and/or first cycle data should be reported.

Calculations of battery capacity should report the capacity obtained (in mAh g -1 ; if appropriate, volumetric values can be added in the unit of mAh cm -3 ) with the cycling rate and at what cycle number this capacity was obtained clearly stated. Average capacities for ≥3 cells with standard deviation are preferred.

It is the authors’ responsibility to provide rigorous evidence for the identity and purity of the biomolecules (for example, enzymes, proteins, DNA/RNA, oligosaccharides, oligonucleotides) described.

The identity of the biomolecule should be substantiated by employing at least one appropriate method, which may include one or more of the following:

Mass spectrometry

• Sequencing data (for proteins and oligonucleotides)
• High field 1 H or 13 C NMR

The purity should be established by one or more of the following

• Gel electrophoresis
• Capillary electrophoresis

Sequence verification should also be carried out for nucleic acids in molecular biology, including all mutants; for new protein or gene sequences, the entire sequence should be provided. For organic synthesis involving DNA, RNA oligonucleotides, their derivatives or mimics, purity should be established using HPLC and mass spectrometry as a minimum.

Provide usual organic chemistry analytical requirements for the novel monomer ( see Organic compounds ). However, it is not necessary to provide this level of characterisation for the oligonucleotide into which the novel monomer is incorporated.

Provide sufficient detail to identify the species being used. Specific information on antibodies is essential. Commercial sources and, if new antibodies are generated, full experimental details such as immunogen/phage, species, protocols for mAb-) should be given. We strongly recommend authors use unique Resource Identifiers for model organisms, antibodies, and tools, and publish them with full descriptions.

Present scatter plots of data, sensitivity, and specificity values with confidence intervals and results of receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. If a marker is already routinely used for that disease, comparison with that marker should be included.

Where the screening of new catalysts is reported, authors should provide a mass balance for all reactions (using, for example, an internal standard in their analysis technique). Recycling efficiencies should be based on reaction rates measurements and not product yield as a function of cycle. It is highly desirable to report the reaction rate for the catalysts as turnover frequency or mass-specific activity or, for heterogeneous catalysts, as surface-specific activity.

It is the responsibility of authors to provide fully convincing evidence for the homogeneity and identity of all compounds whose preparations they describe. Evidence of both purity and identity is required to establish that the properties and constants reported are those of a compound as claimed.

Reviewers will assess the evidence in support of the homogeneity and structure of all new compounds. No hard and fast rules can be laid down to cover all types of compound, but evidence for the unequivocal identification of new compounds should, wherever possible, include good elemental analytical data – an accurate mass measurement of a molecular ion does not provide evidence of purity of a compound and should be accompanied by independent evidence of homogeneity.

Where elemental analytical data cannot be obtained, appropriate evidence that is convincing to an expert in the field may be acceptable. Normally, for diamagnetic compounds this entails, at a minimum, a high resolution mass spectrometry measurement along with assigned 1 H and/or 13 C NMR spectra devoid of visible impurities.

Spectroscopic information necessary for the assignment of structure should be given. How complete this information should be depends upon the circumstances; the structure of a compound obtained from an unusual reaction or isolated from a natural source should be supported by stronger evidence than one that was produced by a standard reaction from a precursor of undisputed structure.

Particular care should be taken in supporting the assignments of stereochemistry (both relative and absolute) of chiral compounds reported, for example by one of the following:

• NMR spectroscopy
• Polarimetry
• Correlation with known compounds of undisputed configuration

In cases where mixtures of isomers are generated (for example, E-Z isomers, enantiomers, diastereoisomers), the constitution of the mixture should usually be established using appropriate analytical techniques (for example, NMR spectroscopy, GC, HPLC) and reported in an unambiguous fashion.

For an asymmetric reaction in which an enantiomeric mixture is prepared, the direct measurement of the enantiomer ratio expressed as the enantiomeric excess (ee) is recommended, and is preferred to less reliable polarimetry methods.

If a compound is new more detailed characterisation will be required. A compound is considered to be new if:

• it has not been prepared before
• it has been prepared before but not adequately purified
• it has been purified but not adequately characterised
• it has been assigned an erroneous composition previously
• it is a natural product isolated or synthesized for the first time

We encourage authors reporting various compounds or compound libraries to apply the FAIR principles and include a summary file of these compounds as part of the submission. This file should be deposited in an appropriate repository or be provided as part of the Supplementary Information, and should adhere to the following:

• format - CSV (*.csv), TSV (*.tsv) or SDF (*.sdf)
• for chemical structures - relevant headers including SMILES , InChI  and InChIKey
• for chemical names - Name and Synonym
• for other comments - such data, metadata, etc

These instructions are based on FAIR chemical structures in the Journal of Cheminformatics (E.L. Schymanski & E.E. Bolton, Journal of Cheminformatics , 2021, 13 , 50).

We recommend that authors follow the guidelines for the nomenclature of new radiolabelled compounds, as laid out in Consensus nomenclature rules for radiopharmaceutical chemistry - setting the record straight (C.H.H., G.A.D. et al., Nuclear Medicine and Biology , 2017, 55 , v – xi).

Authors should provide sufficient information to enable readers to reproduce any computational results. If software was used for calculations and is generally available, it should be properly cited in the references. References to the methods upon which the software is based should also be provided.

Equations, data, geometric parameters/coordinates, or other numerical parameters essential to the reproduction of the computational results (or adequate references when available in the open literature) should be provided. Authors who report the results of electronic structure calculations in relative energies should also include the absolute energies obtained directly from the computational output files. These may be deposited in an appropriate repository and cited, or provided in the Supplementary Information (SI).

We ask that the following information be provided where possible:

• As a minimum, papers reporting QM work should include the atomic coordinates, energies, and number of imaginary frequencies for all computed stationary points
• The level of theory used for computations should be mentioned in the text, and/or in the caption of the first figure that reports the results of those computations
• Where calculations are performed with density functional theory, the integration grid used for the calculations should be specified
• All relevant total energies (potential energies, enthalpies, Gibbs free energies, etc.) should be reported for each computed species. For transition states (TSs), the magnitude of the frequency of the imaginary vibrational mode may also be reported
• For intrinsic reaction coordinate (IRC) calculations, any shoulders in the IRC plots should be noted. If IRC calculations reveal that a TS corresponded to a reaction pathway different from that suggested by simple animation of its imaginary mode, then the IRC results (plots and details of reactants/products) should be deposited in an appropriate repository and cited
• Where computational work is included as part of a synthetic study, full details of any theoretical characterization (for example, computational NMR or VCD) of products and/or important synthetic intermediates should be documented

We also strongly encourage xyz, .mol2 or .pdb files for coordinates to be shared via deposition in an appropriate repository.

It is the responsibility of the authors to provide the raw data for all electrophoretic gel and blot data, ensuring sufficient evidence to support their conclusions.

All Western blot and other electrophoresis data should be supported by the underlying raw images. The image of the full gel and blot, uncropped and unprocessed, should be made available on submission. We suggest authors deposit their data in an appropriate repository. Where this isn’t possible, we ask authors to include the data as part of the Supplementary Information. All samples and controls used for a comparative analysis should be run on the same gel or blot.

When illustrating the result, any cropping or rearrangement of lanes within an image should be stated in the figure legend and with lane boundaries clearly delineated. Alterations should be kept to a minimum required for clarity.

Each image should be appropriately labelled, with the closest molecular mass markers and lanes labelled. All details should be visible; over or underexposed gels and blots are not acceptable. Authors should be able to provide raw data for all replicate experiments upon request.

Studies on fluorescence sensor systems should include titrations covering a full range of analyte concentration, from the absence of analyte to a stoichiometric excess, taking the following factors into account:

• If the analyte shows significant absorption at the excitation or emission frequencies corrections should be carried out for Inner Filter Effects (IFEs). (note: fluorescence probes where the response mechanism is based on the Inner Filter Effect are not suitable for publication in NJC)
• A plateau should be observed at high analyte concentrations for the intensity vs. concentration plot when the sensing mechanism is based on association
• Calculated Limits of Detection (LoD) should be supported by experimental data at similar concentrations
• The intensity vs. concentration relationship should be fitted using suitable software. The Benesi-Hildebrand linearization method for the determination of the association constant should not be used without extensive consideration of the limitations that arise from the method’s assumptions ( see Chemical Society Reviews Tutorial 10.1039/C0CS00062K for further details.)

Plots reporting the Stern-Volmer relationship (I°/I vs. concentration; the same should be valid for its reciprocal I/I°) should show an intercept of 1. Significant variation from this is not acceptable.

The Stern-Volmer relationship should be justified by reference to an appropriate quenching mechanism, e.g. dynamic quenching should show a linear relationship, while static quenching can present an upward curvature for relatively high association constants (see Chemical Society Reviews Tutorial 10.1039/D1CS00422K for further discussion)

The performance of all sensor systems should be compared to the current state-of-the-art sensors for the same analyte, with any differences in requirements (e.g. solvent system) clearly stated; a suitable (and justified) set of interferences should also be tested and discussed.

A new chemical substance (molecule or extended solid) should have a homogeneous composition and structure. Where the compound is molecular, authors should provide data to unequivocally establish its homogeneity, purity and identification as described above.

In general, this should include elemental analyses or a justification for the omission of this data.

This is particularly important for NMR silent paramagnetic compounds where NMR data tends to be less useful in establishing purity. In some instances an assigned 1 H NMR spectrum of a paramagnetic compound that is demonstrably devoid of impurities may be acceptable.

It may be possible to substitute elemental analyses with high-resolution mass spectrometric molecular weights. This is appropriate, for example, with trivial derivatives of thoroughly characterised substances or routine synthetic intermediates. In all cases, relevant spectroscopic data (NMR, IR, UV-vis, etc.) should be provided in tabulated form or as reproduced spectra. These may be deposited in an appropriate repository and cited, or provided in the Supplementary Information (SI). However, it should be noted that, in general, mass spectrometric and spectroscopic data do not constitute proof of purity, and, in the absence of elemental analyses, additional evidence of purity should be provided (melting points, PXRD data, etc.).

Where the compound is an extended solid, it is important to unequivocally establish the chemical structure and bulk composition. Single crystal X-ray diffraction does not determine the bulk structure. Reviewers will normally look to see evidence of bulk homogeneity. A fully indexed powder diffraction pattern that agrees with single crystal data may be used as evidence of a bulk homogeneous structure, and chemical analysis may be used to establish purity and homogeneous composition.

Detailed information on the reporting requirements for X-ray crystallography, including small molecule single crystal data and powder diffraction data is available in the section on X-ray crystallography.

Novel macromolecular structures and newly reported nucleic acid or protein sequences and microarray data should be deposited in appropriate repositories. It is the responsibility of the authors to provide relevant accession numbers prior to publication.

A Data Availability Statement with suitable links to the deposited data should be included. Please see our Data Sharing policy for more details. For high-throughput studies, we encourage authors to refer to Minimum Information Standards as determined and maintained by the relevant communities. For further details see:

• Minimum information standard - Wikipedia
• Minimum Information for Biological and Biomedical Investigations - FAIRsharing Information Resource

The following should be supplied for macromolecular X-ray structures:

• R merge , completeness, multiplicity and I /sigma(I) - both overall and in the outer resolution shell - for data, and
• R cryst , R free and the bond and angle deviations for coordinates
• a Ramachandran plot, and preferably
• real space R -factor

For NMR structures equivalent data plus resonance assignments should be supplied - number of restraints (NOEs and  J -couplings), RMS restraint deviation, etc, plus resonance assignments should be supplied.

All the above information should be included as summary data tables in the manuscript or may be deposited in an appropriate repository and cited, or provided in the Supplementary Information.

Magnetic measurements

If data from magnetic measurements are presented, the authors should provide a thorough description of the experimental details pertaining to how the sample was measured. If the data have been corrected for sample or sample holder diamagnetism, the diamagnetic correction term should be provided and the manner in which it was determined should be stated.

Any fit of magnetic data (for example, χ(T), χ(1/T), χT(T), μ(T), M(H), etc.) to an analytical expression should be accompanied by the Hamiltonian from which the analytical expression is derived, the analytical expression itself, and the fitting parameters. If the expression is lengthy, it may be deposited in an appropriate repository and cited, or relegated to the Supplementary Information to conserve space. When an exchange coupling constant (J) is quoted in the abstract, the form of the Hamiltonian should also be included in the abstract.

For nanomaterials (such as quantum dots, nanoparticles, nanotubes, nanowires), it is the authors’ responsibility not only to provide a detailed characterisation of individual components (see Inorganic and organometallic compounds ) but also a comprehensive characterisation of the bulk composition. Characterisation of the bulk sample could require determination of the chemical composition and size distribution over large portions of the sample.

All nanoparticulate materials should have been purified from synthesis by-products and residual parent compounds, ions etc. If they are to be applied in dispersed form (for example, as a nanoparticulate drug carrier), sufficient data on the dispersion state should be provided (for example, by dynamic light scattering, centrifugal analysis, nanoparticle tracking analysis).

SEM or TEM images for hybrid inorganic-organic nanoparticles should be provided in at least three different levels of magnification. Bar scales should be clearly visible. Images may be deposited in an appropriate repository and cited, or provided in the Supplementary Information (SI).

It is the responsibility of the authors to provide unequivocal support for the purity and assigned structure of all compounds using a combination of the following characterisation techniques.

Elemental analysis is recommended to confirm sample purity and corroborate isomeric purity. We encourage authors to provide instrumental details and the chromatograms of the performed measurements in the Supplementary Information where possible. Authors are also requested to provide 1 H, 13 C NMR spectra and/or GC/HPLC traces if satisfactory elemental analysis cannot be obtained.

For libraries of compounds, HPLC traces should be submitted as proof of purity. The determination of enantiomeric excess of nonracemic, chiral substances should be supported with either GC/HPLC traces with retention times for both enantiomers and separation conditions (that is, chiral support, solvent and flow rate) or for Mosher Ester/Chiral Shift Reagent analysis, copies of the spectra.

Important physical properties, for example, boiling or melting point, specific rotation, refractive index, including conditions and a comparison to the literature for known compounds, should be provided. For crystalline compounds, the method used for recrystallisation should also be documented (that is, solvent etc.).

Mass spectra and a complete numerical listing of 1 H, 13 C NMR peaks in support of the assigned structure, including relevant 2D NMR and related experiments (that is, NOE, etc.) are required. As noted in Analytical , authors are requested to provide copies of these spectra. Infrared spectra that support functional group modifications, including other diagnostic assignments, should be included. High-resolution mass spectra are acceptable as proof of the molecular weight providing the purity of the sample has been accurately determined as outlined above.

For all soluble polymers, an estimation of molecular weight should be provided by size exclusion chromatography, including details of columns, eluents and calibration standards, intrinsic viscosity, MALDI TOF, etc. In addition, full NMR characterisation ( 1 H, 13 C) as for organic compound characterisation above.

For Gel Permeation Chromatography, molecular weight (Mw), molecular number (Mn) polydispersity index (PDI), and internal standards used should be specified, and associated images/spectra should be made available on submission. We suggest authors deposit their data in an appropriate repository. Where this isn’t possible, we ask authors to include the data as part of the article Supplementary Information (SI).

These should be described in enough detail so that a skilled researcher is able to repeat them. They should include the specific reagents, products and solvents with all of their amounts (g, mmol, for products: %), as well as clearly stating how the percentage yields are calculated.

• Reaction times, temperature and solvent quantities should be reported
• Reactions requiring heating - provide the heat source
• Reactions conducted using microwave heating - information on the type of vessel used and how the temperature was monitored should be given as well as the temperature reached or maintained
• Light-promoted reactions - report the light source and specific conditions
• Describe purification methods in detail
• GC or HPLC traces should be supported with retention times and separation conditions (support, solvent and flow rate)
• Centrifugation  - includes rotation speed, centrifugation/dialysis time, solution for resuspension, resuspension time and procedure for each centrifugation step

Synthetic procedures should also include all the characterisation data for the prepared compound or material. For a series of related compounds at least one representative procedure that outlines a specific example that is described in the text or in a table and that is representative of the other cases should be provided. For a multistep synthesis, spectra of key compounds and the final product should be included.

Systems Biology Markup Language (SBML) is a computer-readable format for representing models of biochemical reaction networks. SBML is applicable to metabolic networks, cell-signalling pathways, regulatory networks, and many others.

We encourage authors to prepare models of biochemical reaction networks using SBML and to deposit the model in an open database such as the BioModels database  or  MetabolicAtlas .

Include some physical or experimental validation. Studies that screen a molecule against a set of receptors with no link to physical or experimental data are not suitable for publication.

These guidelines provide details for the presentation of single crystal and powder diffraction data; they apply to submissions to any of our journals.

Authors should present their crystal data in a CIF (Crystallographic Information File) format and deposit this with the  Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre (CCDC) before submission. Data will be held in the CCDC's confidential archive until publication of the article, but it will be made accessible to reviewers and the publisher assigned to review the data.

At the point of publication, any deposited data will be made publicly available through the CCDC Access Structures service. In addition, organic and metal-organic structures will be curated into the Cambridge Structural Database, and inorganic structures will be curated into the Inorganic Crystal Structures Database (FIZ Karlsruhe).

Upon deposition, each data set is assigned a Digital Object Identifier (DOI), so that the crystal structure is unambiguously identified and registered.

Include CCDC or ICSD numbers in the manuscript prior to submission as part of a Data Availability Statement . During submission authors will be asked to cite CCDC or ICSD reference numbers; CIFs should not be submitted with the manuscript. Any revised CIFs should be deposited directly with the CCDC before the revised manuscript is submitted to us.

In addition, authors are required to provide a checkCIF report for their reported crystal data. The checkCIF report can be obtained via the  International Union of Crystallography's (IUCr) free checkCIF service , or as part of the CCDC deposition process. Any ‘level A' alerts in the report should be explained in the submission details for the article or an explanation provided within the submitted CIF. Authors should submit the checkCIF reports to the Royal Society of Chemistry along with the manuscript files.

If the editor deems it necessary during the peer-review process, the crystallography associated with the manuscript may undergo specialist crystallographic assessment, in which case a report will be provided along with the other reports from reviewers. Any points raised in this assessment should be attended to and all revised CIFs should be deposited with the CCDC prior to uploading the revised manuscript.

For recommended information to include in your CIF, please see the CCDC CIF Deposition Guidelines.  If SQUEEZE or MASK procedures are used, this should be noted in the CIF file.

We encourage authors to include hkl data in the deposited CIF file. Alternatively authors can submit hkl data and the structure files (.fcf) separately during deposition with the CCDC. Raw data accompanying a structure should be made available by the authors for the review process, on request.

Details of the data collection and CCDC numbers should be given in the Data Availability Statement.

For relevant structures that are published as CSD communications, and that have not appeared in the manuscript or a previous journal publication, details should be included in the Data Availability Statement and the appropriate DOI should be cited as a reference in the manuscript.

Where there is significant discussion about the crystallography, the description may be given in textual or tabular form, although the latter is more appropriate if several structure determinations are being reported in one paper. A table of selected bond lengths and angles, with estimated standard deviations, should be restricted to significant dimensions only. Average values may be given with a range of E.S.D.s for chemically equivalent groups or for similar bonds.

Procedures for data collection and structure analysis can be provided as part of the Supplementary Information. The following data are recommended:

• Chemical formula and formula weight ( M )
• Crystal system
• Unit cell dimensions (Å or pm, degrees) and volume, with estimated standard deviations, temperature
• Space group symbol (if non-standard setting give related standard setting)
• Number of formula units in unit cell ( Z )
• Number of reflections measured and/or number of independent reflections, R int
• Final R values (and whether quoted for all or observed data)
• Flack or Rogers parameter (if appropriate)

For example:

Single crystals of [Pd{C(CO 2 Me)[C(CO 2 Me)C(CO 2 Me)=

C(CO 2 Me)C(CO 2 Me)=C(CO 2 Me)]C 6 H 3 [CH(Me)NH 2 ]-2-NO 2 -5}Br] 4 were recrystallised from dichloromethane, mounted in inert oil and transferred to the cold gas stream of the diffractometer.

Crystal structure determination of complex 4:

Crystal data. C 28 H 31 BrCl 4 N 2 O 14 Pd, M = 947.66, orthorhombic, a = 11.096(1), b  = 17.197(2), c = 19.604(3) Å, U = 3741.0(9) Å 3 , T = 173 K, space group P2 1 2 1 2 1 (no.19), Z = 4, 6013 reflections measured, 5665 unique (R int = 0.031), which were used in all calculations. The final wR(F 2 ) was 0.099 (all data).

There may be cases where authors do not wish to include details or extensive discussion of a crystal structure determination. Examples include where only the connectivity has been established, data is marked as low quality at the CCDC, the structure is not integral to the conclusions of the article, or the structure has been discussed in a previous publication. Authors should be mindful of unnecessary fragmentation and the editor’s decision on this will be final.

Authors are encouraged to submit powder diffraction crystallographic data as a CIF (Crystallographic Information File) file to an appropriate repository. Please see the Data Sharing policy for further details. 

Authors should combine multiple data sets for a given manuscript into a single file. The individual structures in the combined file should be separated from each other by the sequence #===END at the beginning of a line.

Authors should identify the manuscript with which the electronic file is associated when they submit the file by entering the name of the manuscript at the top of the electronic file.

The information required for deposition includes the following:

• A table of final fractional atomic coordinates
• Any calculated coordinates (for example, hydrogen)
• A full list of bond lengths and angles with estimated standard deviations
• A full list of displacement parameters in the form B ij   or U ij   (in Å 2 or pm 2 )
• Full details of the refinement
• Profile difference plots for all analyses. Where a range of similar analyses are presented a minimum number of representative plots may be given

Unrefined powder diffraction data should normally be reported only if the data form part of the discussion presented in the paper, and should be restricted to new materials. In such cases, the following experimental details should be provided in either textual or tabular format:

• Diffractometer name and model
• Radiation wavelength (Å)
• Temperature of data collection
• Unit cell dimensions (Å or pm, degrees), if determined

Tables of 2 θ  data, or diagrams showing diffraction patterns of reaction products, should not normally be published in print unless they have some distinct feature of relevance that requires such detail to be present. In most cases, such data may be provided as Supplementary Information (SI).

For cases where the materials are new , but have similar powder data to other well-characterised materials, such data should not usually be included in the paper but can be deposited in an appropriate repository, with the relevant reference number included in a Data Availability Statement, and cited.

For refined powder diffraction data  (where atomic coordinates have been determined), if the procedures for data collection and structure analysis were routine, their description may be concise. When the analysis has not been of a routine nature, the authors should briefly detail the procedures used. In most cases, a table of atomic coordinates may be provided, which should give details of occupancies that are less than unity.

Anisotropic thermal parameters may be included if they form an important aspect of the study. Selected bond lengths and angles, with estimated standard deviations, should be given.

For Rietveld refinements, an observed + calculated + difference profile plot should normally be given for each structure determination, except where a significant number of similar refinements have been carried out. In such cases, only the minimum number of representative plots should be included in the article, with additional plots being deposited in an appropriate repository and cited, or included in the SI.

The following information should be provided:

• Unit cell dimensions (Å or pm, degrees)
• Space group
• Number of formula units in unit cell ( Z ) 
• Number of reflections
• Final R values ( R wp , R exp and R l ) and method of background treatment

Data should still be deposited with the CCDC and the appropriate CCDC reference numbers and DOIs cited.

For information on how to cite crystallographic data in your manuscript, please see the section on Data Citation.

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Research before writing the research paper

Writing a research paper is not an easy task, and it makes students most of the time very stressed. Sometimes the future depends on the research paper, which is why writing it correctly is essential. Most of the time, different niches of paper have another format, but the point of view of writing is the same. Professors want students to write the paper in such a way that they quickly convey their research.

To help you more about writing a research paper, here are some points that should not be missed. These key points will help you in writing and make the process of registering easy.

Select A Good Topic:

The first thing that earns the brownie point is the topic selected for writing the research paper. If the topic is good, the professor instantly grabs attention and reads it correctly. Selecting a good topic is the crucial point of writing any research paper. While choosing the case, always choose a unique topic and will help in knowing the subject better.

A good topic selection shows that the student is clear about the research and keen to deliver their studies to society.

Research Well About The Topic:

After selecting the topic, the next thing to do is research well about the subject. Read all the information from different-different sources and do not summit from a single source. It is essential to know the topic well before you start writing it down. While researching, always check if the source is reliable and then grasp that information of the relevant subject.

When the research is done up to the mark, it becomes easy to write it on paper. As the topic is precise, you can easily convey your points and make professors communicate about your research.

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Include All The Necessary Details:

The third thing after completing the research is to write it down in the paper. Whatever you researched about the topic, try to include it in your research paper. While writing, always follows the format as it gives a direction to the research paper. Also, when a student follows the design, it makes professors comfortable in reading the article.

Even while referring different-different sources, it is essential to mention all the details in the paper. So that professors get to know the basis of your information.

Check For Errors:

The fourth thing to do is to check all the errors. If the research paper is filled with mistakes, it might get rejected. Also, after writing the essay, proofread it two times and check its error on different-different software. Edit all the grammatical mistakes and before submitting it, check and remove even the slightest syntax error.

An error-free research paper helps in scoring better marks as it gives professors a vision that students are clear about the topic and know what they want to convey about their observations.

Write Good Citations:

Citation plays a significant role in what you are going to convey in your research paper . Try to get your message directly and include all your opinion with facts. Whatever you are trying to say, convey it now without any twist and turn. Always try to make the flow and language easy to understand.

By following these steps, a student can write a good research paper. A well-written essay helps students know the subject better and helps in grabbing a good opportunity in the future. Always remember to research the topic well and cite it from a clean and clear point of view. After completing the paper, always check the errors and proofread them before the submissions. You can also check out our blog on how to write a research paper appendix .

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• ACS Publications

Call For Papers: Lessons Learned in Organic Process Chemistry

• May 9, 2024

This Special Issue will highlight important details on negative results and unexpected troubles encountered in day-to-day research and development activities. Submit your manuscript by April 1, 2025.

This Special Issue aims to share process researchers’ expertise in overcoming challenges associated with negative outcomes and unexpected results, addressing troubles caused by a lack of understanding of reactions and physical properties, emerging new impurities due to changes in manufacturing methods, examples of catalytic reaction deactivation during scale-up studies, difficulties in establishing global supply chains, and more.

Organic Process Research & Development is a journal that serves as an authoritative source of scalable procedures for synthetic chemists. As such, it is a communication tool between industrial chemists and chemists working in universities and research institutes. It reports original work from the broad field of industrial process chemistry but also presents academic results that are relevant, or potentially relevant, to industrial applications. Process chemistry is the science that enables the safe, environmentally benign, and ultimately economical manufacturing of organic compounds that are required in larger amounts to help address the needs of society.

Topics include, but are not limited to :

• Pharmaceuticals
• Agrochemicals
• Flavors and Food Additives
• Fragrances, Cosmetics, and Personal Care Products
• Petrochemicals

Submit your manuscript by April 1, 2025.

Organizing Editors

Dr. Kai Rossen , Editor-in-Chief, Organic Process Research & Development Jiuzhou Pharmaceutical, China

Dr. Yasumasa Hayashi , Editorial Advisory Board, Organic Process Research & Development Sawai Pharmaceutical Co., Japan

Dr. Hirotsugu Usutani , Guest Editor Sumitomo Pharma Co., Japan

Dr. Makoto Michida , Guest Editor Daiichi Sankyo Co., Japan

Submission Information

We welcome submissions for this Special Issue through April 1, 2025 . For more information on submission requirements, please visit the journal’s Author Guidelines page.

Accepted manuscripts for consideration in this Special Issue can be formatted as Articles, Reviews, or Perspectives. For Reviews and Perspectives, we ask that you discuss the proposed topic with us by sending an inquiry to [email protected] . Papers accepted for publication for this Special Issue will be available ASAP (as soon as publishable) online as soon as they are accepted. After all submissions have been published, they will then be compiled online on a dedicated landing page to form the Special Issue. Manuscripts submitted for consideration will undergo the full rigorous peer review process expected from ACS journals.

How to Submit

• Log in to the ACS Paragon Plus submission site.
• Choose Organic Process Research & Development .
• Select your manuscript type, and, under "Special Issue Selection," choose “ Lessons Learned in Organic Process Chemistry ."

If you have any general questions regarding submission to this Special Issue, please contact the Editorial Office at [email protected] .

Open Access

There are diverse open access options for publications in American Chemical Society journals. Please visit our Open Science Resource Center for more information.

Safety Information in Journal Articles

Including a clear, articulate safety summary statement in your research is vital to ensuring that others who reproduce or expand upon your work can prepare for significant hazards and conduct their own methods as safely as possible. Read more about crafting safety statements in our ACS Axial post series .

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How to Write a Successful Book Chapter for an Academic Publication?

If you are an academic or a researcher working towards a PhD degree or engaged in various tasks in a university or academic institution the idea of writing a book chapter would have definitely crossed your mind. Receiving an invitation to write an academic book chapter is indeed a great honor, and going onto write it is a milestone that every writer aims to achieve in their career. Writing a successful academic book chapter requires careful planning and execution by the author. In this article we will look at how to write an academic book chapter along with a few key steps that must be followed during the writing process.  

Table of Contents

• What is an academic book chapter? 

Information collection

Finalizing chapter structure, attractive chapter title, a strong introduction, detailing out the chapter, summarizing the chapter, what is an academic book chapter.

An academic book chapter is a distinct section of a book having its own title or a chapter number. A book consists of several chapters, each of which focuses on a particular topic or sub-argument that is linked to the overall theme of the book. In other words, each chapter should have a sound argument that is consistent with the central theme or argument of the book. Each chapter should therefore be an inter-connected part to the rest of the chapters and to the overall book. 

It is important to understand that an academic book chapter is very different from a thesis chapter. While a book chapter has as its audience anyone who may be interested in the particular topic, the audience for a thesis chapter is primarily the thesis examiner. For the same reason, a thesis examiner will closely read the entire chapter and thesis, but this may not be the case for a book chapter. As mentioned earlier, a book chapter deals with a specific topic with an important idea or argument related to the central theme of the book and hence it is a separate division of a book. On the other hand, a thesis chapter does not stand separately but will have multiple arguments and relies on the other chapters to make it a complete whole. The length of each academic book chapter normally varies and there is no standard rule as to the length of chapters. However, on a general note, chapter length usually varies from 3500 to 5000 words.  

Key steps to follow when writing an academic book chapter

Integrating the following steps as you plan to write an academic book chapter can help you achieve excellent results.  

It is important that sufficient research is carried out and the author has a thorough understanding of the available literature in the field. Collecting relevant information and being up to date with all aspects on the topic that you are going to write about is one of first steps in writing an academic book chapter. Presenting information in a visually attractive manner and using various tools like mind maps can help in structuring the key arguments better.  

An academic book chapter also requires a good outline. For example, you must have a title, a well worded introduction, informative paras that make up the main body, a chapter summary and a neat transition to the succeeding chapter. Try to make the outline clear and concise, organize your ideas effectively and ensure there is a logical flow.  

This is a critical element and goes a long way in getting people to read your chapter or even pick up the book. Strive to make the title or heading of your chapter interesting and impactful, potential readers should be attracted to the title by itself, going on to pick up the book just by the vigor of the title itself.  

Having a well written introduction can be invaluable in ensuring that audiences will be compelled to read further. Engaging your reader with an anecdote or a dialogue or through a fictional account or plot can be useful devices to anchor the introduction on.  

Ideally as you elaborate on your chapter with the key points as you begin, it is a good idea to provide evidence for your statements and arguments. Try to highlight these in about 4 to 5 paragraphs linking it to the chapter details. 

A concise summary is a must as you come to the end of your chapter. Remember, here you are reflecting on the main content of the chapter and helping the reader to take away some key aspects of the arguments that you have presented in the chapter.  

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

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Related Reads:

Measuring academic success: definition & strategies for excellence.

• Publish or Perish – Understanding the Importance of Scholarly Publications in Academia
• What is a Literature Review? How to Write It (with Examples)
• Paperpal’s New AI Research Finder Empowers Authors to Research, Write, Cite, All in One Place

Academic Editing: How to Self-Edit Academic Text With Paperpal 

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