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Best Quantum Physics Programs

Ranked in 2023, part of Best Science Schools

Understanding quantum physics is a must for any

Understanding quantum physics is a must for any physicist. With a quantum physics degree, graduates may work in research, engineering and education, among other fields. These are the top schools for quantum physics. Read the methodology »

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Launch of pioneering ph.d. program bolsters harvard’s leadership in quantum science and engineering.

Field expected to usher in era of super-fast computing and innovation across a range of fields

Leah Burrows

SEAS Communications

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In the middle of the 20th century, mathematicians, physicists, and engineers at Harvard began work that would lay the foundations for a new field of study, the applications of which would change the world in ways unimaginable at the time. These pioneering computer scientists helped develop the theory and technology that would usher in the digital age.

Harvard is once again taking a leading role in a scientific and technological revolution — this time in the field of quantum science and engineering. Today, the University launched one of the world’s first Ph.D. programs in the subject, providing the foundational education for the next generation of innovators and leaders who will transform quantum science and engineering into next-level systems, devices, and applications.

The new degree is the latest step in the University’s commitment to moving forward as both a leader in research and an innovator in teaching in the field of quantum science and engineering. Harvard launched the Harvard Quantum Initiative in 2018 to foster and grow this new scientific community. And additional future plans call for the creation of a quantum hub on campus to help further integrate efforts and encourage collaboration.

“This is a pivotal time for quantum science and engineering at Harvard,” said President Larry Bacow. “With institutional collaborators including MIT and industry partners, and the support of generous donors, we are making extraordinary progress in discovery and innovation. Our faculty and students are driving progress that will reshape our world through quantum computing, networking, cryptography, materials, and sensing, as well as emerging areas of promise that will yield advances none of us can yet imagine.”

“This cross disciplinary Ph.D. program will prepare our students to become the leaders and innovators in the emerging field of quantum science and engineering,” said Emma Dench, dean of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. “Harvard’s interdisciplinary strength and intellectual resources make it the perfect place for them to develop their ideas, grow as scholars, and make discoveries that will change the world.”

At the nexus of physics, chemistry, computer science, and electrical engineering, quantum science and technology promises to profoundly change the way we acquire, process, and communicate information. Imagine a computer that could sequence a person’s genome in a matter of seconds or an un-hackable communications system that could make data breaches a thing of the past. Quantum technology will usher in game-changing innovations in health care, infrastructure, security, drug development, climate-change prediction, machine learning, financial services, and more.

Researchers excited and detected spin waves in a quantum Hall ferromagnet, spending them through the insulating material like waves in a pond.

The University is building partnerships with government agencies and national laboratories to advance quantum technologies and educate the next generation of quantum scientists. Harvard researchers will play a major role in the Department of Energy’s (DOE) Quantum Information Science (QIS) Research Centers, aimed at bolstering the nation’s global competitiveness and security. As part of the centers, Harvard researchers will:

• develop and study the next generation of quantum materials that are resilient, controllable, and scalable;
• use quantum-sensing techniques to explore the exotic properties of quantum materials for applications in numerous quantum technologies;
• construct a quantum simulator out of ultra-cold molecules to attack important problems in materials development and test the performance of new types of quantum computation;
• develop topological quantum materials for manipulating, transferring, and storing information for quantum computers and sensors;
• investigate how quantum computers can meaningfully speed up answers to real-world scientific problems and create new tools to quantify this advantage and performance.

In partnership with the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), the Harvard University Center for Integrated Quantum Materials (CIQM) has helped develop curriculum and educator activities that will help K‒12 students engage with quantum information science. CIQM is also collaborating with the Learning Center for the Deaf to create quantum science terms in American Sign Language .

“Breakthrough research happens when you create the right community of scholars around the right ideas at the right time,” said Claudine Gay, the Edgerley Family Dean of the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences. “The Harvard Quantum Initiative builds on Harvard’s historic strength in the core disciplines of quantum science by drawing together cross-cutting faculty talent into a community committed to thinking broadly and boldly about the many problems where quantum innovations may offer a solution. This new approach to quantum science will open the way for new partnerships to advance the field, but perhaps even more importantly, it promises to make Harvard the training ground for the next generation of breakthrough scientists who could change the way we live and work.”

“Harvard’s missions are to excel at education and research, and these are closely related,” said John Doyle, the Henry B. Silsbee Professor of Physics and co-director of HQI. “Being at — and sometimes defining — the frontier of research keeps our education vibrant and meaningful to students. We aim to teach a broad range of students to think about the physical world in this new, quantum way as this is crucial to creating a strong community of future leaders in science and engineering. Tight focus on both research and teaching in quantum will develop Harvard into the leading institution in this area and keep the country at the forefront of this critical area of knowledge.”

Quantum at Harvard: ‘A game-changing’ moment

A conversation with SEAS Dean Frank Doyle, John A. and Elizabeth S. Armstrong Professor of Engineering and Applied Sciences, and Science Division Dean Christopher Stubbs, Samuel C. Moncher Professor of Physics and of Astronomy.

Transcript:

Doyle: We’re at a game changing point in science and technology. We’re poised to enable translation breakthroughs in our applications of that understanding to broadly stated information science, so networking, signal processing, encryption, communications, computing and simulation.

Stubbs: What we’re talking about, looking to the future, exploits the really spooky parts of quantum mechanics, about the relationship of information in spatially separated systems and trying to harness that technologically and bringing it to bear on problems in networking, computing, and sensing systems.

I think we’re learning more about the way the world works every day, and we’re interested here at Harvard in knitting that understanding together across different traditionally separated fields and pulling together an integrated effort that pulls together, computer science, electrical engineering, physics systems engineering, and tries to use these to build new tools to make life better for everybody.

Doyle: Chris, I completely agree, and I would say that one thing, I recognize deeply as the dean on the engineering side is that foundations are critical to achieving success in the domain of innovation or translation, whatever the application space might be. We have to have that core body of knowledge supporting and enabling really a continuum from basic science through applied science, ultimately to engineering. I would also point to the fact that we are modestly scaled compared to some of our peers, which I think empowers us with agility and nimbleness that allows us to quickly assemble the teams that cross the spectrum of these disciplines that we need to harness, and that’s a real strength here at Harvard as well.

Stubbs: I would say we’re making significant institutional investments in this enterprise. We’ve identified a building, working in partnership across the university, that’s going to be put to use for this activity, with new labs, new teaching labs. We will fill that space with colleagues that we intend to bring to campus to strengthen our faculty in this domain. We’re building a strong and vibrant educational program. And I think an important element to include here is that we see this as a way to reach all the way into applications at scale, and we’re building partnerships with industrial partners, ranging from startups-sized companies to major national corporations that are going to have the ability to bring these ideas to bear at scale and impact people’s lives in a positive way.

Doyle: I would say that this opportunity has tremendous potential across a wide array of fields and applications, from more traditional engineering fields like communications, cybersecurity, network science, but across an even broader array of fields including finance (thinking about the new kinds of algorithms that are going to power the future of things like trading and stress testing the market); precision medicine; the quantum principles that we’re going to be able to leverage in devices that will now interrogate at unprecedented scale — spatial and temporal — to bring information back that we can act upon. So it’s virtually a limitless horizon of application opportunities out there.

Stubbs: We’re fortunate in the Boston area to have another university down the road, whose initials are MIT, with which, in particular in this technical domain, we have strong existing partnerships among the faculty. We view this as moving forward arm-in-arm with sister institutions in this region to establish Boston as one of the premier centers in the nation for both innovation, education, and application of this new technology.

Doyle: Our faculties partnering across Harvard and MIT have been doing this for literally decades. So there’s an incredible organic foundation that has been laid in the Greater Cambridge, Greater Boston space that we’re now turning an inflection point to accelerate that activity.

The field of quantum really opens up some exciting partnership opportunities, which we’re exploring with great passion. The notion that the continuum from the university and basic research and applied research, through to getting products in the market, through getting operational networks, operational systems is one that truly is a continuum. So there has to be integrated partnerships, where we invite partners in the private sector in to be embedded on the campus to learn from the researchers in our labs, where we embed our faculty out in the private sector in national labs to learn about the cutting edge applications that need to drive and fuel the research taking place back on the campus. So I really view this as a wonderful new opportunity to rethink the nature of how the private sector and the academy partner to enable the ultimate translation into products, technologies that are going to benefit mankind.

Edited for length.

The University’s location within the Greater Boston ecosystem of innovation and discovery is one of its greatest strengths.

A recent collaboration between Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, and University quantum physicists resulted in a proof-of-concept algorithm to dramatically speed up the analysis of nuclear magnetic resonance (NNMR) readings to identify biomarkers of specific diseases and disorders, reducing the process from days to just minutes.

A multidisciplinary team of electrical engineers and physicists from Harvard and MIT are building the infrastructure for tomorrow’s quantum internet , including quantum repeaters, quantum memory storage, and quantum networking nodes, and developing the key technologies to connect quantum processors over local and global scales.

“We are moving forward arm in arm with sister institutions in this region, most notably MIT, to establish Boston as one of the premier centers in the nation for both education and developing technologies that we anticipate will have significant impact on society,” said Christopher Stubbs, science division dean and Samuel C. Moncher Professor of Physics and of Astronomy.

  “We are excited to see the ever-growing opportunities for collaboration in quantum science and engineering at Harvard, in the Boston community, and beyond,” said Evelyn L. Hu, the Tarr-Coyne Professor of Electrical Engineering and Applied Science at SEAS and co-director of the Harvard Quantum Initiative. “Harvard is committed to sustaining that growth and fostering a strong community of students, faculty, and inventors, both locally and nationwide.”

Fiber-optical networks, the backbone of the internet, rely on high-fidelity information conversion from electrical to the optical domain. The researchers combined the best optical material with innovative nanofabrication and design approaches, to realize, energy-efficient, high-speed, low-loss, electro-optic converters for quantum and classical communications.

“Building a vibrant community and ecosystem is essential for bringing the benefits of quantum research to different fields of science and society,” said Mikhail Lukin, George Vasmer Leverett Professor of Physics and co-director of HQI. “Quantum at Harvard aims to integrate unique strengths of university research groups, government labs, established companies, and startups to not only advance foundational quantum science and engineering but also to build and to enable broad access to practical quantum systems.”

To facilitate those collaborations, the University is finalizing plans for the comprehensive renovation of an existing campus building into a new quantum hub — a shared resource for the quantum community with instructional and research labs, seminar and workshop spaces, meeting spaces for students and faculty, and space for visiting researchers and collaborators. The quantum headquarters will integrate the educational, research, and translational aspects of the diverse field of quantum science and engineering in an architecturally cohesive way.

This critical element of Harvard’s quantum strategy was made possible by a generous gift from Stacey L. and David E. Goel ’93 and gifts from several other alumni who stepped forward to support HQI. David Goel, co-founder and managing general partner of Waltham, Mass.-based Matrix Capital Management Co. and one of Harvard’s most ardent supporters, said his gift was inspired both by recognizing Harvard’s “intellectual dynamism and leadership in quantum” and a sense of the utmost urgency to pursue opportunities in this field. “Our existing technologies are reaching the limit of their capacity and cannot drive the innovation we need for the future, specifically in areas like semiconductors, technology, and the life sciences. Quantum is an enabler, providing a multiplier effect on a logarithmic scale. It is a catalyst that drives the kinds of scientific revolutions and epoch-making paradigm shifts.”

Electrodes stretch diamond strings to increase the frequency of atomic vibrations to which an electron is sensitive, just like tightening a guitar string increases the frequency or pitch of the string. The tension quiets a qubit’s environment and improves memory from tens to several hundred nanoseconds, enough time to do many operations on a quantum chip.

Goel credits the academic leaders and their “commitment to ensuring that Harvard’s community will be at the forefront of the science that is already changing the world.”

The University is also building partnerships with industry partners, ranging from startups to major national corporations, that are preparing to bring quantum technologies to the public.

“An incredible foundation has been laid in quantum at Harvard, and we are now at an inflection point to accelerate that activity and build on the momentum that has already made Harvard a leader in the field,” said Frank Doyle, SEAS dean and John A. and Elizabeth S. Armstrong Professor of Engineering and Applied Sciences. “Research happening right now in Harvard labs is significantly advancing our understanding of quantum science and engineering and positioning us to make breathtaking new discoveries and industry-leading translation breakthroughs.”

To enable opportunities to move from basic to applied research to translating ideas into products, Doyle described a vision for “integrated partnerships where we invite partners from the private sector to be embedded on the campus to learn from the researchers in our labs and where our faculty connect to the private sector and national labs to learn about the cutting-edge applications, as well as help translate of basic research into useful tools for society.”

  “We are at the early stages of a technological transformation, similar or maybe even grander than the excitement and the promise that came with the birth of computer science — and Harvard is at the forefront,” Stubbs said.

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Harvard Launches PhD in Quantum Science and Engineering

Drawing on world-class research community, program will prepare leaders of the ‘quantum revolution’.

Harvard University today announced one of the world’s first PhD programs in Quantum Science and Engineering, a new intellectual discipline at the nexus of physics, chemistry, computer science and electrical engineering with the promise to profoundly transform the way we acquire, process and communicate information and interact with the world around us.

The University is already home to a robust quantum science and engineering research community, organized under the Harvard Quantum Initiative . With the launch of the PhD program, Harvard is making the next needed commitment to provide the foundational education for the next generation of innovators and leaders who will push the boundaries of knowledge and transform quantum science and engineering into useful systems, devices and applications. 

“The new PhD program is designed to equip students with the appropriate experimental and theoretical education that reflects the nuanced intellectual approaches brought by both the sciences and engineering,” said faculty co-director Evelyn Hu , Tarr-Coyne Professor of Applied Physics and of Electrical at the Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS). “The core curriculum dramatically reduces the time to basic quantum proficiency for a community of students who will be the future innovators, researchers and educators in quantum science and engineering.”

“Quantum science and engineering is not just a hybrid of subjects from different disciplines, but an important new area of study in its own right,” said faculty co-director John Doyle , Henry B. Silsbee Professor of Physics. “A Ph.D. program is necessary and foundational to the development of this new discipline.”

Quantum science and engineering is not just a hybrid of subjects from different disciplines, but an important new area of study in its own right.

“America’s continued success leading the quantum revolution depends on accelerating the next generation of talent,” said Dr. Charles Tahan, Assistant Director for Quantum Information Science at the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy and Director of the National Quantum Coordination Office. “It’s nice to see that a key component of Harvard’s education strategy is optimizing how core quantum-relevant concepts are taught.”

The University is also finalizing plans for the comprehensive renovation of a campus building into a new state-of-the-art quantum hub – a shared resource for the quantum community with instructional and research labs, spaces for seminars and workshops, and places for students, faculty, and visiting researchers and collaborators to meet and convene. Harvard’s quantum headquarters will integrate the educational, research, and translational aspects of the diverse field of quantum science and engineering in an architecturally cohesive way. This critical element of Harvard’s quantum strategy was made possible by generous gifts from Stacey L. and David E. Goel ‘93 and several other alumni .

“Existing technologies are reaching the limit of their capacity and cannot drive the innovation we need for the future, specifically in areas like semiconductors and the life sciences,” said David Goel, co-founder and managing general partner of Waltham, Mass.-based Matrix Capital Management Company, LP and one of Harvard’s most ardent supporters. “Quantum is an enabler, providing a multiplier effect on a logarithmic scale. It is a catalyst that drives scientific revolutions and epoch-making paradigm shifts.”

“Harvard is making significant institutional investments in its quantum enterprise and in the creation of a new field,” said Science Division Dean Christopher Stubbs , Samuel C. Moncher Professor of Physics and of Astronomy. Stubbs added that several active searches are underway to broaden Harvard’s faculty strength in this domain, and current faculty are building innovative partnerships around quantum research with industry.

“An incredible foundation has been laid in quantum, and we are now at an inflection point to accelerate that activity,” said SEAS Dean Frank Doyle , John A. and Elizabeth S. Armstrong Professor of Engineering and Applied Sciences.

An incredible foundation has been laid in quantum, and we are now at an inflection point to accelerate that activity.

To enable opportunities to move from basic to applied research to translating ideas into products, Doyle described a vision for “integrated partnerships where we invite partners from the private sector to be embedded on the campus to learn from the researchers in our labs, and where our faculty connect to the private sector and national labs to learn about the cutting-edge applications, as well as help translate basic research into useful tools for society.”

Harvard will admit the first cohort of PhD candidates in Fall 2022 and anticipates enrolling 35 to 40 students in the program. Participating faculty are drawn from physics and chemistry in Harvard’s Division of Science and applied physics, electrical engineering, and computer science in SEAS.

Candidates interested in Harvard’s PhD in Quantum Science and Engineering can learn more about the program philosophy, curriculum, and requirements here .

“This cross disciplinary PhD program will prepare our students to become the leaders and innovators in the emerging field of quantum science and engineering” said Emma Dench, dean of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. “Harvard’s interdisciplinary strength and intellectual resources make it the perfect place for them to develop their ideas, grow as scholars, and make discoveries that will change the world.”

Harvard has a long history of leadership in quantum science and engineering. Theoretical physicist and 2005 Nobel laureate Roy Glauber is widely considered the founding father of quantum optics, and 1989 Nobel laureate Norman Ramsey pioneered much of the experimental foundation of quantum science.

Today, Harvard experimental research groups are among the leaders worldwide in areas such as quantum simulations, metrology, quantum communications and computation, and are complemented by strong theoretical groups in computer science, physics, and chemistry.

Topics: Quantum Engineering

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Harvard Launches PhD in Quantum Science and Engineering

Program will prepare leaders of the ‘quantum revolution’

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CAMBRIDGE, MA (Monday, April 26, 2021) – Harvard University today announced one of the world’s first PhD programs in Quantum Science and Engineering , a new intellectual discipline at the nexus of physics, chemistry, computer science, and electrical engineering with the promise to profoundly transform the way we acquire, process and communicate information and interact with the world around us.

“This cross-disciplinary PhD program will prepare our students to become the leaders and innovators in the emerging field of quantum science and engineering,” said Emma Dench, dean of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences and McLean Professor of Ancient and Modern History and of the Classics. “Harvard’s interdisciplinary strength and intellectual resources make it the perfect place for them to develop their ideas, grow as scholars, and make discoveries that will change the world.”

The University is already home to a robust quantum science and engineering research community, organized under the Harvard Quantum Initiative . With the launch of the PhD program, Harvard is making the next needed commitment to provide foundational education for the next generation of innovators and leaders who will push the boundaries of knowledge and transform quantum science and engineering into useful systems, devices, and applications. 

“The new PhD program is designed to equip students with the appropriate experimental and theoretical education that reflects the nuanced intellectual approaches brought by both the sciences and engineering,” said faculty co-director Evelyn Hu , Tarr-Coyne Professor of Applied Physics and of Electrical Engineering at the Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS). “The core curriculum dramatically reduces the time to basic quantum proficiency for a community of students who will be the future innovators, researchers, and educators in quantum science and engineering.”

“Quantum science and engineering is not just a hybrid of subjects from different disciplines, but an important new area of study in its own right,” said faculty co-director John Doyle , Henry B. Silsbee Professor of Physics. “A PhD program is necessary and foundational to the development of this new discipline.”

“America’s continued success leading the quantum revolution depends on accelerating the next generation of talent,” said Dr. Charles Tahan, assistant director for quantum information science at the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy and director of the National Quantum Coordination Office. “It’s nice to see that a key component of Harvard’s education strategy is optimizing how core quantum-relevant concepts are taught.”

The University is also finalizing plans for the comprehensive renovation of a campus building into a new state-of-the-art quantum hub—a shared resource for the quantum community with instructional and research labs, spaces for seminars and workshops, and places for students, faculty, and visiting researchers and collaborators to meet and convene. Harvard’s quantum headquarters will integrate the educational, research, and translational aspects of the diverse field of quantum science and engineering in an architecturally cohesive way. This critical element of Harvard’s quantum strategy was made possible by generous gifts from Stacey L. and David E. Goel ‘93 and several other alumni.

“Existing technologies are reaching the limit of their capacity and cannot drive the innovation we need for the future, specifically in areas like semiconductors and the life sciences,” said Goel, co-founder and managing general partner of Waltham, Massachusetts-based Matrix Capital Management Company, LP, and one of Harvard’s most ardent supporters. “Quantum is an enabler, providing a multiplier effect on a logarithmic scale. It is a catalyst that drives scientific revolutions and epoch-making paradigm shifts.”

“Harvard is making significant institutional investments in its quantum enterprise and in the creation of a new field,” said Science Division Dean Christopher Stubbs , Samuel C. Moncher Professor of Physics and of Astronomy. Stubbs added that several active searches are underway to broaden Harvard’s faculty strength in this domain, and current faculty are building innovative partnerships with industry around quantum research.

“An incredible foundation has been laid in quantum, and we are now at an inflection point to accelerate that activity,” said SEAS Dean Frank Doyle , John A. and Elizabeth S. Armstrong Professor of Engineering and Applied Sciences.

To enable opportunities to move from basic to applied research to translating ideas into products, Doyle described a vision for “integrated partnerships where we invite partners from the private sector to be embedded on the campus to learn from the researchers in our labs, and where our faculty connect to the private sector and national labs to learn about the cutting-edge applications and to help translate basic research into useful tools for society.”

Harvard will admit the first cohort of PhD candidates in fall 2022 and anticipates enrolling 35 to 40 students in the program. Participating faculty are drawn from physics and chemistry in Harvard’s Division of Science and in applied physics, electrical engineering, and computer science at SEAS.

The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences provides more information on Harvard’s PhD in Quantum Science and Engineering , including the program philosophy, curriculum, and requirements.

Harvard has a long history of leadership in quantum science and engineering. Theoretical physicist and 2005 Nobel laureate Roy Glauber is widely considered the founding father of quantum optics, and 1989 Nobel laureate Norman Ramsey pioneered much of the experimental foundation of quantum science.

Today, Harvard experimental research groups are among the leaders worldwide in areas such as quantum simulations, metrology, and quantum communications and computation, and are complemented by strong theoretical groups in computer science, physics, and chemistry.

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Quantum at the University of Chicago

Quantum science and engineering.

The University of Chicago has assembled a world-class group of scientists and engineers who are leading the quantum revolution. In addition to our cutting-edge faculty in physics, engineering, and chemistry, we offer one of the nation's first doctoral programs in quantum science and engineering.

• 20+ lab groups at PME and UChicago engaged in quantum research
• Chicago region named an official U.S. Regional and Innovation Technology Hub for quantum technologies
• Close partnerships with National QIS Research Centers at Argonne and Fermilab

Learn about our many exciting programs and centers

Noah Glachman

Bernien Lab

“Quantum computing has the potential to solve some of the world's biggest problems. I'm proud to be a part of a team here making that happen.”

Anchita Addhya

“PME brings these diverse fields together and has this very collaborative environment that I really appreciate.”

José A. Méndez

Awschalom Lab (co-advised by Hannes Bernien)

“Study something that you find interesting and I guarantee we can use you here.”

We are training students to become the next generation of leaders in science, engineering, and beyond. ” Dean Nadya Mason

Why Engineering at the University of Chicago?

• 100% of PhD students start research in their first year
• PME’s leading faculty experts unite eight scientific and engineering disciplines through an innovative interdisciplinary curriculum
• Students work with 40+ internationally recognized faculty members and 20+ researchers from Argonne National Laboratory
• More than 200 PME graduates have entered roles as data scientists, engineers, and research consultants, or continued their research at academic institutions.

Engineer Your Future. Start Here.

• PhD student
• Faculty member
• Entrepreneur

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PhD track Quantum Science and Technologies (QUANTIX)

WHY ENROLL IN THIS PROGRAM?

Get ready for a PhD by starting research at an early stage

Be closely associated with the research activities carried out in a world-renowned innovation cluster

Benefit from individual and personalized supervision by a faculty member

• Description
• Associated Laboratories
• PhD Tracks Research Projects

Quantum Technologies have seen a dramatic development in the past few years. The realization of individual quantum systems and the control of new materials with unconventional properties has paved the way to the development of machines and protocols based on the most fundamental aspects of quantum mechanics, without classical counterparts, such as the superposition of states and entanglement. The demonstration of quantum supremacy in 2019 has been a major step, but many new challenges remain to be taken for the complete deployment of Quantum Technologies, at both the fundamental level and that of practical applications.

The Quantum Science and Technologies PhD track is organized around six pillars:

• Quantum Materials
• Quantum Simulation
• Quantum Computation
• Quantum Sensing and Metrology
• Quantum Communication and Networking
• Quantum Information Processing

It aims at providing the students with a high level education at the state of the art of quantum physics and quantum information processing in direct contact with forefront research in all these fields.

• Be trained to forefront challenges in quantum science and its technological applications
• Contribute to cutting-edge research in a word-leading research center
• Discover a multidisciplinary field at the frontier of theoretical and experimental physics, computer science, and applied mathematics.
• Discover the diversity of quantum technologies in the rich scientific environment of the Plateau de Saclay
• Become a leader of the next generation of reserachers and engineers in quantum science and technologies

Partner University

• Université Paris-Saclay

The five-year curriculum of the PhD track trains students in cutting-edge research for them to pursue international careers  in prestigious universities and academic labs or leading companies in quantum technologies. 

The PhD Track provides a five-year "à la carte" integrated Master and PhD program for particularly motivated and talented students aiming at preparing a career in academia or industry through an individualized research-oriented training program in Quantum Science and Technologies. Students will be attributed an academic tutor in their field of research from the very start of their studies at IP Paris. In coordination with their tutor, students will elaborate their own personal curriculum consisting of course work and research phases corresponding to their research interests and professional project.

During their first year, students will follow a selection of high level courses focused on quantum physics and its interfaces. It may include computer science and applied mathematics courses, as well as complementary modules allowing them to broaden their general scientific culture and to acquire complementary skills. At the same time, the students are immediately members of the research team of their tutor and participate in team activities and research discussions. This includes in particular attending relevant research seminars and potentially topical workshops. During the first year, students will work on a research project, in collaboration with their host team. A significant part of the second year will be devoted to a larger-scale research work, giving rise to a Master thesis and – most likely – first research publications. This is also the occasion to consolidate their choice for the topic of their PhD.

While it will still be possible to follow selected – more specialized – scientific courses and courses in secondary skills, the last three years of the PhD Track program will be mainly devoted to research work towards the PhD degree.

In addition to the weekly laboratory work, two mandatory full-time internships take place during the spring, one at the M1 level, the other at the M2 level. The duration and corresponding number of ECTS are at least those of the main Master in which the student is enrolled. The number of ECTS can be adapted depending on the duration of the internship.

Students have the opportunity to visit international partner universities.

All relevant laboratories of IP Paris and partner institutions, in particular

• Center for Theoretical Physics (CPHT, Ecole Polytechnique
• Laboratory for Applied Optics (LOA, Ecole Polytechnique/ENSTA)
• Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics (PMC, Ecole Polytechnique)
• Laboratory for Information Processing and Communication Laboratory (LTCI, Telecom Paris)
• Laboratory for Irradiated Solids (LSI, Ecole Polytechnique)

Admission requirements

Academic prerequisites.

Completion with highest honors of a Bachelor in physics, including courses in quantum physics, at Institut Polytechnique de Paris or equivalent in France or abroad.

Evidence of research potential is essential as the main goal of such a PhD program is to train first class researchers. 

Students who have completed the first year of an equivalent program may exceptionally be directly admitted to the second year (4-year PhD program).

Language prerequisites

A certificate of proficiency in English (level B2) is required (TOEIC, IELTS, TOEFL, Cambridge ESOL), except for native speakers and students who previously studied in English.

How to apply

Applications are exclusively online. You will be required to provide the following documents:

• Transcript 
• Two academic references (added online directly by your referees)  
• CV/resume 
• Statement of purpose indicating which 2 choices of research subjects among the one listed on this page under the section "PhD Track Research Projects"

You will receive an answer in your candidate space within 2 months following the closing date of the application session. 

Fees and scholarships

Estimated fees for 2022-2023 are subject to increase

• Regular fees: 243€
• Engineer students enrolled in one of the five member schools of Institut Polytechnique de Paris (Ecole polytechnique, ENSTA Paris, ENSAE Paris, Télécom Paris and Télécom SudParis): 159€
• Special cases: please refer to the "Cost of studies" section of the FAQs

Applications and admission dates

Coordinator.

• Luca Perfetti 

General enquiry

• [email protected]

When applying to the PhD Tracks in Physics, you should describe your preferred fields of study and research in your motivation letter. You are ecouraged to choose two preferred PhD Track subjects among the list below.   Since the posted offers do not cover the full spectrum of our activities , you can also visit the web pages of the 11 laboratories (CPHT, IPVF, LLR, LOA, LOB, LPICM, LPMC, LPP, LSI, LULI, Omega) affiliated to the physics department and indicate the research lines that interest you the most.

PhD Track research projects in “QUANTUM SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY”

• Correlated quantum matter and quantum information
• Ultrafast dynamics of electrons in quantum materials
• Re-using model results to determine materials properties: connector theory approach
• Collective electronic fluctuations and their influence on materials properties
• Spin-dependent charge dynamics in dilute nitride and defect-engineered semiconductor quantum structures and devices
• Electronic processes in nitride semiconductor quantum structures and devices
• Theory of Many-Body Quantum States
• Probing the quantum properties of spin defects in 2D materials
• Time-frequency quantum information processing
• Uncovering a new law of physics in quantum materials

Ph.D. program

The Applied Physics Department offers a Ph.D. degree program; see  Admissions Overview  for how to apply.  

1.  Courses . Current listings of Applied Physics (and Physics) courses are available via  Explore Courses . Courses are available in Physics and Mathematics to overcome deficiencies, if any, in undergraduate preparation. It is expected the specific course requirements are completed by the  end of the 3rd year  at Stanford.

Required Basic Graduate Courses.   30 units (quarter hours) including:

• Basic graduate courses in advanced mechanics, statistical physics, electrodynamics, quantum mechanics, and an advanced laboratory course. In cases where students feel they have already covered the materials in one of the required basic graduate courses, a petition for waiver of the course may be submitted and is subject to approval by a faculty committee.
• 18 units of advanced coursework in science and/or engineering to fit the particular interests of the individual student. Such courses typically are in Applied Physics, Physics, or Electrical Engineering, but courses may also be taken in other departments, e.g., Biology, Materials Science and Engineering, Mathematics, Chemistry. The purpose of this requirement is to provide training in a specialized field of research and to encourage students to cover material beyond their own special research interests.​

​ Required Additional Courses .  Additional courses needed to meet the minimum residency requirement of 135 units of completed course work. Directed study and research units as well as 1-unit seminar courses can be included. Courses are sometimes given on special topics, and there are several seminars that meet weekly to discuss current research activities at Stanford and elsewhere. All graduate students are encouraged to participate in the special topics courses and seminars. A limited number of courses are offered during the Summer Quarter. Most students stay in residence during the summer and engage in independent study or research programs.

The list of the PhD degree core coursework is listed in the bulletin here:  https://bulletin.stanford.edu/programs/APLPH-PHD .

3.  Dissertation Research.   Research is frequently supervised by an Applied Physics faculty member, but an approved program of research may be supervised by a faculty member from another department.

4.  Research Progress Report.   Students give an oral research progress report to their dissertation reading committee during the winter quarter of the 4th year.

5.  Dissertation.

6.  University Oral Examination .  The examination includes a public seminar in defense of the dissertation and questioning by a faculty committee on the research and related fields.

Most students continue their studies and research during the summer quarter, principally in independent study projects or dissertation research. The length of time required for the completion of the dissertation depends upon the student and upon the dissertation advisor. In addition, the University residency requirement of 135 graded units must be met.

Rotation Program

We offer an optional rotation program for 1st-year Ph.D. students where students may spend one quarter (10 weeks) each in up to three research groups in the first year. This helps students gain research experience and exposure to various labs, fields, and/or projects before determining a permanent group to complete their dissertation work. 

Sponsoring faculty members may be in the Applied Physics department, SLAC, or any other science or engineering department, as long as they are members of the Academic Council (including all tenure-line faculty). Rotations are optional and students may join a group without the rotation system by making an arrangement directly with the faculty advisor. 

During the first year, research assistantships (RAs) are fully funded by the department for the fall quarter; in the winter and spring quarters, RAs are funded 50/50 by the department and the research group hosting the student. RAs after the third quarter are, in general, not subsidized by the rotation program or the department and should be arranged directly by the student with their research advisor.

How to arrange a rotation

Rotation positions in faculty members’ groups are secured by the student by directly contacting and coordinating with faculty some time between the student’s acceptance into the Ph.D. program and the start of the rotation quarter. It is recommended that the student’s fall quarter rotation be finalized no later than Orientation Week before the academic year begins. A rotation with a different faculty member can be arranged for the subsequent quarters at any time. Most students join a permanent lab by the spring quarter of their first year after one or two rotations.  When coordinating a rotation, the student and the sponsoring faculty should discuss expectations for the rotation (e.g. project timeline or deliverables) and the availability of continued funding and permanent positions in the group. It is very important that the student and the faculty advisor have a clear understanding about expectations going forward.

What do current students say about rotations?

Advice from current ap students, setting up a rotation:.

• If you have a specific professor or group in mind, you should contact them as early as possible, as they may have a limited number of rotation spots.
• You can prepare a 1-page CV or resume to send to professors to summarize your research experiences and interest.
• Try to tour the lab/working areas, talk to senior graduate students, or attend group meeting to get a feel for how the group operates.
• If you don't receive a response from a professor, you can send a polite reminder, stop by their office, or contact their administrative assistant. If you receive a negative response, you shouldn't take it personally as rotation availability can depend year-to-year on funding and personnel availability.
• Don't feel limited to subfields that you have prior experience in. Rotations are for learning and for discovering what type of work and work environment suit you best, and you will have several years to develop into a fully-formed researcher!

You and your rotation advisor should coordinate early on about things like: 

• What project will you be working on and who will you be working with?
• What resources (e.g. equipment access and training, coursework) will you need to enable this work?
• How closely will you work with other members of the group? 
• How frequently will you and your rotation advisor meet?
• What other obligations (e.g. coursework, TAing) are you balancing alongside research?
• How will your progress be evaluated?
• Is there funding available to support you and this project beyond the rotation quarter?
• Will the rotation advisor take on new students into the group in the quarter following the rotation?

About a month before the end of the quarter, you should have a conversation with your advisor about things like:

• Will you remain in the current group or will you rotate elsewhere?
• If you choose to rotate elsewhere, does the option remain open to return to the present group later?
• If you choose to rotate elsewhere, will another rotation student be taken on for the same project?
• You don't have to rotate just for the sake of rotating! If you've found a group that suits you well in many aspects, it makes sense to continue your research momentum with that group.

Application process

View Admissions Overview View the Required Online Ph.D. Program Application  

Contact the Applied Physics Department Office at  [email protected]  if additional information on any of the above is needed.

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Graduate studies, commencement 2019.

The Harvard Department of Physics offers students innovative educational and research opportunities with renowned faculty in state-of-the-art facilities, exploring fundamental problems involving physics at all scales. Our primary areas of experimental and theoretical research are atomic and molecular physics, astrophysics and cosmology, biophysics, chemical physics, computational physics, condensed-matter physics, materials science, mathematical physics, particle physics, quantum optics, quantum field theory, quantum information, string theory, and relativity.

Our talented and hardworking students participate in exciting discoveries and cutting-edge inventions such as the ATLAS experiment, which discovered the Higgs boson; building the first 51-cubit quantum computer; measuring entanglement entropy; discovering new phases of matter; and peering into the ‘soft hair’ of black holes.

Our students come from all over the world and from varied educational backgrounds. We are committed to fostering an inclusive environment and attracting the widest possible range of talents.

We have a flexible and highly responsive advising structure for our PhD students that shepherds them through every stage of their education, providing assistance and counseling along the way, helping resolve problems and academic impasses, and making sure that everyone has the most enriching experience possible.The graduate advising team also sponsors alumni talks, panels, and advice sessions to help students along their academic and career paths in physics and beyond, such as “Getting Started in Research,” “Applying to Fellowships,” “Preparing for Qualifying Exams,” “Securing a Post-Doc Position,” and other career events (both academic and industry-related).

We offer many resources, services, and on-site facilities to the physics community, including our electronic instrument design lab and our fabrication machine shop. Our historic Jefferson Laboratory, the first physics laboratory of its kind in the nation and the heart of the physics department, has been redesigned and renovated to facilitate study and collaboration among our students.

Members of the Harvard Physics community participate in initiatives that bring together scientists from institutions across the world and from different fields of inquiry. For example, the Harvard-MIT Center for Ultracold Atoms unites a community of scientists from both institutions to pursue research in the new fields opened up by the creation of ultracold atoms and quantum gases. The Center for Integrated Quantum Materials , a collaboration between Harvard University, Howard University, MIT, and the Museum of Science, Boston, is dedicated to the study of extraordinary new quantum materials that hold promise for transforming signal processing and computation. The Harvard Materials Science and Engineering Center is home to an interdisciplinary group of physicists, chemists, and researchers from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences working on fundamental questions in materials science and applications such as soft robotics and 3D printing.  The Black Hole Initiative , the first center worldwide to focus on the study of black holes, is an interdisciplinary collaboration between principal investigators from the fields of astronomy, physics, mathematics, and philosophy. The quantitative biology initiative https://quantbio.harvard.edu/  aims to bring together physicists, biologists, engineers, and applied mathematicians to understand life itself. And, most recently, the new program in  Quantum Science and Engineering (QSE) , which lies at the interface of physics, chemistry, and engineering, will admit its first cohort of PhD students in Fall 2022.

We support and encourage interdisciplinary research and simultaneous applications to two departments is permissible. Prospective students may thus wish to apply to the following departments and programs in addition to Physics:

• Department of Astronomy
• Department of Chemistry
• Department of Mathematics
• John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS)
• Biophysics Program
• Molecules, Cells and Organisms Program (MCO)

If you are a prospective graduate student and have questions for us, or if you’re interested in visiting our department, please contact  [email protected] .

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PhD Program

**updated** graduate student guide coming soon, expected progress of physics graduate student to ph.d..

This document describes the Physics Department's expectations for the progress of a typical graduate student from admission to award of a PhD.  Because students enter the program with different training and backgrounds and because thesis research by its very nature is unpredictable, the time-frame for individual students will vary. Nevertheless, failure to meet the goals set forth here without appropriate justification may indicate that the student is not making adequate progress towards the PhD, and will therefore prompt consideration by the Department and possibly by Graduate Division of the student’s progress, which might lead to probation and later dismissal.

Course Work

Graduate students are required to take a minimum of 38 units of approved upper division or graduate elective courses (excluding any upper division courses required for the undergraduate major).  The department requires that students take the following courses which total 19 units: Physics 209 (Classical Electromagnetism), Physics 211 (Equilibrium Statistical Physics) and Physics 221A-221B (Quantum Mechanics). Thus, the normative program includes an additional 19 units (five semester courses) of approved upper division or graduate elective courses.  At least 11 units must be in the 200 series courses. Some of the 19 elective units could include courses in mathematics, biophysics, astrophysics, or from other science and engineering departments.  Physics 290, 295, 299, 301, and 602 are excluded from the 19 elective units. Physics 209, 211 and 221A-221B must be completed for a letter grade (with a minimum average grade of B).  No more than one-third of the 19 elective units may be fulfilled by courses graded Satisfactory, and then only with the approval of the Department.  Entering students are required to enroll in Physics 209 and 221A in the fall semester of their first year and Physics 211 and 221B in the spring semester of their first year. Exceptions to this requirement are made for 1) students who do not have sufficient background to enroll in these courses and have a written recommendation from their faculty mentor and approval from the head graduate adviser to delay enrollment to take preparatory classes, 2) students who have taken the equivalent of these courses elsewhere and receive written approval from the Department to be exempted. 

If a student has taken courses equivalent to Physics 209, 211 or 221A-221B, then subject credit may be granted for each of these course requirements.  A faculty committee will review your course syllabi and transcript.  A waiver form can be obtained in 378 Physics North from the Student Affairs Officer detailing all required documents.  If the committee agrees that the student has satisfied the course requirement at another institution, the student must secure the Head Graduate Adviser's approval.  The student must also take and pass the associated section of the preliminary exam.  Please note that official course waiver approval will not be granted until after the preliminary exam results have been announced.  If course waivers are approved, units for the waived required courses do not have to be replaced for PhD course requirements.  If a student has satisfied all first year required graduate courses elsewhere, they are only required to take an additional 19 units to satisfy remaining PhD course requirements.  (Note that units for required courses must be replaced for MA degree course requirements even if the courses themselves are waived; for more information please see MA degree requirements).

In exceptional cases, students transferring from other graduate programs may request a partial waiver of the 19 elective unit requirement. Such requests must be made at the time of application for admission to the Department.

The majority of first year graduate students are Graduate Student Instructors (GSIs) with a 20 hour per week load (teaching, grading, and preparation).  A typical first year program for an entering graduate student who is teaching is:

First Semester

• Physics 209 Classical Electromagnetism (5)
• Physics 221A Quantum Mechanics (5)
• Physics 251 Introduction to Graduate Research (1)
• Physics 301 GSI Teaching Credit (2)
• Physics 375 GSI Training Seminar (for first time GSI's) (2)

Second Semester

• Physics 211 Equilibrium Statistical Physics (4)
• Physics 221B Quantum Mechanics (5)

Students who have fellowships and will not be teaching, or who have covered some of the material in the first year courses material as undergraduates may choose to take an additional course in one or both semesters of their first year.

Many students complete their course requirements by the end of the second year. In general, students are expected to complete their course requirements by the end of the third year. An exception to this expectation is that students who elect (with the approval of their mentor and the head graduate adviser) to fill gaps in their undergraduate background during their first year at Berkeley often need one or two additional semesters to complete their course work.

Faculty Mentors

Incoming graduate students are each assigned a faculty mentor. In general, mentors and students are matched according to the student's research interest.   If a student's research interests change, or if (s)he feels there is another faculty member who can better serve as a mentor, the student is free to request a change of assignment.

The role of the faculty mentor is to advise graduate students who have not yet identified research advisers on their academic program, on their progress in that program and on strategies for passing the preliminary exam and finding a research adviser.  Mentors also are a “friendly ear” and are ready to help students address other issues they may face coming to a new university and a new city.  Mentors are expected to meet with the students they advise individually a minimum of once per semester, but often meet with them more often.  Mentors should contact incoming students before the start of the semester, but students arriving in Berkeley should feel free to contact their mentors immediately.

Student-Mentor assignments continue until the student has identified a research adviser.  While many students continue to ask their mentors for advice later in their graduate career, the primary role of adviser is transferred to the research adviser once a student formally begins research towards his or her dissertation. The Department asks student and adviser to sign a “mentor-adviser” form to make this transfer official.  

Preliminary Exams

In order to most benefit from graduate work, incoming students need to have a solid foundation in undergraduate physics, including mechanics, electricity and magnetism, optics, special relativity, thermal and statistical physics and quantum mechanics, and to be able to make order-of-magnitude estimates and analyze physical situations by application of general principles. These are the topics typically included, and at the level usually taught, within a Bachelor's degree program in Physics at most universities. As a part of this foundation, the students should also have formed a well-integrated overall picture of the fields studied. The preliminary exam is meant to assess the students' background, so that any missing pieces can be made up as soon as possible. The exam is made up of 4 sections, as described in the  Preliminary Exam Policy *, on the Department’s website.  Each section is administered twice a year, at the start of each semester. 

Entering students are encouraged to take this exam as soon as possible, and they are required to attempt all prelims sections in the second semester. Students who have not passed all sections in the third semester will undergo a Departmental review of their performance. Departmental expectations are that all students should successfully pass all sections no later than spring semester of the second year (4th semester); the document entitled  Physics Department Preliminary Exam Policy * describes Departmental policy in more detail. An exception to this expectation is afforded to students who elect (with the recommendation of the faculty mentor and written approval of the head graduate adviser) to fill gaps in their undergraduate background during their first year at Berkeley and delay corresponding section(s) of the exam, and who therefore may need an additional semester to complete the exam; this exception is also further discussed in the  Preliminary Exam Policy * document.

* You must login with your Calnet ID to access Physics Department Preliminary Examination Policy.

Start of Research

Students are encouraged to begin research as soon as possible. Many students identify potential research advisers in their first year and most have identified their research adviser before the end of their second year.  When a research adviser is identified, the Department asks that both student and research adviser sign a form (available from the Student Affairs Office, 378 Physics North) indicating that the student has (provisionally) joined the adviser’s research group with the intent of working towards a PhD.  In many cases, the student will remain in that group for their thesis work, but sometimes the student or faculty adviser will decide that the match of individuals or research direction is not appropriate.  Starting research early gives students flexibility to change groups when appropriate without incurring significant delays in time to complete their degree.

Departmental expectations are that experimental research students begin work in a research group by the summer after the first year; this is not mandatory, but is strongly encouraged.  Students doing theoretical research are similarly encouraged to identify a research direction, but often need to complete a year of classes in their chosen specialty before it is possible for them to begin research.  Students intending to become theory students and have to take the required first year classes may not be able to start research until the summer after their second year.  Such students are encouraged to attend theory seminars and maintain contact with faculty in their chosen area of research even before they can begin a formal research program. 

If a student chooses dissertation research with a supervisor who is not in the department, he or she must find an appropriate Physics faculty member who agrees to serve as the departmental research supervisor of record and as co-adviser. This faculty member is expected to monitor the student's progress towards the degree and serve on the student's qualifying and dissertation committees. The student will enroll in Physics 299 (research) in the co-adviser's section.  The student must file the Outside Research Proposal for approval; petitions are available in the Student Affairs Office, 378 Physics North.   

Students who have not found a research adviser by the end of the second year will be asked to meet with their faculty mentor to develop a plan for identifying an adviser and research group.  Students who have not found a research adviser by Spring of the third year are not making adequate progress towards the PhD.  These students will be asked to provide written documentation to the department explaining their situation and their plans to begin research.  Based on their academic record and the documentation they provide, such students may be warned by the department that they are not making adequate progress, and will be formally asked to find an adviser.  The record of any student who has not identified an adviser by the end of Spring of the fourth year will be evaluated by a faculty committee and the student may be asked to leave the program. 

Qualifying Exam

Rules and requirements associated with the Qualifying Exam are set by the Graduate Division on behalf of the Graduate Council.  Approval of the committee membership and the conduct of the exam are therefore subject to Graduate Division approval.  The exam is oral and lasts 2-3 hours.  The Graduate Division specifies that the purpose of the Qualifying Exam is “to ascertain the breadth of the student's comprehension of fundamental facts and principles that apply to at least three subject areas related to the major field of study and whether the student has the ability to think incisively and critically about the theoretical and the practical aspects of these areas.”  It also states that “this oral examination of candidates for the doctorate serves a significant additional function. Not only teaching, but the formal interaction with students and colleagues at colloquia, annual meetings of professional societies and the like, require the ability to synthesize rapidly, organize clearly, and argue cogently in an oral setting.  It is necessary for the University to ensure that a proper examination is given incorporating these skills.”

Please see the  Department website for a description of the Qualifying Exam and its Committee .   Note: You must login with your Calnet ID to access QE information . Passing the Qualifying Exam, along with a few other requirements described on the department website, will lead to Advancement to Candidacy.  Qualifying exam scheduling forms can be picked up in the Student Affairs Office, 378 Physics North.   

The Department expects students to take the Qualifying Exam two or three semesters after they identify a research adviser. This is therefore expected to occur for most students in their third year, and no later than fourth year. A student is considered to have begun research when they first register for Physics 299 or fill out the department mentor-adviser form showing that a research adviser has accepted the student for PhD work or hired as a GSR (Graduate Student Researcher), at which time the research adviser becomes responsible for guidance and mentoring of the student.  (Note that this decision is not irreversible – the student or research adviser can decide that the match of individuals or research direction is not appropriate or a good match.)  Delays in this schedule cause concern that the student is not making adequate progress towards the PhD.  The student and adviser will be asked to provide written documentation to the department explaining the delay and clarifying the timeline for taking the Qualifying Exam.

Annual Progress Reports

Graduate Division requires that each student’s performance be annually assessed to provide students with timely information about the faculty’s evaluation of their progress towards PhD.  Annual Progress Reports are completed during the Spring Semester.  In these reports, the student is asked to discuss what progress he or she has made toward the degree in the preceding year, and to discuss plans for the following year and for PhD requirements that remain to be completed.  The mentor or research adviser or members of the Dissertation Committee (depending on the student’s stage of progress through the PhD program) comment on the student’s progress and objectives. In turn, the student has an opportunity to make final comments. 

Before passing the Qualifying Exam, the annual progress report (obtained from the Physics Student Affairs Office in 378 Physics North) is completed by the student and either his/her faculty mentor or his/her research adviser, depending on whether or not the student has yet begun research (see above).  This form includes a statement of intended timelines to take the Qualifying Exam, which is expected to be within 2-3 semesters of starting research.  

After passing the Qualifying Exam, the student and research adviser complete a similar form, but in addition to the research adviser, the student must also meet with at least one other and preferably both other members of their Dissertation Committee (this must include their co-adviser if the research adviser is not a member of the Physics Department) to discuss progress made in the past year, plans for the upcoming year, and overall progress towards the PhD.  This can be done either individually as one-on-one meetings of the graduate student with members of the Dissertation Committee, or as a group meeting with presentation. (The Graduate Council requires that all doctoral students who have been advanced to candidacy meet annually with at least two members of the Dissertation Committee. The annual review is part of the Graduate Council’s efforts to improve the doctoral completion rate and to shorten the time it takes students to obtain a doctorate.)

Advancement to Candidacy

After passing the Qualifying Examination, the next step in the student's career is to advance to candidacy as soon as possible.  Advancement to candidacy is the academic stage when a student has completed all requirements except completion of the dissertation.  Students are still required to enroll in 12 units per semester; these in general are expected to be seminars and research units.  Besides passing the Qualifying Exam, there are a few other requirements described in the Graduate Program Booklet. Doctoral candidacy application forms can be picked up in the Student Affairs Office, 378 Physics North.

Completion of Dissertation Work

The expected time for completion of the PhD program is six years.  While the Department recognizes that research time scales can be unpredictable, it strongly encourages students and advisers to develop dissertation proposals consistent with these expectations.  The Berkeley Physics Department does not have dissertation defense exams, but encourages students and their advisers to ensure that students learn the important skill of effective research presentations, including a presentation of their dissertation work to their peers and interested faculty and researchers.

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PhD Program

A PhD degree in Physics is awarded in recognition of significant and novel research contributions, extending the boundaries of our knowledge of the physical universe. Selected applicants are admitted to the PhD program of the UW Department of Physics, not to a specific research group, and are encouraged to explore research opportunities throughout the Department.

Degree Requirements

Typical timeline, advising and mentoring, satisfactory progress, financial support, more information.

Applicants to the doctoral program are expected to have a strong undergraduate preparation in physics, including courses in electromagnetism, classical and quantum mechanics, statistical physics, optics, and mathematical methods of physics. Further study in condensed matter, atomic, and particle and nuclear physics is desirable. Limited deficiencies in core areas may be permissible, but may delay degree completion by as much as a year and are are expected to remedied during the first year of graduate study.

The Graduate Admissions Committee reviews all submitted applications and takes a holistic approach considering all aspects presented in the application materials. Application materials include:

• Resume or curriculum vitae, describing your current position or activities, educational and professional experience, and any honors awarded, special skills, publications or research presentations.
• Statement of purpose, one page describing your academic purpose and goals.
• Personal history statement (optional, two pages max), describing how your personal experiences and background (including family, cultural, or economic aspects) have influenced your intellectual development and interests.
• Three letters of recommendation: submit email addresses for your recommenders at least one month ahead of deadline to allow them sufficient time to respond.
• Transcripts (unofficial), from all prior relevant undergraduate and graduate institutions attended. Admitted applicants must provide official transcripts.
• English language proficiency is required for graduate study at the University of Washington. Applicants whose native language is not English must demonstrate English proficiency. The various options are specified at: https://grad.uw.edu/policies/3-2-graduate-school-english-language-proficiency-requirements/ Official test scores must be sent by ETS directly to the University of Washington (institution code 4854) and be received within two years of the test date.

For additional information see the UW Graduate School Home Page , Understanding the Application Process , and Memo 15 regarding teaching assistant eligibility for non-native English speakers.

The GRE Subject Test in Physics (P-GRE) is optional in our admissions process, and typically plays a relatively minor role.  Our admissions system is holistic, as we use all available information to evaluate each application. If you have taken the P-GRE and feel that providing your score will help address specific gaps or otherwise materially strengthen your application, you are welcome to submit your scores. We emphasize that every application will be given full consideration, regardless of whether or not scores are submitted.

Applications are accepted annually for autumn quarter admissions (only), and must be submitted online. Admission deadline: DECEMBER 15, 2024.

Department standards

Course requirements.

Students must plan a program of study in consultation with their faculty advisor (either first year advisor or later research advisor). To establish adequate breadth and depth of knowledge in the field, PhD students are required to pass a set of core courses, take appropriate advanced courses and special topics offerings related to their research area, attend relevant research seminars as well as the weekly department colloquium, and take at least two additional courses in Physics outside their area of speciality. Seeking broad knowledge in areas of physics outside your own research area is encouraged.

The required core courses are:

In addition, all students holding a teaching assistantship (TA) must complete Phys 501 / 502 / 503 , Tutorials in Teaching Physics.

Regularly offered courses which may, depending on research area and with the approval of the graduate program coordinator, be used to satisfy breadth requirements, include:

• Phys 506 Numerical Methods
• Phys 555 Cosmology & Particle Astrophysics
• Phys 507 Group Theory
• Phys 557 High Energy Physics
• Phys 511 Topics in Contemporary Physics
• Phys 560 Nuclear Theory
• Phys 520 Quantum Information
• Phys 564 General Relativity
• Phys 550 Atomic Physics
• Phys 567 Condensed Matter Physics
• Phys 554 Nuclear Astrophysics
• Phys 570 Quantum Field Theory

Graduate exams

Master's Review:   In addition to passing all core courses, adequate mastery of core material must be demonstrated by passing the Master's Review. This is composed of four Master's Review Exams (MREs) which serve as the final exams in Phys 524 (SM), Phys 514 (EM), Phys 518 (QM), and Phys 505 (CM). The standard for passing each MRE is demonstrated understanding and ability to solve multi-step problems; this judgment is independent of the overall course grade. Acceptable performance on each MRE is expected, but substantial engagement in research allows modestly sub-par performance on one exam to be waived. Students who pass the Master's Review are eligible to receive a Master's degree, provided the Graduate School course credit and grade point average requirements have also been satisfied.

General Exam:   Adequate mastery of material in one's area of research, together with demonstrated progress in research and a viable plan to complete a PhD dissertation, is assessed in the General Exam. This is taken after completing all course requirements, passing the Master's Review, and becoming well established in research. The General Exam consists of an oral presentation followed by an in-depth question period with one's dissertation committee.

Final Oral Exam:   Adequate completion of a PhD dissertation is assessed in the Final Oral, which is a public exam on one's completed dissertation research. The requirement of surmounting a final public oral exam is an ancient tradition for successful completion of a PhD degree.

Graduate school requirements

Common requirements for all doctoral degrees are given in the Graduate School Degree Requirements and Doctoral Degree Policies and Procedures pages. A summary of the key items, accurate as of late 2020, is as follows:

• A minimum of 90 completed credits, of which at least 60 must be completed at the University of Washington. A Master's degree from the UW or another institution in physics, or approved related field of study, may substitute for 30 credits of enrollment.
• At least 18 credits of UW course work at the 500 level completed prior to the General Examination.
• At least 18 numerically graded UW credits of 500 level courses and approved 400 level courses, completed prior to the General Examination.
• At least 60 credits completed prior to scheduling the General Examination. A Master's degree from the UW or another institution may substitute for 30 of these credits.
• A minimum of 27 dissertation (or Physics 800) credits, spread out over a period of at least three quarters, must be completed. At least one of those three quarters must come after passing the General Exam. Except for summer quarters, students are limited to a maximum of 10 dissertation credits per quarter.
• A minimum cumulative grade point average (GPA) of 3.00 must be maintained.
• The General Examination must be successfully completed.
• A thesis dissertation approved by the reading committee and submitted and accepted by the Graduate School.
• The Final Examination must be successfully completed. At least four members of the supervisory committee, including chair and graduate school representative, must be present.
• Registration as a full- or part-time graduate student at the University must be maintained, specifically including the quarter in which the examinations are completed and the quarter in which the degree is conferred. (Part-time means registered for at least 2 credits, but less than 10.)
• All work for the doctoral degree must be completed within ten years. This includes any time spend on leave, as well as time devoted to a Master's degree from the UW or elsewhere (if used to substitute for credits of enrollment).
• Pass the required core courses: Phys 513 , 517 , 524 & 528 autumn quarter, Phys 514 , 518 & 525 winter quarter, and Phys 515 , 519 & 505 spring quarter. When deemed appropriate, with approval of their faculty advisor and graduate program coordinator, students may elect to defer Phys 525 , 515 and/or 519 to the second year in order to take more credits of Phys 600 .
• Sign up for and complete one credit of Phys 600 with a faculty member of choice during winter and spring quarters.
• Pass the Master's Review by the end of spring quarter or, after demonstrating substantial research engagement, by the end of the summer.
• Work to identify one's research area and faculty research advisor. This begins with learning about diverse research areas in Phys 528 in the autumn, followed by Phys 600 independent study with selected faculty members during winter, spring, and summer.
• Pass the Master's Review (if not already done) by taking any deferred core courses or retaking MREs as needed. The Master's Review must be passed before the start of the third year.
• Settle in and become fully established with one's research group and advisor, possibly after doing independent study with multiple faculty members. Switching research areas during the first two years is not uncommon.
• Complete all required courses. Take breadth courses and more advanced graduate courses appropriate for one's area of research.
• Perform research.
• Establish a Supervisory Committee within one year after finding a compatible research advisor who agrees to supervise your dissertation work.
• Take breadth and special topics courses as appropriate.
• Take your General Exam in the third or fourth year of your graduate studies.
• Register for Phys 800 (Doctoral Thesis Research) instead of Phys 600 in the quarters during and after your general exam.
• Take special topics courses as appropriate.
• Perform research. When completion of a substantial body of research is is sight, and with concurrence of your faculty advisor, start writing a thesis dissertation.
• Establish a dissertation reading committee well in advance of scheduling the Final Examination.
• Schedule your Final Examination and submit your PhD dissertation draft to your reading committee at least several weeks before your Final Exam.
• Take your Final Oral Examination.
• After passing your Final Exam, submit your PhD dissertation, as approved by your reading committee, to the Graduate School, normally before the end of the same quarter.

This typical timeline for competing the PhD applies to students entering the program with a solid undergraduate preparation, as described above under Admissions. Variant scenarios are possible with approval of the Graduate Program coordinator. Two such scenarios are the following:

• Students entering with insufficient undergraduate preparation often require more time. It is important to identify this early, and not feel that this reflects on innate abilities or future success. Discussion with one's faculty advisor, during orientation or shortly thereafter, may lead to deferring one or more of the first year required courses and corresponding Master's Review Exams. It can also involve taking selected 300 or 400 level undergraduate physics courses before taking the first year graduate level courses. This must be approved by the Graduate Program coordinator, but should not delay efforts to find a suitable research advisor. The final Master's Review decision still takes place no later than the start of the 3rd year and research engagement is an important component in this decision.
• Entering PhD students with advanced standing, for example with a prior Master's degree in Physics or transferring from another institution after completing one or more years in a Physics PhD program, may often graduate after 3 or 4 years in our program. After discussion with your faculty advisor and with approval of the Graduate Program coordinator, selected required classes may be waived (but typically not the corresponding Master's Review Exams), and credit from other institutions transferred.
• Each entering PhD student is assigned a first year faculty advisor, with whom they meet regularly to discuss course selection, general progress, and advice on research opportunities. The role of a student's primary faculty advisor switches to their research advisor after they become well established in research. Once their doctoral supervisory committee is formed, the entire committee, including a designated faculty mentor (other than the research advisor) is available to provide advice and mentoring.
• The department also has a peer mentoring program, in which first-year students are paired with more senior students who have volunteered as mentors. Peer mentors maintain contact with their first-year mentees throughout the year and aim to ease the transition to graduate study by sharing their experiences and providing support and advice. Quarterly "teas" are held to which all peer mentors and mentees are invited.
• While academic advising is primarily concerned with activities and requirements necessary to make progress toward a degree, mentoring focuses on the human relationships, commitments, and resources that can help a student find success and fulfillment in academic and professional pursuits. While research advisors play an essential role in graduate study, the department considers it inportant for every student to also have available additional individuals who take on an explicit mentoring role.
• Students are expected to meet regularly, at a minimum quarterly, with their faculty advisors (either first year advisor or research advisor).
• Starting in the winter of their first year, students are expected to be enrolled in Phys 600 .
• Every spring all students, together with their advisors, are required to complete an annual activities report.
• The doctoral supervisory committee needs to be established at least by the end of the fourth year.
• The General Exam is expected to take place during the third or fourth year.
• Students and their advisors are expected to aim for not more than 6 years between entry into the Physics PhD program and completion of the PhD. In recent years the median time is close to 6 years.

Absence of satisfactory progress can lead to a hierarchy of actions, as detailed in the Graduate School Memo 16: Academic Performance and Progress , and may jeopardize funding as a teaching assistant.

The Department aims to provide financial support for all full-time PhD students making satisfactory progress, and has been successful in doing so for many years. Most students are supported via a mix teaching assistantships (TAs) and research assistantships (RAs), although there are also various scholarships, fellowships, and awards that provide financial support. Teaching and research assistanships provide a stipend, a tuition waiver, and health insurance benefits. TAs are employed by the University to assist faculty in their teaching activities. Students from non-English-speaking countries must pass English proficiency requirements . RAs are employed by the Department to assist faculty with specified research projects, and are funded through research grants held by faculty members.

Most first-year students are provided full TA support during their first academic year as part of their admission offer. Support beyond the second year is typically in the form of an RA or a TA/RA combination. It is the responsibility of the student to find a research advisor and secure RA support. Students accepting TA or RA positions are required to register as full-time graduate students (a minimum of 10 credits during the academic year, and 2 credits in summer quarter) and devote 20 hours per week to their assistantship duties. Both TAs and RAs are classified as Academic Student Employees (ASE) . These positions are governed by a contract between the UW and the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (UAW), and its Local Union 4121 (UAW).

Physics PhD students are paid at the "Assistant" level (Teaching Assistant or Research Assistant) upon entry to the program. Students receive a promotion to "Associate I" (Predoctoral Teaching Associate I or Predoctoral Research Associate I) after passing the Master's Review, and a further promotion to "Associate II" (Predoctoral Teaching Associate II or Predoctoral Research Associate II) after passing their General Examination. (Summer quarter courses, and summer quarter TA employment, runs one month shorter than during the academic year. To compendate, summer quarter TA salaries are increased proportionately.)

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The Yale Department of Physics welcomes applications to our matriculating graduate class of 2024 beginning around August 15th, 2024. The General GRE and Physics GRE scores are Optional for applications received by the December 15, 2023, submission deadline.

We recognize the continuing disruption caused by COVID-19 and that the hardship of taking GREs falls unequally on individual students. We are committed to creating a diverse and inclusive environment for all; therefore, we do not require these standardized tests for admission to our program. All applications are reviewed holistically, and preference will not be given to students who do or do not submit GRE scores.

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Quantum physics and Einstein’s theory of general relativity are the two solid pillars that underlie much of modern physics. Understanding how these two well-established theories are related remains a central open question in theoretical physics.  Over the last several decades, efforts in this direction have led to a broad range of new physical ideas and mathematical tools.  In recent years, string theory and quantum field theory have converged in the context of holography, which connects quantum gravity in certain space-times with corresponding (conformal) field theories on a lower-dimensional space-time. These developments and connections have deepened our understanding not only of quantum gravity, cosmology, and particle physics, but also of intermediate scale physics, such as condensed matter systems, the quark-gluon plasma, and disordered systems.  String theory has also led to new insights to problems in many areas of mathematics.

The interface of quantum physics and gravity is currently leading to exciting new areas of progress, and is expected to remain vibrant in the coming decade.  Researchers in the Center for Theoretical Physics (CTP) have been at the forefront of many of the developments in these directions.  CTP faculty members work on string theory foundations, the range of solutions of the theory, general relativity and quantum cosmology, problems relating quantum physics to black holes, and the application of holographic methods to strongly coupled field theories.  The group in the CTP has close connections to condensed matter physicists, astrophysicists, and mathematicians both at MIT and elsewhere.

In recent years a set of new developments has begun to draw unexpected connections between a number of problems relating aspects of gravity, black holes, quantum information, and condensed matter systems. It is becoming clear that quantum entanglement, quantum error correction, and computational complexity play a fundamental role in the emergence of spacetime geometry through holographic duality.  Moreover these tools have led to substantial progress on the famous black hole information problem, giving new avenues for searching for a resolution of the tension between the physics of black holes and quantum mechanics.  CTP faculty members Netta Engelhardt and Daniel Harlow have been at the vanguard of these developments, which also tie into the research activity of several other CTP faculty members, including Aram Harrow , whose primary research focus is on quantum information, and Hong Liu , whose research connects black holes and quantum many-body dynamics.

Holographic dualities give both a new perspective into quantum gravitational phenomena as encoded in quantum field theory, and a way to explore aspects of strongly coupled field theories using the gravitational dual. CTP faculty have played a pioneering role in several applications of holographic duality. Hong Liu and Krishna Rajagopal are at the forefront of efforts that use holography to find new insights into the physics of the quark-gluon plasma. Liu was among the first to point out possible connections between black hole physics and the strange metal phase of high temperature superconductors, and in recent years has been combining insights from effective field theories, holography, and condensed matter physics to address various issues concerning far-from-equilibrium systems including superfluid turbulence, entanglement growth, quantum chaos, thermalization, and a complete formulation of fluctuating hydrodynamics. Gravitational effective field theories play a key role in the interpretation of gravitational wave observations. Mikhail Ivanov works at the intersection of these fields with the aim of testing strong field gravity at a new precision frontier.

Even though we understand string theory better than we did in decades past, there is still no clear fundamental description of the theory that works in all situations, and the set of four-dimensional solutions, or string vacua, is still poorly understood.  The work of Washington Taylor and Barton Zwiebach combines physical understanding with modern mathematical methods to address these questions, and has led to new insights into how observed physics fits into the framework of string theory as well as the development of new mathematical results and ideas. Alan Guth ‘s foundational work on inflationary cosmology has led him to focus on basic questions about the physics of the multiverse that arises naturally in the context of the many string theory vacua, and which provides the only current natural explanation for the observed small but positive cosmological constant.

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June 3, 2024 feature

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A framework to construct quantum spherical codes

by Ingrid Fadelli , Phys.org

To reliably perform complex, large-scale calculations, computing systems rely on so-called error correction schemes, techniques designed to protect information against errors. These techniques are perhaps even more essential when it comes to quantum computers, devices that perform computations leveraging the principles of quantum mechanics.

This is because quantum computers are highly susceptible to errors, as qubits (i.e., their units of information) can lose their quantum state due to interactions with the environment. Error correction schemes for quantum computers should be tailored around quantum mechanical processes, accounting for the unique vulnerabilities of quantum computing systems.

Most error correction codes developed so far are designed to mitigate errors in qubit-based systems. Nonetheless, these schemes are often not compatible with other quantum devices that store information in bosonic systems, such as photonic resonators.

Researchers at NIST/University of Maryland recently introduced a new framework to construct quantum codes that could also apply to bosonic quantum systems. Their framework, outlined in a paper published in Nature Physics , specifically proposes the construction of quantum codes that are defined on spheres.

"In graduate school , I was part of a team of researchers working on the cat codes, which are used to store quantum information using light," Victor V. Albert, lead author of the paper, told Phys.org. "As such, these codes are an instance of photonic or, more generally, bosonic codes. The information would be stored in the superposition of two classical electromagnetic signals. Such signals would have different amplitudes, but they would be of the same wavelength."

After the development of these so-called cat codes, Albert and some of his peers started exploring the possibility of generalizing them so they could be applied to multiple electromagnetic signals of different wavelengths. While they were able to develop some system-specific codes, Albert felt that they still had not derived a unified framework that could be generalized across different systems.

"Since then, the simplest cat codes grew in prominence and became relevant to computation schemes pursued by Amazon AWS, Yale Quantum Circuits Inc, and Alice&Bob in France," Albert said. "As part of our new study, we set out to develop a way to define and study extensions of cat codes to electromagnetic signals of multiple amplitudes and frequencies."

All quantum codes require the superposition of something, and Albert and his colleagues realized that it made sense to superimpose well-separated points on a sphere. Their framework builds on a previously proposed method to map electromagnetic signals of any frequency into points on a sphere.

"There is an old and very general technique by the founder of information theory, Claude Shannon, that maps an arbitrary electromagnetic signal of fixed amplitude but of any frequency into a point on the sphere," Albert explained. "This means that efficiently sending classical information using light boils down to packing as many points on the sphere as possible while making sure that noise does cause them to overlap."

The researchers started from this idea and tried to translate it so that it would apply to quantum computing. Their efforts culminated in the development of their new theoretical framework for constructing quantum spherical codes.

"We realized that the quantum version of this is to consider superposing the sets of points that people have previously determined to be good for transmission of classical information. In low dimensions, these sets include the corners of the famous Platonic solids," Albert explained. "In higher dimensions, certain sets are related to exotic lattices and binary codes."

In their paper, Albert and his colleagues outline different ways in which one can superpose points in these sets to obtain highly performing quantum codes. While their work so far is primarily theoretical, it introduces a new potential avenue for creating photonic quantum codes consisting of superpositions of some set of electromagnetic signals.

"Since the simplest instances of these continue to be pursued by experimental groups in both industry and academia, this framework could yield other similarly relevant codes," Albert said. "The practical relevance, however, hinges on future experimental advances in the control of quantum devices. Irrespective of that, this framework should provide a fun playground for theorists in the meantime."

This recent study by Albert and his colleagues highlights a potential avenue for the protection of bosonic quantum systems against noise. In the future, it could pave the way for more studies aimed at developing quantum analogs of classical spherical codes and testing their performance.

"Quantum computing is not about storing quantum information , but about manipulating it," Albert added. "Having defined codes, we now want to do operations on them. We are also looking into other classes of codes that are not described by our framework. It's quite an exciting time in photonic coding theory."

Journal information: Nature Physics

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Time may be an illusion created by quantum entanglement

The true nature of time has eluded physicists for centuries, but a new theoretical model suggests it may only exist due to entanglement between quantum objects

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Where does time come from?

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Time may not be a fundamental element of our physical reality. New calculations add credence to the idea that it emerges from quantum entanglement , in which two objects are so inextricably linked that disturbing one disrupts the other, no matter how distant they are.

The mathematician who worked out how to time travel

“For centuries, time has entered physics as an essential ingredient that is not to be questioned. It is so deeply rooted in our conception of reality that people thought…

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• 28 May 2024

Keep an open mind on faster-than-light ‘tachyons’ as the source of quantum entanglement

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In his Essay on historical debates about the nature of quantum reality (see Nature 629 , 29–32; 2024 ), Jim Baggott asks whether entangled particles might “somehow remain in contact … at speeds faster than light, in conflict with Einstein’s special theory of relativity”. Such off-the-cuff interpretations of special relativity are common in the literature, but are they valid?

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Modular, scalable hardware architecture for a quantum computer

A new quantum-system-on-chip enables the efficient control of a large array of qubits, moving toward practical quantum computing..

Quantum computers hold the promise of being able to quickly solve extremely complex problems that might take the world's most powerful supercomputer decades to crack.

But achieving that performance involves building a system with millions of interconnected building blocks called qubits. Making and controlling so many qubits in a hardware architecture is an enormous challenge that scientists around the world are striving to meet.

Toward this goal, researchers at MIT and MITRE have demonstrated a scalable, modular hardware platform that integrates thousands of interconnected qubits onto a customized integrated circuit. This "quantum-system-on-chip" (QSoC) architecture enables the researchers to precisely tune and control a dense array of qubits. Multiple chips could be connected using optical networking to create a large-scale quantum communication network.

By tuning qubits across 11 frequency channels, this QSoC architecture allows for a new proposed protocol of "entanglement multiplexing" for large-scale quantum computing.

The team spent years perfecting an intricate process for manufacturing two-dimensional arrays of atom-sized qubit microchiplets and transferring thousands of them onto a carefully prepared complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) chip. This transfer can be performed in a single step.

"We will need a large number of qubits, and great control over them, to really leverage the power of a quantum system and make it useful. We are proposing a brand new architecture and a fabrication technology that can support the scalability requirements of a hardware system for a quantum computer," says Linsen Li, an electrical engineering and computer science (EECS) graduate student and lead author of a paper on this architecture.

Li's co-authors include Ruonan Han, an associate professor in EECS, leader of the Terahertz Integrated Electronics Group, and member of the Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE); senior author Dirk Englund, professor of EECS, principal investigator of the Quantum Photonics and Artificial Intelligence Group and of RLE; as well as others at MIT, Cornell University, the Delft Institute of Technology, the Army Research Laboratory, and the MITRE Corporation. The paper appears in Nature .

Diamond microchiplets

While there are many types of qubits, the researchers chose to use diamond color centers because of their scalability advantages. They previously used such qubits to produce integrated quantum chips with photonic circuitry.

Qubits made from diamond color centers are "artificial atoms" that carry quantum information. Because diamond color centers are solid-state systems, the qubit manufacturing is compatible with modern semiconductor fabrication processes. They are also compact and have relatively long coherence times, which refers to the amount of time a qubit's state remains stable, due to the clean environment provided by the diamond material.

In addition, diamond color centers have photonic interfaces which allows them to be remotely entangled, or connected, with other qubits that aren't adjacent to them.

"The conventional assumption in the field is that the inhomogeneity of the diamond color center is a drawback compared to identical quantum memory like ions and neutral atoms. However, we turn this challenge into an advantage by embracing the diversity of the artificial atoms: Each atom has its own spectral frequency. This allows us to communicate with individual atoms by voltage tuning them into resonance with a laser, much like tuning the dial on a tiny radio," says Englund.

This is especially difficult because the researchers must achieve this at a large scale to compensate for the qubit inhomogeneity in a large system.

To communicate across qubits, they need to have multiple such "quantum radios" dialed into the same channel. Achieving this condition becomes near-certain when scaling to thousands of qubits. To this end, the researchers surmounted that challenge by integrating a large array of diamond color center qubits onto a CMOS chip which provides the control dials. The chip can be incorporated with built-in digital logic that rapidly and automatically reconfigures the voltages, enabling the qubits to reach full connectivity.

"This compensates for the in-homogenous nature of the system. With the CMOS platform, we can quickly and dynamically tune all the qubit frequencies," Li explains.

Lock-and-release fabrication

To build this QSoC, the researchers developed a fabrication process to transfer diamond color center "microchiplets" onto a CMOS backplane at a large scale.

They started by fabricating an array of diamond color center microchiplets from a solid block of diamond. They also designed and fabricated nanoscale optical antennas that enable more efficient collection of the photons emitted by these color center qubits in free space.

Then, they designed and mapped out the chip from the semiconductor foundry. Working in the MIT.nano cleanroom, they post-processed a CMOS chip to add microscale sockets that match up with the diamond microchiplet array.

They built an in-house transfer setup in the lab and applied a lock-and-release process to integrate the two layers by locking the diamond microchiplets into the sockets on the CMOS chip. Since the diamond microchiplets are weakly bonded to the diamond surface, when they release the bulk diamond horizontally, the microchiplets stay in the sockets.

"Because we can control the fabrication of both the diamond and the CMOS chip, we can make a complementary pattern. In this way, we can transfer thousands of diamond chiplets into their corresponding sockets all at the same time," Li says.

The researchers demonstrated a 500-micron by 500-micron area transfer for an array with 1,024 diamond nanoantennas, but they could use larger diamond arrays and a larger CMOS chip to further scale up the system. In fact, they found that with more qubits, tuning the frequencies actually requires less voltage for this architecture.

"In this case, if you have more qubits, our architecture will work even better," Li says.

The team tested many nanostructures before they determined the ideal microchiplet array for the lock-and-release process. However, making quantum microchiplets is no easy task, and the process took years to perfect.

"We have iterated and developed the recipe to fabricate these diamond nanostructures in MIT cleanroom, but it is a very complicated process. It took 19 steps of nanofabrication to get the diamond quantum microchiplets, and the steps were not straightforward," he adds.

Alongside their QSoC, the researchers developed an approach to characterize the system and measure its performance on a large scale. To do this, they built a custom cryo-optical metrology setup.

Using this technique, they demonstrated an entire chip with over 4,000 qubits that could be tuned to the same frequency while maintaining their spin and optical properties. They also built a digital twin simulation that connects the experiment with digitized modeling, which helps them understand the root causes of the observed phenomenon and determine how to efficiently implement the architecture.

In the future, the researchers could boost the performance of their system by refining the materials they used to make qubits or developing more precise control processes. They could also apply this architecture to other solid-state quantum systems.

• Quantum Computers
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Story Source:

Materials provided by Massachusetts Institute of Technology . Original written by Adam Zewe. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Linsen Li, Lorenzo De Santis, Isaac B. W. Harris, Kevin C. Chen, Yihuai Gao, Ian Christen, Hyeongrak Choi, Matthew Trusheim, Yixuan Song, Carlos Errando-Herranz, Jiahui Du, Yong Hu, Genevieve Clark, Mohamed I. Ibrahim, Gerald Gilbert, Ruonan Han, Dirk Englund. Heterogeneous integration of spin–photon interfaces with a CMOS platform . Nature , 2024; DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07371-7

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