interesting articles about higher education

Articles on Higher education

Displaying 1 - 20 of 1299 articles.

International student caps are creating a huge headache for universities. But they could have an impact beyond elite campuses

Peter Hurley , Victoria University and Melinda Hildebrandt , Victoria University

An American flag, a pencil sharpener − and the 10 Commandments: Louisiana’s new bill to mandate biblical displays in classrooms is the latest to push limits of religion in public schools

Charles J. Russo , University of Dayton

Internships are linked to better employment outcomes for college graduates – but there aren’t enough for students who want them

Matthew T. Hora , University of Wisconsin-Madison and Hee Song , University of Wisconsin-Madison

Expansion of Asian American studies fueled by racial attacks and activism

Pawan Dhingra , Amherst College

Our research shows what the rental market is really like for international students

Hannah Soong , University of South Australia and Guanglun Michael Mu , University of South Australia

Funding might change, but Job-ready Graduates stays for now. What does the budget fine print say about higher education?

Gwilym Croucher , The University of Melbourne

Can university protest camps be removed? What does the law say?

Maria O'Sullivan , Deakin University

Divesting university endowments: Easier demanded than done

Todd L. Ely , University of Colorado Denver

How is China being taught at Australian universities? And why does this matter? Here’s what our research found

Minglu Chen , University of Sydney ; Bingqin Li , UNSW Sydney , and Edward Sing Yue Chan , Australian National University

Kenya’s public universities: financing model overhaul fails to address biggest challenge – funding

Ishmael Munene , Northern Arizona University

What does the new Commonwealth Prac Payment mean for students? Will it do enough to end ‘placement poverty’?

Deanna Grant-Smith , University of the Sunshine Coast and Paula McDonald , Queensland University of Technology

The good news is the government plans to cancel $3 billion in student debt. The bad news is indexation will still be high

Andrew Norton , Australian National University

Australians are more likely to have partners who don’t share their political views than 25 years ago. Why?

Intifar Chowdhury , Flinders University

College administrators are falling into a tried and true trap laid by the right

Lauren Lassabe Shepherd , University of New Orleans

Are race-conscious scholarships on their way out?

Jeffrey C. Sun , University of Louisville and Charles J. Russo , University of Dayton

The UK is poorer without Erasmus – it’s time to rejoin the European exchange programme

Sascha Stollhans , University of Leeds

Why universities shouldn’t mark down international students for using non-standard English

Alexander Baratta , University of Manchester ; Paul Vincent Smith , University of Manchester , and Rui He , University of Manchester

Graduation rates for low-income students lag while their student loan debt soars

Robert Samuels , University of California, Santa Barbara

UK’s creative industries bring in more revenue than cars, oil and gas – so why is arts education facing cuts?

Adam Behr , Newcastle University

4 reasons the practice of canceling weakens higher education

Mordechai Gordon , Quinnipiac University

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Professor in the Practice of Higher Education Policy, Australian National University

Associate Professor, Melbourne Centre for the Study of Higher Education, The University of Melbourne

Adjunct Professor, Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education, OISE, University of Toronto

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Professorial Fellow, University of Canberra

Director, Mitchell Institute, Victoria University

Professor of International Higher Education, UCL

Honorary Senior Fellow, Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne

Professor of Geography, The University of Melbourne

Professor, University of Cape Town

Professor of Higher Education, The Ohio State University

Associate Professor, College of Business, Government and Law, Flinders University

Professor of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, Edith Cowan University

Associate Director Student Experience, Monash University

Director, Centre for the Study of Higher Education, The University of Melbourne

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The top ten higher education stories of 2021.

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The impact of the pandemic was the major higher ed story this year, but other developments made big ... [+] news in 2021 as well.

For the second year in a row, the news on the higher education scene was dominated by the Covid-19 pandemic and all of its many, seemingly never-ending ramifications for colleges and universities across the country.

But the far-reaching impact of the pandemic was hardly the only story of significance in 2021. Changes in federal education policy and leadership, a continuing enrollment slide, record capital campaigns and endowment returns, and intensifying criticism of the academy by political conservatives were other developments that received extensive attention throughout the year.

The Covid-19 Pandemic

All through 2021, colleges and universities tried to return to normal campus operations as much as possible, after a prior year that saw most of them forced to shift classes to remote delivery and shut down the majority of on-campus activities.

Almost every public health measure that could mitigate the spread or the severity of the virus became a matter of contention, if not confusion. Require masks or just recommend them? Mandate vaccinations and boosters or just encourage them? Quarantine or just social distance? Delay the start of the semester or proceed as scheduled?

Whether to follow state laws, obey governors’ executive orders, heed scientific advice, honor campus preferences or comply with federal mandates - every college in the nation had to tiptoe through a minefield of conflicting regulations and proscriptions. Commencements were virtual, live, drive-through or canceled. Classes were zoomed, in-person, hybrid or suspended. Residence halls were opened, then closed, then re-opened. Athletic events were often contested in near-empty arenas, and several universities even cut the number of sports they supported.

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Campus leaders had to contend with lawsuits, no-confidence votes, layoffs, furloughs, frustrated students, burned-out faculty and budget shortfalls. They then had to decide how to spend billions in federal relief funds that flowed their way, as the Greek-letter variants of the virus continued to appear. Just as campuses thought they had put the worst of Delta behind them, Omicron burst on the scene as the fall semester drew to a close.

Test-Optional Admissions

Partly as a result of the disruptions caused by the pandemic and partly due to a growing concern about the racial and socioeconomic biases associated with standardized tests like the ACT and SAT, hundreds of colleges abandoned the use of such tests for admissions decisions. Whether they shifted to a test-optional policy or stopped using the tests altogether, the number of institutions no longer requiring admission tests reached an all-time high this year.

The standardized testing industry lost ground on almost every front. The number of students taking the ACT and the SAT fell dramatically, as numerous high-profile institutions, led by the University of California , decided to end their use of admission tests.

By year’s end, over half of all colleges and universities in the nation had already committed to remaining test-optional or test-blind for fall 2023 applicants. More than 76% of all U.S. bachelor degree-granting institutions now practice test-optional or test-blind admissions.

The Enrollment Slide

The latest national figures show that postsecondary enrollment has fallen 2.6% below last year’s level. Undergraduate enrollment has dropped 3.5% so far this fall, resulting in a total two-year decline of 7.8%. Community colleges, the access ramp to higher education for so many students, were the hardest hit, with their overall enrollment now down a total of 14.8% since 2019. 

Enrollment of international students dropped 15% during academic year 2020-21, resulting in the total number of international students studying at U.S. colleges and universities dipping below one million for the first time since the 2014 academic year.

The one area of enrollment growth was at the graduate level, where enrollment continues to be relatively strong, growing 2.1% this fall, maintaining the upward trend of a 2.7% increase reported last fall.

This year’s enrollment decrease marks the tenth year in a row of falling enrollment, now totaling more than 3 million fewer postsecondary students than a decade ago. Even though initial data suggest that applications for next year may be bouncing back, there can be no doubt that an increasing number of colleges and universities are facing an enrollment crisis.

The Biden Administration’s Department of Education

With the 2020 election of Joe Biden as president, the Department of Education (DOE), under the leadership of Secretary Miguel Cardona, began staking out a new relationship with the nation’s colleges and universities, which, during the Trump administration under DOE Secretary Betsy DeVos, had been frequently contentious, if not adversarial.

Although Biden’s proposal to make community college free appears to have been scrapped at least for now, higher education leaders welcomed what they saw as more favorable policies in a number of areas, including billions in pandemic-related recovery money through the Higher Education Emergency relief funds (HEERF) , a more generous Pell Grant program, increased scrutiny of the for-profit sector, broadened forgiveness of student loans, greater receptivity to international and undocumented students, and a renewed interest in the success of institutions that focus on educating minority students.

Major Gifts, Soaring Endowments and Record Capital Campaigns

On the financial side, it was a banner year for many high-profile institutions, with the financial divide between wealthy colleges and their less prosperous peers growing ever wider.

Several institutions, including Notre Dame University, Northwestern University, Boston College, University of Massachusetts, Carnegie Mellon University, Rice University, Western Michigan University, University of Utah and Catawba College recorded the largest private gifts in their histories.

Across the nation, university endowments - particularly the already bigger ones at prestigious public and private institutions- realized their best returns in decades, due to a substantial increase in the stock market and huge gains from venture capital and private equity, investment areas that larger endowments are more likely to pursue. It was not unusual to see endowment gains of 30% or more at many institutions, including most of the Ivy League schools.

And successful multi-billion dollar capital campaigns are becoming more routine at major universities. In 2021, the University of Maryland, the California Institute of Technology, Northwestern University and the University of Oregon were among the institutions that concluded campaigns in excess of $1 billion. The trend is continuing, with several universities currently pursuing or nearing completion on capital campaigns with goals of $3 billion or more.

Republicans Target Higher Education

In several states, Republican legislators and governors stepped up the scrutiny and criticisms of their public colleges, consistent with the growing GOP orthodoxy that higher education is a bastion of liberal ideology where conservatives are treated unfairly. A number of red state governors signed executive orders that prevented institutions from taking various Covid-19 precautions that public health experts recommended and most campus constituents wanted.

South Carolina legislators introduced a bill that would end tenure at its pubic institutions. Iowa took its third run at ending tenure at its universities. In Florida, where faculty are uneasy about what they perceive as political interference with their academic freedom, consideration is being given to weakening tenure at its institutions.

Nebraska’s governor publicly condemned the University of Nebraska’s plan to increase racial and ethnic diversity on its campus. The Idaho legislature cut $2.5 million in higher ed funding because of its concerns over social justice programming at three of its public institutions. And in a number of states, GOP officials supercharged the lightening rod of critical race theory, despite having trouble finding many examples of it actually being taught.

Employer-Provided Free College

The list of companies offering to pay for their employees’s college education continued to grow with Macy’s, Target, Amazon and Walmart among the large employers that added generous educational benefits for their workers this year.

The offers to pay for employees’ college education often came in addition to boosting their wages and other benefits as companies try to lure and retain employees in a very tight labor market.

Boosts In Institutional Financial Aid and Tuition Freezes

Several universities announced commitments to enhance their financial aid in an effort to recruit and retain minority, low-income and first-generation students. The aid took several forms.

For example, Washington University in St. Louis will invest an additional $1 billion in financial aid, allowing it to adopt a need-blind undergraduate admissions policy and commit to meeting 100% of demonstrated financial need for admitted students. Ohio State has pledged to raise $800 million as part of a ten-year plan to offer a debt-free education to undergraduates.

Another strategy for addressing affordability is the tuition freeze, and in 2021, dozens of universities decided they would not increase tuition for the upcoming academic year, at least for undergraduate students.

Major universities in Alabama, Arizona, California, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee and Virginia unveiled tuition freezes, usually premised on a recognition of the financial pressure the coronavirus had exerted on students and their families.

Many institutions used their HEERF money to cancel or reduce the institutional debt held by their students. Hundreds of others gave their students lump sum payments to help offset pandemic-related expenses.

Support For Minority-Serving Institutions

Historically Black College and Universities (HBCUs), Hispanic Serving Institutions and other Minority-Serving Institutions (MSI) remained a focus of policy makers and funders. The Biden administration prioritized these schools for billions of dollars through HEERF and its Build Back Better Act.

Federal agencies such as NSF and NASA made a point of increasing their funded research at HBCUs and other MSIs in an attempt to increase the diversity of the scientific workforce.

Several HBCUs reported spikes in applications and enrollments, and private businesses such as IBM and individual donors like MacKenzie Scott made historic investments in minority-focused colleges and scholarship organizations.

While Adam Harris’s book The State Must Provide brought new attention to the funding inequities still facing HBCUs, advocates in several states sought to make up some of the chronic underfunding that’s plagued those schools for decades. Maryland Governor Larry Hogan signed legislation that resolved a federal lawsuit involving unfair funding of the state’s four HBCUs for $577 million over a decade.

Ed Tech Competition Heats Up

Online education providers were extremely active in 2021, trying to capitalize on the large-scale shift to web-based education that the pandemic necessitated. Coursera went public in the spring, opening with a share price of $33 and a worth at the time of nearly $7 billion.

As Coursera continued to expand its book of business beyond its initial foray with MOOCs (massive, open, online courses), other online providers stepped up to compete. Acquisitions and mergers became the order of the day. 2U purchased edX for a tidy $800 million, acquiring the company originally created as a nonprofit by Harvard and MIT in 2012 and positioning it for a greater share of the higher ed market.

These developments spelled more bad news for the for-profit sector, where many schools were already seeing enrollments drawn away by non-profit universities like Western Governors University and Southern New Hampshire University. But the impact of educational technology continues to be felt at all colleges and universities, affecting issues of access, cost, and quality and challenging traditional models of higher education like never before.

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HEADLINES: Top Higher Education News for the Week

The Washington Post writes that institutions, still waiting for students to commit in the wake of the troubled FAFSA rollout, are worried about meeting their fall enrollment targets... Stanford University announced it will require applicants to submit standardized test scores beginning in 2025... William P. Leahy, who has led Boston College for 28 years, announced he will step down after the 2025-2026 academic year... Washington, DC, received a donation that will help the city expand a career training program for positions in health care.

‘Very Unpredictable’: Colleges Fear FAFSA Fiasco Will Hurt Enrollment The Washington Post (sub. req.) | June 10, 2024

Stanford Becomes Latest School to Reinstate Test Scores Requirement The New York Times (sub. req.) | June 8, 2024

Boston College President Rev. William P. Leahy to Step Down in 2026 The Boston Globe (sub. req.) | June 7, 2024

$9.5M Gift Will Help More D.C. High-Schoolers Train for Health-Care Jobs The Washington Post (sub. req.) | June 7, 2024

A group of House Republicans is pursuing an effort to prevent the Biden administration’s new Title IX regulations from going into effect, Higher Ed Dive reports... Inside Higher Ed explores how institutions can expand their mental health services without hiring additional personnel... Karrie Dixon, currently chancellor of Elizabeth City State University, will become North Carolina Central University’s next chancellor.

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NC Central University Names Next Chancellor. She’s a Familiar Face in NC Higher Ed. The News & Observer (sub. req.) | June 6, 2024

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U.C. Berkeley’s Leader, a Free Speech Champion, Has Advice for Today’s Students: Tone It Down The New York Times (sub. req.) | June 6, 2024

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For Low-Income Students, FAFSA Can Be a Lifeline. When It Didn’t Work, They Were Hardest Hit. USA Today | June 6, 2024

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Colorado to Cover Two Years’ Tuition at Any Public College Inside Higher Ed | June 4, 2024

Explore More

Letters to the editor, higher education news links.

Higher education is struggling. Psychologists are navigating its uncertain future

Many of the dramatic changes in society are fueling faculty burnout, high turnover, and political attacks on academic freedom

Vol. 55 No. 1 Print version: page 48

[ This article is part of the 2024 Trends Report ]

The Covid -19 pandemic upended the economy and exacerbated concerns about financial stability in higher education. More recently, falling tuition dollars and the looming enrollment cliff are forcing cuts or closures at many institutions, precisely when students need more support than ever. Those entering college today have faced years of erratic schooling and a widespread mental health crisis .

But students are not the only ones struggling. The majority of faculty report feeling burned out because of work: They face their own set of stressors, such as adapting to ChatGPT in the classroom and, for faculty of color, providing extra support for students of color. Meanwhile, employee turnover at colleges and universities continues to rise.

“Workers in higher ed feel like they’re being nickeled and dimed, they’re being overworked, and they’re not being recognized. What better recipe is there to drive people toward other jobs?” said cognitive psychologist Jacqueline Bichsel, PhD, director of research at the College and University Professional Association for Human Resources (CUPA-HR).

In a growing number of states, institutions also face the added pressures of political attacks on academic freedom, tenure, and university governance systems . Faculty are being silenced on subjects ranging from gender identity to reproductive health, while administrators are seeing their decision-making powers seized by politicians.

“What kind of an environment are we creating at these institutions, which have long been based on the idea of free inquiry and academic freedom? It’s frightening to think about where we’re headed,” said Afshan Jafar, PhD, chair and professor of sociology at Connecticut College and cochair of the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) Special Committee on Academic Freedom and Florida.

On top of it all, higher education may mean something fundamentally different today. With growing questions about the value of education, some potential students question whether they should even go to college. At the same time, coming of age amid a pandemic, climate change, and fierce political clashes has left many of today’s students uncertain about what lies ahead, said psychologist Kisha Jones, PhD, an assistant professor of global leadership and management at Florida International University.

“What is it like to be motivated, to be excited about your career and excited about the future, when things look so bleak?” she said.

A dark place

Political battles across the nation have created an increasingly hostile world for academics. Those who speak in support of topics such as vaccination and racial equity have faced harassment and death threats; many are leaving X, formerly known as Twitter , in search of safer forums or taking extra steps to protect themselves, both online and off.

Alongside the routine threats and harassment , academics are also navigating deliberate, state-sponsored attempts to control higher education and dismantle academic systems and structures that have governed U.S. colleges and universities for centuries. New laws passed in Florida, Idaho, Iowa, Mississippi, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Tennessee, and other states limit or prohibit instruction on various subjects, including race, sex, and American history, and even seek to broadly restrict discussing “current, controversial topics” ( PEN America Index of Educational Gag Orders, 2023 ).

“Where I’m located, these laws create a lot of fear among faculty. Often, it’s easier to just drop material and avoid a controversial topic,” said David Strohmetz, PhD, chair and professor of psychology at the University of West Florida, who recently chose to exclude a section on sexuality and gender identity from one of his psychology courses due to concerns about the political climate.

A new Florida law seeks to undermine tenure by reviewing tenured professors’ research and teaching at least every 5 years, while other legislation in the state weakens teachers’ unions and strengthens the role of politicians in higher-ed decision-making. (Several other states, including Texas, Louisiana, and Iowa, have also proposed legislation that aims to limit or end tenure .) These actions amount to a coordinated attack that could ultimately lead to authoritarian control of the state’s education system, said Jafar.

“When you’re attacking governance at the same time that you’re attacking the ideals of academic freedom and free inquiry, you’re heading to a really dark place in academia, where people now have no means to fight the changes that are coming their way,” she said.

The laws are already triggering “brain drain” in the state, with more than one-third of the faculty at New College of Florida departing since Governor Ron DeSantis began his overhaul of the school. And nearly one-third of faculty in Florida, Texas, Georgia, and North Carolina said they are actively looking for jobs in other states, according to an August 2023 AAUP survey of 4,250 faculty members ( AAUP national release, Sept. 2023 ).

“Those who are left behind are now forced to figure out how to survive in this environment,” which is likely to further diminish the quality of teaching and research in those states, Jafar said.

The academic gap

The instability of recent years has also left students struggling—and that affects everyone on campus. Some faculty have observed that students from the so-called pandemic generation lack basic skills such as time management that are essential for success in college and may have a shakier academic foundation than students who had a typical high school experience.

“There’s concern about the impact of the academic gap after losing those 3 years. Is this a blip, or has education at the secondary level been fundamentally changed?” Strohmetz said.

Student mental health also remains in crisis. Data from the Healthy Minds Study, which surveys tens of thousands of students across the nation each year about mental health, shows a slight positive change during the 2022–23 academic year. But 14% of students still reported considering suicide, and more than 40% screened positive for clinically significant symptoms of depression. Some populations, including LGBTQ+ students, report even higher rates of mental health problems ( The Healthy Minds Study: 2022–2023 Data Report [PDF, 170KB] ).

Those concerning figures are impacting academic institutions more broadly, said Sarah Lipson, PhD, an associate professor in Boston University’s School of Public Health and principal investigator of the Healthy Minds Study. Faculty are changing the way courses are taught and working to connect students to services before they are in crisis. Administrators are rolling out public health campaigns, counseling services, and new support systems. Those changes are welcome, Lipson said, but can be taxing on institutions already strained for resources.

“The urgency around student mental health has infiltrated so many different aspects of higher education,” she said.

Meanwhile, schools are scrambling to adapt to a new challenge: how to handle artificial intelligence tools, such as ChatGPT, in the classroom. In some cases, that requires reimagining coursework to preclude cheating and to help students learn to use ChatGPT to enhance—rather than replace—their own critical thinking.

“We have to take on the challenge as educators to find a way to weave that into assignments, so we’re preparing students for a workplace where there will be a shift in the skills needed to succeed,” said Jones, of Florida International University.

Those shifting sands put pressure on the glue that holds higher education together: its workforce. In a 2022–23 Healthy Minds survey of faculty and instructors, 64% of those questioned said they felt burned out because of work ( Exploring Faculty Burnout through the 2022–23 HMS Faculty/Staff Survey, APA ). Faculty who are women, gender minorities, or people of color tend to report even higher rates of burnout. A 2023 APA report found that faculty of color are expected to do extra “invisible labor,” such as mentoring students of color and educating their White colleagues about diversity ( APA Task Force Report on Tenure and Promotion for Faculty of Color, 2023 ).

For staff, higher education is steadily becoming an undesirable place to work. Turnover during the 2022–23 school year was the highest it has been since CUPA-HR began tracking it 7 years ago ( The CUPA-HR 2023 Higher Education Employee Retention Survey ). Only about half of employees reported being recognized regularly for their work, and few received raises on par with inflation. The majority want flexible or hybrid work arrangements, but only about one-third receive them.

“When retention efforts are nonexistent, turnover is going to remain high,” said Bichsel. “Higher education institutions need to start positioning themselves as employers of choice, or they’ll be left only with candidates and employees who cannot find something better—those who have fewer qualifications, less experience, or cannot relocate for other reasons.”

Focus on students

Since the pandemic began, the financial model of higher education has been put to the test. Demand has dropped, but schools have struggled to cut costs without compromising quality.

That puts higher-ed institutions in a tight spot as they fight to survive and adapt. Some have moved toward a corporate culture in senior leadership, but Jafar warned that such a shift can also put colleges and universities at risk. Traditional academic governance systems—which move more slowly and typically include additional checks and balances—have an important function: protecting academic institutions from outside influence, including political attacks on academic freedom.

As colleges and universities navigate the stormy seas of financial uncertainty, workforce instability, and technological change, Jones highlights the importance of staying focused on the group at the center of it all: students.

“Younger generations have completely different concerns than we do. Do they have a chance to contribute to society? Will there even be a society for them to contribute to?” she said. “It’s important to recognize the impact that will have on everything in academia, from enrollment to engagement to what people choose to study.”

Further reading

Academic independence under fire Abrams, Z., Monitor on Psychology , 2023

How to use ChatGPT as a learning tool Abramson, A., Monitor on Psychology , 2023

Hopeful despite headwinds: A survey of presidents Lederman, D., Inside Higher Ed , 2023

Higher ed’s ruinous resistance to change Rosenberg, B., The Chronicle of Higher Education , 2023

Is it time for tenure to evolve? Dance, A., Nature , 2023

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Americans Are Losing Faith in the Value of College. Whose Fault Is That?

For most people, the new economics of higher ed make going to college a risky bet.

Credit... Illustration by Sean Dong

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By Paul Tough

Paul Tough is a contributing writer for the magazine who has written several books on inequality in education.

• Sept. 5, 2023

A decade or so ago, Americans were feeling pretty positive about higher education. Public-opinion polls in the early 2010s all told the same story. In one survey, 86 percent of college graduates said that college had been a good investment ; in another, 74 percent of young adults said a college education was “very important” ; in a third, 60 percent of Americans said that colleges and universities were having a positive impact on the country. Ninety-six percent of parents who identified as Democrats said they expected their kids to attend college — only to be outdone by Republican parents, 99 percent of whom said they expected their kids to go to college.

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In the fall of 2009, 70 percent of that year’s crop of high school graduates did in fact go straight to college. That was the highest percentage ever, and the collegegoing rate stayed near that elevated level for the next few years. The motivation of these students was largely financial. The 2008 recession devastated many of the industries that for decades provided good jobs for less-educated workers, and a college degree had become a particularly valuable commodity in the American labor market. The typical American with a bachelor’s degree (and no further credential) was earning about two-thirds more than the typical high school grad, a financial advantage about twice as large as the one a college degree produced a generation earlier. College seemed like a reliable runway to a life of comfort and affluence.

A decade later, Americans’ feelings about higher education have turned sharply negative. The percentage of young adults who said that a college degree is very important fell to 41 percent from 74 percent. Only about a third of Americans now say they have a lot of confidence in higher education. Among young Americans in Generation Z, 45 percent say that a high school diploma is all you need today to “ensure financial security.” And in contrast to the college-focused parents of a decade ago, now almost half of American parents say they’d prefer that their children not enroll in a four-year college.

The numbers on campus have shifted as well. In the fall of 2010, there were more than 18 million undergraduates enrolled in colleges and universities across the United States. That figure has been falling ever since, dipping below 15.5 million undergrads in 2021. As recently as 2016, 70 percent of high school graduates were still going straight to college; now the figure is 62 percent.

Outside the United States, meanwhile, higher education is more popular than ever. Our global allies and competitors have spent the last couple of decades racing to raise their national levels of educational attainment. In Britain, the number of current undergraduates has risen since 2016 by 12 percent. (Over the same period, the American figure fell by 8 percent.) In Canada, 67 percent of adults between 25 and 34 are graduates of a two- or four-year college, about 15 percentage points higher than the current American attainment rate.

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Higher education in a changing and challenging world

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More students, more providers, more study options – these are a few of the ways higher education has evolved in recent decades. The upcoming World Higher Education Conference (WHEC2022), from 18-20 May, will bring some of the latest trends and challenges in focus to design a roadmap for the future. For this occasion, we look back to identify some megatrends, starting from the first World Conference on Higher Education in 1998 and continuing through the years.

Over the past two decades, higher education has grown – and transformed – in many ways. By 2020, worldwide participation in higher education reached 228 million students, up from 82 million in 1995 . In the Global North, student numbers have stagnated in recent years. For example, in 2006, the Global South went from having a little over half of global enrolments, to reaching three-quarters in 2018.

But, despite this history of growth, major inequalities persist throughout the world. Only 1% of the poorest students aged 25-29 complete four years of higher education compared with 20% of the wealthiest, according to a 2017 survey of 76 countries . The proportion of youth enrolled also ranges from less than 10% in sub-Saharan Africa to almost 80% in Europe and North America.

New opportunities, new challenges

Rapid progress in information and communication technology has also greatly shaped opportunities in higher education. Continuous advances in digital technologies, social media, and mobile devices, are giving learners better access to knowledge and educational content. More recently, artificial intelligence for teaching and learning, virtual augmented reality, simulations, and serious games have further widened the opportunities arising from technology-enabled learning. New interactive pedagogies based on e-learning have also proven their effectiveness.

However, the digital divide has come into sharp focus once again, as COVID-19 disrupted higher education in unprecedented ways. As face-to-face learning stopped in more than 190 countries, many institutions were able to rapidly shift to online learning. However, the limitations were quickly revealed in low-income countries, home to 96% of the 2.9 billion people who have never used the internet. For many disadvantaged students, the move to online learning has diminished prospects for accessing higher education.

Yet, these challenges are occurring in tandem with higher education rising on international development agendas over the past 25 years. In the 1990s, under the Education for All movement, the international community was focused on basic education, and then during the 2000s attention shifted to primary education under the Millennium Development Goals. In 2015, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), brought higher education back to the international education agenda, recognizing its importance for all SDGs, and in particular its contribution to SDG-4 on equitable and quality education systems.

UNESCO’s World Higher Education Conference: Equitable access is a growing priority

UNESCO, being the only United Nations’ agency that has a mandate for higher education, convened two world conferences for the sector in 1998 and 2009. The first conference called upon Member States to respond to emerging challenges in higher education and by undertaking vast reforms to address them with urgency and relevance. A decade later, in 2009, the second World Conference demonstrated a commitment by all stakeholders to recognize higher education as a public good to advance research, innovation, and creativity, and as a major force in building inclusive and diverse knowledge societies.

The forthcoming WHEC 2022 to be held in Barcelona from 18 to 20 May 2022 is entitled Reinventing Higher Education for a Sustainable Future . It will highlight the importance of higher education to respond to present global challenges, such as climate change, social inequalities, and conflict, while advocating that higher education opens further to a larger and more diverse student body, including disadvantaged groups.

The WHEC2022 will help to define and prepare a roadmap that is framed by the 2030 Agenda and that is responsive to the challenges faced by humanity and the planet.  The conference calls for ‘breaking away from the traditional models of higher education and opening doors to new, innovative, creative, and visionary conceptions that not only serve current agendas for sustainable development, but also pave the way for future learning communities that overcome barriers, speak to all and are inclusive of all lifelong learners.’

IIEP will be sharing knowledge at the WHEC

For the 2022 edition, IIEP-UNESCO will organize a roundtable to discuss findings from its recent research on flexible learning pathways (FLPs). This type of policy allows higher education systems to adapt to the needs of more diverse learners, offering increased learner choice and eliminating barriers to their access and progression through the system.

Drawing on the experiences of countries that have participated in this collaborative research, the research shows how FLPs are key to achieving the Education 2030 Agenda, which calls for articulated education systems with multiple entry and exit pathways, through the recognition of formal, non-formal and informal learning. The topic is therefore highly relevant for the present and future context of higher education .

IIEP will also participate in a roundtable on data and knowledge production and launch a joint Policy Paper with the UN Refugee Agency on refugees’ access to host countries higher education, bringing into focus policy directions to support the super-disadvantaged and remove barriers to learning.

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Fulfilling the potential of US higher education

The US higher education system faces crises on multiple fronts. Enrollment growth is slowing, student debt is at an all-time high, the sector is not delivering on its promise of greater equity, and its reputation among many Americans is declining. 1 Jon Marcus, “Colleges face reckoning as plummeting birthrate worsens enrollment declines,” Hechinger Report , May 22, 2021; Melanie Hanson, “Student loan debt statistics,” EducationData.org, February 10, 2023; Diana Ellsworth, Erin Harding, Jonathan Law, and Duwain Pinder, “ Racial and ethnic equity in US higher education ,” McKinsey, July 18, 2022; Doug Lederman, “Despite positive experiences, students question value of college,” Inside Higher Ed , July 7, 2021. We believe there is a challenging but clear solution. Higher ed must remain focused on its core mission of educating learners but evolve its practices to serve more Americans. Our analysis suggests that the sector should aspire to a bold goal: graduate ten million more students than currently projected over the next 20 years. This goal is ambitious, but the data show there is a pathway to achieving it in a way that successfully addresses the sector’s challenges rather than exacerbating them.

About the authors

This article is a collaborative effort by Diana Gonzalez, Jonathan Law , Fiyinfolu Oladiran , Ted Rounsaville, Saurabh Sanghvi , and Doug Scott, representing views from McKinsey’s Education Practice.

Bachelor’s degrees, associate’s degrees, and Title IV–eligible certificates remain among the most proven enablers of economic mobility and individual empowerment in the United States. 2 Jennifer Ma, Matea Pender, and Meredith Welch, Education pays 2019: The benefits for individuals and society, College Board, January 2020. Controlling for sociodemographic variables, graduates with bachelor’s degrees earn a median of $450,000 (for women) to $655,000 (for men) more over their lifetimes than those who have only a high school diploma, and studies show that this earnings premium is increasing. 3 “Education and lifetime earnings,” US Social Security Administration, November 2015; ChangHwan Kim, Arthur Sakamoto, and Christopher Tamborini, “Education and lifetime earnings in the United States,” Demography, August 2015, Volume 52, Number 4. Furthermore, a postsecondary degree has significant nonmonetary benefits, from better health outcomes to greater civic engagement. 4 Education pays 2019, January 2020. For society, these benefits have compounding effects on the economy through GDP gains, increased tax payments, and reduced reliance on social services. 5 Analysis based on data from College Board; The Institute for College Access & Success (TICAS); Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), US Department of Education; National Student Clearinghouse; US Census Bureau; and US Department of Education.

The benefits of a postsecondary degree are clear, but they are not distributed equally throughout society. Black and Hispanic Americans have the lowest rates of educational attainment, with only 21 percent of Hispanics and 28 percent of Black Americans having a bachelor’s degree or higher, compared with 42 percent of non-Hispanic Whites and 61 percent of Asian Americans. 6 “Census Bureau releases new educational attainment data,” US Census Bureau, February 24, 2022. Benefits are also distributed unequally across institutions; many schools, particularly those that serve a significant share of underrepresented and low-income students, fail to graduate large percentages of their student body every year, leaving millions in debt with no diploma to show for it. 7 Analysis based on data from College Board, IPEDS, National Student Clearinghouse, NCES, TICAS, US Census Bureau, and US Department of Education.

In another troubling trend, enrollment rates have declined across the board in recent years, largely due to three factors: a drop in the US birth rate since the Great Recession, changing perceptions about the costs and benefits of earning a degree, and fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic. 8 Jill Barshay, “College students predicted to fall by more than 15% after the year 2025,” Hechinger Report , September 10, 2018; Colleen Campbell, “Those left behind: Gaps in college attainment by race and geography,” Center for American Progress, June 27, 2019. Even as enrollment has fallen, however, demand for workers with degrees has risen. Our analysis indicates that 86 percent of new jobs projected to be created through 2030—in fields such as nursing, teaching, and cybersecurity—will likely require postsecondary education. 9 Analysis based on data from Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS), International Labour Organization, Moody’s Analytics, Occupational Information Network, OECD, Oxford Economics, US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), US Census Bureau, US Census Bureau’s American Community Survey (ACS), and World Bank. This talent shortage represents a significant risk to the nation’s public health, education, security, and global competitiveness.

Finally, as student loan debt has increased, so too has skepticism about the value of postsecondary education—a shift that has been exacerbated by the pandemic. In May 2021, 65 percent of college students surveyed agreed with the statement that higher education is no longer worth the cost, up from 57 percent in December 2020 and 49 percent in August 2020. 10 Rachel Fishman et al., “One year later: COVID-19’s impact on current and future college students,” Third Way, June 29, 2021.

These statistics raise a pressing question: how can the sector improve its value proposition and extend the benefits of higher education to more Americans while creating more-equitable economic mobility and a stronger economy? Two steps are necessary.

First, while there is capacity in the system, higher ed institutions must demonstrate that they can successfully graduate their students before expanding enrollment. It is especially important that schools demonstrate the ability to graduate the most vulnerable students. An analysis of enrollment and completion reveals that only 11 percent of the available capacity in the higher education sector is at schools that have both above-average completion rates and an above-average share of students eligible for federal Pell Grants for low-income students.

The sectorwide average completion rates for bachelor’s and associate’s degrees—64 and 34 percent, respectively—make it difficult to justify expanding enrollment further. 11 “Undergraduate retention and graduation rates,” NCES, May 2022. However, an institution-by-institution view reveals a more nuanced story and demonstrates that there is real potential for significant systemwide improvement (exhibit).

First, completion rates vary widely by institution for both bachelor’s and associate’s degrees. Second, there are big differences between high- and low-performing schools when controlling for the type of institution and the share of Pell Grant–eligible students. Even when adjusting for institution peer group by Carnegie Classification—a framework for describing institutional diversity in US higher ed—the average gap in completion rates between high- and low-performing two- and four-year institutions remains 30 percentage points. 12 Based on 2018 “basic” Carnegie Classification; Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, American Council on Education, accessed March 8, 2023. This suggests that completion rates aren’t fated based on a school’s programs or student profile. The actions a school takes—how it engages and supports its students—can have a big influence on how many students graduate. Third, a number of schools have shown that large improvements over a ten-year period are possible: 141 bachelor’s-granting schools with at least 4,000 students have improved completion rates by at least ten percentage points in the past decade. 13 Analysis based on IPEDS data.

Expanding enrollment could become the next priority—particularly for lower-income students, since only 11 percent of available two- and four-year capacity is at institutions with above-average completion rates and Pell Grant–eligible student shares. Increasing enrollment by 2 to 3 percent a year while implementing measures to improve completion rates could create enough additional capacity to realize the “ten in 20” goal.

The total cost of producing ten million additional graduates over 20 years would be roughly $1.2 trillion across all stakeholders. These costs could be reduced if higher education institutions increased affordability and decreased barriers to education, for example through online and hybrid programs and tuition installment plans. They can also be mitigated through academic offerings that lead to higher completion rates and higher-paying jobs. Higher education funders will need to collaborate to help finance this effort and ensure that potential students both graduate and find gainful employment.

A McKinsey analysis of more than 100 interventions aimed at improving access and completion points to four broad barriers facing learners and the general measures needed to remedy them:

• Affordability and financial resources. Make college more affordable, from strategically timed financial aid to low-cost “wraparound” services like childcare that make pursuing a degree possible.
• Access to information. Provide better access to information about how to enroll, how to get financial aid, and what the possible outcomes of various programs can be.
• Mindset and preparedness. Help students feel they’re up to the task through pre-enrollment programs and extracurricular experiences.
• Support services and networks. Ensure that students have the support they need, from mentors to career and professional guidance.

Higher education funders and institutions could take the following five decisive actions to address these barriers and achieve the ten in 20 goal:

• Prioritize the 52.5 million potential adult learners without college degrees through creative support structures, more-flexible class schedules, and tailored instructional modalities.
• Fill excess capacity in US universities, starting with the 1.65 million open seats in top-performing institutions with high completion rates.
• Deploy student-specific, data-driven interventions to improve access and close the 45-percentage-point gap in completion rates, supporting students from enrollment to employment.
• Guide students toward high-ROI, high-employment pathways through enrollment in the 64 percent of postsecondary programs that offer positive ROI within ten years.
• Explore options to improve college affordability through cost efficiency and new financing mechanisms.

Graduating ten million more graduates in 20 years is in many ways an imperative for the future success and resilience of the country. The United States needs more graduates to fill skilled jobs; drive greater economic growth, mobility, and competitiveness; increase civic engagement; and improve health outcomes and national security. And hanging in the balance are individuals—ten million of them—on whom the future of the nation, and its promise, may well rest.

Diana Gonzalez is an associate partner in McKinsey’s Washington, DC, office, where Fiyinfolu Oladiran is a partner and Ted Rounsaville is a senior expert. Jonathan Law is a senior partner in the Southern California office, Saurabh Sanghvi is a partner in the Bay Area office, and Doug Scott is a senior expert in the Chicago office.

The authors wish to thank Olivia Bewley, Kathryn Fox, Christian Gonzales, David Hobbet, Cynthia Liu, and Jane Ruan for their contributions to this report.

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• Published: 17 April 2024

How popularising higher education affects economic growth and poverty alleviation: empirical evidence from 38 countries

• Jian Li   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3228-8163 1   na1 ,
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The popularisation of higher education supports UNESCO’s aim of developing inclusive and equitable quality education to achieve the fourth Sustainable Development Goal. However, the effect of popularising higher education on economic growth and poverty alleviation remains unexplored. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of higher education and adult education within populations (popularisation of higher education) on economic growth (gross domestic product; GDP) and the poverty line using panel data from 38 countries. OLS and quantile regression were performed using data for the period 1995–2021 extracted from the OECD and World Bank databases. The results showed that the population segments with higher education had a significantly positive impact on GDP growth. Moreover, an increased proportion of the population with higher education, of working age, was found to be a contributing factor to GDP growth. Popularising higher education also played a positive role during the initial stage of social and economic development. This study also highlighted that popularising higher education play a key role to influence a country’s educational development and scientific and technological innovation drives the deepening of a country’s economy. It suggested that both national and local governments worldwide should pay much attention to the popularisation degree of higher education to greatly improve the innovative ability of talents and scientific and technological innovation in higher education for both the economic growth and poverty alleviation.

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Introduction.

The popularisation of higher education critically contributes to UNESCO’s efforts to realise the fourth Sustainable Development Goal of inclusive and equitable quality education (Ainscow, 2020 ; Bamberger and Kim, 2022 ).Popularisation of higher education expands the scale of higher education and its high growth rate introduces considerable challenges to the management structure of higher education, triggering a series of theoretical and practical concerns relating to the nature and function of higher education (Balestra and Ruiz, 2015 ; Brand, 2021 ). Given that education and social and economic development are mutually reinforcing, the expansion of higher education leads to an ascending spiral of development for individuals and/or economies. By contrast, a lack of education or early withdrawal from education leads to a downward spiral for them (Camilla, 2023 ). This relationship between education and development undergirds the model of poverty alleviation based on the return on education (Decancq, 2017 ). The previous studies emphasise the importance of the return on education as a multidimensional anti-poverty mechanism and thus a key factor in poverty alleviation (Fang et al., 2022 ; Chelli et al., 2022 ; Garritzmann, 2016 ). For example, return on education is the key factor enabling a transition from poverty alleviation through education to poverty alleviation through education (Gillian et al., 2021 ; Gong and Hong, 2021 ). Poverty alleviation is realised through an interlinking of these two processes and the promotion of the latter (Granata, 2022 ; Habibi and Zabardast, 2020 ). The educational resources can meet the needs of the poor mainly through the return on education at the levels of survival and life quality. In addition, the previous studies highlighted that, with a continuous expansion in the scale of higher education, its economic effect gradually appears to become marginal (Hoeller et al., 2014 ). The density of colleges and universities worldwide has increased considerably in recent years, but it is still inadequate to meet increasing demands resulting from the ongoing popularisation of higher education (Jericho, 2016 ). The increase in the number of colleges and universities has a positive effect in promoting economic development but with marginal benefits. (Julian, 2018 ).

Through reviewed the current relevant studies, it is found that there have limited studies that have simultaneously explored the effects of popularising higher education on economic growth and poverty alleviation. The previous research revealed that most studies have focused on the relations between popularisation of higher education and economic growth. However, a few empirical investigations have examined the effect of population segments with higher education and adult education (popularisation of higher education) on economic growth (GDP) and poverty reduction. Considering the scope and limitations of previous studies, it aimed to address the above research gap by investigating the effect of a population segment with high levels of higher education and adult education (popularisation of higher education) on economic growth (GDP) and the poverty line at a wide scale using panel data from 38 countries. The main research questions addressed in this study are as follows.

Q1: What is the effect of a population segment with higher education on GDP growth?

Q2: What is the effect of adult education on GDP growth?

Q3: What impact does a population segment with higher education have on reducing the proportion of those experiencing poverty?

Q4: What is the relation between an increased level of adult education and the proportion of the population experiencing poverty?

All these questions are relevant to an exploration of the effect of the population segment with higher education and adult education (popularisation of higher education) on economic growth (GDP) and the poverty line. This study is divided into several sections: the first section concentrates on examining the effect of popularising higher education on economic growth and the poverty line, the relationship between popularisation of higher education and poverty alleviation, and the relationship between popularisation of higher education and poverty alleviation. In the second section of method, to address this research gap, this study performed OLS and quantile regressions using data extracted from the OECD and World Bank databases for the period 1995–2021. An OLS regression model and a panel quantile model were used to analyse the effect of a population segment with higher education and adult education (popularisation of higher education) on economic growth (GDP) and the poverty line within 38 OECD countries. The impact of the proportion of people aged 24–64 years and 25–34 years who had completed higher education in relation to their peers on GDP and the proportion of people living in poverty in 38 OECD countries have been measured and analysed. The results and discussion have been provided at the last.

Literature review

The effect of popularising higher education on economic growth.

The population segment with higher education is regarded as an important contributor to economic growth, generating scientific knowledge and providing labour, which in turn increases human capital and productivity (Jungblut, 2017 ; Kalamova, 2020 ; Liu, 2017 ). As the scale of higher education expands, the emergence of knowledge power as a large-scale global phenomenon reflects the important role of an expanded educated labour force in the advancement of science and technology and the economy. For example, the relationship between higher education and economic development in European Union countries between 1997 and 2016 was analysed. Their findings revealed a statistically significant correlation between expanding higher education and economic growth in the selected countries. The one-way cause-and-effect relationship between education and economic development in these countries suggests that an increase in the proportion of the population enroled in higher education boosts economic performance. In addition, using a survey sample of 35 households, a retrospective study in Brazil, examined the role of educational expansion in reducing income inequality and poverty. Its findings suggest that it would take decades to reduce inequality and poverty in this country and that this outcome could only be achieved through a major expansion of the higher education sector. The growth needed to achieve this outcome would be considerable (Lamichhane et al., 2021 ). This reduction in inequality and poverty could only be achieved if optimistic assumptions about growth, matching job skills and the return on education do not fall short. In brief, education is not a panacea for reducing poverty and inequality. How three major stages of education contributed to the growth in labour productivity in 125 countries during the period 1999–2014 was also explored. They found that human capital is consistent with the educational returns of an average number of years of formal education at the levels of primary, secondary, and higher education. Their analysis showed that higher education had the greatest impact on labour productivity in the economies under study (Ledger et al., 2019 ). In addition, popularising higher education plays an important role in promoting economic growth, as the scale of higher education can guarantee the scale of human resources development by improving the quality of human resources and cultivating and distributing innovative scientific and technological talents. The scale of higher education guarantees the spread of science and technology and the popularisation of scientific and technological achievements (Mathias, 2023 ; Megyesiova and Lieskovska, 2018 ). The expanded scale of higher education worldwide has a spatial spillover effect on economic growth, which is strengthened through international cooperation in the fields of science and technology.

Popularising higher education also plays a direct role in cultivating and transporting scientific and technological talents to promote international scientific and technological cooperation (Mitic, 2018 ; Özdoğan Özbal, 2021 ; OECD, 2022 ; Pinheiro and Pillay, 2016 ). The scale of postgraduate education inhibited the total number of scientific and technological innovation achievements, indicating that there may be a trade-off between ‘quantity expansion’ and ‘quality upgrading’ of scientific and technological innovation achievements. Nevertheless, the positive effect on the number of high-tech innovation outcomes is significant, indicating that the supporting effect of graduate education on scientific and technological innovation is mainly concentrated in the high-tech fields (Pinheiro and Pillay, 2016 ; Rowe, 2019 ; Sahnoun and Abdennadher, 2022 ). The ‘talent increment’ of regional expansion and the ‘resource stock’ of graduate education have a combined promoting effect on high-tech innovation. There are differences in the effect of graduate education supporting high-tech innovation among provinces with different characteristics relating to the development of graduate education. The incremental expansion of high-quality talent is essential for enhancing the efficiency of material capital and stabilising the advantage of resource stocks. Using education statistics from OECD countries, Russia, and several other countries that participate in OECD education research, comparative and correlational analysis methods were applied to analyse how the scale of growth in young people’s participation in higher education is reflected in changes in their employment and economic activity. The results of their analysis showed that the growth in economic activity involving young graduates with a master’s degree exceeded that of college graduates after the 2009 financial crisis, and graduates fared better in the 2020 crisis, which was triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic.

The effect of popularisation of higher education on poverty alleviation

Popularisation of higher education is regarded as an essential factor contributing to poverty alleviation (Samo, 2022 ; Adams, 2013 ; Zapp, 2022 ). The higher education’s role in promoting economic growth can only be fully realised through the cultivation of talents suitable for the actual development situation of the country. Countries with food shortages, for example in Africa, also need to procure and train the right agricultural talent. Key drivers of sustainable agricultural production include access to improved technologies, sustainable growth of human, biological and natural resource capital, improvements in institutional performance and a favourable economic policy environment. Higher education graduates with the necessary ‘soft skills and business skills constitute an important pillar. Chakeredza ( 2008 ), who explored the effect of popularising higher education on poverty alleviation, suggested that the number of hungry people in Africa will continue to increase. Higher education in agriculture must be transformed, and efforts must focus on retaining faculty and on reviewing and redesigning institutional management systems, curriculum content and education delivery.

There are many reasons for poverty, with a lack of education being an important one. Insufficient quality education leads to educational poverty. Using PISA data, Agasisti et al. ( 2021 ) investigated the extent of educational poverty in European countries, considering its incidence, breadth, depth and severity. For this study, they adopted an additive multidimensional poverty measure proposed by Alkirew and Foster. Their findings indicated that between 2006 and 2015, the depth and severity of poverty decreased in most of the countries under study. Moreover, the incidence of educational poverty in many European countries was related mainly to student characteristics and school factors. The expansion of higher education has a positive effect on economic development and poverty reduction by improving work skills within the labour force. Increased enrolment in higher education encourages individuals born in families with low education levels to avail of higher education opportunities. Evidently, the expanded scale of higher education in the process of promoting economic growth has enhanced the equity effect of intergenerational social mobility. The expansion of higher education improves total factor productivity, thus promoting economic transformation and advancement globally (Samo, 2022 ; Adams, 2013 ; Zapp, 2022 ). Furthermore, the previous studies have shown that the structure of higher education talent training has a significant impact on economic development. Therefore, government departments need to make constant efforts to improve relevant systems and promote the optimisation and upgrading of the structure of higher education talent training to meet the needs of future economic development.

Theoretical underpinnings

The relationship between education and economic growth is a classic issue in the study of educational economics. For example, in Solow’s view, the growth of per capita output comes from per capita capital stock and technological progress, but capital investment has the problem of diminishing marginal returns, and the long-term sustainable development of the economy depends on technological progress (Solow, 1957 ). The emphasis on technological progress is a very important point in Solow’s growth theory. It was Schultz who systematically analyzed the contribution of education to economic growth. Influenced by the progress of economic growth theory and national accounting methods, Schulz proposed human capital theory in the process of explaining Solow residuals (Schultz, 1961 ). believes that once human capital is included in economic growth, it will solve the paradoxes and puzzles faced in economic growth research. Starting with the difference in income of different types of workers in the labour market, he found that education and health factors are the main reasons for the income difference, and further clarified that the reason for the income difference is the difference in labor productivity (Schultz, 1961 ). Schultz ( 1961 ) believes that human resources include the quantity and quality of labor, and he mainly focuses on the skills and knowledge of people who can improve labor productivity. As for how to measure human capital investment, Schulz believes that the cost of human capital can be measured in the same way as physical capital. Lucas ( 1988 ) focuses on the mechanism of human capital accumulation and why human capital does not show diminishing marginal returns like physical capital. Lucas divides the effect of human capital into internal effect and external effect. Romer ( 1990 ) internalised technological progress, revealed the relationship between human capital and technological progress, and proposed that the stock of human capital determines the economic growth rate, and it is human capital rather than population that determines economic growth. Romer starts with three hypotheses: first, technological progress is central to long-term economic growth; Second, technological progress is formed by people’s response to market incentives, and market incentives determine technological progress. Third, technology is a special kind of product, and once the cost of the initial input is produced, the technology can be reproduced indefinitely at no cost or very low cost.

In other words, higher education is more about improving students’ ability and productivity, thereby increasing students’ income, and promoting economic growth. Higher education mainly affects economic growth through two aspects: one is the same as Schulz’s improvement of individual ability, and the internal effect of human capital, which directly affects the production process (Schultz, 1961 ). Second, Lucas emphasised the external effect of human capital, and the comprehensive effect of human capital on the whole society, which has the characteristics of increasing marginal benefit (Lucas, 1988 ). It emphasises that the human capital invested in technological innovation and the existing knowledge and technology stock of the whole society jointly determine technological innovation.

Research hypotheses and analytical model

In this study, an OLS regression model and a panel quantile model were used to analyse the effect of a population segment with higher education and adult education (popularisation of higher education) on economic growth (GDP) and the poverty line within 38 OECD countries. The study’s hypotheses were as follows:

Hypothesis 1: The effect of a population segment with higher education has a positive impact on GDP growth.

Hypothesis 2: Some level of adult education has a positive impact on GDP growth.

Hypothesis 3: A population segment with higher education has a positive impact by reducing the proportion of the population experiencing poverty.

Hypothesis 4: An increase in the level of adult education has a positive impact by reducing the proportion of the population experiencing poverty.

The widely used Mankiw-Romer-Weil model was applied in this study. The overall level of development of higher education and the popularisation of higher education were considered core elements that independently promote economic development and alleviate poverty. The following model was constructed by incorporating the variable of quality higher education into the Solow model:

where Y it refers to the output of i country in t year. The independent variables Qit and P it respectively represent the scale of development and the degree of popularisation of higher education in i country in t year. The following specific model was constructed:

The independent variables were the proportion of people aged 25–64 years with higher education (A) and the proportion of people aged 25–34 years with higher education within the same age group (B). The first variable reflects the population segment that has completed higher education and can work in the corresponding age group. The second reflects the degree of popularisation of higher education. The proportion of those who have completed higher education in relation to their peers is in the normal state, which can reflect the enrolment rate for the previous process of higher education, thus indicating the degree of popularisation of higher education.

The dependent variables were GDP and the poverty line (D). GDP is a measure the overall level of a country’s economic and social development. The poverty line refers to the proportion of people living on less than US$1.25 a day as a percentage of the country’s total population or the proportion of people living in poverty. Thus, it reflects the level of equity in social development. The figure of US$2.15 is used in the World Bank’s index and is based on the purchasing power parity in 2017 (see Table 1 ).

Data sources and selection of variables

This study measured the impact of the proportion of people aged 24–64 years and 25–34 years who had completed higher education in relation to their peers on GDP and the proportion of people living in poverty in 28 OECD countries. Specifically, this study assessed the impact of the overall level of development of higher education and the degree of its popularisation (the breadth of development of higher education) on GDP (the height of development of economic and social development) and the poverty line (the breadth of development of economic and social development). Data were sourced from the OECD database and the World Bank website covering the period 1995–2021. This study selected 38 OECD countries for this study: the United States, UK, France, Germany, Italy, Canada, Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Austria, Switzerland, Norway, Iceland, Denmark, Sweden, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Turkey, Japan, Finland, Australia, New Zealand, Mexico, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, South Korea, Slovakia, Chile, Slovenia, Estonia, Israel, Latvia, Lithuania Colombia and Costa Rica. Figure 1 shows the distribution of the 38 OECD countries. Of these countries, 20 were founding members of the OECD when it was established in 1961, while the remaining 18 subsequently became members. After 1994, OECD membership expanded rapidly. Five new members were added within three years. OECD then entered a period of accelerated development, and its operations and advancement reached an optimal stage. Therefore, this study selected data from the OECD database and the World Bank website covering the period 1995–2021 to explore the relationship between higher education and economic and social development in OECD member countries.

It expresses the geographical relations of the Atlantic region and simplifies the latitude and longitude lines and country symbols, highlighting the geographical distribution by highlighting OECD countries in color and other countries in apricot color.

The impact of the population segment with higher education on GDP growth

This study explored the impact of the population segment with higher education on GDP, taking the proportion of people aged 25–34 years who had completed higher education (B) and the proportion of people aged 25–64 years who had completed higher education (A) as the independent variables for the OLS regression. The square value of model R was 0.097, indicating that the two independent variables could explain 9.73% of the change in GDP. The model passed an F test ( F  = 46.137, p  = 0.000 < 0.05), indicating that at least one of the two independent variables impacted the GDP regression coefficient (C). The following formula was used:

The final analysis revealed that the regression coefficient value of A was 1.553 and the significance level was 0.01 ( t  = 7.141, p  = 0.000 < 0.01). Therefore, A had a significantly positive influence on C. Accordingly, the proportion of the population aged 25–64 years who had completed higher education, that is, the overall level of development of higher education was found to have a positive impact on GDP. The influence coefficient value was 1.533, indicating that an increase in the proportion of the population with completed higher education led to an increase in GDP.

The regression coefficient value of B was −0.813 at a 0.01 level of significance ( t  = −4.300, p  = 0.000 < 0.01), indicating that B had a significantly negative influence on C. The proportion of the population aged 25–34 years who had completed higher education, that is, the degree of popularisation of higher education had a negative effect on GDP, and the influence coefficient value was −0.813.

The negative impact on economic and social development caused by an increase in the popularity of higher education and the proportion of young people’s higher education experience may be attributed to the excess capacity of higher education. The development of higher education should be adapted to the national context. An excess of higher education and a lack of investment lead to a rise in the social cost of education and a decline in social outputs, which hinder social and economic development. At the same time, young people aged between 25 and 34 years occupy the position of’ export’ in the education process. With the increasing popularity of higher education, the supply of talents in the labour market generated through the recruitment of former higher education exceeds the demand for graduates with higher education within recruiting organisations. Consequently, issues such as wasted educational resources and knowledge, unemployment, excessive education, excess talents, an imbalance in the structure of higher education, excessive expansion and decreasing compatibility undermine economic operations and hinder GDP growth.

In this study, the variance decomposition and Pearson coefficient based on covariance calculation were analyzed. The variable of the number of 25–34-year-old who have completed higher education as a percentage of their peers explains 50.74% of the change in GDP. The variable of the proportion of 25–64-year-old who have completed higher education explains 49.26% of the change in GDP. The variable of 25- to 34-year-olds who completed higher education as a percentage of their peers explained 45.88% of the change in poverty line. The variable of the proportion of people aged 25–64 who have completed higher education explains 54.12% of the change in GDP (See Table 2 ).

The proportion of people aged 25–34 who have completed higher education in their peers and the proportion of people aged 25–64 who have completed higher education in their peers, GDP and poverty line showed significant correlation coefficients. The correlation between the proportion of people who have completed higher education at the age of 25–34 and the proportion of people who have completed higher education at the age of 25–64 is 0.931, and shows a significance of 0.01, which indicates that there is a significant positive correlation between the proportion of people who have completed higher education at the age of 25–34 and the proportion of people who have completed higher education at the age of 25–64. The correlation between the proportion of the number of people who have completed higher education at the age of 25–34 and the GDP is 0.209, and the significance is 0.01, which indicates that there is a significant positive correlation between the number of people who have completed higher education at the age of 25–34 and the GDP. The correlation between the number of people who have completed higher education and the poverty line at the age of 25–34 is −0.365, with a significance of 0.01, indicating a significant negative correlation between the number of people who have completed higher education and the poverty line at the age of 25–34 (See Table 2 ).

White test and BP test were used in this study. The test null hypothesis is that the model has no heteroscedasticity. The table above shows that both tests reject the null hypothesis ( p  < 0.05), indicating that the model does have heteroscedasticity. When there is a heteroscedasticity problem, Robust and robust standard false regression is used (See Table 3 ).

The impact of a population segment with higher education on the poverty line

This study also explored the impact of a population segment with higher education on the poverty line. Specifically, this study performed an OLS regression in which the proportion of people aged 25–34 years who had completed higher education (B) and the proportion of those aged 25–64 years who had completed higher education (A) were the independent variables. As Table 2 shows, the R squared value was 0.134. This means that variables A and B could explain 13.37% of the change in the poverty line (D). The model passed the F test ( F  = 48.771, p  = 0.000 < 0.05), which means that at least one variable (A or B) had an impact on the poverty line. The formula for the change in the poverty line was expressed as follows:

The final analysis revealed that the regression coefficient value of the proportion of people aged 25–64 years who had completed higher education (A) was 0.005 but with no significance ( t  = 0.428, p  = 0.669 > 0.05), indicating that the population segment with higher education did not have an impact on the poverty line.

The regression coefficient value of the proportion of people aged 25–34 years who had completed higher education (B) was −0.048 at a significance level of 0.01 ( t  = −4.305, p  = 0.000 < 0.01), which means that in relation to their peers, the proportion of people aged 25–34 years who had completed higher education had a significantly negative impact on the proportion of poor people. A higher proportion of people aged 25–34-years who had completed higher education corresponded to a higher penetration rate of higher education and a lower proportion of those living in poverty. This phenomenon can be attributed to OECD’s support for the development of higher education in various countries. When the development of higher education reaches a certain level, the reduction of the proportion of the population segment experiencing poverty will no longer be affected by a simple expansion of the scale of extended higher education and the superposition of the total number of highly educated human resources. It will be influenced more by the reasonable distribution of educational resources and educational equity within higher education and its popularisation, that is, the increase in the proportion of the school-aged population aged 25–34 years based on the increase of the previous enrolment rate (see Table 4 ).

The effect of adult education on GDP growth

For quantile regression analysis, a total of nine models (with decimal points ranging from 0.10 to 0.90 and at intervals of 0.10) were estimated in this analysis, which aimed to explore the impact of the independent variables A and B on the dependent variable, GDP (C). When the quantile value was between 0.1 and 0.3, the proportion of the population aged 25–64 years who had completed higher education (A) had no significant positive impact on GDP growth, indicating that the development of higher education did not significantly affect economic and social development in poorer OECD countries. When the quantile value was between 0.4 and 0.6, the level of development of higher education had a significantly negative impact on economic and social development. Thus, for a country that had developed over a period, the advancement of higher education required multiple inputs, such as capital, material, and human resources.

During the early stage of the development of higher education, such inputs may, however, have a negative and weakening impact on social and economic development. The added cost of education and the lag between the output of educational achievements and the input of talents puts increased pressure on economic and social development during a certain period. When the quantile value was 0.7 or higher, the improvement of the overall level of higher education had a significantly positive impact on GDP growth, indicating the realisation of the talent training outcomes of higher education. Teaching and research outcomes were thus transformed into socially productive resources and power, with talents with higher education contributing to economic and social development.

When the quantile value was 0.1, the proportion of people aged 25–34 years who had completed higher education in relation to their peers (variable B), indicating the popularisation of higher education, had no significant impact on GDP growth. Thus, in extremely backward countries, the popularisation of higher education had little effect on economic and social development. When the quantile value ranged between 0.2 and 0.6, the popularisation of higher education had a significantly positive effect on GDP growth, indicating its contribution to economic growth.

When the quantile value was 0.7, the influence of variable B on variable C was no longer significant, indicating that social development would soon face the problem of overcapacity in higher education. When it exceeded 0.7, the ratio of eligible people aged 25–34 years who had completed higher education in relation to their peers had a significantly negative impact on GDP growth, revealing that with the development of the economy, society and education, higher education had become overexpanded. Thus, the cost of investing in education exceeded the social benefits, leading to overcapacity whereby the supply of higher education talents exceeded the demand. This situation led to wasted educational resources and excessive competition of talents, hindering economic growth (See Table 5 ).

The increased level of adult education and the proportion of the population experiencing poverty

Using the same model, this study explored the influence of the independent variables, A and B, on the poverty line (dependent variable D). The proportion of the population aged 25–64 years who had completed higher education (independent variable A) had no significant influence on the proportion of the population living in poverty, indicating that popularisation of education and economic and social development have been achieved to a certain extent in OECD countries, and improvements targeting the population experiencing poverty could no longer be achieved simply by increasing the volume and quantity of higher education. When the quantile value was 0.1, the proportion of people aged 25–34 years who had completed higher education in relation to their peers (independent variable B) had no significant effect on the proportion of the population experiencing poverty (dependent variable D). Therefore, the strategy of increasing higher education enrolment and the ratio of the eligible population through the fair allocation of educational resources, and thus the popularisation of education, would not be effective for a small population segment experiencing poverty. In other words, the population segment experiencing poverty in highly developed countries is less receptive to the popularisation of higher education. When the quantile value was 0.2, the independent variable, B, had a significantly positive impact on the dependent variable D, that is, an increase in the popularity of higher education led to an increase in the population segment experiencing poverty. This phenomenon can be interpreted as reflecting the inherent disadvantages of the welfare state in the field of education. A rise in the number of eligible young people aged 25–34 years who have completed higher education reflects the development trend of higher education towards fairness and popularisation following the redistribution of higher education resources.

The fair distribution of higher education resources leads to a lack of competition in the areas of teaching and career development. To a certain extent, reducing students’ willingness and enthusiasm to work may lead to poverty caused by the failure to achieve teaching results. When the quantile value was between 0.3 and 0.4, the independent variable, B, had no significant influence on the dependent variable D. In relatively poor countries, the popularisation of higher education contributes little to reducing the degree of poverty, so it may be necessary to explore ways of alleviating poverty from the perspective of improving the overall level and expanding the scale of basic higher education. When the quantile value was 0.5 or above, the independent variable B had a significantly negative impact on the dependent variable D, indicating that for countries with a relatively high proportion of their population experiencing poverty, the following strategy would be more effective.

Considering the quantile data, this study deemed that the degree of sensitivity of countries at different stages of economic development to the level of development and popularisation of higher education could be more intuitively evaluated using a radar map (see Fig. 2 ). Countries with sub-points 0.1–0.9 were defined along a spectrum as extremely backward, backward, moderately backward, slightly backward, moderate, preliminarily developed, moderately developed, developed, and highly developed. From the perspective of economic development, increasing the proportion of young people who complete higher education and popularising higher education had an obvious positive effect in backward and medium-developed countries, whereas the effect in highly developed countries was not obvious. Overall, the sensitivity of OECD countries to the high level of education penetration was found to be higher than the level of development of higher education. From the perspective of equitable economic development, the overall level of development of higher education had no significant impact on the poverty link in OECD countries, whereas OECD countries with differing economic development backgrounds and at varying stages of development evidenced relatively significant and stable sensitivity to the proportion of young and middle-aged people who completed higher education and the popularisation of higher education.

The dashed line represents the proportion of people aged 25–34 years who have completed higher education. The solid line represents the proportion of people aged 25–64 years who have completed higher education, the impact of the overall level of higher education.

Our findings indicated that population segments with higher education had a significantly positive impact on GDP growth in 38 OECD countries. An increase in the proportion of the population segment of working age who completed higher education was found to contribute to GDP growth. Moreover, an improvement in the popularity of higher education played a positive role during the initial stage of economic and social development.

At the same time, oversupply and overcapacity may result from a continuous improvement of higher education. A very large number of young people who have completed higher education can lead to excessive competition and wasted academic qualifications (Mathias, 2023 ; Megyesiova and Lieskovska, 2018 ). In turn, higher education knowledge unemployment, overinvestment, a structural imbalance, disorderly expansion and wasted resources can occur, which have detrimental impacts on economic operations.

Some studies have shown that strengthening the quality of higher education helps to improve cognitive abilities within the labour force, thereby enhancing the growth of the knowledge economy (Ainscow, 2020 ; Bamberger and Kim, 2022 ). Other studies have reported regional heterogeneity relating to the marginal effect of improving the quality of higher education on economic growth. Some scholars have analysed the influence of the quality of higher education on economic development from the perspective of human capital investment theory. Their findings indicate that the quality of higher education determines the composition and growth trend of social human capital. Because of differences in the degrees of development of different economies, the quality of higher education has a phased influence on economic growth (Balestra and Ruiz, 2015 ; Brand, 2021 ). Case studies of African developing countries by international scholars have revealed that quality factors are key to realising the economic development function of higher education. From the perspectives of both efficient financial investments by states in education poverty alleviation and the effects of economic, time and emotional investments of poor families and individuals in education poverty alleviation, it is necessary to take the return on education into consideration. Moreover, it is important to respond to reasonable concerns regarding the return on education for poor people and to strengthen their cognitive capacities to rationalise as well as their expectations regarding returns on education (Li et al., 2023 ). In this way, the intention to participate and behaviour of anti-poverty education will be generated, and the strategic upgrading of poverty alleviation combined with the promotion of aspirations and cognitive capacities will be emphasised.

Implications

Our use of panel data from 38 countries to deepen understanding of the effect of popularising higher education on economic growth and poverty reduction also has practical implications. The economic, social, and higher education undertakings in OECD countries evidence a certain level of development. The population segment with higher education has no significant impact on reducing the proportion of the population segment experiencing poverty. Simply increasing the proportion of people who complete higher education and expanding the scale of higher education will not effectively reduce poverty (Li and Xue, 2021 ). Providing more educational opportunities to poor people through the slanting of educational resources can help to reduce the proportion of poor people (Ainscow, 2020 ; Bamberger and Kim, 2022 ). For example, popularising higher education plays a key role to influence a country’s development level and scientific and technological innovation drives the deepening of a country’s economy (Bamberger and Kim, 2022 ). Technological progress is the core of economic growth, scientific and technological innovation brings technological change and development in all aspects, human capital promotes economic growth, and higher education trains talents and improves the capital attribute of human (Camilla, 2023 ). For endogenous economic growth theory, the economy does not rely on external forces to achieve sustained growth, and endogenous technological progress determines sustained economic growth. Popularising higher education worldwide brings the accumulation of human capital, improves the quality of workers, and scientific and technological innovation makes technological progress and high-quality economic development, practically. Human capital accumulation is also the process of continuous input of labour force, which covers the accumulation of human capital by labour force factors in formal education, training, and other learning processes. From the perspective of human capital, popularising higher education is the most direct and efficient way to promote the accumulation of human capital and improve the quality of labour force (Balestra and Ruiz, 2015 ; Brand, 2021 ). The popularisation degree of higher education is one of the important indicators to measure the development level of a country’s economic, and it is also the common trend of the development of higher education in all countries after World War II. In this transitional era, how to continue the achievements of higher education in the popular era and solve the existing problems as soon as possible is the heavy responsibility of our times. Therefore, at the initial stage of popularisation of higher education, it is necessary to re-examine the process of higher education popularisation globally and explore the internal logics between the popularisation of higher education and Sustainable Development Goal of inclusive and equitable quality education (Ainscow, 2020 ; Bamberger and Kim, 2022 ).

For policy suggestions, this study suggests that both national and local governments worldwide should pay much attention to the popularisation degree of higher education to greatly improve the innovative ability of talents and scientific and technological innovation in higher education. For example, they could promote scientific and technological innovation in an organised manner to serve national and regional economic and social development. Faced with the current situation in which global higher education has entered a stage of popularisation and new challenges and problems in serving regional economic and social development, national governments should continue to optimise the distribution and structure of higher education resources to support different regions, focusing on the major strategy of enhancing national competitiveness, serving economic and social development, and promoting common prosperity.

Contributions

This study novelty contributes on examining how popularising higher education affects economic growth and poverty alleviation, conceptually, methodologically, and practically. For instance, this study focuses on epitomising the conceptual and analytical model to explore the effects of higher education and adult education within populations (popularisation of higher education) on economic growth (gross domestic product; GDP) and the poverty line. In addition, this study novelty combines both Mankiw-Romer-Weil model Solow model to investigate the effects of higher education and adult education within populations on economic growth and the poverty through OLS regression model and quantile model. For the practical aspect, this study practically uncovers the implicit significance of the popularisation of higher education for advocating UNESCO’s aim of developing inclusive and equitable quality education to achieve the fourth Sustainable Development Goal.

Limitations

This study had some limitations. Data could have been collected from a larger sample of OECD countries to explore the effect of population segments with higher education and adult education (popularisation of higher education) on economic growth (GDP) and the poverty line. In addition, a qualitative component could be included in future studies to uncover the cultural and historical contexts of the effect of popularising higher education on economic growth and poverty reduction at the local level. Future studies should also investigate the causal relationship between the popularisation of higher education and economic growth. Additional empirical data and advanced research methods can be used to enable a shift from correlation to causality.

In conclusion, this study examined the effect of the population segment with higher education and adult education (popularisation of higher education) on economic growth (GDP) and the poverty line using panel data from 38 countries. The population segment with higher education was found to have a significant positive impact on promoting GDP growth. An increase in the proportion of the working-age population segment that had completed higher education was evidently conducive to GDP growth. Popularisation of higher education was also found to play a positive role in the initial stage of economic and social development.

Data availability

The data of OECD country GDP is retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=1W , The data of OECD country poverty line is retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?locations=1W&start=1984&view=chart , The data of OECD country Population with tertiary education 25–34-year-old is retrieved from https://data.oecd.org/eduatt/population-with-tertiary-education.htm#indicator-chart , The data of OECD country Percentage of 25–64-year old’s who have completed higher education (%) is retrieved from https://data.oecd.org/eduatt/adult-education-level.htm#indicator-chart , The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available in Harvard Dataverse https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/TP43QS .

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Acknowledgements

This study is funded by 2021 National Social Science Foundation of Higher Education Ideological and Political Course research (Key project) Ideological and Political Education System Construction System Mechanism Research in New Era (No.: 21VSZ004).

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Institute of International and Comparative Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China

China Institute of Education Policy, Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China

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Li, J., Xue, E., Wei, Y. et al. How popularising higher education affects economic growth and poverty alleviation: empirical evidence from 38 countries. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 520 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03013-5

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Times Higher Education’s most-read articles of 2023

International students, post-study work visas and opinion pieces captured readers’ attention this year.

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Those looking to understand the issues preoccupying academics, higher education professionals and students could do worse than to consult the annual Times Higher Education most-read list. This year it’s heavily populated by stories about international students and visa requirements, with countries including the UK, Canada and Australia reviewing their policies.

Expert opinion drew the largest readership in 2023, however. Op-eds claim the top four spots on the list, on subjects ranging from staff-student relationships to American disillusionment with higher education.

15. Canada aims to spread out international students across country

International students are a recurring theme in this year’s most-read list, with Canada, the UK and Australia all considering changes to their visa policies. In the former, the Trudeau administration announced plans to “more strategically distribute international students around Canada”, THE ’s North America editor Paul Basken reported. The country, one of the world’s top destinations for overseas students, has seen study permit applications from abroad rise from 313,000 in 2017 to 715,000 in 2022. The new measures are aimed at “ensuring the benefits of immigration are spread to all regions of the country”, said a spokesperson for Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC).

14. Sector fights plan to cut UK post-study work visa ‘to six months’

Post-study work visas came under government scrutiny in the UK this year, and THE readers took note. Rumours circulated early in the year that the visas would be cut from two years to six months, while only overseas students on postgraduate courses that are research-based or at least two years’ long would be permitted to bring dependants with them. At the time, Universities UK International director Jamie Arrowsmith told THE ’s Patrick Jack that “any threat to remove or limit the graduate route would severely impact on our ability to recruit international students”, resulting in a “significant negative impact on the UK’s economic growth”. Eleven months later, the ban on dependants is about to come into play , while the government has announced a “review” of the post-study work visa .

13. National Student Survey 2023: which university performed best?

To the disappointment of many , the latest version of the annual National Student Survey omitted a key question on student satisfaction. But analysis by THE determined that students at the University of St Andrews were the most positive about their courses, with a positivity measure of 87 per cent across the remaining questions in the survey. Coming in second was the University of West London with 86 per cent, making it the top provider in England, while Aberystwyth University (85 per cent) scored the highest among Welsh institutions and the University of Ulster (83 per cent) came out on top in Northern Ireland.

12. Mass resignations from Elsevier journal over ‘unethical’ price hike

Open-access fees remained a subject of controversy in 2023. In April, the 40-strong editorial board of the Elsevier neuroscience journal NeuroImage announced their resignation after the publisher increased their article processing charge (APC) from $3,000 (£2,350) to $3,450 (£2,700). In an open letter, the editors – who subsequently launched a non-profit journal, Imaging Neuroscience – called large profits “unethical and unsustainable”, noting previous efforts to persuade Elsevier to reduce the APC. “Scientists and funders increasingly feel that it is wrong for publishers to make such high profits, particularly given that the publishers do not fund the original science, or the writing of articles, or payments to reviewers, and pay minimal editorial stipends,” the statement read.

11. UK’s post-study visa ‘not attracting skilled workers’

In the second (but not the last) appearance of the UK’s visa policies on this year’s most-read list, Patrick Jack covered a report by the Migration Advisory Committee (MAC), an independent non-departmental public body that advises the government. The MAC’s annual report said that the two-year graduate route had been a “resounding success” in increasing international student numbers, but less so in attracting skilled workers, with many students going on to enter low-wage roles. The committee also warned that the aforementioned ban on dependants could bring “potentially harmful consequences” for some overseas students.

10. Tougher UK visa requirements will hit postdocs, ERC head warns

Alongside plans to review the post-study work visa, home secretary James Cleverly also announced an almost 50 per cent increase in the salary required to obtain a skilled worker visa , prompting concern among sector leaders (and, evidently, THE readers). Maria Leptin, president of the European Research Council, called the change “bitter news” that “will affect postdocs”, adding: “I hope there’ll be a rethink of that”. Others reacted more directly. University of Oxford professor Ben Sheldon wrote on social media, “UK science is screwed”.

9. Nearly 20,000 students withdraw from UK courses

The cost-of-living crisis continued to affect undergraduates in the UK this year: data from the Student Loans Company revealed that almost 20,000 students withdrew from their courses between the start of the 2022-23 academic year and 21 February. That was a drop of 1 per cent from the figures a year earlier – but a significant increase on every other year since such figures began to be collected in 2018-2019. Laura Brown, Save the Student’s head of editorial, called the numbers “concerning”, telling THE , “Unfortunately for many, money is likely to be a significant factor in this decision, highlighting the urgent need for the government to improve maintenance funding to prevent more students from dropping out.”

8. Will a PhD make you better off? Not until 33 years later

As ever, PhD careers stories proved popular with THE readers this year. Jack Grove’s report wasn’t the most encouraging: according to a new study, while PhD graduates enjoy a “pay premium” of about £3 an hour more than master’s degree holders, it will take the former an average of 33 years to catch up financially on the latter thanks to the costs of earning their doctorates. “It is very likely that PhDs will always have a decent income, or more than decent,” said study author Giulio Marini, who said the doctoral graduates with the greatest financial payoffs were those who entered managerial roles. “However, considering the time to get it, the main issue is, ‘How could I pass from just decent into something more?’ Leadership is our answer.”

7. Australia cuts post-study work visas by two years

Another visa story makes the most-read list: this time, Australia’s December U-turn on the extension to post-study work rights announced only 15 months before. Asia-Pacific editor John Ross covered the migration strategy released by the federal government, which saw post-study work visas cut by two years, the age limit for temporary graduate visa applicants slashed from 50 to 35 and English language requirements tightened. Peter Hurley, director of Victoria University ’s Mitchell Institute, said the changes would primarily affect vocational education and training (VET) colleges, with the higher education sector seeing limited impact.

6. PhD by publication ‘not an option’ at most UK universities

Back to PhDs: according to a review of research degree policies across 135 UK universities, just one in three published guidance on how students can complete a PhD by publication, an alternative route to the traditional doctoral thesis. The study, published in Perspectives: Policy and Practice in Higher Education , found that 58 per cent of Russell Group universities awarded PhDs by publication, but there was a “tendency for post-92 institutions not to offer an alternative format option”. Author Caitlin Robinson of the University of Bristol told THE : “PhDs by publication are often gained by those with a substantial body of work who want a doctorate – they need to be supported so they can develop a coherent project with the traditional structure, terminology and context that you would find with a traditional PhD.”

5. Indian states blacklisted as Australian visa rejections soar

In March, John Ross reported that some Australian universities were banning students from the states of Haryana, Punjab and Gujarat – just as politicians including prime minister Anthony Albanese and education minister Jason Clare were embarking on a political charm offensive to celebrate research and educational ties with India. The Association of Australian Education Representatives in India (AAERI) called the move “grossly unfair and discriminatory”, with president Ravi Lochan Singh writing in a letter to Mr Clare, “AAERI understands that there might have been higher instances of student visa refusals from certain regions in India but that should not bar genuine students from being considered.”

4. Should universities ban staff-student relationships?

Opinion pieces made up the top four most-read articles on THE this year. At number four, a piece that sparked lengthy conversation among our readers: as the Office for Students proposed a blanket ban on sexual relationships between academics and students across English universities, two writers offered differing views. Lincoln Allison, emeritus professor of politics at the University of Warwick , argued that “attempts to regulate physical or emotional relations between staff and students in a university are conceptually weak and largely impractical”, while an anonymous contributor shared their experience of grooming by an academic who became their PhD supervisor, writing, “The power dynamic between staff and the students they teach or supervise is ripe for abuse.”

3. UK degree classifications are no longer fit for purpose

In early 2023, the global banking group Santander became the latest in a string of major firms to drop its requirement for UK graduate hires to possess an upper-second-class honours degree or higher. In response, Zahir Irani, deputy vice-chancellor of the University of Bradford , made the case for new assessment criteria. “Traditional UK degree classes are too broad and vague to be significant any more for sorting an increasingly diverse set of graduates into career echelons,” Professor Irani wrote. “Employers – and societies more generally – want capable people. And they want to be rid of any apparatus that appears to be a barrier to fair appraisal and progress.”

2. Thank you ChatGPT for exposing the banality of undergraduate essays

ChatGPT is alarmingly good at replicating the “worst version” of college essays, wrote Colm O’Shea, clinical associate professor with the expository writing programme at New York University . Such essays resembled “an echo chamber, a neat summation of critical consensus” – and students had been producing them long before AI, he said. The ChatGPT crisis might, therefore, be the perfect opportunity to reinvigorate academic writing. “An engaged academic could return the essay to its proper Montaignian heritage: a divergent and creative exploration of possibilities,” Dr O’Shea argued.

1. US states are turning their backs on bachelor’s degrees. Work is needed

The most-read article on THE this year concerned the US’ plummeting faith in university education. In March, the governor of North Carolina followed governors in Alaska, Maryland, Pennsylvania and Utah in dropping the requirement of a four-year degree for most state jobs, at a time when college enrolments were declining and public opinion polls reflected historically low support for higher education. In response, Stephen Handel of the ECMC Foundation and Eileen Strempel of the University of California, Los Angeles called for “skills-based, competency-centred learning” to become more central to college curriculums. “Our higher education degrees must not only be linked more directly to the world of work, but we must also honour skills and knowledge gained on the job,” they wrote.

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Greater Good Science Center • Magazine • In Action • In Education

Our Best Education Articles of 2022

Our most popular education articles of 2022 explore how to help students feel connected to each other and cultivate character strengths like curiosity and humility, amid the many stressors and pressures that young people are facing today. They also offer support for educators’ and school leaders’ well-being, and reflect on hopes for transformative change in education. 

If you are looking for specific activities to support your students’ and colleagues’ social and emotional well-being in 2023, visit our  Greater Good in Education  website, featuring free research-based practices, lessons, and strategies for cultivating kinder, happier, and more equitable classrooms and schools. For a deeper dive into the science behind social-emotional learning, mindfulness, and ethical development, consider our suite of self-paced  online courses  for educational professionals, including our capstone course,  Teaching and Learning for the Greater Good . Or join one of our new communities of practice that focus on educator well-being, offering space for rest, reflection, togetherness, and hope—and some science, too!

Here are the 12 best education articles of 2022, based on a composite ranking of pageviews and editors’ picks.


Six Ways to Find Your Courage During Challenging Times , by Amy L. Eva: Courage doesn’t have to look dramatic or fearless. Sometimes it looks more like quiet perseverance.

Calm, Clear, and Kind: What Students Want From Their Teachers , by Jenna Whitehead: Researchers asked students what makes a caring teacher—and these same qualities may help support your well-being as an educator.

How to Help Teens Put Less Pressure on Themselves , by Karen Bluth: Self-compassion can help teens who are struggling with toxic perfectionism. Five Ways to Support the Well-Being of School Leaders , by Julia Mahfouz, Kathleen King, and Danny Yahya: Burnout rates are high among principals. How can we fight burnout and promote self-care?

How to Help Your Students Develop Positive Habits , by Arthur Schwartz: Small habits repeated regularly can help students cultivate character strengths like patience, gratitude, and kindness.

Can We Make Real, Transformative Change in Education? , by Renee Owen: A new program is preparing leaders to facilitate systemic change in education in order to better serve all students.

Five Ways to Help Students Feel Connected at School Again , by Jennifer de Forest and Karen VanAusdal: According to students themselves, they are yearning for opportunities to connect with friends and peers as they head back to school.

How to Prepare for the Stresses of College , by Erin T. Barker and Andrea L. Howard: Researchers explain the most common causes of stress and distress at college, and what students can do to thrive during a big life transition.

How Humility Can Make Your Students the Best People Ever , by Vicki Zakrzewski: Simple ways for educators to help students move from “me” to “we.”

Four Ways to Inspire Humble Curiosity in Your Students , by Amy L. Eva: Humility and curiosity can encourage students to be passionate about learning and open to others’ perspectives.

What Middle Schoolers Can Teach Us About Respect , by Sara E. Rimm-Kaufman and Lia E. Sandilos: Teens are developing a nuanced understanding of what respect means. Here are some ideas for cultivating more of it in the classroom.

Why Teachers Need Each Other Right Now , by Amy L. Eva: Here are four simple ways to find social support as an educational professional.

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8 top trends in higher education to watch in 2024

8 best higher education trends to watch.

• Cost factors hit a tipping point
• Student power peaks
• Bite-sized credentialing and micro-education rules
• A diversity explosion fuels the global campus
• Choose your own education
• A turn toward teaching emerges
• Immersive learning accelerates
• Tech lands on campus

It’s no surprise that U.S. university enrollment has struggled to recover from COVID-19. Enrollment dropped off during lockdowns, with over 20 percent fewer students enrolling straight from high school in fall 2020 than the year before.

However, most administrators expected students to return to classrooms when the crisis ended. They haven’t. Instead, the pandemic accelerated declines that have progressed for over a decade, starting in 2012 and hitting crisis levels during the height of remote education.

Other trends are impacting higher education, too. From international recruiting to a location-based tech revolution, here are eight trends to watch — and how higher education professionals can meet these challenges in 2024.

1. Cost factors hit a tipping point

It all started with the Great Recession of 2008. States cut spending on post-secondary institutions, leaving students to make up the difference. At the same time, U.S. families had half a million fewer children .

Fast forward 18 years.

Fewer students from this small cohort attend university than ever, down to roughly 62 percent of the nation’s high school graduates (from a high of 70 percent in 2009). That’s led colleges to make up the enrollment shortfall, with tuition rising at twice the cost of living. The result? Even fewer students decide to enroll.

It all adds up to fewer students and high competition at a time when administrative costs also hit new highs. And here’s a warning: We’re still three years away from the first Great Recession babies heading to college. In the meantime, expect heightened competition among post-secondary institutions, with marketing budgets stretched more than ever, and a glut of new entrepreneurial ideas designed to make schools profitable.

2. Student power peaks

One way to entice new students is to ask them exactly what they want and provide it. You’ll see more and more hybrid and remote offerings . You’ll also be more likely to find flexible and asynchronous learning formats built to accommodate a more diverse array of learners, including people who are already in the workforce. Some trends we’ve seen include:

• Allowing students to work outside of a semester schedule
• Eradicating general education requirements
• Offering year-round programs that get students into the job market faster
• Reimagining in-person education with a “low-residency” option

Similarly, universities are increasingly leaning into interdisciplinary, team-taught, self-taught, and cross-department courses, unique majors, and individualized combinations. In fact, students are graduating with interdisciplinary degrees 20 percent more frequently than they did 10 years ago.

You’ll also see universities strike out into less practical areas to cater to student desires. That includes offering perks like the University of Northern Colorado’s pet-friendly student housing or MIT’s residence hall ball pit . With fewer students in their pipelines, creative approaches to meeting students’ desires will continue to dominate.

3. Bite-sized credentialing and micro-education rules

Part of students’ newfound clout comes from the reality that fewer high school graduates are pursuing a college education. When asked, 56 percent of Americans in 2023 said a four-year degree wasn’t worth the cost.

There are more alternatives for high school graduates. For example, the average cost of coding boot camps is less than $11,000, with some providing guaranteed job placement. They also take a fraction of the time students spend on four-year degrees.

Further, universities take an average of six years and over $2 million to develop a course of study in a world where job roles and industries seem to be changing overnight. By the time a university offers a new major, students are already afraid it could be obsolete on the job market.

Universities are increasing the smorgasbord of small, up-to-the-minute credentials they provide. Rather than a four-year course of study with a nebulous payoff, “unbundling” capitalizes on the premise students are more likely to opt for a short course with an immediate credential and a clear benefit. And like the industry-disrupting unbundling of cable TV services, it can be both a concern and an opportunity for the universities watching this trend. Nevertheless, expect institutions to keep pushing to meet student worries about cost by offering more credentials for upskilling or career advancement.

4. A diversity explosion fuels the global campus

Since the economic costs of college-educated faculty and staff are only rising, universities are looking for higher tuition from out-of-state and international students . Consequently, they compete with other universities for these coveted applications and increasingly shift their offerings to appeal to a global cohort (and a more internally diverse student body, as evidenced by more flexible coursework).

Feeling more welcome, the number of international students on U.S. campuses has increased steeply in the 2010s, nearly doubling in number from 2003-2004. Schools have responded with increased digital marketing internationally, partnerships with other universities to recruit abroad, and offering student ambassadors ready to chat or share videos about their experience.

With more than a million students in the country for the first time since the pandemic started, 2024 is the year that universities can build momentum and solidify their recruitment channels.

5. Choose your own education

In October 2023, just over a third of Americans said they had “a great deal” or “quite a lot” of confidence in post-secondary education. That’s not very many, representing a decline from just a few years ago. As students compare universities, they increasingly demand a highly personalized education, not a cookie-cutter experience.

One futuristic suggestion is to provide AI-based support systems for lower-performing students throughout the semester: AI can help give personalized feedback, increasing individual attention and engagement while minimizing drop-out and failure rates. Look at the University of Michigan’s MWrite program, which uses AI to allow students in large classes to complete writing-intensive assignments and get personal feedback on their work.

6. A turn toward teaching emerges

While universities focus more and more on scalable profitability, another, opposing trend is at work: greater student demand for a personalized education. As a result, the decades-long reliance on adjunct and contingent faculty is beginning to weaken as professors’ expertise starts to show its worth.

After all, as universities compete for students, they must also tout the personalization students demand. That might come in the form of showing off high university rankings, which require rockstar researchers (expensive, but not necessarily tied to improved teaching) or low student-to-teacher ratios (expensive). It might include office hours, small group discussions, and fewer graduate assistants taking on entire course sections. It may also be that, with fewer students believing a college education can help them get ahead, universities with their own “ servant class ” of instructors can simply confirm student fears that education doesn’t pay.

With 12 contingent faculty strikes this year and the pandemic’s Great Resignation hitting academia , universities are even more aware that meeting student needs starts with fostering one-of-a-kind relationships with mentors who aren’t too busy dashing off to their second jobs.

7. Immersive learning accelerates

Providing students with better learning experiences doesn’t have to fall entirely on the shoulders of faculty.

VR and AR-augmented tools are flooding onto campuses to bridge the gap. From programs that offer stress-free public speaking instruction to digital archaeology, universities are finding ways to increase student understanding with headsets and digital partnerships. Take the Giza Project , headquartered at Harvard but incorporating artifacts from archives across Africa, Europe, and North America.

Confined initially to fields like anatomy, expect to see AR and VR exploding across curricula to help students test hypotheses, examine artifacts, and view distant places. If you haven’t explored how your students can have virtual conversations in foreign languages or get a cockpit view of the 1943 Berlin air raid, you surely will soon.

8. Tech lands on campus

Students are used to accessing campus resources through digital platforms like Moodle and Blackboard. They’re also seeing new technology deployed in person and all around campus.

For instance, do your students carry ID cards that open particular doors, allow them to pay for food and services, check out library books, and even get them on the local bus? Do they download public safety apps that allow them to upload videos and report crimes while pinpointing their location and remaining anonymous?

And if a natural disaster or safety issue occurs on campus, are students who enter specific areas notified of a problem by text?

Universities are even getting on board to install sensors that safeguard campus buildings, setting off alarms when an unauthorized visitor enters and identifying troubling behavior from visitors right when it starts. Sensors can identify gunfire, adjust the temperature, detect floods, and track how students use rooms so that universities can add more resources or redesign features.

From keeping track of campus equipment to identifying threats, the “smart campus” is only getting bigger in 2024.

Many of 2024’s trends emerged from the investment in digital solutions that COVID-19 lockdowns helped accelerate. With new tools in their tool belts, it’s only natural that university administrators are using them to try to solve more recent challenges. Addressing the so-called “enrollment cliff” and doubling down on technology is foremost on their minds.

After all, moving more university functions online is a simple way to meet student needs efficiently. With Jotform Enterprise for education , students can submit scholarship applications, check in for academic advising, evaluate courses, and more in a simple, safe, online way. Plus, submitted data can go straight to your customer relationship management (CRM) tool with integrations that keep your university’s tech life running smoothly.

With tools like Jotform, you’ll be better equipped to meet the challenges of the coming year and beyond.

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Effective Teaching Methods in Higher Education: Requirements and Barriers

Nahid shirani bidabadi.

1 Psychology and Educational Sciences School, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran;

AHMMADREZA NASR ISFAHANI

Amir rouhollahi.

2 Department of English, Management and Information School, Isfahan University of Medical Science, Isfahan, Iran;

ROYA KHALILI

3 Quality Improvement in Clinical Education Research Center, Education Development Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

Introduction:

Teaching is one of the main components in educational planning which is a key factor in conducting educational plans. Despite the importance of good teaching, the outcomes are far from ideal. The present qualitative study aimed to investigate effective teaching in higher education in Iran based on the experiences of best professors in the country and the best local professors of Isfahan University of Technology.

This qualitative content analysis study was conducted through purposeful sampling. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten faculty members (3 of them from the best professors in the country and 7 from the best local professors). Content analysis was performed by MAXQDA software. The codes, categories and themes were explored through an inductive process that began from semantic units or direct quotations to general themes.

According to the results of this study, the best teaching approach is the mixed method (student-centered together with teacher-centered) plus educational planning and previous readiness. But whenever the teachers can teach using this method confront with some barriers and requirements; some of these requirements are prerequisite in professors' behavior and some of these are prerequisite in professors’ outlook. Also, there are some major barriers, some of which are associated with the professors’ operation and others are related to laws and regulations. Implications of these findings for teachers’ preparation in education are discussed.

Conclusion:

In the present study, it was illustrated that a good teaching method helps the students to question their preconceptions, and motivates them to learn, by putting them in a situation in which they come to see themselves as the authors of answers, as the agents of responsibility for change. But training through this method has some barriers and requirements. To have an effective teaching; the faculty members of the universities should be awarded of these barriers and requirements as a way to improve teaching quality. The nationally and locally recognized professors are good leaders in providing ideas, insight, and the best strategies to educators who are passionate for effective teaching in the higher education. Finally, it is supposed that there is an important role for nationally and locally recognized professors in higher education to become more involved in the regulation of teaching rules.

Introduction

Rapid changes of modern world have caused the Higher Education System to face a great variety of challenges. Therefore, training more eager, thoughtful individuals in interdisciplinary fields is required ( 1 ). Thus, research and exploration to figure out useful and effective teaching and learning methods are one of the most important necessities of educational systems ( 2 ); Professors have a determining role in training such people in the mentioned field ( 3 ). A university is a place where new ideas germinate; roots strike and grow tall and sturdy. It is a unique space, which covers the entire universe of knowledge. It is a place where creative minds converge, interact with each other and construct visions of new realities. Established notions of truth are challenged in the pursuit of knowledge. To be able to do all this, getting help from experienced teachers can be very useful and effective.

Given the education quality, attention to students’ education as a main product that is expected from education quality system is of much greater demand in comparison to the past. There has always been emphasis on equal attention to research and teaching quality and establishing a bond between these two before making any decision; however, studies show that the already given attention to research in universities does not meet the educational quality requirements.

Attention to this task in higher education is considered as a major one, so in their instruction, educators must pay attention to learners and learning approach; along with these two factors, the educators should move forward to attain new teaching approaches. In the traditional system, instruction was teacher-centered and the students’ needs and interests were not considered. This is when students’ instruction must change into a method in which their needs are considered and as a result of the mentioned method active behavior change occurs in them ( 4 ). Moreover, a large number of graduated students especially bachelor holders do not feel ready enough to work in their related fields ( 5 ). Being dissatisfied with the status quo at any academic institution and then making decision to improve it require much research and assistance from the experts and pioneers of that institute. Giving the aforementioned are necessary, especially in present community of Iran; it seems that no qualitative study has ever been carried out in this area drawing on in-depth reports of recognized university faculties; therefore, in the present study the new global student-centered methods are firstly studied and to explore the ideas of experienced university faculties, some class observations and interviews were done. Then, efficient teaching method and its barriers and requirements were investigated because the faculty ideas about teaching method could be itemized just through a qualitative study.

The study was conducted with a qualitative method using content analysis approach. The design is appropriate for this study because it allows the participants to describe their experiences focusing on factors that may improve the quality of teaching in their own words. Key participants in purposeful sampling consist of three nationally recognized professors introduced based on the criteria of Ministry of Science, Research and Technology (based on education, research, executive and cultural qualifications) and seven other locally recognized professors according to Isfahan University of Technology standards and students votes. The purposive sampling continued until the saturation was reached, i.e. no further information was obtained for the given concept. All the participants had a teaching experience of above 10 years ( Table 1 ). They were first identified and after making appointments, they were briefed about the purpose of the study and they expressed their consent for the interview to be performed. The lack of female nationally recognized professors among respondents (due to lack of them) are restrictions of this research.

The participants’ characteristics

The data were collected using semi-structured in-depth interviews. Interviews began with general topics, such as “Talk about your experiences in effective teaching” and then the participants were asked to describe their perceptions of their expertise. Probing questions were also used to deeply explore conditions, processes, and other factors that the participants recognized as significant. The interview process was largely dependent on the questions that arose in the interaction between the interviewer and interviewees.

In the process of the study, informed consent was obtained from all the participants and they were ensured of the anonymity of their responses and that the audio files will be removed after use; then, after obtaining permission from the participants, the interview was recorded and transcribed verbatim immediately. The interviews were conducted in a private and quiet place and in convenient time. Then, verification of documents and coordination for subsequent interviews were done. The interviews lasted for one hour on average and each interview was conducted in one session with the interviewer’s notes or memos and field notes. Another method of data collection in this study was an unstructured observation in the educational setting. The investigator observed the method of interactions among faculty members and students. The interviews were conducted from November 2014 to April 2015. Each participant was interviewed for one or two sessions. The mean duration of the interviews was 60 minutes. To analyze the data, we used MAXQDA software (version 10, package series) for indexing and charting. Also, we used qualitative content analysis with a conventional approach to analyze the data. The data of the study were directly collected from the experiences of the study participants. The codes, categories and themes were explored through an inductive process, in which the researchers moved from specific to general. The consequently formulated concepts or categories were representative of the participants’ experiences. In content analysis at first, semantic units should be specified, and then the related codes should be extracted and categorized based on their similarities. Finally, in the case of having a high degree of abstraction, the themes can be determined. In the conventional approach, the use of predetermined classes is avoided and classes and their names are allowed to directly come out of the data. To do so, we read the manuscripts and listened to the recorded data for several times until an overall sense was attained. Then, the manuscript was read word by word and the codes were extracted. At the same time, the interviews were continued with other participants and coding of the texts was continued and sub-codes were categorized within the general topics. Then, the codes were classified in categories based on their similarities ( 6 ). Finally, by providing a comprehensive description about the topics, participants, data collection and analysis procedures and limitations of the study, we intend to create transferability so that other researchers clearly follow the research process taken by the researchers.

To improve the accuracy and the rigor of the findings, Lincoln and Cuba’s criteria, including credibility, dependability, conformability, and transferability, were used ( 7 ). To ensure the accuracy of the data, peer review, the researchers’ acceptability, and the long and continuing evaluation through in-depth, prolonged, and repeated interviews and the colleague’s comments must be used ( 8 ). In addition, the findings were repeatedly assessed and checked by supervisors (expert checking) ( 9 ). In this research, the researcher tried to increase the credibility of the data by keeping prolonged engagement in the process of data collection. Then, the accuracy of data analysis was confirmed by one specialist in the field of qualitative research and original codes were checked by some participants to compare the findings with the participants’ experiences. To increase the dependability and conformability of data, maximum variation was observed in the sampling. In addition, to increase the power of data transferability, adequate description of the data was provided in the study for critical review of the findings by other researchers.

Ethical considerations

The aim of the research and interview method was explained to the participants and in the process of the study, informed consent was obtained from all the participants and they were ensured of the anonymity of their responses and that audio files were removed after use. Informed consent for interview and its recording was obtained.

The mean age of faculty members in this study was 54.8 years and all of them were married. According to the results of the study, the best teaching approach was the mixed method one (student-centered with teacher-centered) plus educational planning and previous readiness. Meaning units expressed by professors were divided into 19 codes, 4 categories and 2 themes. In the present study, regarding the Effective Teaching Method in Higher Education, Requirements and Barriers, the experiences and perceptions of general practitioners were explored. As presented in Table 2 , according to data analysis, two themes containing several major categories and codes were extracted. Each code and category is described in more details below.

Examples of extracting codes, categories and themes from raw data

New teaching methods and barriers to the use of these methods

Teachers participating in this study believed that teaching and learning in higher education is a shared process, with responsibilities on both student and teacher to contribute to their success. Within this shared process, higher education must engage the students in questioning their preconceived ideas and their models of how the world works, so that they can reach a higher level of understanding. But students are not always equipped with this challenge, nor are all of them driven by a desire to understand and apply knowledge, but all too often aspire merely to survive the course, or to learn only procedurally in order to get the highest possible marks before rapidly moving on to the next subject. The best teaching helps the students to question their preconceptions, and motivates them to learn, by putting them in a situation in which their existing model does not work and in which they come to see themselves as authors of answers, as agents of responsibility for change. That means, the students need to be faced with problems which they think are important. Also, they believed that most of the developed countries are attempting to use new teaching methods, such as student-centered active methods, problem-based and project-based approaches in education. For example, the faculty number 3 said:

“In a project called EPS (European Project Semester), students come together and work on interdisciplinary issues in international teams. It is a very interesting technique to arouse interest, motivate students, and enhance their skills (Faculty member No. 3).”

The faculty number 8 noted another project-based teaching method that is used nowadays especially to promote education in software engineering and informatics is FLOSS (Free/Liber Open Source Software). In recent years, this project was used to empower the students. They will be allowed to accept the roles in a project and, therefore, deeply engage in the process of software development.

In Iran, many studies have been conducted about new teaching methods. For example, studies by Momeni Danaie ( 10 ), Noroozi ( 11 ), and Zarshenas ( 12 ), have shown various required methods of teaching. They have also concluded that pure lecture, regardless of any feedback ensuring the students learning, have lost their effectiveness. The problem-oriented approach in addition to improving communication skills among students not only increased development of critical thinking but also promoted study skills and an interest in their learning ( 12 ).

In this study, the professors noted that there are some barriers to effective teaching that are mentioned below:

As to the use of new methods of training such as problem-based methods or project-based approach, faculty members No. 4 and 9 remarked that "The need for student-centered teaching is obvious but for some reasons, such as the requirement in the teaching curriculum and the large volume of materials and resources, using these methods is not feasible completely" (Faculty member No. 9).

"If at least in the form of teacher evaluation, some questions were allocated to the use of project-based and problem-based approaches, teachers would try to use them further" (Faculty member No. 2).

The faculty members No. 6 and 7 believed that the lack of motivation in students and the lack of access to educational assistants are considered the reasons for neglecting these methods.

"I think one of the ways that can make student-centered education possible is employing educational assistants (Faculty member No. 6).”

"If each professor could attend crowded classes with two or three assistants, they could divide the class into some groups and assign more practical teamwork while they were carefully supervised (Faculty member No. 7).”

Requirements related to faculty outlook in an effective teaching

Having a successful and effective teaching that creates long-term learning on the part of the students will require certain feelings and attitudes of the teachers. These attitudes and emotions strongly influence their behavior and teaching. In this section, the attitudes of successful teachers are discussed.

Coordination with the overall organizational strategies will allow the educational system to move toward special opportunities for innovation based on the guidelines ( 13 ). The participants, 4, 3, 5 and 8 know that teaching effectively makes sense if the efforts of the professors are aligned with the goals of university.

"If faculty members know themselves as an inseparable part of the university, and proud of their employment in the university and try to promote the aim of training educated people with a high level of scientific expertise of university, it will become their goal, too. Thus, they will try as much as possible to attain this goal" (Faculty member No.9).

When a person begins to learn, according to the value of hope theory, he must feel this is an important learning and believe that he will succeed. Since the feeling of being successful will encourage individuals to learn, you should know that teachers have an important role in this sense ( 14 ). The interviewees’ number 1, 2, 3 and 10 considered factors like interest in youth, trust in ability and respect, as motivating factors for students.

Masters 7 and 8 signified that a master had a holistic and systematic view, determined the position of the teaching subject in a field or in the entire course, know general application of issues and determines them for students, and try to teach interdisciplinary topics. Interviewee No. 5 believed that: "Masters should be aware of the fact that these students are the future of the country and in addition to knowledge, they should provide them with the right attitude and vision" (Faculty member No.5).

Participants No. 2, 4 and 8 considered the faculty members’ passion to teach a lesson as responsible and believed that: "If the a teacher is interested in his field, he/she devotes more time to study the scriptures of his field and regularly updates his information; this awareness in his teaching and its influence on students is also very effective" (Faculty member No. 8).

Requirements related to the behavior and performance of faculty members in effective teaching

Teachers have to focus on mental differences, interest, and sense of belonging, emotional stability, practical experience and scientific level of students in training. Class curriculum planning includes preparation, effective transition of content, and the use of learning and evaluating teaching ( 15 ).

Given the current study subjects’ ideas, the following functional requirements for successful teaching in higher education can be proposed.

According to Choi and Pucker, the most important role of teachers is planning and controlling the educational process for students to be able to achieve a comprehensive learning ( 16 ).

"The fact that many teachers don’t have a predetermined plan on how to teach, and just collect what they should teach in a meeting is one reason for the lack of creativity in teaching" Faculty member No.4).

Klug and colleagues in an article entitled “teaching and learning in education” raise some questions and want the faculty members to ask themselves these questions regularly.

1- How to increase the students' motivation.

2- How to help students feel confident in solving problems.

3- How to teach students to plan their learning activities.

4- How to help them to carry out self-assessment at the end of each lesson.

5- How to encourage the students to motivate them for future work.

6- How I can give feedback to the students and inform them about their individual learning ( 14 ).

Every five faculty members who were interviewed cited the need to explain the lessons in plain language, give feedback to students, and explain the causes and reasons of issues.

"I always pay attention to my role as a model with regular self-assessment; I'm trying to teach this main issue to my students" (Faculty member No. 9).

Improving the quality of learning through the promotion of education, using pre-organizers and conceptual map, emphasizing the student-centered learning and developing the skills needed for employment are the strategies outlined in lifelong learning, particularly in higher education ( 17 ).

"I always give a five to ten-minute summary of the last topic to students at first; if possible, I build up the new lesson upon the previous one" (Faculty member No. 4).

The belief that creative talent is universal and it will be strengthened with appropriate programs is a piece of evidence to prove that innovative features of the programs should be attended to continually ( 18 ). Certainly, in addition to the enumerated powers, appropriate fields should be provided to design new ideas with confidence and purposeful orientation. Otherwise, in the absence of favorable conditions and lack of proper motivations, it will be difficult to apply new ideas ( 19 ). Teacher’s No. 3, 5 and 7 emphasized encouraging the students for creativity: "I always encourage the students to be creative when I teach a topic; for example, after teaching, I express some vague hints and undiscovered issues and ask them what the second move is to improve that process" (Faculty member No.3).

Senior instructors try to engage in self-management and consultation, tracking their usage of classroom management skills and developing action plans to modify their practices based on data. Through consultation, instructors work with their colleagues to collect and implement data to gauge the students’ strengths and weaknesses, and then use protocols to turn the weaknesses into strengths. The most effective teachers monitor progress and assess how their changed practices have impacted the students’ outcomes ( 20 ).

"It is important that what is taught be relevant to the students' career; however, in the future with the same information they have learned in university, they want to work in the industry of their country" (Faculty member No.1).

Skills in documenting the results of the process of teaching-learning cannot only facilitate management in terms of studying the records, but also provides easier access to up to date information ( 21 ). Faculty members No. 7 and 3 stressed the need for documenting learning experiences by faculty.

"I have a notebook in my office that I usually refer to after each class. Then, I write down every successful strategy that was highly regarded by students that day" (Faculty member No.3).

Developing a satisfactory interaction with students

To connect with students and impact their lives personally and professionally, teachers must be student-centered and demonstrate respect for their background, ideologies, beliefs, and learning styles. The best instructors use differentiated instruction, display cultural sensitivity, accentuate open communication, offer positive feedback on the students’ academic performance ( 20 ), and foster student growth by allowing them to resubmit assignments prior to assigning a grade ( 22 ).

"I pay attention to every single student in my class and every time when I see a student in class is not focused on a few consecutive sessions, I ask about his lack of focus and I help him solve his problem" (Faculty member No. 5).

The limitation in this research was little access to other nationally recognized university faculty members; also their tight schedule was among other limitations in this study that kept us several times from interviewing such faculties. To overcome such a problem, they were briefed about the importance of this study and then some appointments were set with them.

This study revealed the effective teaching methods, requirements and barriers in Iranian Higher Education. Teachers participating in this study believed that teaching and learning in higher education is a shared process, with responsibilities on both student and teacher to contribute to their success. Within this shared process, higher education must engage the students in questioning their preconceived ideas and their models of how the world works, so that they can reach a higher level of understanding. They believed that to grow successful people to deal with the challenges in evolving the society, most developed countries are attempting to use new teaching methods in higher education. All these methods are student-centered and are the result of pivotal projects. Research conducted by Momeni Danaei and colleagues also showed that using a combination of various teaching methods together will lead to more effective learning while implementing just one teaching model cannot effectively promote learning ( 10 ). However, based on the faculty member’s experiences, effective teaching methods in higher education have some requirements and barriers.

In this study, barriers according to codes were divided two major categories: professor-related barriers and regulation-related ones; for these reasons, the complete use of these methods is not possible. However, teachers who are aware of the necessity of engaging the student for a better understanding of their content try to use this method as a combination that is class speech presentation and involving students in teaching and learning. This result is consistent with the research findings of Momeni Danaei and colleagues ( 10 ), Zarshenas et al. ( 12 ) and Noroozi ( 11 ).

Using student-centered methods in higher education needs some requirements that according to faculty members who were interviewed, and according to the codes, such requirements for effective teaching can be divided into two categories: First, things to exist in the outlook of faculties about the students and faculties' responsibility towards them, to guide them towards effective teaching methods, the most important of which are adaptation to the organizational strategies, interest in the students and trust in their abilities, systemic approach in higher education, and interest in their discipline.

Second, the necessary requirements should exist in the faculties’ behavior to make their teaching methods more effective. This category emerged from some codes, including having lesson plan; using appropriate educational strategies and metacognition training and self-assessment of students during teaching; using concept and pre-organizer maps in training, knowledge; and explaining how to resolve problems in professional career through teaching discussion, documenting of experience and having satisfactory interaction with the students. This result is consistent with the findings of Klug et al., Byun et al., and Khanyfr et al. ( 14 , 17 , 18 ).

In addition and according to the results, we can conclude that a major challenge for universities, especially at a time of resource constraints, is to organize teaching so as to maximize learning effectiveness. As mentioned earlier, a major barrier to change is the fact that most faculty members are not trained for their teaching role and are largely ignorant of the research literature on effective pedagogy. These findings are in agreement with the research of Knapper, indicating that the best ideas for effective teaching include: Teaching methods that focus on the students’ activity and task performance rather than just acquisition of facts; Opportunities for meaningful personal interaction between the students and teachers; Opportunities for collaborative team learning; More authentic methods of assessment that stress task performance in naturalistic situations, preferably including elements of peer and self-assessment; Making learning processes more explicit, and encouraging the students to reflect on the way they learn; Learning tasks that encourage integration of information and skills from different fields ( 23 ).

In the present study, it was illustrated that a good teaching method helps the students to question their preconceptions, and motivates them to learn, by putting them in a situation in which they come to see themselves as the authors of answers and the agents of responsibility for change. But whenever the teachers can teach by this method, they are faced with some barriers and requirements. Some of these requirements are prerequisite of the professors' behavior and some of these are prerequisite of the professors’ outlook. Also, there are some major barriers some of which are associated with the professors’ behavior and others are related to laws and regulations. Therefore, to have an effective teaching, the faculty members of universities should be aware of these barriers and requirements as a way to improve the teaching quality.

Effective teaching also requires structural changes that can only be brought about by academic leaders. These changes include hiring practices reward structures that recognize the importance of teaching expertise, quality assurance approaches that measure learning processes, outcomes in a much more sophisticated way than routine methods, and changing the way of attaining university accreditation.

The nationally and locally recognized professors are good leaders in providing ideas, insight, and the best strategies to educators who are passionate for effective teaching in the higher education. Finally, it is supposed that there is an important role for nationally and locally recognized professors in higher education to become more involved in the regulation of teaching rules. This will help other university teachers to be familiar with effective teaching and learning procedures. Therefore, curriculum planners and faculty members can improve their teaching methods.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank all research participants of Isfahan University of Technology (faculties) who contributed to this study and spent their time to share their experiences through interviews.

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

Yes, college is worth it

Subscribe to the center for economic security and opportunity newsletter, phillip levine and phillip levine nonresident senior fellow - economic studies , center for economic security and opportunity @phil_wellesley luke pardue luke pardue policy director - economic strategy group, the aspen institute @parduel.

June 5, 2024

This article originally appeared in The Chronicle of Higher Education , and appears here with permission.

Q uestions regarding the value of a college education have spiked recently, highlighted by  high-profile media coverage . Beyond the hype, three substantive attacks have been levied: (1) the  college wage premium is illusory , (2) the lifetime  wealth premium that college graduates receive is disappearing , and (3) the  risk associated with a college investment has increased . Is college really not worth it?  

That overarching question, however, is misguided. There certainly are problems in the higher-education system that need to be dealt with. Among other things,  cost is an important problem . College is perceived as being more expensive than it really is. Yet many students, particularly those from lower- and middle-income families, are prevented from attending college because the cost is often still too high. Among those who do enroll, high costs can prevent them from completing their degree. That needs to be fixed. But broadly speaking, college is still worth it.  

Going to college is an investment decision. It comes with benefits and costs. They do not need to be monetary, but it can be easier to think about it that way. Just like any investment decision, there are risks involved. College is worth it if the benefits are typically greater than the costs and the investment is not associated with extensive risk. If so, it may not be right for everyone, but in general it should be considered “worth it.”  

The benefits of college tend to be large. Evidence clearly documents that the wages of college-educated workers  are considerably higher  than that of workers with only a high-school diploma.  

That fact may be misleading, though, if the characteristics of the two groups of workers are different. A better measure of the “ college wage premium ” compares the wages of those with similar characteristics, including age, gender, and work experience. The results of such research indicate that, on average, workers with a bachelor’s degree earned 88% more than comparable high-school graduates in 2021. This premium has plateaued over the preceding decade at historically high levels.  

Still, this wage differential may not be the result of the college education itself. It may be that students with higher earnings power in the job market, regardless of their education, are more likely to go to college. Correlation is not causation. How much of the college wage premium can be attributed to the college degree itself?  

Economists have dedicated extensive effort to answering that question.  Seminal studies  examine the impact of  growing up near a college  (making it easier to attend), having a  test score just above an admissions cut-off  (more likely to enroll), and even  comparing outcomes for identical twins  when one has more education than the other. The results unambiguously indicate that most, if not all, of the wage premium is caused by going to college.  

Of course, such studies often look at the average return. As with any investment decision, it is important to consider the range of possible outcomes. Even for students graduating with below-average earnings, college continues to provide a  positive return . Still, there are important differences across the type of colleges students attend. At public four-year institutions, a college degree provides a positive return for most students. At private institutions, the average return is high, but it is more variable across institutions, particularly those that are for profit.  

But what about lifetime earnings and a degree’s impact on wealth?  

Research  shows the net worth of more recent college graduates is not that much higher than high-school graduates. In other words, the “wealth premium” has largely disappeared. But  other researchers have pointed out  that adults who are still approaching the prime of their careers simply may not have reached the point where the college wage premium truly kicks in. It is at that stage that the promotions and raises associated with a college degree begin to generate greater wealth.  

To be sure, when college is viewed strictly through an investment lens, there are steps students can take to raise the odds of a larger return. First, the return varies based on  college major . Students who major in certain fields (generally STEM and business) receive higher earnings, on average. Second, students need to graduate. As the former Secretary of Education Arne Duncan has  said , “The most expensive degree is the one you don’t complete.” Students who borrow to enroll in a program that they do not complete are  much more likely to default  on their loans.  

Over all, it certainly is possible for students to attend institutions and major in fields that don’t offer much economic value. We should make it possible for students and families to access accurate information that would enable them to make wise choices. We should also take steps to improve completion rates. But taken as a whole, a college education typically improves students’ subsequent earnings considerably.  

Besides, the benefits of a college degree often go beyond the increase in income. College equips adults with skills to navigate the rest of their lives. Researchers have found that a bachelor’s degree significantly helps recently unemployed workers to  find new jobs . A  college education  also increases healthy behaviors (like exercise) and reduces harmful activities (such as smoking). It contributes to a wide and growing  mortality gap  between college- and non-college-educated adults. It may even  make people happier .  

Beyond the benefits college graduates receive, society is better off with more college-educated workers. Employers need skilled workers to navigate ongoing, rapid advances in technology, and college remains the surest path to acquiring such skills. College-educated workers also boost other workers’ productivity,  raising the wages  of high-school graduates and those who drop out alike. The social return extends beyond the economy as well: Greater education  reduces criminality  and  boosts civic participation .  

Despite its substantial benefits, though, college still may not be in the cards for some if the costs are too high. This is where the problem lies.  Polling data  provides strong evidence that cost is a major impediment to college access.  

Part of that problem is perception. Sky-high sticker prices turn off students even though financial aid  reduces that price for most students . But the amount they actually have to pay (the “net price”)  is still too high , particularly for lower- and middle-income students. For those college students who are at risk of dropping out, financial concerns are the leading cause.  

That does not mean college isn’t worth it for those students. The benefits are still generally large, and the tuition costs are actually smaller for lower- and middle-income students, making it even a better investment. But if they can’t come up with the money, they can’t go. This is about access, not worth.  

We do a disservice to students, their families, and society more broadly by focusing on the question of whether college is worth it. For the most part, the answer is yes, it is. That does not mean there are no problems in the higher-education sector. Some programs at some institutions are not a good investment. Prospective students should know that, and predatory programs should not be subsidized with federal dollars. Obstacles to college completion must also be overcome.  

But the cost remains a substantial problem. Colleges need to do a better job telling students the truth about how much they will pay. The sticker price is the best-known amount, and it is almost always wrong. Pricing policies that inflate the sticker price and then give extensive merit awards to all students don’t help. Beyond communication, though, costs need to be lower, particularly for lower- and middle-income students. Greater federal funding for need-based financial aid is a good way to accomplish that. Over all, we would be well served figuring out how to make a high-quality college education available to more students and pushing back against scare tactics that lessen their desire to go.  

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Students, Parents and Voters Agree—Higher Ed Costs Too Much

Americans still believe in the power of a college degree, but the sticker shock of tuition and fees causes many to doubt the economic value, reducing access.

By  Ashley Mowreader

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While most people believe in the value of postsecondary education, high costs limit access and create doubt on the return on investment.

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Higher education’s value has come under public scrutiny in recent years, with fewer U.S. adults confident in the benefits of a college degree.

“For voters and people who are interested in pursuing and want to pursue a higher education—we’ve spent many years asking them that exact question: how do you define value? And overwhelmingly, not to oversimplify, but it is primarily economic,” said Angela Kuefler, a partner at Global Strategy Group, at a panel discussion at Third Way’s Value in Higher Ed Summit .

When evaluated further, a sticking point for most Americans is they don’t believe higher education is worth the cost students are paying—or the debt they’re accruing—compared to the salaries they’re earning. New data from Pew Research Center, released May 24 , finds almost half (47 percent) of Americans only believe college is worth it if students don’t take out loans.

A recent Student Voice survey by Inside Higher Ed , conducted by Generation Lab, found the majority of students believe their education has value but only 7 percent agree higher education institutions, in general, offer good value for what they charge for an undergraduate degree.

A college degree still holds its historic value in boosting a young person’s earnings, and those with a degree are less likely to be in poverty, but high costs of entry prove a barrier to access and enrollment for many.

Rising costs. Almost seven in 10 (69 percent) Student Voice respondents say higher education institutions in general charge too much for an undergraduate education.

The cost of higher education has steadily increased over the past decade across nonprofit institutions, according to data from the National Center for Education Statistics. In 2023–24, the average published tuition and fees for full-time students at a public four-year in-state institution was $11,260, 2.5 percent higher year-over-year before adjusting for inflation. A private nonprofit four-year institution averaged $41,540, 4 percent higher year-over-year before inflation.

A Brookings Institute evaluation of colleges’ posted costs versus actual cost students pay is much lower, depending on a family’s annual income, though still rising. However, four in 10 Student Voice survey respondents say their institution’s sticker price is too high.

Additionally, 38 percent of respondents say the general public underestimates the actual price of college. A Gallup-Lumina Foundation survey found only 23 percent of adults without degrees could guess the cost of a bachelor’s degree within $5,000 of its price tag , highlighting a lack of transparency around costs of higher ed.

Who’s paying for it? When confronted with this high price, many students say they turn to loans to pay for their degree, which can leave them in debt and reduce their total earnings after graduating, hurting the overall return on investment.

High school students considering their plans after graduation say they worry about how they will pay for college (62 percent) and 45 percent plan to take out student loans, according to ECMC Group data from this past summer.

A 2023 survey from College Ave Student Loans found 46 percent of current students say they’re going to use federal student loans to pay for college and 20 percent are going to use private student loans.

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In 2023, 70 percent of parents with college-bound children said they worry about having enough money to pay for college, a 4 percentage-point increase compared to the year prior, according to a poll from Discover Card. The number of parents who say they will pay for all of their child’s education (27 percent) is also on the decline (39 percent in 2022).

Families of traditional-aged students are also wary of the high price. Parents say college is necessary to find a good job (73 percent), but nearly half (46 percent) say they question whether it’s still a good investment, many (68 percent) are concerned about student debt compared to post-college earnings.

Buck stops here: High costs also limit access for students and determine which institution they’ll enroll in, or if they enroll at all.

A September 2023 Spark451 poll found 30 percent of parents said their child would have attended a different college if money was not a factor. Over half of high school students ruled out a college or university because of the cost and the majority of students rank cost as among the most important factors in their enrollment decision, alongside academic quality and availability of majors.

“Some of the best data tells us unequivocally, higher education is going to leave you better off economically,” Julie Ajinkya, senior adviser at HCM Strategists said at Third Way’s summit. “It’s hard for myself as an individual to really understand what a million dollars over the course of a lifetime means, whereas immediately, I know I have certain bills, I know that I have to worry about housing and other basic needs.”

The Gallup-Lumina Foundation study found, among students who would enroll in college, the same number of respondents (53 percent) say financial aid and scholarship is just as important as their confidence in the value of the degree and credential (53 percent).

“It goes back to this idea of needing very, very clearly articulated connections between the courses you’re going to take and the potential jobs and careers that you could end up with,” Ajinkya said.

Working individuals say the cost of tuition (56 percent) is what prevents them from pursuing additional education, seeing more value in credentials than a four-year degree.

Institutional leaders are noting current students have tightened their purse strings as well. Colleges reported an increase in students and families filing requests to adjust their financial aid eligibility during the COVID-19 pandemic, which has since leveled off.

The Trellis Strategies fall 2023 student wellness survey found 71 percent of college students report experiencing financial difficulties or challenges while in college. Among currently enrolled students who have considered stopping out, 31 percent cite cost as a reason.

Is it worth it? Overwhelmingly, polling finds a majority of people believe in the value of some postsecondary education.

• Student Voice—83 percent of students say the value of their college is somewhat or highly valuable, considering their learning and future benefit versus the cost of attendance.
• Gallup and the Lumina Foundation— 71 percent of bachelor’s degree students strongly agree or agree that the degree they’re receiving is worth the cost.
• Third Way— 80 percent of voters say a four-year college degree is valuable.
• CollegeAve— Eight in 10 students say a college degree is crucial for their future.

On a fiscal level, research shows that the average college degree program does produce a financial return on investment. The Institute for Higher Education Policy (IHEP) found 83 institutions, who represent 93 percent of students, receive a minimum economic economic return on investment within 10 years of starting college.

But whether a four-year degree is the most valuable investment a student could make remains up for debate. Four in 10 Pew respondents say it’s not too or not at all important to have a four-year college degree in order to get a well-paying job in today’s economy, and half say it’s less important to have a four-year degree to get a well-paying job today than it was 20 years ago.

So what? For higher education leaders, understanding the concerns students hold in pursuing higher education can help in addressing them and making sure students get their return on investment.

Career pathways can be one way to connect students to tangible goals they can aspire to and help them see how their education connects to their lives beyond, Ajinkya said.

Promoting career services, along with scholarships, can also address concerns for potential students, Kuefler said.

Demystifying the admissions process can also help students feel more confident in their decisions. “As students are applying to college, they feel like outsiders in the process, everything just feels super-secret and vague, almost like it was designed to confuse you,” Ajinkya said. “Until we clarify that whole process, and help students understand what it actually takes, what it will cost, we’re going to see a lot of confusion.”

We bet your colleague would like this article, too. Send them this link to subscribe to our weekday newsletter on Student Success.

This article has been updated to correct the attribution of a statistic by CollegeAve and the measurement of ROI by the Institute for Higher Education Policy.

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• Research article
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• Published: 17 July 2023

Students’ voices on generative AI: perceptions, benefits, and challenges in higher education

• Cecilia Ka Yuk Chan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6984-6360 1 &
• Wenjie Hu 1  

International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education volume  20 , Article number:  43 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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This study explores university students’ perceptions of generative AI (GenAI) technologies, such as ChatGPT, in higher education, focusing on familiarity, their willingness to engage, potential benefits and challenges, and effective integration. A survey of 399 undergraduate and postgraduate students from various disciplines in Hong Kong revealed a generally positive attitude towards GenAI in teaching and learning. Students recognized the potential for personalized learning support, writing and brainstorming assistance, and research and analysis capabilities. However, concerns about accuracy, privacy, ethical issues, and the impact on personal development, career prospects, and societal values were also expressed. According to John Biggs’ 3P model, student perceptions significantly influence learning approaches and outcomes. By understanding students’ perceptions, educators and policymakers can tailor GenAI technologies to address needs and concerns while promoting effective learning outcomes. Insights from this study can inform policy development around the integration of GenAI technologies into higher education. By understanding students’ perceptions and addressing their concerns, policymakers can create well-informed guidelines and strategies for the responsible and effective implementation of GenAI tools, ultimately enhancing teaching and learning experiences in higher education.

This study focuses on the integration of generative AI (GenAI) technologies, like ChatGPT, into higher education settings.

University students’ perceptions of generative AI technologies in higher education were explored, including familiarity, potential benefits, and challenges.

A survey of 399 undergraduate and postgraduate students from various disciplines in Hong Kong revealed a generally positive attitude towards GenAI in teaching and learning.

Insights from this study can inform policy development around the integration of GenAI technologies into higher education, helping to create well-informed guidelines and strategies for responsible and effective implementation.

Generative Artificial Intelligence

Generative AI (GenAI) encompasses a group of machine learning algorithms designed to generate new data samples that mimic existing datasets. One of the foundational techniques in GenAI is the Variational Autoencoder (VAE), which is a type of neural network that learns to encode and decode data in a way that maintains its essential features (Kingma & Welling, 2013 ). Another popular GenAI method is Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs), which consist of two neural networks working in competition to generate realistic data samples (Goodfellow et al., 2014 ). GenAI models use advanced algorithms to learn patterns and generate new content such as text, images, sounds, videos, and code. Some examples of GenAI tools include ChatGPT, Bard, Stable Diffusion, and Dall-E. Its ability to handle complex prompts and produce human-like output has led to research and interest into the integration of GenAI in various fields such as healthcare, medicine, education, media, and tourism.

ChatGPT, for example, has caused a surge of interest in the use of GenAI in higher education since its release in November 2022 (Hu, 2023 ). It is a conversational AI system developed by OpenAI, an autoregressive large language model (more than 175 billion parameters) has been pre-trained on a large corpus of text data. It can generate human-like responses to a wide range of text-based inputs. The model has been trained on a diverse range of texts, including books, articles, and websites, allowing it to understand user input, generate responses, and maintain coherent conversations on a wide range of topics. There has been much discussion on its potential in transforming disciplinary practices such as medical writing (Biswas, 2023 ; Kitamura, 2023 ), surgical practice (Bhattacharya et al., 2023 ), and health care communications (Eggmann et al., 2023 ) as well as enhancing higher education teaching and learning (e.g., Adiguzel et al., 2023 ; Baidoo-Anu & Ansah, 2023 ).

Benefits and challenges of using generative AI in higher education

One of the key uses of GenAI in higher education is for enhancing students’ learning experience through its ability to respond to user prompts to generate highly original output. Text-to-text AI generators can provide writing assistance to students, especially non-native English-speaking students (Chan & Lee, 2023 ), by enabling them to brainstorm ideas and get feedback on their writing through applications such as ChatGPT (Atlas, 2023 ), while text-to-image AI generators such as DALL-E and Stable Diffusion can serve as valuable tools for teaching technical and artistic concepts in arts and design (Dehouche & Dehouche, 2023 ). GenAI tools are also believed to be useful research aids for generating ideas, synthesizing information, and summarising a vast amount of text data to help researchers analyse data and compose their writing (Berg, 2023 ; Chan & Zhou, 2023 ), contributing to efficiency in publication (Kitamura, 2023 ; van Dis et al., 2023 ). Another opportunity in which GenAI can bring benefits is learning assessment (Crompton & Burke, 2023 ). Tools such as the Intelligent Essay Assessor are used to grade students’ written work and provide feedback on their performance (Landauer, 2003 ). Mizumoto and Eguchi ( 2023 ) examined the reliability and accuracy of ChatGPT as an automated essay scoring tool, and the results show that ChatGPT shortened the time needed for grading, ensured consistency in scoring, and was able to provide immediate scores and feedback on students’ writing skills. Such research demonstrates that GenAI has potential to transform the teaching and learning process as well as improve student outcomes in higher education.

On the other hand, there have been challenges about the limitations of GenAI and issues related to ethics, plagiarism, and academic integrity. Kumar’s ( 2023 ) analysis of AI-generated responses to academic writing prompts shows that the text output, although mostly original and relevant to the topics, contained inappropriate references and lacked personal perspectives that AI is generally incapable of producing. For second language learners, constructing appropriate prompts poses a challenge in itself as it requires a certain level of linguistic skills; and overreliance on GenAI tools may compromise students’ genuine efforts to develop writing competence (Warschauer et al., 2023 ). In addition, the content produced by GenAI may be biased, inaccurate, or harmful if the dataset on which a model was trained contains such elements (Harrer, 2023 ). AI-generated images, for example, may contain nudity or obscenity and can be created for malicious purposes such as deepfakes (Maerten & Soydaner, 2023 ). GenAI tools are not able to assess validity of content and determine whether the output they generate contains falsehoods or misinformation, thus their use requires human oversight (Lubowitz, 2023 ). Furthermore, since AI-generated output cannot be detected by most plagiarism checkers, it is difficult to determine whether a given piece of writing is the author’s original work (Peres et al., 2023 ). According to Chan ( 2023a ), “it raises the question of what constitutes unethical behaviour in academic writing including plagiarism, attribution, copyrights, and authorship in the context of AI-generated content”—an AI-plagiarism. As Zhai ( 2022 ) cautions, the use of text-to-text generators such as ChatGPT may compromise the validity of assessment practices, particularly those involving written assignments. Hence, the widespread use of GenAI can pose a serious threat to academic integrity in higher education. In Chan and Tsi ( 2023 ) study, there is a particular concern towards holistic competency development such as creativity, critical thinking. The benefits of GenAI underline the potential of the technology as a valuable learning tool for students, while its limitations and challenges show a need for research into how GenAI can be effectively integrated in the teaching and learning process. Thus, the research questions for this study are

How familiar are university students with GenAI technologies like ChatGPT?

What are the potential benefits and challenges associated with using GenAI in teaching and learning, as perceived by university students?

How can GenAI be effectively integrated into higher education to enhance teaching and learning outcomes?

Student perceptions of the use of GenAI in higher education

User acceptance is key to successful uptake of technological innovations (Davis, 1989 ). John Biggs emphasized the importance of student perception in his 3P (Presage–Process–Product) model of teaching and learning (Biggs, 2011 ). According to Biggs, students’ perceptions of their learning environment, their abilities, and the teaching strategies used have a significant impact on their approach to learning (Biggs, 1999 ), which in turn influences their learning outcomes. Students who perceive the learning environment (such as, curriculum content, teaching methods, assessment methods, learning resources, learning context, student support services) positively and feel confident about their abilities are more likely to adopt a deep approach to learning, which involves seeking understanding and making connections between concepts. On the other hand, students who have a negative perception of their learning environment or doubt their abilities may adopt a surface approach to learning, where they focus on memorizing facts and meeting minimum requirements (Biggs, 2011 ). In a learning environment, the way students perceive a technological innovation such as GenAI, their views, concerns, and experiences of the technology can have impact on their willingness to utilise the tool and consequently the extent to which the tool is integrated in the learning process. A large proportion of research into tertiary students’ perceptions in this area focuses on AI in general and chatbots which are not necessarily powered by GenAI, while students’ views and experiences of GenAI tools specifically remain relatively underexplored. Research into student perceptions of AI/GenAI typically investigates students’ attitudes, their experiences of AI, and factors influencing their perceptions such as gender, disciplines, age, and year of study.

Attitudes towards AI and experiences of AI Research into the use of AI in language classrooms shows that students found AI tools such as chatbots and Plot Generator useful for enhancing language acquisition by providing assistance with grammar, guiding them in generating ideas, and helping them communicate in the target language (Bailey et al., 2021 ; Sumakul et al., 2020 ). AI KAKU, a GenAI tool based on the GPT-2 language model, was implemented in English language lessons with Japanese students and was perceived to be easy to use and able to assist students to express themselves in English (Gayed et al., 2022 ); while the use of AI-based chatbots for learning support improved students’ learning achievement, self-efficacy, learning attitude, and learning motivation (Essel et al., 2022 ; Lee et al., 2022 ). A study of the use of chatbots in business education also reported favourable user feedback with students citing positive learning experience due to chatbots’ responsiveness, interactivity, and confidential learning support (Chen et al., 2023 ). Most students agreed that AI have a profound impact on their disciplines and future careers (e.g., Bisdas et al., 2021 ; Gong et al., 2019 ; Sit et al., 2020 ) and expressed an intention to utilise AI in their learning and future practice (e.g., Bisdas et al., 2021 ; Lee et al., 2022 ), and thus viewed integration of AI as an essential part of university curricula (e.g., Abdelwahab et al., 2022 ; Bisdas et al., 2021 ; Gong et al., 2019 ; Yüzbaşioğlu, 2021 ).

Students who had a good understanding of AI were also found to express a low level of anxiety about AI in Dahmash et al.’s ( 2020 ) study. However, Jeffrey’s ( 2020 ) study found conflicting beliefs among college students. Students who had a high level of understanding and information about AI and believed that AI could benefit them personally also expressed concerns about the impact of AI on human jobs. In Dahmash et al.’s ( 2020 ) and Gong et al.’s ( 2019 ) research, the choice of radiology as a future career was associated with the impact of AI—The number of medical students indicating radiology as their specialty choice increased when the potential impact of AI was not a consideration. Among the concerns and drawbacks regarding the use of AI, as perceived by students, are limited human interaction/element (e.g., Bisdas et al., 2021 ; Essel et al., 2022 ), potential data leakage (e.g., Bisdas et al., 2021 ), absence of emotional connection (Chen et al., 2023 ), breach of ethics (e.g., Gillissen et al., 2022 ; Jha et al., 2022 ), and reduced job opportunities or increased demand in job practices (Ghotbi et al., 2022 ; Gong et al., 2019 ; Park et al., 2020 ).

Frequency of use/Time spent on AI tools Research examining the relationship between frequency of AI use and student perceptions of AI is inconclusive. For example, Yildiz Durak’s ( 2023 ) study of 86 students in a university in Turkey reported no correlation between chatbot usage frequency and visual design self-efficacy, course satisfaction, chatbot usage satisfaction, and learner autonomy. The finding shows that frequency of use alone is not a meaningful factor, while satisfaction with use can impact users’ self-efficacy. In contrast, Bailey et al. ( 2021 ) found that the amount of time spent on chatbot use in a second language writing class was positively associated with students’ confidence in using the target language and perception of task value.

Use of Methodology Most of the research into student perceptions of AI/GenAI employs a quantitative survey design (e.g., Bisdas et al., 2021 ; Dahmash et al., 2020 ; Gherhes & Obrad, 2018 ; Yüzbaşioğlu, 2021 ). Some studies incorporated open-ended survey questions (e.g., Hew et al., 2023 ; Jeffrey, 2020 ) and semi-structured interviews (e.g., Gillissen et al., 2022 ; Mokmin & Ibrahim, 2021 ; Park et al., 2020 ) to gather students’ free responses and to probe their views on the research topic in addition to their responses to survey questions. For example, Park et al.’s ( 2020 ) study consisted of two stages: Semi-structured interviews were conducted face-to-face or by telephone in Stage 1, followed by an Internet-based survey in Stage 2. Studies that examined the impact of AI and student perceptions typically adopted an experimental design using a pretest-intervention-posttest approach and the administration of a questionnaire to examine student perceptions (e.g., Essel et al., 2022 ; Lee et al., 2022 ). Qualitative research is relatively rare as only the views of a small number of students can be explored with such an approach. For example, Sumakul et al.’s ( 2020 ) and Terblanche et al.’s ( 2022 ) studies based on semi-structured interviews involved eight students and 20 students respectively. In contrast, survey is more effective for reaching a large population of respondents from different geographical locations as shown in previous studies such as Bisdas et al. ( 2021 ), Dahmash et al., ( 2020 ), and Gong et al. ( 2019 ).

Although there has been a considerable amount of research into AI in general as shown in the review of current studies in this section, there is currently lack of investigation into how students perceive GenAI. In view of the unprecedented interest in GenAI at present, there is a need to examine university students’ attitude towards GenAI and their experience of using GenAI in order to gain insights into how it can be integrated in higher education to enhance teaching and learning.

Methodology

In this study, we used a survey design to collect data from university students in Hong Kong, exploring their use and perceptions of GenAI in teaching and learning. The survey was administered via an online questionnaire, consisting of both closed-ended and open-ended questions in order a large population of responses. The initial questionnaire was developed by drawing upon similar studies and existing questionnaires on teachers’ and students’ perceptions of educational technologies in higher education. To ensure the relevance and clarity of the questionnaire items, pilot studies were conducted prior to formal data collection. And the questionnaire was modified based on the feedback from the pilot study. The final version of the instrument comprises a pool of 26 items, employing a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “Strongly agree” to “Strongly disagree,” as well as 3 open-ended questions to gather additional insights and perspectives from the respondents. Topics covered in the survey encompassed their knowledge of GenAI technologies like ChatGPT, the incorporation of AI technologies in higher education, potential challenges related to AI technologies, and the influence of AI on teaching and learning.

Data were gathered through an online survey, targeting students from all post-secondary educational institutions to ensure that the results represented the needs and values of all participants. A convenience sampling method was employed to select respondents based on their availability and willingness to partake in the study. Participants were recruited through an online platform and given an informed consent form before completing the survey. The participation was completely voluntary, and the responses were anonymous.

A total of 399 undergraduate and postgraduate students, from various disciplines of six universities in Hong Kong, completed the survey. Descriptive analysis was utilized to analyze the survey data, and a thematic analysis approach was applied to examine the responses from the open-ended questions in the survey. As the total number of responses was manageable (n = 387), two coders manually generated codes. After reading the entire dataset, each coder was assigned the same subset of 50 responses to identify potential themes. In cases where the coders disagreed, they discussed the discrepancies and reached an agreement. Finally, a codebook was created based on consensus and utilized to code the remaining responses.

Demographic information

Participants in this study were from ten faculties (Faculty of Architecture, Arts, Business, Dentistry, Education, Engineering, Law, Medicine, Science and Social Sciences) of six universities in Hong Kong, comprising 204 males (51.1%) and 195 females (48.9%). There were (44.4%, n = 177) undergraduate students and (55.6%, n = 222) postgraduate students. Nearly half of them (55.4%, n = 221) were enrolled in STEM fields, mainly from the Faculty of Engineering (33.1%) and the Faculty of Science (14.5%), while non-STEM students were primarily majored in Arts (14.8%, n = 59), Business (13.3%, n = 53) and Education(7.5%, n = 30). Additionally, 66.7% participants have reported using GenAI technologies in the general context (not specifically for teaching and learning) at least once. Specifically, 21.8% reported rarely using it, 29.1% using it sometimes, 9.8% often using it, and 6.0% reported always using it. Table 1 shows the demographics information.

Knowledge of generative AI technologies

As illustrated in Table 2 , participants had a generally good understanding of GenAI technologies, with mean scores ranging from 3.89 to 4.15. Specifically, students had the highest mean score for the statement “I understand generative AI technologies like ChatGPT have limitations in their ability to handle complex tasks” (Mean = 4.15, SD = 0.82) and the lowest mean score for the emotional intelligence and empathy considerations(Mean = 3.89, SD = 0.97), indicating that while they generally understand GenAI technologies has limitations, they may not be fully aware of the potential risks arise from the lack of emotional intelligence and empathy.

Moreover, the data showed a moderate positive correlation between their knowledge of GenAI technologies and frequency of use(r = 0.1, p < 0.05). Specifically, regarding their agreement on if GenAI technologies like ChatGPT may generate factually inaccurate output, students who never or rarely use GenAI technologies (Mean = 3.99, SD = 0.847) were significantly different (t = 2.695, p < 0.01) from students who have used them at least sometimes (Mean = 4.22 SD = 0.829).

Willingness to use generative AI technologies

Overall, the findings suggest that students have a positive attitude toward GenAI technologies. They would like to integrate GenAI technologies like ChatGPT in their learning practices (Mean = 3.85, SD = 1.02), as well as future careers (Mean = 4.05; SD = 0.96). Specifically, students highly value its perceived usefulness in providing unique insights (Mean = 3.74; SD = 1.08) and personalized feedback (Mean = 3.61; SD = 1.06). Additionally, they find these technologies are user-friendly, as they are available 24/7(Mean = 4.12; SD = 0.83) and offer anonymous support services (Mean = 3.77; SD = 0.99).

Moreover, the correlation analysis results show that students’ perceived willingness to use GenAI technologies is positively correlated with both knowledge of GenAI (r = 0.189; p < 0.001) and frequency of use (r = 0.326; p < 0.001), indicating that students who are more knowledgeable about these technologies and use them more frequently are more likely to use them in the future (Tables 3 , 4 ).

Concerns about generative AI technologies

Unlike willingness, descriptive statistics show that students expressed a slight favor of concerns about GenAI. They expressed the least positive opinions about if people will become over-reliant on GenAI technologies (Mean = 2.89; SD = 1.13), and the highest rating was for how these technologies could affect the value of university education (Mean = 3.18; SD = 1.16).

Interestingly, there were significant differences between students who never or rarely used these technologies and other participants (t = 3.873, p < 0.01). However, no significant correlation was found between students’ concerns and knowledge about GenAI technologies (r = 0.096; p > 0.05).

The benefits and challenges for students’ willingness and concerns

What are the reasons behind students’ willingness to utilise generative ai technologies.

Consistent with the findings from the quantitative data, most participants perceived GenAI as a valuable tool with numerous benefits and were willing to work with it, primarily on learning, writing and research purposes:

Personalized and immediate learning support

When students struggle with assignments, GenAI can act as a virtual tutor, providing personalized learning support and answering their questions immediately. A student from the faculty of engineering considered AI as “ a top student ” in their class, because “ When I have doubt and couldn’t find other people to help me out, ChatGPT seems like a good option .” Besides immediate answers, customized recommendations and feedback were also valued by students. As one remarked, “ It would be useful if ChatGPT could help me find the most effective solution when I am checking my finished homework. This way of using it would help me improve my depth of thinking and understanding. ” Feedback on submitted assignments is essential for students’ learning, but it also puts a lot of pressure on teachers, especially with a large number of students. In this case, GenAI may be a solution.

Moreover, AI can also provide learning resources tailored to students’ specific needs. For example, a student majoring in English proposed an innovative learning methods, using ChatGPT to learn a second language, “ ChatGPT can generate short texts based on the words entered by the user to help students memorize the words. ” Moreover, some students from the Faculty of Education also assumed that AI can assist them in future teaching, e.g., “ I believe that the use of ChatGPT will reduce teachers’ workload for answering questions. I may also use it to generate some lesson plans. ” Since GenAI was considered to “ improve students’ motivation” and “help students learn better on their own” , in the future, it may potentially revolutionize traditional teaching and learning methods.

Writing and brainstorming support

GenAI technologies, such as ChatGPT, can also be used as writing assistants. Sometimes, students find it difficult to generate ideas or find inspiration. In such cases, a participant suggested, “ It’ll be convenient to ask ChatGPT some general questions and even get inspired by it. ” By inputting a question related to the writing topic, the AI output can serve as a starting point to develop and expand on their ideas. In addition, this virtual assistant is equipped to provide technical support, for example, “ it can help with formatting and information retrieval “or “ help gather citations. ”, which improves efficiency.

Furthermore, after writing, students can also use GenAI to enhance their writing skills. As one remarked, “ I would use it to help improve my writing (grammar, paraphrasing…), consult some questions or let it give some feedback on my writing. ” Especially for non-native English-speaking students who are struggling with writing, it can be particularly useful if AI can “ help polish articles ” and provide personalized feedback for their written texts.

Research and analysis support

The role of GenAI technologies in research has also caught the attention of students. In terms of its ability to acquire, compile, and consolidate information, some participants suggested it can “ facilitate literature searching ,” “ summarise readings, ” and “ even generate hypotheses based on data analysis. ” With a vast amount of data and knowledge, AI-powered technologies can help researchers always stay up-to-date with the latest research trends. Moreover, it also contributes to data collection and analysis. A student noted, “ It saves resources in data collection and initial analysis. We should ride on the initial insights to build our own insights. ” Since GenAI technologies are capable of rapidly and effectively processing large amounts of data, students can directly work on the basis of the preliminary analysis results.

Visual and audio multi-media support

In addition to the above-mentioned uses, participants also used GenAI technologies for creating artworks and handling repetitive tasks. With advances in computer vision, AI-generated artworks have particularly gained attention from STEM students. A student from the faculty of science mentioned, “ I mainly played around with DALL-E, stable diffusion and other AI art technologies, which generate images based on a prompt. ” Similarly, an engineering student “ used text-to-image generation AI like stable diffusion at home to create artwork .” Furthermore, AI technologies can facilitate “the production of multi-media” , incluing slides, audios, and videos. As a content creator, “ when we have no clue how to visualize stuff, it can offer samples and insights. ”

Administrative support

Concerning “ repetitive or non-creative ” tasks, some participants believe that AI will perform well. As one commented, “ tedious administrative work will be handled by AI efficiently. ” By accelerating routine repetitive tasks, AI may leave more time for students to focus on their studies and research.

What are the reasons behind students’ concerns or lack of concerns regarding generative AI technologies?

In alignment with the quantitative results, the qualitative data similarly revealed different concerns regarding challenges about GenAI. Some participants were optimistic about AI’s integration in the future. The reasons for this optimism include the willingness mentioned earlier, as well as the belief that GenAI is part of the evolution and trends of technology. One student stated, “ It follows a general revolution of technology, similar to the public use of computers 40 years ago. I’m very much looking forward to the future of how such technology can reshape the world ” They suggested that as new technologies emerge, it is better to “ positively embrace it ” rather than avoid them.

Another reason behind the optimism was the assumption that humans would still maintain control and oversight over the GenAI. A participant remarked that “ I am not that concerned, as it would lead humans to smartly utilize such AI tools to complete their tasks in an efficient manner rather than simply being replaced by such tools. ” Another postgraduate student from the Faculty of Arts emphasized that AI is not a replacement for human skills and expertise: “ to my best of knowledge, I feel ChatGPT has not yet had the creativity and imagination as human beings, nor can it create a thesis for postgraduate students. ” At least for now, they believed humans would continue to be in the loop and have oversight over the GenAI technologies.

However, more than half of the participants still have concerns about the challenges of integrating GenAI technologies, mainly about the reliability of the technology itself and its impact:

Challenges concerning accuracy and transparency

Currently, GenAI can promptly provide fluent and human-sounding responses, but their accuracy cannot always be guaranteed. As one student pointed out, “ We cannot predict or accurately verify the accuracy or validity of AI generated information. Some people may be misled by false information. ” Transparency is another significant concern. For a majority of users, the AI system is complex and opaque, which makes it difficult to understand how AI comes up with its decisions. “ It is always dangerous to use things you cannot understand ”, a student noted. As AI-driven conversations become increasingly popular, remaining a “black box” may become an obstacle to public trust.

Challenges concerning privacy and ethical issues

The use of GenAI also raised privacy and ethical concerns, which was mostly mentioned by students majored in arts and social science. They were worried that AI would collect personal information from our messages. As a social science student put forward, “ AI technologies are too strong so that they can obtain our private information easily.” Since these messages will be used to further improve the system, if they are not properly protected, it “ can pose privacy and security risks. ”

Ethically, the plagiarism concern has been mentioned numerous times. Plagiarism has long been a critical issue in academics. But, with the rapid development of GenAI technologies, it has become increasingly difficult to identify plagiarized information. As an art student remarked, “ I want to know whether I am dealing with an AI bot or AI-generated content. Right now, it is somewhat easy to detect, but as the technology improves, it may not be so easy ”.

Challenges concerning holistic competencies

Regarding its impact on individuals and personal development, one of the main issues is over-reliance on AI, which may hinder people’s growth, skills, and intellectual development over time. As one participant commented, “ this may lead to a decrease in critical thinking and make decisions only based on the information that AI provides to them. ” In addition to critical thinking, a student also noted its negative impact on creativity, “ some people may rely too much on AI technologies to generate ideas causing them to lose the capacity or willingness to think by themselves. ”

Challenges concerning career prospects

Regarding its impact on society as a whole, GenAI also carries risks and drawbacks. The most frequently mentioned concern is job replacement. As GenAI is transforming the workplace, some jobs that students are preparing for may disappear. A computer science student expressed his concern “ I will probably lose my job in the future due to the advent of ChatGPT .” Similarly, a student who majored in social science also mentioned, “ AI may replace the job that I’m interested in (e.g., GIS analyst) ”. Consequently, employers may also raise their recruitment requirements. This development will pose a test for future graduates, since “ those who fall behind on this might have difficulty finding employment or catching up. ”

Challenges concerning human values

Another mentioned societal risk relates to the value system. Some participants were worried that “AI could misalign with our human values and becomes a danger to us.” For example, it may contribute to social injustice and inequality, as some participants noted, “ it may widen the gap between the rich and the poor ” and “ also be unfair to those students who don’t use it .” Furthermore, in academic institutions and education, some were concerned that the widespread use of AI might also might affect the student–teacher relationship, since students may be “disappointed and lose respect for teachers .”

Challenges concerning uncertain policies

Last but not least, students also expressed worries regarding the vacuum of institutional policies on the use of GenAI. Since the development of technology has outpaced regulatory measures, they were concerned about the potential risks such as governance associated with Gen AI. As a student noted, “ I am cautious. There should be implementation strategies & plans to navigate with these technologies. ” Uncertain regulations could potentially result in the misuse or unintended consequences of GenAI, which may pose risks to themselves and society. Even for some students who acknowledge the positive effects of GenAI, they also believe that a policy is necessary currently. One student pointed out, “ A well-balanced usage guideline needs to be in place so that the benefits of the tech can be leveraged.” Without institutional guidance, students may feel at a loss for how to appropriately use GenAI in universities.

The study of student perceptions of GenAI, such as ChatGPT, in higher education reveals a complex and nuanced picture of both enthusiasm and concerns. The findings of this study provide an insightful understanding of university students’ perception. It is evident that students are generally familiar with GenAI technologies, and their level of familiarity is influenced by factors such as knowledge about GenAI and frequency of use. The results also highlight the potential benefits and risks associated with using GenAI in teaching and learning, which are perceived differently among students based on their experiences with GenAI technologies. Overall, the participants showed a good understanding of the capabilities and limitations of GenAI technologies, as well as a positive attitude towards using these technologies in their learning, research, and future careers. However, there were also concerns about the reliability, privacy, ethical issues, and uncertain policies associated with GenAI, as well as its potential impact on personal development, career prospects, and societal values. Table 5 shows the benefits and concerns of employing GenAI technologies.

The study revealed that students’ knowledge of GenAI technologies and frequency of use are positively correlated. This suggests that exposure to these technologies and hands-on experience may help in enhancing students’ understanding and acceptance of GenAI. Also, despite the relative novelty of GenAI for public use, students appear to have knowledge of the technologies and understand its benefits and risks quite well. Both quantitative and qualitative findings also show that students are generally willing to use GenAI for their studies and future work, but they have high expectations. For example, the study found that students perceive GenAI technologies as beneficial for providing personalized learning support as they expect learning resources tailored to their needs 24/7. In terms of writing and brainstorming support, students want feedback to improve writing skills, beyond just grammar checking and brainstorming, similar to the findings in Atalas’ study ( 2023 ). For research and analysis support, students envision GenAI capabilities to not only facilitate literature searching and summarizing readings but also to generate hypotheses based on data analysis, enabling them to stay up-to-date with the latest research trends and build upon initial insights for their own work (Berg, 2023 ) which would not be expected from previous educational technologies. These findings indicate the potential of GenAI in revolutionizing traditional teaching and learning methods by offering tailored assistance, diverse learning needs, promoting efficiency and fostering self-directed learning.

Despite the positive outlook, the study also reveals challenges concerning GenAI technologies, with students expressing reservations about over-reliance on the technology, its potential impact on the value of university education, and issues related to accuracy, transparency, privacy, and ethics. Students express concerns about the accuracy and ethical issues, particularly plagiarism, as they face difficulty in determining the originality of work generated by GenAI tools (Peres et al., 2023 ), which are unable to assess validity or identify falsehoods, thus necessitating human oversight (Lubowitz, 2023 ). Interestingly, there is no significant correlation between students’ concerns and their knowledge about GenAI technologies, suggesting that even those with a good understanding of the technology may still have reservations, similar to Dahmash et al. ( 2020 )’s findings. Additionally, students were apprehensive about GenAI, which may hinder critical thinking and creativity, and the impact of GenAI on job prospects (Ghotbi et al., 2022 ; Gong et al., 2019 ; Park et al., 2020 ) and human values (Gillissen et al., 2022 ; Jha et al., 2022 ).

User acceptance is key to the successful uptake of technological innovations, and students are the primary users of educational technologies. By understanding how students perceive generative AI technologies, educators and policymakers can better understand how best to integrate these technologies into higher education to enhance teaching and learning outcomes.

As mentioned, the reasons behind students’ willingness and concerns about GenAI technologies are multifaceted. On one hand, students are optimistic about the future integration of these technologies into their academic and professional lives, considering GenAI as part of the ongoing technological evolution. On the other hand, students have reservations.

In this study, student perception of GenAI technologies were investigated. According to Biggs ( 1999 , 2011 ), student perceptions of their learning environment, abilities, and teaching strategies significantly influence their learning approach and outcomes, with positive perceptions leading to a deep learning approach and negative perceptions resulting in a surface approach. Thus, it is vital to understand student perception in the context of GenAI technologies. By taking students’ perceptions into account, educators and policymakers can better tailor GenAI technologies to address students’ needs and concerns while promoting effective learning outcomes.

Understanding students on their willingness and concerns regarding the use of GenAI tools can help educators to better integrate these technologies into the learning process, ensuring they complement and enhance traditional teaching methods. This integration can lead to improved learning outcomes, as students will be more likely to adopt a deep approach to learning when they perceive GenAI as a valuable and supportive resource. Students’ perceptions can provide insights into their level of AI literacy, which is essential for responsible use of GenAI technologies. By identifying gaps in students’ understanding, educators can develop targeted interventions to improve AI literacy and prepare students for future employment in an increasingly AI-driven world. In the findings, students highlight the potential risks and concerns, educators can create guidelines and safeguards that ensure responsible and ethical use of GenAI technologies.

Implications

The diverse range of opinions among the participants highlights some implications that must be considered to ensure the successful integration of GenAI into higher education. According to the 3P model proposed by Biggs ( 2011 ), three key elements that can influence learning outcomes include student-dependent factors, teaching-dependent factors, and interactive impacts from the whole system. With this framework in mind, it is important for students to develop their AI literacy, which includes understanding the basics of Generative AI, how it works, its advantages, and disadvantages, as well as different uses in higher education. Meanwhile, when using Generative AI, they should ensure that their use aligns with ethical principles and does not cause any harm to society.

Additionally, as some students expressed concerns about their holistic competencies’ development, teachers can play a vital role in developing their high-order skills, perhaps with the help of GenAI as mentioned in (Chan & Tsi, 2023 ). For example, teachers can encourage students to critically evaluate AI-generated content and distinguish between reliable and unreliable sources to develop their critical thinking skills. Or Generative AI can be used to spark students’ creativity by generating diverse and unpredictable ideas and prompts. Since holistic competencies may become the most in-demand attributes for today’s work environment, a focus on competency development in instructional designs could also relieve students’ anxiety concerning career prospects.

In the foreseeable future, as generative AI may potentially be widely used in formal academic settings, institutions should also develop policies and provide formal guidance on the use of Generative AI. Chan ( 2023b ) suggests an AI Ecological Education Policy Framework to tackle the various implications of AI integration in university teaching and learning with three dimensions: Pedagogical, Governance, and Operational. Firstly, institutions should consider providing educational resources and workshops to familiarize students with GenAI technologies and their ethical and societal implications. This would enable students to make informed decisions when using these technologies in their academic endeavors.

Secondly, the development and implementation of GenAI technologies should prioritize transparency, accuracy, and privacy to foster trust and mitigate potential risks. For example, technical staff could work on explainable AI models that provide clear explanations of their decision-making processes. In addition, robust data protection policies and practices should be in place to safeguard users’ privacy.

Lastly, higher education institutions should consider rethinking their policy, curricula and teaching approaches to better prepare students for a future where GenAI technologies are prevalent. This may involve fostering interdisciplinary learning, emphasizing critical thinking and creativity, and cultivating digital literacy and AI ethics education.

In conclusion, this study sheds light on the diverse perspectives of university students towards GenAI technologies and underscores the need for a balanced approach to integrating these technologies into higher education. By addressing students’ concerns and maximizing the potential benefits, higher education institutions can harness the power of GenAI to enhance teaching and learning outcomes while also preparing students for the future workforce in the AI-era.

Limitations and future research

This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the sample size was relatively small, which may limit the generalizability of the results to the broader population of students in Hong Kong. The study’s reliance on self-reported data may also introduce potential biases, as participants could have been influenced by social desirability or inaccurate recall of their experiences with GenAI technologies. Furthermore, the cross-sectional design of the study does not allow for an examination of changes in students’ perceptions over time as their exposure to and experiences with GenAI technologies evolve. Lastly, since Gen AI has not been fully used in formal academic settings, students have limited exposure to it. This study did not explore how students were exposed to AI and the actual impact of GenAI on students’ learning outcomes, which would be necessary to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the role of these technologies in education.

Future research should address these limitations by employing larger, more diverse samples; using longitudinal designs to track changes in students’ perceptions of generative AI over time and explore how these technologies are integrated into higher education; and examining the relationship between GenAI use and learning outcomes. Additionally, future research could explore on a specific group of students from different discipline, academic backgrounds, age groups, or cultural contexts on AI literacy.

Overall, there is a need for further research to better understand how best to integrate generative AI into higher education while minimizing potential risks related to privacy and security. By exploring these areas, we can ensure that these technologies are used responsibly and effectively in teaching and learning contexts.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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The author wishes to thank the students who participated the survey.

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Cecilia Ka Yuk Chan & Wenjie Hu

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CKYC: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Writing—original, Writing—review & editing, Supervision, Project administration. WH: Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing—original, Visualization. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Chan, C.K.Y., Hu, W. Students’ voices on generative AI: perceptions, benefits, and challenges in higher education. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 20 , 43 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00411-8

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Received : 27 April 2023

Accepted : 23 June 2023

Published : 17 July 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00411-8

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• Generative AI
• Student perception
• AI literacy
• Holistic competencies