how to review critical thinking

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How to build critical thinking skills for better decision-making

It’s simple in theory, but tougher in practice – here are five tips to get you started.

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Have you heard the riddle about two coins that equal thirty cents, but one of them is not a nickel? What about the one where a surgeon says they can’t operate on their own son?

Those brain teasers tap into your critical thinking skills. But your ability to think critically isn’t just helpful for solving those random puzzles – it plays a big role in your career. 

An impressive 81% of employers say critical thinking carries a lot of weight when they’re evaluating job candidates. It ranks as the top competency companies consider when hiring recent graduates (even ahead of communication ). Plus, once you’re hired, several studies show that critical thinking skills are highly correlated with better job performance.

So what exactly are critical thinking skills? And even more importantly, how do you build and improve them? 

What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking is the ability to evaluate facts and information, remain objective, and make a sound decision about how to move forward.

Does that sound like how you approach every decision or problem? Not so fast. Critical thinking seems simple in theory but is much tougher in practice, which helps explain why 65% of employers say their organization has a need for more critical thinking. 

In reality, critical thinking doesn’t come naturally to a lot of us. In order to do it well, you need to:

• Remain open-minded and inquisitive, rather than relying on assumptions or jumping to conclusions
• Ask questions and dig deep, rather than accepting information at face value
• Keep your own biases and perceptions in check to stay as objective as possible
• Rely on your emotional intelligence to fill in the blanks and gain a more well-rounded understanding of a situation

So, critical thinking isn’t just being intelligent or analytical. In many ways, it requires you to step outside of yourself, let go of your own preconceived notions, and approach a problem or situation with curiosity and fairness.

It’s a challenge, but it’s well worth it. Critical thinking skills will help you connect ideas, make reasonable decisions, and solve complex problems.

7 critical thinking skills to help you dig deeper

Critical thinking is often labeled as a skill itself (you’ll see it bulleted as a desired trait in a variety of job descriptions). But it’s better to think of critical thinking less as a distinct skill and more as a collection or category of skills. 

To think critically, you’ll need to tap into a bunch of your other soft skills. Here are seven of the most important. 

Open-mindedness

It’s important to kick off the critical thinking process with the idea that anything is possible. The more you’re able to set aside your own suspicions, beliefs, and agenda, the better prepared you are to approach the situation with the level of inquisitiveness you need. 

That means not closing yourself off to any possibilities and allowing yourself the space to pull on every thread – yes, even the ones that seem totally implausible.

As Christopher Dwyer, Ph.D. writes in a piece for Psychology Today , “Even if an idea appears foolish, sometimes its consideration can lead to an intelligent, critically considered conclusion.” He goes on to compare the critical thinking process to brainstorming . Sometimes the “bad” ideas are what lay the foundation for the good ones. 

Open-mindedness is challenging because it requires more effort and mental bandwidth than sticking with your own perceptions. Approaching problems or situations with true impartiality often means:

• Practicing self-regulation : Giving yourself a pause between when you feel something and when you actually react or take action.
• Challenging your own biases: Acknowledging your biases and seeking feedback are two powerful ways to get a broader understanding. 

Critical thinking example

In a team meeting, your boss mentioned that your company newsletter signups have been decreasing and she wants to figure out why.

At first, you feel offended and defensive – it feels like she’s blaming you for the dip in subscribers. You recognize and rationalize that emotion before thinking about potential causes. You have a hunch about what’s happening, but you will explore all possibilities and contributions from your team members.

Observation

Observation is, of course, your ability to notice and process the details all around you (even the subtle or seemingly inconsequential ones). Critical thinking demands that you’re flexible and willing to go beyond surface-level information, and solid observation skills help you do that.

Your observations help you pick up on clues from a variety of sources and experiences, all of which help you draw a final conclusion. After all, sometimes it’s the most minuscule realization that leads you to the strongest conclusion.

Over the next week or so, you keep a close eye on your company’s website and newsletter analytics to see if numbers are in fact declining or if your boss’s concerns were just a fluke. 

Critical thinking hinges on objectivity. And, to be objective, you need to base your judgments on the facts – which you collect through research. You’ll lean on your research skills to gather as much information as possible that’s relevant to your problem or situation. 

Keep in mind that this isn’t just about the quantity of information – quality matters too. You want to find data and details from a variety of trusted sources to drill past the surface and build a deeper understanding of what’s happening. 

You dig into your email and website analytics to identify trends in bounce rates, time on page, conversions, and more. You also review recent newsletters and email promotions to understand what customers have received, look through current customer feedback, and connect with your customer support team to learn what they’re hearing in their conversations with customers.

The critical thinking process is sort of like a treasure hunt – you’ll find some nuggets that are fundamental for your final conclusion and some that might be interesting but aren’t pertinent to the problem at hand.

That’s why you need analytical skills. They’re what help you separate the wheat from the chaff, prioritize information, identify trends or themes, and draw conclusions based on the most relevant and influential facts. 

It’s easy to confuse analytical thinking with critical thinking itself, and it’s true there is a lot of overlap between the two. But analytical thinking is just a piece of critical thinking. It focuses strictly on the facts and data, while critical thinking incorporates other factors like emotions, opinions, and experiences. 

As you analyze your research, you notice that one specific webpage has contributed to a significant decline in newsletter signups. While all of the other sources have stayed fairly steady with regard to conversions, that one has sharply decreased.

You decide to move on from your other hypotheses about newsletter quality and dig deeper into the analytics. 

One of the traps of critical thinking is that it’s easy to feel like you’re never done. There’s always more information you could collect and more rabbit holes you could fall down.

But at some point, you need to accept that you’ve done your due diligence and make a decision about how to move forward. That’s where inference comes in. It’s your ability to look at the evidence and facts available to you and draw an informed conclusion based on those. 

When you’re so focused on staying objective and pursuing all possibilities, inference can feel like the antithesis of critical thinking. But ultimately, it’s your inference skills that allow you to move out of the thinking process and onto the action steps. 

You dig deeper into the analytics for the page that hasn’t been converting and notice that the sharp drop-off happened around the same time you switched email providers.

After looking more into the backend, you realize that the signup form on that page isn’t correctly connected to your newsletter platform. It seems like anybody who has signed up on that page hasn’t been fed to your email list. 

Communication

3 ways to improve your communication skills at work

If and when you identify a solution or answer, you can’t keep it close to the vest. You’ll need to use your communication skills to share your findings with the relevant stakeholders – like your boss, team members, or anybody who needs to be involved in the next steps.

Your analysis skills will come in handy here too, as they’ll help you determine what information other people need to know so you can avoid bogging them down with unnecessary details. 

In your next team meeting, you pull up the analytics and show your team the sharp drop-off as well as the missing connection between that page and your email platform. You ask the web team to reinstall and double-check that connection and you also ask a member of the marketing team to draft an apology email to the subscribers who were missed. 

Problem-solving

Critical thinking and problem-solving are two more terms that are frequently confused. After all, when you think critically, you’re often doing so with the objective of solving a problem.

The best way to understand how problem-solving and critical thinking differ is to think of problem-solving as much more narrow. You’re focused on finding a solution.

In contrast, you can use critical thinking for a variety of use cases beyond solving a problem – like answering questions or identifying opportunities for improvement. Even so, within the critical thinking process, you’ll flex your problem-solving skills when it comes time to take action. 

Once the fix is implemented, you monitor the analytics to see if subscribers continue to increase. If not (or if they increase at a slower rate than you anticipated), you’ll roll out some other tests like changing the CTA language or the placement of the subscribe form on the page.

5 ways to improve your critical thinking skills

Beyond the buzzwords: Why interpersonal skills matter at work

Think critically about critical thinking and you’ll quickly realize that it’s not as instinctive as you’d like it to be. Fortunately, your critical thinking skills are learned competencies and not inherent gifts – and that means you can improve them. Here’s how:

• Practice active listening: Active listening helps you process and understand what other people share. That’s crucial as you aim to be open-minded and inquisitive.
• Ask open-ended questions: If your critical thinking process involves collecting feedback and opinions from others, ask open-ended questions (meaning, questions that can’t be answered with “yes” or “no”). Doing so will give you more valuable information and also prevent your own biases from influencing people’s input.
• Scrutinize your sources: Figuring out what to trust and prioritize is crucial for critical thinking. Boosting your media literacy and asking more questions will help you be more discerning about what to factor in. It’s hard to strike a balance between skepticism and open-mindedness, but approaching information with questions (rather than unquestioning trust) will help you draw better conclusions. 
• Play a game: Remember those riddles we mentioned at the beginning? As trivial as they might seem, games and exercises like those can help you boost your critical thinking skills. There are plenty of critical thinking exercises you can do individually or as a team . 
• Give yourself time: Research shows that rushed decisions are often regrettable ones. That’s likely because critical thinking takes time – you can’t do it under the wire. So, for big decisions or hairy problems, give yourself enough time and breathing room to work through the process. It’s hard enough to think critically without a countdown ticking in your brain. 

Critical thinking really is critical

The ability to think critically is important, but it doesn’t come naturally to most of us. It’s just easier to stick with biases, assumptions, and surface-level information. 

But that route often leads you to rash judgments, shaky conclusions, and disappointing decisions. So here’s a conclusion we can draw without any more noodling: Even if it is more demanding on your mental resources, critical thinking is well worth the effort.

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What Are Critical Thinking Skills and Why Are They Important?

Learn what critical thinking skills are, why they’re important, and how to develop and apply them in your workplace and everyday life.

We often use critical thinking skills without even realizing it. When you make a decision, such as which cereal to eat for breakfast, you're using critical thinking to determine the best option for you that day.

Critical thinking is like a muscle that can be exercised and built over time. It is a skill that can help propel your career to new heights. You'll be able to solve workplace issues, use trial and error to troubleshoot ideas, and more.

We'll take you through what it is and some examples so you can begin your journey in mastering this skill.

What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking is the ability to interpret, evaluate, and analyze facts and information that are available, to form a judgment or decide if something is right or wrong.

More than just being curious about the world around you, critical thinkers make connections between logical ideas to see the bigger picture. Building your critical thinking skills means being able to advocate your ideas and opinions, present them in a logical fashion, and make decisions for improvement.

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Why is critical thinking important?

Critical thinking is useful in many areas of your life, including your career. It makes you a well-rounded individual, one who has looked at all of their options and possible solutions before making a choice.

According to the University of the People in California, having critical thinking skills is important because they are [ 1 ]:

Crucial for the economy

Essential for improving language and presentation skills

Very helpful in promoting creativity

Important for self-reflection

The basis of science and democracy 

Critical thinking skills are used every day in a myriad of ways and can be applied to situations such as a CEO approaching a group project or a nurse deciding in which order to treat their patients.

Examples of common critical thinking skills

Critical thinking skills differ from individual to individual and are utilized in various ways. Examples of common critical thinking skills include:

Identification of biases: Identifying biases means knowing there are certain people or things that may have an unfair prejudice or influence on the situation at hand. Pointing out these biases helps to remove them from contention when it comes to solving the problem and allows you to see things from a different perspective.

Research: Researching details and facts allows you to be prepared when presenting your information to people. You’ll know exactly what you’re talking about due to the time you’ve spent with the subject material, and you’ll be well-spoken and know what questions to ask to gain more knowledge. When researching, always use credible sources and factual information.

Open-mindedness: Being open-minded when having a conversation or participating in a group activity is crucial to success. Dismissing someone else’s ideas before you’ve heard them will inhibit you from progressing to a solution, and will often create animosity. If you truly want to solve a problem, you need to be willing to hear everyone’s opinions and ideas if you want them to hear yours.

Analysis: Analyzing your research will lead to you having a better understanding of the things you’ve heard and read. As a true critical thinker, you’ll want to seek out the truth and get to the source of issues. It’s important to avoid taking things at face value and always dig deeper.

Problem-solving: Problem-solving is perhaps the most important skill that critical thinkers can possess. The ability to solve issues and bounce back from conflict is what helps you succeed, be a leader, and effect change. One way to properly solve problems is to first recognize there’s a problem that needs solving. By determining the issue at hand, you can then analyze it and come up with several potential solutions.

How to develop critical thinking skills

You can develop critical thinking skills every day if you approach problems in a logical manner. Here are a few ways you can start your path to improvement:

1. Ask questions.

Be inquisitive about everything. Maintain a neutral perspective and develop a natural curiosity, so you can ask questions that develop your understanding of the situation or task at hand. The more details, facts, and information you have, the better informed you are to make decisions.

2. Practice active listening.

Utilize active listening techniques, which are founded in empathy, to really listen to what the other person is saying. Critical thinking, in part, is the cognitive process of reading the situation: the words coming out of their mouth, their body language, their reactions to your own words. Then, you might paraphrase to clarify what they're saying, so both of you agree you're on the same page.

3. Develop your logic and reasoning.

This is perhaps a more abstract task that requires practice and long-term development. However, think of a schoolteacher assessing the classroom to determine how to energize the lesson. There's options such as playing a game, watching a video, or challenging the students with a reward system. Using logic, you might decide that the reward system will take up too much time and is not an immediate fix. A video is not exactly relevant at this time. So, the teacher decides to play a simple word association game.

Scenarios like this happen every day, so next time, you can be more aware of what will work and what won't. Over time, developing your logic and reasoning will strengthen your critical thinking skills.

Learn tips and tricks on how to become a better critical thinker and problem solver through online courses from notable educational institutions on Coursera. Start with Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking from Duke University or Mindware: Critical Thinking for the Information Age from the University of Michigan.

Article sources

University of the People, “ Why is Critical Thinking Important?: A Survival Guide , https://www.uopeople.edu/blog/why-is-critical-thinking-important/.” Accessed May 18, 2023.

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A Crash Course in Critical Thinking

What you need to know—and read—about one of the essential skills needed today..

Posted April 8, 2024 | Reviewed by Michelle Quirk

• In research for "A More Beautiful Question," I did a deep dive into the current crisis in critical thinking.
• Many people may think of themselves as critical thinkers, but they actually are not.
• Here is a series of questions you can ask yourself to try to ensure that you are thinking critically.

Conspiracy theories. Inability to distinguish facts from falsehoods. Widespread confusion about who and what to believe.

These are some of the hallmarks of the current crisis in critical thinking—which just might be the issue of our times. Because if people aren’t willing or able to think critically as they choose potential leaders, they’re apt to choose bad ones. And if they can’t judge whether the information they’re receiving is sound, they may follow faulty advice while ignoring recommendations that are science-based and solid (and perhaps life-saving).

Moreover, as a society, if we can’t think critically about the many serious challenges we face, it becomes more difficult to agree on what those challenges are—much less solve them.

On a personal level, critical thinking can enable you to make better everyday decisions. It can help you make sense of an increasingly complex and confusing world.

In the new expanded edition of my book A More Beautiful Question ( AMBQ ), I took a deep dive into critical thinking. Here are a few key things I learned.

First off, before you can get better at critical thinking, you should understand what it is. It’s not just about being a skeptic. When thinking critically, we are thoughtfully reasoning, evaluating, and making decisions based on evidence and logic. And—perhaps most important—while doing this, a critical thinker always strives to be open-minded and fair-minded . That’s not easy: It demands that you constantly question your assumptions and biases and that you always remain open to considering opposing views.

In today’s polarized environment, many people think of themselves as critical thinkers simply because they ask skeptical questions—often directed at, say, certain government policies or ideas espoused by those on the “other side” of the political divide. The problem is, they may not be asking these questions with an open mind or a willingness to fairly consider opposing views.

When people do this, they’re engaging in “weak-sense critical thinking”—a term popularized by the late Richard Paul, a co-founder of The Foundation for Critical Thinking . “Weak-sense critical thinking” means applying the tools and practices of critical thinking—questioning, investigating, evaluating—but with the sole purpose of confirming one’s own bias or serving an agenda.

In AMBQ , I lay out a series of questions you can ask yourself to try to ensure that you’re thinking critically. Here are some of the questions to consider:

• Why do I believe what I believe?
• Are my views based on evidence?
• Have I fairly and thoughtfully considered differing viewpoints?
• Am I truly open to changing my mind?

Of course, becoming a better critical thinker is not as simple as just asking yourself a few questions. Critical thinking is a habit of mind that must be developed and strengthened over time. In effect, you must train yourself to think in a manner that is more effortful, aware, grounded, and balanced.

For those interested in giving themselves a crash course in critical thinking—something I did myself, as I was working on my book—I thought it might be helpful to share a list of some of the books that have shaped my own thinking on this subject. As a self-interested author, I naturally would suggest that you start with the new 10th-anniversary edition of A More Beautiful Question , but beyond that, here are the top eight critical-thinking books I’d recommend.

The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark , by Carl Sagan

This book simply must top the list, because the late scientist and author Carl Sagan continues to be such a bright shining light in the critical thinking universe. Chapter 12 includes the details on Sagan’s famous “baloney detection kit,” a collection of lessons and tips on how to deal with bogus arguments and logical fallacies.

Clear Thinking: Turning Ordinary Moments Into Extraordinary Results , by Shane Parrish

The creator of the Farnham Street website and host of the “Knowledge Project” podcast explains how to contend with biases and unconscious reactions so you can make better everyday decisions. It contains insights from many of the brilliant thinkers Shane has studied.

Good Thinking: Why Flawed Logic Puts Us All at Risk and How Critical Thinking Can Save the World , by David Robert Grimes

A brilliant, comprehensive 2021 book on critical thinking that, to my mind, hasn’t received nearly enough attention . The scientist Grimes dissects bad thinking, shows why it persists, and offers the tools to defeat it.

Think Again: The Power of Knowing What You Don't Know , by Adam Grant

Intellectual humility—being willing to admit that you might be wrong—is what this book is primarily about. But Adam, the renowned Wharton psychology professor and bestselling author, takes the reader on a mind-opening journey with colorful stories and characters.

Think Like a Detective: A Kid's Guide to Critical Thinking , by David Pakman

The popular YouTuber and podcast host Pakman—normally known for talking politics —has written a terrific primer on critical thinking for children. The illustrated book presents critical thinking as a “superpower” that enables kids to unlock mysteries and dig for truth. (I also recommend Pakman’s second kids’ book called Think Like a Scientist .)

Rationality: What It Is, Why It Seems Scarce, Why It Matters , by Steven Pinker

The Harvard psychology professor Pinker tackles conspiracy theories head-on but also explores concepts involving risk/reward, probability and randomness, and correlation/causation. And if that strikes you as daunting, be assured that Pinker makes it lively and accessible.

How Minds Change: The Surprising Science of Belief, Opinion and Persuasion , by David McRaney

David is a science writer who hosts the popular podcast “You Are Not So Smart” (and his ideas are featured in A More Beautiful Question ). His well-written book looks at ways you can actually get through to people who see the world very differently than you (hint: bludgeoning them with facts definitely won’t work).

A Healthy Democracy's Best Hope: Building the Critical Thinking Habit , by M Neil Browne and Chelsea Kulhanek

Neil Browne, author of the seminal Asking the Right Questions: A Guide to Critical Thinking, has been a pioneer in presenting critical thinking as a question-based approach to making sense of the world around us. His newest book, co-authored with Chelsea Kulhanek, breaks down critical thinking into “11 explosive questions”—including the “priors question” (which challenges us to question assumptions), the “evidence question” (focusing on how to evaluate and weigh evidence), and the “humility question” (which reminds us that a critical thinker must be humble enough to consider the possibility of being wrong).

Warren Berger is a longtime journalist and author of A More Beautiful Question .

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• What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples

What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples

Published on May 30, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

Critical thinking is the ability to effectively analyze information and form a judgment .

To think critically, you must be aware of your own biases and assumptions when encountering information, and apply consistent standards when evaluating sources .

Critical thinking skills help you to:

• Identify credible sources
• Evaluate and respond to arguments
• Assess alternative viewpoints
• Test hypotheses against relevant criteria

Table of contents

Why is critical thinking important, critical thinking examples, how to think critically, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about critical thinking.

Critical thinking is important for making judgments about sources of information and forming your own arguments. It emphasizes a rational, objective, and self-aware approach that can help you to identify credible sources and strengthen your conclusions.

Critical thinking is important in all disciplines and throughout all stages of the research process . The types of evidence used in the sciences and in the humanities may differ, but critical thinking skills are relevant to both.

In academic writing , critical thinking can help you to determine whether a source:

• Is free from research bias
• Provides evidence to support its research findings
• Considers alternative viewpoints

Outside of academia, critical thinking goes hand in hand with information literacy to help you form opinions rationally and engage independently and critically with popular media.

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Critical thinking can help you to identify reliable sources of information that you can cite in your research paper . It can also guide your own research methods and inform your own arguments.

Outside of academia, critical thinking can help you to be aware of both your own and others’ biases and assumptions.

Academic examples

However, when you compare the findings of the study with other current research, you determine that the results seem improbable. You analyze the paper again, consulting the sources it cites.

You notice that the research was funded by the pharmaceutical company that created the treatment. Because of this, you view its results skeptically and determine that more independent research is necessary to confirm or refute them. Example: Poor critical thinking in an academic context You’re researching a paper on the impact wireless technology has had on developing countries that previously did not have large-scale communications infrastructure. You read an article that seems to confirm your hypothesis: the impact is mainly positive. Rather than evaluating the research methodology, you accept the findings uncritically.

Nonacademic examples

However, you decide to compare this review article with consumer reviews on a different site. You find that these reviews are not as positive. Some customers have had problems installing the alarm, and some have noted that it activates for no apparent reason.

You revisit the original review article. You notice that the words “sponsored content” appear in small print under the article title. Based on this, you conclude that the review is advertising and is therefore not an unbiased source. Example: Poor critical thinking in a nonacademic context You support a candidate in an upcoming election. You visit an online news site affiliated with their political party and read an article that criticizes their opponent. The article claims that the opponent is inexperienced in politics. You accept this without evidence, because it fits your preconceptions about the opponent.

There is no single way to think critically. How you engage with information will depend on the type of source you’re using and the information you need.

However, you can engage with sources in a systematic and critical way by asking certain questions when you encounter information. Like the CRAAP test , these questions focus on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.

When encountering information, ask:

• Who is the author? Are they an expert in their field?
• What do they say? Is their argument clear? Can you summarize it?
• When did they say this? Is the source current?
• Where is the information published? Is it an academic article? Is it peer-reviewed ?
• Why did the author publish it? What is their motivation?
• How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence? Does it rely on opinion, speculation, or appeals to emotion ? Do they address alternative arguments?

Critical thinking also involves being aware of your own biases, not only those of others. When you make an argument or draw your own conclusions, you can ask similar questions about your own writing:

• Am I only considering evidence that supports my preconceptions?
• Is my argument expressed clearly and backed up with credible sources?
• Would I be convinced by this argument coming from someone else?

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

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Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.

Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.

Critical thinking skills include the ability to:

You can assess information and arguments critically by asking certain questions about the source. You can use the CRAAP test , focusing on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.

Ask questions such as:

• Who is the author? Are they an expert?
• How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence?

A credible source should pass the CRAAP test  and follow these guidelines:

• The information should be up to date and current.
• The author and publication should be a trusted authority on the subject you are researching.
• The sources the author cited should be easy to find, clear, and unbiased.
• For a web source, the URL and layout should signify that it is trustworthy.

Information literacy refers to a broad range of skills, including the ability to find, evaluate, and use sources of information effectively.

Being information literate means that you:

• Know how to find credible sources
• Use relevant sources to inform your research
• Understand what constitutes plagiarism
• Know how to cite your sources correctly

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search, interpret, and recall information in a way that aligns with our pre-existing values, opinions, or beliefs. It refers to the ability to recollect information best when it amplifies what we already believe. Relatedly, we tend to forget information that contradicts our opinions.

Although selective recall is a component of confirmation bias, it should not be confused with recall bias.

On the other hand, recall bias refers to the differences in the ability between study participants to recall past events when self-reporting is used. This difference in accuracy or completeness of recollection is not related to beliefs or opinions. Rather, recall bias relates to other factors, such as the length of the recall period, age, and the characteristics of the disease under investigation.

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How to think critically – a guide to creative and critical thinking.

Find out why critical thinking is such a valued and in-demand skill and how you can improve your own critical thinking abilities.

The ability to analyse arguments, evaluate evidence, and distinguish between fact and opinion is a valuable skill. As a result, critical thinking is a highly sought-after ability that can benefit you at work and in your personal life. But what is critical thinking? And how do you think critically? 

We explore some of the key concepts behind critical thinking, examine some examples, and outline how you can improve your own skills in this area. We’ll also highlight some useful courses and resources that can help you think critically. But first, start your critical thinking journey by taking our quiz with BoxPlay – What kind of thinker are you?

What is critical thinking? 

Let’s lead with a critical thinking definition. Depending on where you look, you might find differences between definitions. First, we’ll rely on a simple definition: critical thinking is the analysis of factual evidence to form a judgement. 

However, a closer inspection of the term and its meaning shows that there are many aspects to critical thinking. What’s more, studies have highlighted a broad range of definitions. A thorough way of defining critical thinking is made by the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . They summarise the core concepts of critical thinking as the process of ‘careful goal-directed thinking.’ 

We can also turn to our open step on critical thinking at university , which features this definition: 

“Good critical thinking includes recognising good arguments even when we disagree with them, and poor arguments even when these support our own point of view.”

The open step goes on to outline some of the critical thinking processes that tie into the definitions we’ve seen. These critical thinking skills include: 

• Analysing and weighing up arguments
• Evaluating evidence that has been presented
• Distinguishing between fact and opinion
• Reviewing the research methods used (how the data has been gathered)
• Considering the potential for bias
• Analysing different interpretations, viewpoints and perspectives
• Reaching conclusions based on your own reasoning.

As you can see, the characteristics of critical thinking are numerous, and it’s a skill made up of many other abilities. 

Thinking critically and creatively 

Creative thinking is often contrasted with critical thinking. However, the two certainly have their overlaps. Thinking creatively often requires exploring new possibilities, finding unique angles, and using unconventional solutions. 

Critical thinking is more focused on a logical and rational process of evaluating that which exists already. However, both types of thinking can be used to solve problems and make decisions, and a combination of the two is often helpful. 

Why is critical thinking important? 

So, in essence, critical thinking is about thinking in certain ways to make informed judgements. But why is this such a valuable skill? In a world where we’re provided with an almost constant stream of information and decisions to make, the ability to think critically can help us make the right choices and understand the world around us. 

As highlighted in our course on logical and critical thinking , assessing the reasons we are given to do or believe things calls upon us to think critically and logically. We are constantly being told to believe things, such as to buy a product, support a cause, accept a job or judge someone innocent or guilty, and so on. Critical thinking helps us choose whether to believe these things. 

Whether you’re working or in education, critical thinking is a desirable soft skill. The benefits of critical thinking are that it can help you:

• Question assumptions
• Make better decisions
• Exercise curiosity
• Create compelling arguments
• Reflect on yourself and your life. 

What’s more, critical thinking and problem solving often go hand-in-hand. Employers are always looking for people who possess both skills. 

Critical thinking examples 

Examples of critical thinking are all around us. On a daily basis, we process information to determine its validity and whether we believe what’s being told to us. However, it’s useful to see the process of critical thinking in action. 

In our open step on good and bad arguments , there are several such examples of critical reasoning. These examples follow a particular set of steps to evaluate whether or not an argument is valid and/or sound. This includes: 

• Drawing a conclusion from the evidence 
• Assessing whether the argument is deductive (has an absolute conclusion) or non-deductive (has a plausible, but not absolute, conclusion). 
• Deciding whether the argument is valid (deciding if the premises are true, does that mean we must accept the conclusion). 
• Exploring whether the argument is sound (deciding whether the premises are true). 

This process can seem quite complex, but many of us do it without thinking. There are other practical examples of critical thinking we can highlight as well, for example: 

• Choosing whether a piece of research for an assignment is accurate, valid, from a reliable source and supports your argument. 
• Deciding which skills and experience are most relevant to a job application or interview. 
• Creating a plan of action to achieve a goal based on a range of factors and variables. 

Obstacles to thinking critically

So, critical thinking is a valuable skill and one that many of us practise on a daily basis. However, that doesn’t mean it’s something that we do all of the time. There are some common psychological obstacles and reasoning fallacies that trip even the smartest among us up.

According to our open step on critical and logical thinking, some of the most common obstacles to thinking critically include: 

• Confirmation bias . This phenomenon is when we tend to only consider what we have already experienced before, confirming what we already know.
• Heuristics. These are the mental shortcuts we use to simplify decision making. Examples include things like the ‘rule of thumb’ or an ‘educated guess’. 
• Framing. The framing effect can make us respond differently to identical circumstances by changing the framing of those circumstances. For example, the focus of our attention might be drawn to different aspects of the situation.
• Common fallacies. There are some common ways that people use reasoning that are not logical or critical. For example, someone might distort an opponent’s arguments or views and then attack the weakened version rather than the real argument (a strawman fallacy).

Intermediate

How to think critically 

If you want to try and avoid some of the common obstacles to critical thinking, there are several methods you can use in developing critical thinking skills. Below, we’ve outlined some of the steps you can take to analyse arguments, evaluate evidence, and distinguish between fact and opinion.

Although the critical thinking process will differ between individuals, there are some useful steps: 

• Identify the issue . When faced with a situation or problem, determine what has caused it. 
• Analyse the arguments . There will usually be several sides to an argument, so it’s important to understand who is saying what and how valid each position is. 
• Discover the facts . It’s essential to separate the facts from the opinions and assess how accurately the evidence is presented. 
• Challenge your biases . Ask yourself whether or not you’re making assumptions, why you believe a certain point, and whether you’re letting confirmation bias,  heuristics, framing or common fallacies impact your thinking. 
• Decide on significance . It’s likely that each side of an argument will have supporting evidence. Deciding which information is most important, deductive, valid, and has a sound premise will help make a decision about the significance of each.  
• Draw conclusions . The various steps above will lead you to decide which option or argument (if any) is the most accurate. You can also weigh up the strengths and weaknesses of all options. 

How to improve critical thinking skills 

The steps above seem simple enough, yet with the various obstacles and emotions involved in decision making, it can sometimes be hard to let your head rule above your heart. So how can you improve your critical thinking skills? 

There are several ways that you can achieve the benefits of critical thinking, including: 

Use scrutiny and scepticism

It requires little effort to accept things at face value and believe what you’re being told. However, doing so is not particularly helpful for critical thinking. Instead, you should question what’s in front of you, ask what the motivations are, and how accurate the information is. 

Eliminate the less useful and unreliable information

It can be difficult to make effective decisions or draw informed conclusions when you’re surrounded by inaccurate information. Using your critical eye and scepticism, you can start to discount the bad arguments and biased claims. 

Use reliable sources

When you’re researching a topic to make an informed decision, always pay attention to the source. Look at evidence-based information from reliable outlets and be careful of how statistics are presented to you. Try and explore past the surface-level claims of studies to find out what they’re actually telling you, and whether there is enough of a sample size to make a conclusion. 

Listen actively

Active listening is a technique that ensures the listener concentrates, understands, responds to, and remembers what’s being said. It’s also about observing behaviour and body language. This type of active listening can help you fully understand what’s being said and why, and what the pros and cons of the argument are. 

Use empathy

Being able to put yourself in the shoes of another person allows you to understand their point of view, motivations, and aspirations. In doing so, you’re better able to appreciate why they hold a particular belief or think in a certain way. 

Final thoughts 

So, critical thinking is a valuable skill that can help us make better decisions and judgements. However, all of us must overcome some thought-obstacles to be able to think critically and creatively. Thankfully, there are plenty of ways in which we can do so, as outlined in this post.  If you’re interested in learning more about critical thinking, our logical and critical thinking course is a great place to start. You’ll learn more about how to think more critically and construct and evaluate arguments.

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The Path to Critical Thinking

by Stever Robbins

Can you write a refresher on critical thinking?

What's logic got to do with it? Nothing! We don't use logic to decide, or even to think. And a good thing, too, or the advertising industry would be dead in the water. Unfortunately, all of our decisions come from emotion. Emotional Intelligence guru Daniel Goleman explains that our brain's decision-making center is directly connected to emotions, then to logic. So, as any good salesman will tell you, we decide with emotion and justify (read: fool ourselves) with logic.

Purely emotional decision making is bad news. When insecurity, ego, and panic drive decisions, companies become toxic and may even die. Just look at all the corporate meltdowns over the last five years to quickly understand where emotional decision making can lead.

Critical thinking starts with logic. Logic is the unnatural act of knowing which facts you're putting together to reach your conclusions, and how. We're hard-wired to assume that if two things happen together, one causes the other. This lets us leap quickly to very wrong conclusions. Early studies showed that increasing light levels in factories increased productivity. Therefore, more light means more productivity? Wrong! The workers knew a study was being done, and they responded to any change by working harder, since they knew they were being measured—the Hawthorne Effect.

We also sloppily reverse cause and effect. We notice all our high performers have coffee at mid-morning, and conclude that coffee causes high performance. Maybe. Maybe not. Maybe high performers work so late and are so sleep deprived that they need coffee to wake up. Unless you want a hyper-wired workforce, it's worth figuring out what really causes what.

There are many excellent books on logic. One of my favorites is the most-excellent and most-expensive Minto Pyramid Principle by Barbara Minto. It's about logic in writing, but you can use it for any decision you want to think through in detail.

The trap of assuming You can think critically without knowing where the facts stop and your own neurotic assumptions begin. We aren't built to identify our own assumptions without lots of practice, yet the wrong assumptions are fatal.

When we don't know something, we assume. That's a fancy way of saying, "we make stuff up." And often, we don't realize we're doing it. When our best performers leave, our first (and perhaps only) response is to offer them more pay, without realizing that other motivations like job satisfaction or recognition for accomplishments might be more important.

Finding and busting "conventional wisdom" can be the key to an empire. For decades, the standard video rental store model assumed that people wanted instant gratification and, to get it, they were willing to drive to a store, pay a rental fee for a few days' access, and then drive back to the store in a few days to return the movie. Thousands of big and small video rental parlors popped up across the country using this model. But Reed Hastings challenged those assumptions. He calculated that people would trade instant gratification for delayed, and would pay a monthly fee if they could have movies mailed to them, which they could keep as long as they liked. The result? Netflix. Estimated 2005 revenue: $700 million.

Assumptions can also cripple us. A CEO confided that he never hires someone who backs into a parking space. His logic (and I use the term loosely): The person will use time at the start of the day so they can leave more quickly at the end of the day. He assumes face time equals results. In whose world? Many people tell me they get more done in an hour at home than in eight hours in an interruption-prone office. How many great employees will he miss because he's not examining his assumptions?

Some assumptions run so deep they're hard to question. Many managers can't imagine letting people work fewer hours for the same pay. "If they go home earlier, we have to pay them less." Why? "Hours = productivity" is true of assembly lines, but not knowledge work. Research shows that it's not how much you work, but the quality of the work time that drives results. 2 But in most workplaces, hours count as much as results.

Next time you're grappling with a problem, spend time brainstorming your assumptions. Get others involved—it's easier to uncover assumptions with an outside perspective. Then question the heck out of each one. You may find that one changed assumption is the difference between doing good and doing great.

The truth will set you free (statistics notwithstanding) Have you ever noticed how terrified we are of the truth? We're desperately afraid that the truth will reveal us as incompetent. Our situation really is hopeless. We really aren't as great as we pretend. So we cling to our beliefs no matter how hard the truth tries to break free.

Guess what, recording industry: Electronic downloads have changed the nature of your business. Start asking how you'll add value in a world where finding, packaging, and distributing sound is a commodity. Hey, ailing airlines: Oil's expensive, customers won't pay much, and you have huge capital costs. That hasn't stopped Southwest, Jet Blue, and others from making a fortune.

Nothing tells the truth like solid data and the guts to accept it. But it's difficult in practice. When was the last time you identified and collected data that contradicted your beliefs? If you found it, did you cheerfully change your belief, or did you explain away the data in a way that let you keep your comfortable pre-conceptions?

Here is a great exercise for your group or company. Have your general managers list your industry's Unquestioned Truths, which they then must prove with data. When a Fortune 500 CEO recently ran this exercise, Surprise! Some "absolute truths" were absolutely false. Now he can do business his competitors think is nuts. Analysts will say he's off his rocker, until his deeper knowledge of truth starts making a small fortune.

One caveat: Be picky about where you get your data. The Internet can be especially dangerous. The miracle of technology lets one bad piece of data spread far and wide, and eventually be accepted as truth.

Help! I've been framed! Not only may your data be disguised, but the whole problem itself may be disguised! It seems obvious: we're losing money, we need to cut costs. Not so fast! How you "frame" a situation—your explanation—has great power. Remember assumptions? Frames are big ol' collections of assumptions that you adopt lock, stock, and barrel. They become the map you use to explore a situation.

You're negotiating an acquisition. You're chomping at the bit. It's WAR!! Competition is all. The frame is combat!

Or, you're negotiating an acquisition. You're on a journey with the other party to find and split the value buried at the X. You still track your gains and gather intelligence, but the emphasis is on mutual outcomes, not "winning."

In a zero-sum one-time negotiation, a combat frame may be the best tool. But in a negotiation where you're free to develop creative solutions that can involve outside factors, the journey frame could work best. "Instead of $100K, why don't you pay $75K and let us share your booth at Comdex?"

Frames have great power! Presented with a potential solution to a problem and told, "This course of action has a 20 percent failure rate," few managers would approve. When that same solution is presented as having an 80 percent success rate, the same manager is going to consider it more deeply— even though a 20 percent failure rate means the same thing as an 80 percent success rate! The frame changes the decision.

Are you brave in the face of failure? Most people aren't. I recommend the responsibility frame: "What aren't we doing what we should?" The responsibility frame sends you searching for the elements of success.

The beauty is that no one frame is right, just different. The danger is when we adopt a frame without questioning it. You'll do best by trying several different frames for a situation and exploring each to extract the gems.

People are our greatest asset. Really Critical thinking isn't just about what happens in our own brains. When you're thinking critically in business, bring in other people! We don't consider the people impact in our decisions often enough. In fact, we pooh-pooh the "soft stuff." We feel safe with factors we can calculate on our HP-12B. But in truth, business is about people. Multibillion-dollar mergers fail due to culture clash.

Customers, suppliers, partners, employees. They're as much a part of your business as that sparkly new PC you use to play Solitaire. How will your decisions change their lives? Imagine being them and let your imagination change your decisions.

The Gallup organization estimates that 70 percent of America's workers are disengaged, and disengaged workers are dramatically less productive, creative, and committed than engaged workers. Yet few strategy meetings ask, "How can we engage our employees more?" It's as if we say people are our greatest asset—but we don't really believe it. If you want to improve your critical thinking, get other points of view.

A stitch in time saves nine Of course you know you should think about the consequences of your actions. But with information overload, quarterly earnings pressure, sixty-hour weeks…who has the time? We don't think much beyond the end of our nose.

But technology leverages the effects of our decisions throughout the organization and even across the globe. So good thinking demands that you consider consequences over many timeframes. Think out a month, a year, a decade, many decades. That tanning booth looks great when you consider how you'll look in a week, but is it worth looking like a leather overcoat ten years from now?

Long-term junkies like me are great at creating ten-year plans, but managing next month's cash flow? Not likely. Short-term junkies are more common; they're the ones who discount to make this quarter's numbers, while tanking the company in the process. You can do better by considering multiple timeframes.

I could go on, but there's plenty here to chew on. Think about a decision you're making, and pull in the rigor:

• Make sure you understand the logic behind your decision.
• Identify your assumptions and double-check them.
• Collect the data that will support or disprove your assumptions.
• Deliberately consider the situation from multiple frames.
• Remember the people!
• Think short and long term.

© 2005 by Stever Robbins. All rights reserved in all media.

Stever Robbins is founder and president of LeadershipDecisionworks, a consulting firm that helps companies develop leadership and organizational strategies to sustain growth and productivity over time. You can find more of his articles at http://LeadershipDecisionworks.com . He is the author of It Takes a Lot More than Attitude to Lead a Stellar Organization .

1. Yes, I know. I'm making a point. Congratulations; you got it. Color me subtle. Now go back and keep reading...

2. The Power of Full Engagement , by Tony Schwartz and Jim Loehr, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003.

Critical Thinking: 25 Performance Review Phrases Examples

By Status.net Editorial Team on July 15, 2023 — 8 minutes to read

Critical thinking skills are an essential aspect of an employee’s evaluation: the ability to solve problems, analyze situations, and make informed decisions is crucial for the success of any organization.

Questions that can help you determine an employee’s rating for critical thinking:

• Does the employee consistently analyze data and information to identify patterns and trends?
• Does the employee proactively identify potential problems and develop solutions to mitigate them?
• Has the employee demonstrated the ability to think creatively and come up with innovative ideas or approaches?
• Does the employee actively seek out feedback and input from others to inform their decision-making process?
• Has the employee demonstrated the ability to make sound decisions based on available information and data?

Performance Review Phrases and Paragraphs Examples For Critical Thinking

5 – outstanding.

Employees with outstanding critical thinking skills are exceptional at identifying patterns, making connections, and using past experiences to inform their decisions.

Phrases Examples

• Consistently demonstrates exceptional critical thinking abilities
• Always finds creative and innovative solutions to complex problems
• Skilfully analyzes information and data to make well-informed decisions
• Frequently provides valuable insights and perspectives that benefit the team
• Continuously seeks out new learning opportunities to sharpen their critical thinking skills
• Demonstrates exceptional ability to identify and analyze complex issues
• Consistently develops innovative solutions to problems
• Skillfully connects disparate ideas to create coherent arguments
• Effectively communicates well-reasoned conclusions
• Exceptional ability to recognize trends in data
• Expertly applies existing knowledge to new situations
• Consistently anticipates potential challenges and develops solution

Paragraph Example 1

“Jane consistently demonstrates outstanding critical thinking skills in her role. She not only engages in deep analysis of complex information, but she also presents unique solutions to problems that have a significant positive impact on the team’s performance. Her ability to make well-informed decisions and offer valuable insights has led to numerous successes for the organization. Moreover, Jane’s dedication to improvement and learning demonstrates her commitment to personal and professional growth in the area of critical thinking.”

Paragraph Example 2

“Jessica consistently displays outstanding critical thinking skills. She is able to identify and analyze complex issues with ease and has demonstrated her ability to develop innovative solutions. Her skill in connecting disparate ideas to create coherent arguments is impressive, and she excels at communicating her well-reasoned conclusions to the team.”

Paragraph Example 3

“Melanie consistently demonstrates an exceptional ability to recognize patterns and trends in data, which has significantly contributed to the success of our projects. Her critical thinking skills allow her to apply her extensive knowledge and experience in creative and innovative ways, proactively addressing potential challenges and developing effective solutions.”

4 – Exceeds Expectations

Employees exceeding expectations in critical thinking skills are adept at analyzing information, making sound decisions, and providing thoughtful recommendations. They are also effective at adapting their knowledge to novel situations and displaying confidence in their abilities.

• Excellent analytical capabilities
• Provides well-reasoned recommendations
• Demonstrates a solid understanding of complex concepts
• Regularly demonstrates the ability to think analytically and critically
• Effectively identifies and addresses complex problems with well-thought-out solutions
• Shows exceptional skill in generating innovative ideas and solutions
• Exhibits a consistently high level of decision-making based on sound reasoning
• Proactively seeks out new information to improve critical thinking skills
• Routinely identifies potential challenges and provides solutions
• Typically recognizes and prioritizes the most relevant information
• Logical thinking is evident in daily decision-making
• Often weighs the pros and cons of multiple options before selecting a course of action

“Eric’s critical thinking skills have consistently exceeded expectations throughout his tenure at the company. He is skilled at reviewing and analyzing complex information, leading him to provide well-reasoned recommendations and insights. Eric regularly demonstrates a deep understanding of complicated concepts, which allows him to excel in his role.”

“In this evaluation period, Jane has consistently demonstrated an exceptional ability to think critically and analytically. She has repeatedly shown skill in identifying complex issues while working on projects and has provided well-thought-out and effective solutions. Her innovative ideas have contributed significantly to the success of several key initiatives. Moreover, Jane’s decision-making skills are built on sound reasoning, which has led to positive outcomes for the team and organization. Additionally, she actively seeks opportunities to acquire new information and apply it to her work, further strengthening her critical thinking capabilities.”

“John consistently exceeds expectations in his critical thinking abilities. He routinely identifies potential challenges and provides thoughtful solutions. He is skilled at recognizing and prioritizing the most relevant information to make well-informed decisions. John regularly weighs the pros and cons of various options and selects the best course of action based on logic.”

3 – Meets Expectations

Employees meeting expectations in critical thinking skills demonstrate an ability to analyze information and draw logical conclusions. They are effective at problem-solving and can make informed decisions with minimal supervision.

• Capable of processing information and making informed decisions
• Displays problem-solving skills
• Demonstrates logical thinking and reasoning
• Consistently demonstrates the ability to analyze problems and find possible solutions.
• Actively engages in group discussions and contributes valuable ideas.
• Demonstrates the ability to draw conclusions based on logical analysis of information.
• Shows willingness to consider alternative perspectives when making decisions.
• Weighs the pros and cons of a situation before reaching a decision.
• Usually identifies relevant factors when faced with complex situations
• Demonstrates an understanding of cause and effect relationships
• Generally uses sound reasoning to make decisions
• Listens to and considers different perspectives

“Sarah consistently meets expectations in her critical thinking skills, successfully processing information and making informed decisions. She has shown her ability to solve problems effectively and displays logical reasoning when approaching new challenges. Sarah continues to be a valuable team member thanks to these critical thinking skills.”

“Jane is a team member who consistently meets expectations in regards to her critical thinking skills. She demonstrates an aptitude for analyzing problems within the workplace and actively seeks out potential solutions by collaborating with her colleagues. Jane is open-minded and makes an effort to consider alternative perspectives during decision-making processes. She carefully weighs the pros and cons of the situations she encounters, which helps her make informed choices that align with the company’s objectives.”

“David meets expectations in his critical thinking skills. He can usually identify the relevant factors when dealing with complex situations and demonstrates an understanding of cause and effect relationships. David’s decision-making is generally based on sound reasoning, and he listens to and considers different perspectives before reaching a conclusion.”

2 – Needs Improvement

Employees in need of improvement in critical thinking skills may struggle with processing information and making logical conclusions. They may require additional guidance when making decisions or solving problems.

• Struggles with analyzing complex information
• Requires guidance when working through challenges
• Difficulty applying past experiences to new situations
• With some guidance, Jane is able to think critically, but she struggles to do so independently.
• John tends to jump to conclusions without analyzing a situation fully.
• Sarah’s problem-solving skills need improvement, as she often overlooks important information when making decisions.
• David’s critical thinking skills are limited and need further development to enhance his overall work performance.
• Occasionally struggles to identify and analyze problems effectively
• Inconsistently uses logic to make decisions
• Often overlooks important information or perspectives
• Requires guidance in weighing options and making judgments

“Bob’s critical thinking skills could benefit from further development and improvement. He often struggles when analyzing complex information and tends to need additional guidance when working through challenges. Enhancing Bob’s ability to apply his past experiences to new situations would lead to a notable improvement in his overall performance.”

“Jenny is a valuable team member, but her critical thinking skills need improvement before she will be able to reach her full potential. In many instances, Jenny makes decisions based on her first impressions without questioning the validity of her assumptions or considering alternative perspectives. Her tendency to overlook key details has led to several instances in which her solutions are ineffective or only partly beneficial. With focused guidance and support, Jenny has the potential to develop her critical thinking skills and make more informed decisions in the future.”

“Tom’s critical thinking skills require improvement. He occasionally struggles to identify and analyze problems effectively, and his decision-making is inconsistent in its use of logic. Tom often overlooks important information or perspectives and may require guidance in weighing options and making judgments.”

1 – Unacceptable

Employees with unacceptable critical thinking skills lack the ability to analyze information effectively, struggle with decision-making, and fail to solve problems without extensive support from others.

• Fails to draw logical conclusions from information
• Incapable of making informed decisions
• Unable to solve problems without extensive assistance
• Fails to analyze potential problems before making decisions
• Struggles to think critically and ask relevant questions
• Cannot effectively identify alternative solutions
• Lacks the ability to apply logic and reason in problem-solving situations
• Does not consistently seek input from others or gather information before making a decision
• Regularly fails to recognize or address important issues
• Makes hasty decisions without considering potential consequences
• Lacks objectivity and often relies on personal biases
• Resistant to alternative viewpoints and constructive feedback

“Unfortunately, Sue’s critical thinking skills have been consistently unacceptable. She fails to draw logical conclusions from available information and is incapable of making informed decisions. Sue has also shown that she is unable to solve problems without extensive assistance from others, which significantly impacts her performance and the team’s productivity.”

“Jane’s performance in critical thinking has been unacceptable. She often fails to analyze potential problems before making decisions and struggles to think critically and ask relevant questions. Jane’s inability to effectively identify alternative solutions and apply logic and reason in problem-solving situations has negatively impacted her work. Furthermore, she does not consistently seek input from others or gather information before making a decision. It is crucial for Jane to improve her critical thinking skills to become a more effective and valuable team member.”

“Susan’s critical thinking skills are unacceptable. She regularly fails to recognize and address important issues, and her decision-making is often hasty and without considering potential consequences. Susan frequently lacks objectivity and tends to rely on personal biases. She is resistant to alternative viewpoints and constructive feedback, which negatively affects her work performance.”

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Critical Thinking: 40 Useful Performance Feedback Phrases

Critical Thinking: Use these sample phrases to craft meaningful performance evaluations, drive change and motivate your workforce.

Critical Thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally while understanding the logical connection between ideas in a reflective and independent thinking.

Critical Thinking: Exceeds Expectations Phrases

• Highly demonstrates assertive and decisive ability when finding solutions for problems.
• Knows how to communicate ideas and issues easily in a very clear and concise manner.
• Able to piece together elements and come up with proper deductions on issues.
• Knows how to clarify problems and solutions easily so that other people can understand.
• Evaluates ideas and opinions in an unbiased manner without favoritism.
• Thinks through issues in a very logical manner that results in finding the best solution to a problem.
• Demonstrates excellent problem-solving skills by accessing a problem and devising the best possible solution for it.
• Takes in into consideration different and varied perspectives when solving problems.
• Examines the implications and possible consequences to any particular action carefully.
• Solves problems one by one so as not to mix up issues and ideas.

Critical Thinking: Meets Expectations Phrases

• Uses strategic approachability and skill when it comes to solving issues.
• Demonstrates well assertive and decisive ability when it comes to handling problems.
• Tries to always consider all factors at play before deciding on a particular methods or way.
• Gathers all the required facts and figures before starting to solve a particular problem.
• Always seeks to ask questions as a form of finding a sound basis to solving a problem.
• Not afraid to make mistakes and tries to find creative ways to handle any issue.
• Looks at issues in different angles and not in a one-sided way.
• Shows great flexibility when it comes to changing strategies and tact while dealing with different problems.
• Questions regularly to find out if the decision taken will achieve the desired effect.
• Always feels comfortable and confident when seeking help or advice whenever stuck on solving any issue.

Critical Thinking: Needs Improvement Phrases

• Does not take the time to consider all factors available before making a decision carefully.
• Looks at issues in a one-sided manner instead of having different varied ways of looking at it.
• Finds it challenging to arrive at a concrete conclusion after undertaking any evaluation.
• Not willing to do proper research and relies on outdated data and information.
• Does not demonstrate a curious type of attitude to try to find out a little bit more on issues.
• Not willing to accept corrections and take calculated risks when necessary.
• Does not show enough willingness to try to improve the critical thinking skills.
• Does not present ideas and points in a logical order or outline.
• Looks at issues in a biased and unfair way by not evaluating all factors.
• Not willing and inflexible to change tact or strategy when the initial plan fails to achieve the desired effect

Critical Thinking: Self Evaluation Questions

• How well do you research and gather facts and information before solving an issue?
• Give an instance you hurriedly made a decision without thinking it through and what was the result?
• Elaborate on a given occasion that you made the best decision. How did you feel about it?
• How well do you consider all the factors available before making your decision?
• Do you get to appreciate and learn from your mistakes and how do you deal with making wrong decisions?
• Do you always try to inquire further, what could be the missing elements that could achieve a positive outcome?
• How well do you consider having a concrete conclusion when presenting your ideas?
• When expressing your ideas do you deliver them in a logical manner?
• Do you usually look at issues in a one-sided manner or at different angles?
• How flexible are you when it comes to trying different ways of solving problems other than the intended way.

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How to write a critical review

Our guide on what it means to think critically when assessing a piece of writing for a student assignment or a workplace project.

When an academic assignment asks you to “critically review” or include a “critical analysis” of the work of other people, it generally means that you’ll need to “think critically”. This means analysing and assessing the work in terms of what the author was trying to achieve, the approach they took, how they conducted the research, and whether the outcomes were valid and acceptable. 

A critical review evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of an item’s ideas and content. It provides description, analysis and interpretation that assess the item’s value. It’s an exercise that can be carried out on many different types of writing, but is most often carried out on a report, a book or a journal article. 

Thousands of publications relevant to HR appear every year, via established journals, websites, management consultancy reports and universities all over the world. With so much information becoming available, many of which offer new ideas, new HR theories and approaches, it’s important that HR practitioners can evaluate whether what they read is valid, sound and unbiased. We can’t take everything we read at face value, and it’s an important skill, and a very important activity to conduct, if you’re going to base corporate change and your proposals to management on information from published sources. 

On this page

Selecting an item to review, the critical review process, writing the critical review, useful contacts and books, view our other study guides.

For study purposes, it's likely that you'll be asked to carry out a critical review of one or more journal articles. You may be directed to a specific journal article, or asked to select one based on your own research on a particular topic, or on a topic of your choice.  

If you're given options to make a choice, you're more likely to achieve the required outcome if you use well-known academic journals. These might be found in a library, on HR websites such as HR Focus, or via any online journal hosting service, such as EBSCO which is provided free to CIPD members.  

An article will only be useful for a critical review assignment if the author has stated what the question was, how the research was done and the outcomes or conclusions based on the facts and evidence listed.  

What is a journal?  

A journal (sometimes also called a “ periodical ” ) is a publication produced on a regular continuing basis – it may be weekly, monthly, quarterly (every three months) or annually.  

The titles of journals (for example The Journal of Occupational Psychology ) indicate the main topic focus of the articles contained in it.  

As they are published regularly, journals usually have volume and issue numbers, and sometimes months, to identify them.  

A volume usually covers a specific year – so, for example, volume 45 may be all the issues published in 2013.  

A n issue number refers to a specific instalment of the journal within that volume – they are often numbered issue or number 1, 2, 3, etc.  

A s well as, or instead of, a volume and issue number, some journals use the month of publication. This information is often crucial in finding specific articles.  

There are two main types of journal :  

Academic journal (also called scholarly journals) – T hese often contain research articles written by subject experts; they contain academic commentary and critical evaluation of issues by experts. The articles will be written in an academic style and they may be “ refereed ” or “ peer-reviewed ” – that is they articles are assessed, often by members of an editorial board who are experts in the field, before they are accepted for publication. Articles from this type of journal are usually suitable for a critical review exercise. The International Journal of Human Resource Management and Harvard Business Review are examples.  

Trade or professional journals – T hese usually contain news articles and comment on current issues. The articles often contain practical information and are written in everyday language. They also often have a “ jobs ” section and news of people in that profession. They are likely to be written by journalists rather than academics and don't usually have such rigorous publishing criteria. These articles may not be so suitable for a critical review exercise. People Management is an example.  

Take time to:  

Think about what content are you expecting, based on the title?  

Read the abstract for a summary of the author's arguments.  

Study the list of references to determine what research contributed to the author's arguments. Are the references recent? Do they represent important work in the field by accredited authors?  

Find out more about the author to learn what authority they have to write about the subject. Have they published other works which have been peer-assessed by other experts?  

Read the article carefully, but straight-through the first time to form an impression. You may find it useful to note down your initial reactions and questions. Then re-read it, either right-through or in sections, taking notes of the key ideas. Use these questions as a framework.  

Who was the article written for?  

Why has the author written the article? To survey and summarise research on a topic? Or to present an argument that builds on past research? Or to disagree with another writer’s stated argument?  

Does the author define important terms?  

Is the information in the article fact or opinion? Facts can be verified, while opinions arise from perceptions and interpretation.  

Is the article well-structured? Is it organised logically and easy to follow?  

Is the information well-researched, or is it largely unsupported?  

What are the author’s central arguments or conclusions? Are they supported by evidence and analysis?  

If the article reports on an experiment or study, does the author clearly outline methodology and the expected result?  

Is the article lacking any information or arguments that you expected to find?  

For more on effective reading and note-taking, see our guide on studying effectively.  

A key part of a critical review is assessing the author's “argument”. In this context, the argument is the line of reasoning or the approach or point of view of the author. It may be the author is defending a particular idea. They may be trying to make a case for something, perhaps a new idea, in which case there would then need to be evidence, examples and a clear set of conclusions coming from the research, or investigation done. To be academically acceptable, any outcomes stated should not be just the author's ideas alone, they must be backed up with valid, appropriate evidence.  

Questions to ask yourself about the item you're reviewing are:  

Is there a logical progression through the argument?  

Do you feel the argument is strong enough?  

Is there enough valid evidence?  

Does the author make any assumptions and, if so, are they reasonable?  

Are any surveys valid – for example, is the sample size representative and large enough for any conclusions to be valid?  

Would the findings and conclusions apply to other organisations, or are they too specific? Why?  

Do you think the author was biased? Why? For example, it can be useful to think about who funded the research and whether could that have influenced the findings.  

It's important to remember that you don't need to agree with the author's views – this would form part of your critical thinking.  

A key skill when thinking critically is to be objective in what you are reading or thinking through. Look at both sides of the argument, think of some tests you could do to establish if the ideas are sound. You might apply them to your own organisation for instance.  

The output from critical thinking in a professional context is usually a report – a critical review of the item(s) chosen for a given purpose (for example, as student assignment or, in a work setting, to a project team).  

The steps are to:  

Select your area for review, and the reason for choosing it.  

Identify the different information sources reviewed, naming type, when accessed, and through which online database or source.  

Explain why you chose these source(s) to review (unless they were given to you).  

Highlight and comment on the different research approaches and methods used by the author(s).  

Comment on the argument and conclusions, drawing where necessary on your wider research.  

If required, make recommendations to named stakeholders for sustaining or improving practice, based on the findings in your sources.

Open University – critical reading techniques  

Open University – critically processing what you read  

Palgrave Study Skills – critical thinking  

CAMERON, S. (2009) The business student's handbook: skills for study and employment . 5th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education.  

COTTRELL, S. (2013) The study skills handbook . 4th ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.  

COTTRELL, S. (2011) Critical thinking skills . 2nd ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.  

HORN. R. (2009) The business skills handbook . London: CIPD.  

NORTHEDGE, A. (2005) The good study guide . 2nd ed. Milton Keynes: Open University.  

OPEN UNIVERSITY. (2007) Develop effective study strategies . Milton Keynes: Open University

Our guide to helping you compile bibliographies based on the Harvard system.

There are a number of key considerations when developing an approach to studying to suit you. These study tips will help ensure you study effectively.

Practical advice on the report-writing process, with key steps to improve the quality of business reports

An academic essay is a formal piece of writing which presents an argument to the reader. Learn how to write persuasive and robust academic essays.

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Why Is Critical Thinking Important? A Survival Guide

Updated: June 19, 2024

Published: April 2, 2020

Why is critical thinking important? The decisions that you make affect your quality of life. And if you want to ensure that you live your best, most successful and happy life, you’re going to want to make conscious choices. That can be done with a simple thing known as critical thinking. Here’s how to improve your critical thinking skills and make decisions that you won’t regret.

What Is Critical Thinking?

You’ve surely heard of critical thinking, but you might not be entirely sure what it really means, and that’s because there are many definitions. For the most part, however, we think of critical thinking as the process of analyzing facts in order to form a judgment. Basically, it’s thinking about thinking.

How Has The Definition Evolved Over Time?

The first time critical thinking was documented is believed to be in the teachings of Socrates , recorded by Plato. But throughout history, the definition has changed.

Today it is best understood by philosophers and psychologists and it’s believed to be a highly complex concept. Some insightful modern-day critical thinking definitions include :

• “Reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do.”
• “Deciding what’s true and what you should do.”

The Importance Of Critical Thinking

Why is critical thinking important? Good question! Here are a few undeniable reasons why it’s crucial to have these skills.

1. Critical Thinking Is Universal

Critical thinking is a domain-general thinking skill. What does this mean? It means that no matter what path or profession you pursue, these skills will always be relevant and will always be beneficial to your success. They are not specific to any field.

2. Crucial For The Economy

Our future depends on technology, information, and innovation. Critical thinking is needed for our fast-growing economies, to solve problems as quickly and as effectively as possible.

3. Improves Language & Presentation Skills

In order to best express ourselves, we need to know how to think clearly and systematically — meaning practice critical thinking! Critical thinking also means knowing how to break down texts, and in turn, improve our ability to comprehend.

4. Promotes Creativity

By practicing critical thinking, we are allowing ourselves not only to solve problems but also to come up with new and creative ideas to do so. Critical thinking allows us to analyze these ideas and adjust them accordingly.

5. Important For Self-Reflection

Without critical thinking, how can we really live a meaningful life? We need this skill to self-reflect and justify our ways of life and opinions. Critical thinking provides us with the tools to evaluate ourselves in the way that we need to.

6. The Basis Of Science & Democracy

In order to have a democracy and to prove scientific facts, we need critical thinking in the world. Theories must be backed up with knowledge. In order for a society to effectively function, its citizens need to establish opinions about what’s right and wrong (by using critical thinking!).

Benefits Of Critical Thinking

We know that critical thinking is good for society as a whole, but what are some benefits of critical thinking on an individual level? Why is critical thinking important for us?

1. Key For Career Success

Critical thinking is crucial for many career paths. Not just for scientists, but lawyers , doctors, reporters, engineers , accountants, and analysts (among many others) all have to use critical thinking in their positions. In fact, according to the World Economic Forum, critical thinking is one of the most desirable skills to have in the workforce, as it helps analyze information, think outside the box, solve problems with innovative solutions, and plan systematically.

2. Better Decision Making

There’s no doubt about it — critical thinkers make the best choices. Critical thinking helps us deal with everyday problems as they come our way, and very often this thought process is even done subconsciously. It helps us think independently and trust our gut feeling.

3. Can Make You Happier!

While this often goes unnoticed, being in touch with yourself and having a deep understanding of why you think the way you think can really make you happier. Critical thinking can help you better understand yourself, and in turn, help you avoid any kind of negative or limiting beliefs, and focus more on your strengths. Being able to share your thoughts can increase your quality of life.

4. Form Well-Informed Opinions

There is no shortage of information coming at us from all angles. And that’s exactly why we need to use our critical thinking skills and decide for ourselves what to believe. Critical thinking allows us to ensure that our opinions are based on the facts, and help us sort through all that extra noise.

5. Better Citizens

One of the most inspiring critical thinking quotes is by former US president Thomas Jefferson: “An educated citizenry is a vital requisite for our survival as a free people.” What Jefferson is stressing to us here is that critical thinkers make better citizens, as they are able to see the entire picture without getting sucked into biases and propaganda.

6. Improves Relationships

While you may be convinced that being a critical thinker is bound to cause you problems in relationships, this really couldn’t be less true! Being a critical thinker can allow you to better understand the perspective of others, and can help you become more open-minded towards different views.

7. Promotes Curiosity

Critical thinkers are constantly curious about all kinds of things in life, and tend to have a wide range of interests. Critical thinking means constantly asking questions and wanting to know more, about why, what, who, where, when, and everything else that can help them make sense of a situation or concept, never taking anything at face value.

8. Allows For Creativity

Critical thinkers are also highly creative thinkers, and see themselves as limitless when it comes to possibilities. They are constantly looking to take things further, which is crucial in the workforce.

9. Enhances Problem Solving Skills

Those with critical thinking skills tend to solve problems as part of their natural instinct. Critical thinkers are patient and committed to solving the problem, similar to Albert Einstein, one of the best critical thinking examples, who said “It’s not that I’m so smart; it’s just that I stay with problems longer.” Critical thinkers’ enhanced problem-solving skills makes them better at their jobs and better at solving the world’s biggest problems. Like Einstein, they have the potential to literally change the world.

10. An Activity For The Mind

Just like our muscles, in order for them to be strong, our mind also needs to be exercised and challenged. It’s safe to say that critical thinking is almost like an activity for the mind — and it needs to be practiced. Critical thinking encourages the development of many crucial skills such as logical thinking, decision making, and open-mindness.

11. Creates Independence

When we think critically, we think on our own as we trust ourselves more. Critical thinking is key to creating independence, and encouraging students to make their own decisions and form their own opinions.

12. Crucial Life Skill

Critical thinking is crucial not just for learning, but for life overall! Education isn’t just a way to prepare ourselves for life, but it’s pretty much life itself. Learning is a lifelong process that we go through each and every day.

How to Think Critically

Now that you know the benefits of thinking critically, how do you actually do it?

How To Improve Your Critical Thinking

• Define Your Question: When it comes to critical thinking, it’s important to always keep your goal in mind. Know what you’re trying to achieve, and then figure out how to best get there.
• Gather Reliable Information: Make sure that you’re using sources you can trust — biases aside. That’s how a real critical thinker operates!
• Ask The Right Questions: We all know the importance of questions, but be sure that you’re asking the right questions that are going to get you to your answer.
• Look Short & Long Term: When coming up with solutions, think about both the short- and long-term consequences. Both of them are significant in the equation.
• Explore All Sides: There is never just one simple answer, and nothing is black or white. Explore all options and think outside of the box before you come to any conclusions.

How Is Critical Thinking Developed At School?

Critical thinking is developed in nearly everything we do. However, much of this important skill is encouraged to be practiced at school, and rightfully so! Critical thinking goes beyond just thinking clearly — it’s also about thinking for yourself.

When a teacher asks a question in class, students are given the chance to answer for themselves and think critically about what they learned and what they believe to be accurate. When students work in groups and are forced to engage in discussion, this is also a great chance to expand their thinking and use their critical thinking skills.

How Does Critical Thinking Apply To Your Career?

Once you’ve finished school and entered the workforce, your critical thinking journey only expands and grows from here!

Impress Your Employer

Employers value employees who are critical thinkers, ask questions, offer creative ideas, and are always ready to offer innovation against the competition. No matter what your position or role in a company may be, critical thinking will always give you the power to stand out and make a difference.

Careers That Require Critical Thinking

Some of many examples of careers that require critical thinking include:

• Human resources specialist
• Marketing associate
• Business analyst

Truth be told however, it’s probably harder to come up with a professional field that doesn’t require any critical thinking!

Photo by  Oladimeji Ajegbile  from  Pexels

What is someone with critical thinking skills capable of doing.

Someone with critical thinking skills is able to think rationally and clearly about what they should or not believe. They are capable of engaging in their own thoughts, and doing some reflection in order to come to a well-informed conclusion.

A critical thinker understands the connections between ideas, and is able to construct arguments based on facts, as well as find mistakes in reasoning.

The Process Of Critical Thinking

The process of critical thinking is highly systematic.

What Are Your Goals?

Critical thinking starts by defining your goals, and knowing what you are ultimately trying to achieve.

Once you know what you are trying to conclude, you can foresee your solution to the problem and play it out in your head from all perspectives.

What Does The Future Of Critical Thinking Hold?

The future of critical thinking is the equivalent of the future of jobs. In 2020, critical thinking was ranked as the 2nd top skill (following complex problem solving) by the World Economic Forum .

We are dealing with constant unprecedented changes, and what success is today, might not be considered success tomorrow — making critical thinking a key skill for the future workforce.

Why Is Critical Thinking So Important?

Why is critical thinking important? Critical thinking is more than just important! It’s one of the most crucial cognitive skills one can develop.

By practicing well-thought-out thinking, both your thoughts and decisions can make a positive change in your life, on both a professional and personal level. You can hugely improve your life by working on your critical thinking skills as often as you can.

At UoPeople, our blog writers are thinkers, researchers, and experts dedicated to curating articles relevant to our mission: making higher education accessible to everyone.

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10 elements of critical thinking – and how to develop them.

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creative idea.Concept of idea and innovation

My 6/7/24 post here – “Your Three Most Important Career Skills” – focused on the importance – and paucity – of critical thinking, critical listening, and critical reading.

Predictably, it prompted much reader response, mostly asking for elaboration.

What Comprises Critical Thinking

1. open-mindedness.

Malcolm Forbes postulated, “The role of education is to replace an empty mind with an open one.” Critical thinking needs receptivity to new ideas and perspectives, and willingness to reconsider one’s beliefs or opinions – no matter how fundamental – when new evidence or arguments arise.

2. Curiosity

“I’m not necessarily smarter than anyone else,” explained Albert Einstein. “I’m infinitely more curious.” He had a natural inclination – from early childhood – to ask questions, seek information, and explore various viewpoints. His favorite question: “What if…?”

Best High-Yield Savings Accounts Of 2024

Best 5% interest savings accounts of 2024, 3. mental stamina.

Critical thinking is difficult, rigorous, almost always takes time and patience, and can be exhausting. That’s OK, but you should never let a conclusion be the place where you got tired of thinking. Push on.

4. Analysis

Analysis breaks down complex information into smaller parts, to understand its components and how they relate. It’s our left brain at work: linear, logical, methodical, sequential, rational, and objective. It engages in deductive thinking. Computers also do this.

5. Interpretation and Inference

Interpretation makes meaning out of data, relying not just on the brain, but also on experience. It’s our transcendental right brain having fun: creative, intuitive, random, holistic, and playful. It engages in inductive thinking, which today’s computers can’t do, but which A.I. is trying. Through inference, we make sensible deductions based on available information; reach reasonable, workable conclusions; and assess the viability of those conclusions.

6. Evaluation

What’s it worth? To make better decisions, we must accurately assess the credibility, relevance, and significance of information, arguments, and/or evidence.

7. Articulation

“If you can’t explain something to a six-year-old,” declared Albert Einstein, “you probably don’t understand it yourself.” Critical intake and critical output are one and the same.

8. Problem-solving

Both sides of our brains solve problems, just differently. Critical thinking is about the ability to do both with equal aplomb.

9. Self-Accountability and Reflection

Bertrand Russell advised, "In all affairs it's a healthy thing now and then to hang a question mark on the things you’ve long taken for granted." In this case – our own thinking processes, biases, and assumptions – “now and then” should mean “always and ever.”

10. Metacognition

Avid self-awareness of one's own thinking processes, cognitive strategies, and sphere of awareness can insure ongoing improvement of critical skills.

Developing Your Critical Thinking

1. think creatively.

“Curiosity is the key to creativity,” said Akio Morita, founder of Sony. Cultivate your creativity by exploring the unknown and the ambiguous. Welcome different perspectives, alternative solutions, and new thinking. Always be looking for the spark. Listen to the new guy.

2. Ask Questions

Nothing starts until there is a question – or better, multiple questions. Cultivate a curious mindset by asking probing questions. Question assumptions, biases, and implications. Nothing is off the table.

3. Seek Diverse Perspectives

Diversity is much more than demographics. “Diversity,” explained Malcolm Forbes, “is the art of thinking independently together.” Welcome a variety of viewpoints and opinions, especially those different from your own. Engage in active discussions with people who hold different beliefs. Constantly challenge what you know or believe.

4. Evaluate Information

Learn to critically – and objectively – evaluate the credibility, relevance, and reliability of sources of information. Today’s chaotic media circus, further manipulated by special interests, elevates this challenge.

5. Practice Analytical Thinking

As analytical thinking is more orderly than creative thinking, it can be practiced every day. Good idea.

6. Develop Logical Reasoning Skills

Practice deductive and inductive reasoning to draw logical conclusions from what you already have. But remember, logic and creativity are often at odds.

Things look different in the rear-view mirror, and a day (or more) later.

8. Learn Different Problem-Solving Techniques

Different problems can be solved different ways. Conversely, many problems can be solved many ways.

9. Learn Active Listening

Identify the barriers to active listening – presuppositions, for example – and eliminate them. Fast.

10. Read. Read. Read!

Reading is the most proactive and stimulating way of taking in the world, not by clicking on little blue links, but by real reading: wide, deep, and time-consuming reading, which has a positive effect on thinking. Great leaders are great readers. This we know.

None of this happens in a day, but starting it happens any day.

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Book Review: Critical Thinking: A Concise Guide

Valentin gravet.

1 Département de Psychologie, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, Amiens, France

Mathieu Hainselin

2 CRP-CPO, UR UPJV 7273, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, Amiens, France

Tracy Bowell, editor. Robert Cowan, editor. Gary Kemp, editor. Critical Thinking: A Concise Guide. 2020. New York, NY: Routledge. 348 p. ISBN: 9780815371434.

“To believe or not to believe, that is the question” should be an automatic question we ask ourselves. Thus, scientists' aim should be to provide reasons and evidence when many people do not believe in science. These kinds of questions are even more important during health crisis when the general population have to follow scientists' recommendations [i.e., coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)]. Indeed, multiple factors can lead people to relay misinformation or be victim of false reasoning (Apuke and Omar, 2020 ). Bowell, Cowan, and Kemp's book (Bowell et al., 2020 ) is a great start to learn how to distinguish good arguments from false reasoning or rhetorical techniques. Synthesis and simplification of information, logical and analytical reasoning, as well as systematical evaluation of verbal content will be taught in this book, which come close to the very definition of critical thinking (Jacobs et al., 1997 ). To help the reader through the book, the authors made a chapter summary in the introduction and at the beginning and the end of each chapter. While some of the eight chapters are quite independent, a few of them are bonded together (3 and 4, 5, and 6).

Evaluation of the Book's Content

The first chapter introduces us to the critical thinking with lots of definitions. Basics of argumentation, are explained and many practical examples (i.e., Martin Luther King's “I have a dream” speech) are put forward. Open-mindedness and self-questioning are explicitly promoted and encouraged.

Chapter 2 leads to a non-exhaustive list of rhetoric methods seeking to persuade without using arguments. Many tips are provided to spot these attempts in a speech and to judge the relevance of arguments without being under the influence of rhetorical elements. Overall, it is an easy-to-read chapter that teaches how to dodge non-argumentative ploys.

Both Chapters 3 and 4 are dedicated to logical reasoning. They are the most elaborated chapters of the book and introduce a lot of principles, models, and definitions. Chapter 3 starts with the question of deductive validity, which will be discussed through the concepts of true, false, valid, or invalid concerning arguments and their components. Chapter 4 introduces probabilistic reasoning and logic. Probabilities, mathematics models, and methods to judge the relevance of an argument are at the center of this chapter.

Again, both Chapters 5 and 6 are paired, as they are, respectively, dedicated to argument reconstruction and judgment. Longer than the other ones, Chapter 5 focuses on the process of extracting an argument in order to reconstruct it in its simplest form. Chapter 6 deals with argument analysis in two parts. The first part is about methods to assess both validity and relevance of a given argument. The second part includes some practical tips and advices to provide constructive criticism of an argumentation. After reading Chapter 6, you will be able to successfully pass the Ennis–Weir Critical Thinking Test (Ennis and Weir, 1985 ), a critical thinking test based on a flawed arguments letter.

The last two chapters are mostly independent from the rest of the book and are easy to read, although you do not have mathematical skills. Chapter 7 is probably the most on time chapter these days. It introduces pseudo-reasoning, fallacious, and misleading arguments (i.e., uses of ad hominem fallacy when responding to someone's argument by making an attack upon the person rather than addressing the argument itself). Beyond the concept, the authors explain a very interesting paradox: why these arguments should not be considered as reliable and why so many of us still tend to accept them.

The last chapter is a philosophical opening on epistemological and sociological questions. Concepts of truth or false, knowledge, and believing are discussed, leaving the reader to make up his own mind on the subject. The main purpose of this chapter is to add nuance to what we may consider as true, or not, even before analyzing logical structures and relevance of arguments.

Researchers in philosophy, psychology, and education agree that critical thinking covers skills of analysis, logical reasoning, judgment, and decision making (Lai et al., 2011 ). All these topics are explored in this book, allowing the reader to have an insight on what can be defined as critical thinking such as the mastery of language, logic, argumentation, and problem solving. Technical concepts are explained by different methods such as the schematization of arguments into syllogisms with premise(s) and conclusion(s) and the use of extended examples to decompose and analyze a speech. In addition, this fifth edition introduces the use of Venn diagrams to illustrate categorical deductive logic. Many detailed examples have also been added, as well as the discussion of current phenomena (i.e., fake news). We strongly encourage librarians and teachers to recommend this book to train critical thinking psychology students in university (Lacot et al., 2016 ) and earlier at school when possible (Hand et al., 2018 ). Indeed, from both practical and academic point of view, this book could be addressed to undergraduate students to enable them to develop an open-mindedness and a deep reflection around their own knowledge and the concepts addressed during their training and practice (i.e., therapies, models). Anyone, regardless of their previous knowledge, could benefit from this book, as there are lots of example, practical exercises and definitions. Finally, this book's additional contribution compared to previous books is to provide a methodical, simple, and complete explanation of the fundamental concepts related to critical thinking in a practical, playful, and concrete manner with numerous illustrations drawn from the real world. We hope this book will be translated in different languages in the future, as the flawed arguments and shortcuts are well-spread in the world.

Author Contributions

VG wrote the manuscript. MH drafted it. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Nabila Terchani for kindly handling all administrative issues.

Funding. This book was bought with funding from the ANR Education à l'Esprit Critique (EEC)—grant number ANR-18-CE28-0018-07.

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Misinformation in the NYC Comptroller’s Report

• June 21, 2024

We are reviewing the Comptroller’s report, but, at a high level, we believe it is gravely misinformed in its assessment of data and the value of ShotSpotter as a critical public safety tool. In fact, some of the report’s assumptions show a lack of understanding of public safety operations in the field and are dangerous.

For example, assuming that the lack of confirmation of a shooting automatically means that some other loud event triggered a false alert is erroneous and a perilous assumption. ShotSpotter is a digital witness to criminal gunfire. Perpetrators don’t remain at incident scenes, and police know that they’ll frequently clean up shell casings. The NYPD is a sophisticated law enforcement agency, and they wouldn’t waste precious time and dollars on a system that rendered mostly false positives. The Comptroller’s report is wrong on this point.

Most importantly, the report uses the wrong metrics. It should focus on full awareness of gunfire as it occurs, rapid response, and, most importantly, lives saved. It’s a fact that ShotSpotter saves lives in the places hit hardest by gun violence.

ShotSpotter is both accurate and effective. It has been deployed in New York City since 2015, and over 170 cities rely on ShotSpotter technology to detect and alert law enforcement to instances of gunfire. Every day, wherever ShotSpotter is deployed, our technology proves its reliability in detecting gunshots that helps first responders interrupt crimes, catch criminals, and save lives.  This is especially important given that over 80% of gunshots go unreported to 9-1-1, according to a study by the Brookings Institution .  This means that a ShotSpotter alert is often the only  reason that police are dispatched to the vast majority of gunfire scenes.

We are so confident in the reliability of ShotSpotter that our contracts include a 90% guarantee for detecting, locating, and publishing outdoor gunfire incidents, with financial penalties for the company for underperformance.  An independent review conducted by data analytics firm Edgeworth found that ShotSpotter’s accuracy rate exceeds 97% across all customers.  It is the reason that more and more cities across the country are turning to ShotSpotter to help fight the scourge of gun violence that is plaguing our communities nationwide.

Finally, we welcome the report’s recommendation for more transparency and data around how gunfire detection incidents are handled based on ShotSpotter alerts.

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Critical Pedagogy and Student Learning Outcomes: A Systematic Literature Review

1. Shih, Y. (2018). Some critical thinking on Paulo Freire's critical pedagogy and its educational implications. International Education Studies, 11 (9), 64. doi: 10.5539/ies.v11n9p64

2. Shih, Y. (2020). Encounter with Paulo Freire's Critical Pedagogy: Visiting the Brazilian Social Context (1950s-1970s). Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8 (4), 1228–1236. doi: 10.13189/ujer.2020.080413

3. Kim, M. K., & Pollard, V. A. (2017). A modest critical pedagogy for English as a Foreign Language education. Education as Change, 21 (1), 50–72. doi: 10.17159/1947-9417/2017/492

4. Smith, A., & Seal, M. (2021). The contested terrain of critical pedagogy and teaching informal education in higher education. Education Sciences, 11 (9), 476. doi: 10.3390/educsci11090476

5. Awan, N., Safiullah, M., & Ali, A. (2016). Voicing Critical Pedagogy in Academic Discourse: Exploring Power Structures through Critical Discourse Analysis. Global Language Review, 1 (1), 24–45. doi: 10.31703/glr.2016(i-i).03

6. Mehta, R., & Aguilera, E. (2020). A critical approach to humanizing pedagogies in online teaching and learning. International Journal of Information and Learning Technology, 37 (3), 109–120. doi: 10.1108/ijilt-10-2019-0099

7. Philpot, R. (2015). Physical education initial teacher educators' expressions of critical pedagogy(ies). European Physical Education Review, 22 (2), 260–275. doi: 10.1177/1356336x15603382

8. Queen, C., Schiffecker, S., & Paton, V. O. (2022). Critical pedagogy for health professions and international learning experiences. Comparative & International Higher Education, 14 (2). doi: 10.32674/jcihe.v14i2.3927

9. Adjapong, E. (2021). Exploring Hip-Hop Pedagogy for the advancement of Girls of Color in science. Urban Education, 56 (6), 843–871. doi: 10.1177/00420859211000090

10. Sant, E. (2019). Democratic Education: A Theoretical Review (2006–2017). Review of Educational Research, 89 (5), 655–696. doi: 10.3102/0034654319862493

11. Hooks, B. (1994). Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom . New York: Routledge.

12. Barney, K. (2018). Community gets you through: Success factors contributing to the retention of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Higher Degree by Research (HDR) students. Student Success, 9 (4), 13–23. doi: 10.5204/ssj.v9i4.654

13. Gounari, P. (2020). Introduction to the special issue on Critical Pedagogies. L2 Journal, 12 (2). doi: 10.5070/l212249913

14. Gabriel, D. (2019). Enhancing higher education practice through the 3D Pedagogy Framework to decolonize, democratize, and diversify the curriculum. International Journal of Technology and Inclusive Education, 8 (2), 1459–1466. doi: 10.20533/ijtie.2047.0533.2019.0178

15. Dubé, A. K., & Wen, R. (2021). Identification and evaluation of technology trends in K-12 education from 2011 to 2021. Education and Information Technologies, 27 (2), 1929–1958. doi: 10.1007/s10639-021-10689-8

16. Wali, A. Z., & Popal, A. W. (2020). The emerging issues and impacts of technology in classroom learning. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning/International Journal: Emerging Technologies in Learning, 15 (15), 237. doi: 10.3991/ijet.v15i15.14175

17. Cleovoulou, Y. (2021). 21st Century Pedagogies and Citizenship Education: Enacting Elementary School Curriculum using Critical Inquiry-Based Learning. In IntechOpen eBooks . doi: 10.5772/intechopen.96998

18. Omodan, B. I. (2022). Analysis of emancipatory pedagogy as a tool for democratic classrooms. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science, 11 (2), 348–354. doi: 10.20525/ijrbs.v11i2.1662

19. Pinedo, A., Vossoughi, N., & Lewis, N. A. (2021). Critical pedagogy and children's beneficial development. Policy Insights From the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 8 (2), 183–191. doi: 10.1177/23727322211033000

20. Kelly, M. L., Yeigh, T., Hudson, S., Willis, R., & Lee, M. (2022). Secondary teachers' perceptions of the importance of pedagogical approaches to support students' behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement. Australian Educational Researcher, 50 (4), 1025–1047. doi: 10.1007/s13384-022-00540-5

21. Shea, L., Harkins, D., Ray, S., & Grenier, L. I. (2022). How Critical is Service-Learning Implementation? Journal of Experiential Education, 46 (2), 197–214. doi: 10.1177/10538259221122738

22. Devkota, M. (2021). Democratic Values, Pedagogy, and Henry Giroux. Madhayabindu Journal, 6 (1), 60–66. doi: 10.3126/madhyabindu.v6i1.42765

23. Garneau, A. B., Browne, A. J., & Varcoe, C. (2017). Drawing on antiracist approaches toward a critical antidiscriminatory pedagogy for nursing. Nursing Inquiry, 25 (1). doi: 10.1111/nin.12211

24. Reed, J., Covington, S., & Medvedev, K. (2022). Centering Social Justice pedagogy in fashion education. Breaking Boundaries . doi: 10.31274/itaa.13562

25. McVicar, T. (2021). Begin Where You are Standing: Developing a Critical Pedagogy of Place in a Bicultural Senior English Class in Te Tai Tokerau. Rourou, 1 (1), 49–66. doi: 10.54474/herourou.1.1.2920216

26. Spaaij, R., Oxford, S., & Jeanes, R. (2016). Transforming communities through sport? Critical pedagogy and sport for development. Sport, Education and Society, 21 (4), 570–587. doi: 10.1080/13573322.2015.1082127

27. Meir, D. (2020). A qualitative systematic review of critical pedagogy in Physical Education and Sport for Development: exploring a dialogical and critical future for Sport for Development pedagogy. Sport, Education and Society, 27 (3), 300–319. doi: 10.1080/13573322.2020.1825934

28. Xiao, Y., & Watson, M. (2017). Guidance on conducting a systematic literature review. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 39 (1), 93–112. doi: 10.1177/0739456x17723971

29. Rahimi, A., & Sajed, M. A. (2014). The Interplay between Critical Pedagogy and Critical Thinking: Theoretical Ties and Practicalities. Procedia: Social & Behavioral Sciences, 136 , 41–45. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.05.284

30. Corbett, J., & Guilherme, M. (2021). Critical pedagogy and quality education (UNESCO SDG-4): the legacy of Paulo Freire for language and intercultural communication. Language and Intercultural Communication, 21 (4), 447–454. doi: 10.1080/14708477.2021.1962900

31. Jeyaraj, J. J. (2019). Possibilities for critical pedagogy engagement in higher education: exploring students’ openness and acceptance. Asia Pacific Education Review/Asia Pacific Education Review, 21 (1), 27–38. doi: 10.1007/s12564-019-09605-0/

32. Jamal, T., Kircher, J., & Donaldson, J. P. (2021). Re-Visiting Design Thinking for Learning and Practice: Critical Pedagogy, Conative Empathy. Sustainability, 13 (2), 964. doi: 10.3390/su13020964

33. Sari, T., Nayi̇R, F., & Bozkurt, A. (2024). Reimagining education: Bridging artificial intelligence, transhumanism, and critical pedagogy. Journal of Educational Technology and Online Learning, 7 (1), 102–115. doi: 10.31681/jetol.1308022

34. Ng, K. T., Lay, Y. F., Areepattamannil, S., Treagust, D. F., & Chandrasegaran, A. (2012). Relationship between affect and achievement in science and mathematics in Malaysia and Singapore . Research in Science & Technological Education, 30 (3), 225–237. doi: 10.1080/02635143.2012.708655

35. Del Junco, C. (2024). Critical Pedagogies and Critical Information Literacy in STEM librarianship: A Literature Review. Issues in Science and Technology Librarianship, 105 . doi: 10.29173/istl2816

36. Adil, L., Dilveen, Sadiq, A., & Sadiq, D. (2023). Implementing Critical Pedagogy into EFL Context to Reach Higher Order Level of Thinking by Bloom’s Taxonomy. International Journal of Social Sciences & Educational Studies, 10 (1). doi: 10.23918/ijsses.v10i1p13

37. Serrano, M. M., O’Brien, M., Roberts, K., & Whyte, D. (2017). Critical Pedagogy and assessment in higher education: The ideal of ‘authenticity’ in learning. Active Learning in Higher Education, 19 (1), 9–21. doi: 10.1177/1469787417723244

38. Taylor, L. A., & Hikida, M. (2020). Unpacking everyday critical pedagogy: languaging critique and dialogue. Literacy Research Theory Method and Practice, 69 (1), 266–284. doi: 10.1177/2381336920937268

39. Chalaune, B. S. (2021). Paulo Freire’s Critical Pedagogy In Educational Transformation. International Journal of Research - Granthaalayah, 9 (4), 185–194. doi: 10.29121/granthaalayah.v9.i4.2021.3813

40. Ng, S. L., Crukley, J., Brydges, R., Boyd, V., Gavarkovs, A., Kangasjarvi, E., Wright, S., Kulasegaram, K., Friesen, F., & Woods, N. N. (2022). Toward ‘seeing’ critically: a Bayesian analysis of the impacts of a critical pedagogy. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 27 (2), 323–354. doi: 10.1007/s10459-021-10087-2

41. Thomas, D. R., & Larwin, K. H. (2023). A meta-analytic investigation of the impact of middle school STEM education: where are all the students of color? International Journal of STEM Education, 10 (1). doi: 10.1186/s40594-023-00425-8

42. Luguetti, C., & Oliver, K. L. (2020). A transformative learning journey of a teacher educator in enacting an activist approach in Physical Education Teacher Education. Curriculum Journal, 32 (1), 118–135. doi: 10.1002/curj.81

43. Thomas, C. (2019). The Consciousness of a Classroom: Enacting a critical composition pedagogy at an urban middle school. Proceedings of the 2019 AERA Annual Meeting . doi: 10.3102/1444987

44. Farrow, R. (2015). Open education and critical pedagogy. Learning, Media and Technology, 42 (2), 130–146. doi: 10.1080/17439884.2016.1113991

45. Petrovic, K., Perry, B., & Walsh, P. (2022). Aligning nursing ethics with critical and open pedagogy in nursing education. Nurse Educator, 48 (1), E1–E5. doi: 10.1097/nne.0000000000001253

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How to Evaluate a Job Candidate’s Critical Thinking Skills in an Interview

• Christopher Frank,
• Paul Magnone,
• Oded Netzer

It’s not about how they answer your questions — it’s about the kind of questions they ask you.

The oldest and still the most powerful tactic for fostering critical thinking is the Socratic method, developed over 2,400 years ago by Socrates, one of the founders of Western philosophy. The Socratic method uses thought-provoking question-and-answer probing to promote learning. It focuses on generating more questions than answers, where the answers are not a stopping point but the beginning of further analysis. Hiring managers can apply this model to create a different dialogue with candidates in a modern-day organization.

Hiring is one of the most challenging competencies to master, yet it is one of the most strategic and impactful managerial functions. A McKinsey study quantified that superior talent is up to eight times more productive, showing that the relationship between talent quality and business performance is dramatic. Organizations seeking growth or simply survival during difficult times must successfully recruit A-list talent, thought leaders, and subject matter experts. This is often done under time constraints as you must quickly fill a key position. Essentially you are committing to a long-term relationship after a few very short dates.

• CF Christopher Frank is the coauthor of “ Decisions Over Decimals: Striking the Balance between Intuition and Information ” (Wiley) and “ Drinking from the Fire Hose: Making Smarter Decisions Without Drowning in Information ” (Portfolio). He is the Vice President of research and analytics at American Express.
• PM Paul Magnone is the coauthor of “ Decisions Over Decimals: Striking the Balance between Intuition and Information ” (Wiley) and “ Drinking from the Fire Hose: Making Smarter Decisions Without Drowning in Information ” (Portfolio). He currently serves as the head of global strategic alliances for Google.
• ON Oded Netzer is the coauthor of “ Decisions Over Decimals: Striking the Balance between Intuition and Information ” (Wiley). He is the Vice Dean for Research and the Arthur J. Samberg Professor of Business at Columbia Business School, an affiliate of the Columbia Data Science Institute, and an Amazon Scholar.

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Indonesian university boosts Asia’s public health programmes through research training

Growing up in Bangladesh where several infectious diseases transmitted by helminths (worms) take a large health toll, Tilak Chandra Nath has always been fascinated with the challenges of addressing diseases of poverty.

After graduating as a biologist, Ezra Valido’s interest in infectious diseases took him to work in a rural, poor community in the eastern Philippines, where he headed public health programmes on tuberculosis, measles, dengue and chikungunya.

Valido’s community was devastated in 2013 by Typhoon Haiyan, one of the most powerful tropical cyclones ever recorded. From that, he gained experience working in the aftermath of a disaster, including how to prevent waterborne diseases and sanitation-related illnesses.

As a TDR-supported fellow, also at UGM in 2017, Valido’s research project focused on how willing people were to take doses of the dengue vaccine in poor communities in the Philippines’ Quezon City. His initial plan was to focus on how the vaccines were rolled out. But this had to be shelved after community and media outrage based on misinformation about the vaccine led the government to cancel its vaccination plans.

TDR’s postgraduate training programme on implementation research

Both Nath and Valido were part of a special postgraduate training programme focused on implementation research, based at UGM’s Faculty of Medicine, Public Health and Nursing, located in Yogyakarta. 

The programme, involving students from both WHO’s South-East Asia and Western Pacific Regions, is supported by TDR, a global programme for research on diseases of poverty ,   hosted by the World Health Organization (WHO) in Geneva, and co-sponsored by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), WHO and the World Bank.

UGM is part of TDR’s global postgraduate training scheme network , developed over the past eight years to boost the skills of future research leaders.  

The initiative focuses on building students’ skills in implementation research, a fast-growing field that supports the identification of system bottlenecks to delivering health services and approaches to addressing them. It is particularly useful in low- and middle–income countries where many health interventions do not reach those who need them the most.

One of the two partner institutions in Asia Pacific is UGM, where the initiative is co-ordinated by Professor Yodi Mahendradhata, Dean of Research and Development at the Faculty of Medicine, Public Health and Nursing. 

Involved from the start

Mahendradhata is proud of the fact that UGM was involved from the start - back in 2015 – in  TDR’s fellowship scheme as well as in the parallel development of course content for implementation research. So he feels considerable ownership over how it has evolved.

“It wasn’t just about receiving the tools and the toolkits, but being involved very early on in the development of the implementation research course, and that is what we particularly appreciate from TDR,” said Mahendradhata. “We learned a lot from participating in the development process, and that gives us a sense of ownership.”

His university has also developed and piloted lessons on implementation research as a part of a TDR-supported Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) , enabling researchers in places like Nepal and Myanmar to participate in virtual training, with UGM as the hub.

Critical and relevant

Valido is sanguine about how he had to shift the focus of his research on a new dengue vaccine from examining the standard parameters of mass rollout to focusing on the vaccine’s  acceptability in one city, Quezon, the biggest city in the Philippines.

Sanofi Pasteur’s Dengvaxia vaccine was approved in the Philippines in December 2015 , and the government started to roll it out to primary school children in 2016. However, in late 2017, Sanofi issued a statement reporting that, in rare cases, the vaccine could increase the risk of severe dengue illness in children who had never had the disease if they contracted the virus after being vaccinated. A public outcry followed , and the health department suspended the vaccine programme soon afterwards.

“While we were conducting the research, an update on the vaccine information caused a media frenzy which eventually led to its suspension and eventual cancellation,” he says. “We had to change the research and eventually looked at the change in the acceptability of the vaccine pre- and post-controversy.”

“The programme teaches you to be critical and relevant, and I had to change my research to remain relevant,” Valido says.“At the time, the Philippines was the only country implementing mass dengue vaccination in schools.”

Dengvaxia has since been approved in a number of countries, including the US – but only for people clinically proven to have had dengue in the past.

Valido enjoyed the opportunity to dissect the Filippino government’s plans for the vaccine’s implementation, focusing on “strategic actions, context and health system thinking.” 

New insights into managing parasitic diseases

Meanwhile, Nath’s research into parasitic diseases gave him new insights into how they can be both managed and prevented.

“In developed countries, most parasitic diseases have been either eradicated or controlled, but the scenario is quite different in lower-income countries, where many diseases remain a serious constraint to public health safety,” says Nath.

“Through the TDR training programme,” he says, “I learned to investigate the problems in preventing these diseases in greater detail and pave the way to find an implementable solution for policy-makers to mitigate the burden.”

Preparing for the future

Following his studies at UGM, Nath continued his research training, completing a PhD in Medicine from the Chungbuk National University, in Korea, in the area of One Health.  He is now an Associate Professor in the Department of Parasitology at Sylhet Agricultural University in Bangladesh.

 In a sense he has come full-circle - bringing knowledge amassed through years of study abroad back to his home country to ponder issues that he wondered about since his youth.  

“I am now actively engaged with helminthiasis elimination and biobanking of parasites projects,” says Nath, who is currently also the director of Bangladesh’s Parasite Resource Bank, where he is investigating the interactions between human, animal, and environmental parasites, following the One Health approach. 

Meanwhile, Valido is working on the biomedical aspects of infectious diseases as a post-doctoral researcher at Swiss Paraplegic Research, where he is exploring the interaction of microbiomes and the spinal cord. He started this work while completing his PhD in Health Sciences at the University of Lucerne in Switzerland. 

Few scientists understand the biomedical aspects of infectious diseases and “the complexity of public health designs to improve health programmes, guide health policies and identify key health infrastructure,” Valido observes. The TDR training helped him to build that interdisciplinary skill set.

This is the first article in a series on TDR’s research capacity strengthening programme - building skills of public health researchers, implementers, health practitioners and policy-makers in the fast-developing field of implementation research for improving uptake of effective health interventions.

TDR’s postgraduate training scheme