family life cycle essay

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Family Life Cycle

Learning Objectives: Family Life Cycle

• Describe the phases of the family life cycle.
• Identify the factors that affect adjustment to new parenthood.
• Describe a common change in marital satisfaction that accompanies the “empty nest.”
• Describe changes in gender roles across the family life cycle.
• Describe the role of grandparents in the family life cycle.
• Describe changes and concerns in relationships with aging parents.

The family life cycle is conventionally represented as a sequence of stages typical of many adults, moving from independence from the family of origin, through forming one’s own family unit, raising kids, and becoming grandparents. Of course, many people do not follow the traditional sequence or pattern shown in this conventional family life cycle. It can be useful to broaden our definition of family life so it includes all varieties of domestic arrangement. If we do, “family” encompasses most of our activities in adult life other than work, friendships, and me-time. For many people, close friends are considered part of family.

We know that some families involve intimate relationships and children, but there are also other important facets. Family life revolves around the home. An important aspect of life for every adult is where they live and who lives with them. Another aspect is “home-making”–cooking, cleaning, and maintenance. Who does what? Family life also involves doing things together and enjoying a sense of community. For most adults in most cultures, the primary organizing factor in their lives is family, hence, the phrase “family life.” Much of development during adulthood revolves around where a person finds themselves in the family life cycle, in terms of moving through a sequence of finding a partner, forming a household family unit, and having or not having and raising children.

Family life cycle patterns differ across cultures and subcultures, and shift with historical time. The overarching objective or task of the family life cycle is to create the life that fits and works for the individual , that is consistent with their personal characteristics and preferences, the life they want . Successful navigation of the family life cycle means finding a life that is personally meaningful and fulfilling for you and that works for the rest of your family  (however constituted) as well.

Single Adulthood

Singlehood.   Being single is the most common lifestyle for people in their early 20s, and there has been an increase in the number of adults choosing to remain single. In 1960, only about 1 in 10 adults age 25 or older had never been married, in 2012 that had risen to 1 in 5 (Wang & Parker, 2014). While just over half (53%) of unmarried adults say they would eventually like to get married, 32 percent are not sure, and 13 percent do not want to get married.

It is projected that by the time people who are currently young adults reach their mid-40s and 50s, almost 25% of them may never have married. The U.S. is not the only country to see a rise in the number of single adults. The table below lists some of the reasons young adults give for staying single. In addition, adults are marrying later in life, cohabitating, and raising children outside of marriage in greater numbers than in previous generations. Young adults also have other priorities, such as education, and establishing their careers.

Table 8.3 Reasons for Staying Single

adapted from Lally & Valentine-French, 2019

Historical trends in lifestyles and priorities may be reflected in changes in attitudes about the importance of marriage. In a recent Pew Research survey of Americans, respondents were asked to indicate which of the following statements came closer to their own views:

• “Society is better off if people make marriage and having children a priority.”
• “Society is just as well off if people have priorities other than marriage and children.”

Slightly more adults endorsed the second statement (50%) than those who chose the first (46%), with the remainder either selecting neither, both equally, or not responding (Wang & Parker, 2014). Young adults age 18-29 were more likely to endorse this second view than adults age 30 to 49; 67% and 53% respectively. In contrast, those age 50 or older were more likely to endorse the first statement (53%).

Committed Relationships and Marriage

Cohabitation.  In American society, as well as in a number of other cultures, cohabitation has become increasingly commonplace (Gurrentz, 2018). For many emerging adults, age 18-24, cohabitation has become more common than marriage, as can be seen in Figure 8.6 below. While marriage is still a more common living arrangement for those 25-34, cohabitation has increased, while marriage has declined, as can be seen in Figure 8.7. Gurrentz also found that cohabitation varies by socioeconomic status. Those who are married tend to have higher levels of education, and thus higher earnings, or earning potential.

Copen, Daniels, and Mosher (2013) found that from 1995 to 2010 the median length of the cohabitation relationship had increased regardless of whether the relationship resulted in marriage, remained intact, or had since dissolved. In 1995 the median length of the cohabitation relationship was 13 months, whereas by 2010 it was 22 months. Cohabitation for all racial/ethnic groups, except for Asian women increased between 1995 and 2010 (see Table 8.4). Forty percent of the cohabitations transitioned into marriage within three years, 32% were still cohabitating, and 27% of cohabitating relationships had dissolved within the three years.

Table 8.4 Percentage of women by race/ethnicity whose first union was cohabitation

adapted from Lally & Valentine-French, 2019 Based on data from Copen et al., 2013

Three explanations have been given for the rise of cohabitation in Western cultures. The first notes that the increase in individualism and secularism, and the resulting decline in religious observance, has led to greater acceptance and adoption of cohabitation (Lesthaeghe & Surkyn, 1988). Moreover, the more people observe couples cohabitating, the more normal this relationship seems, and the more couples will then cohabitate. Thus, cohabitation is both a cause and the effect of greater cohabitation.

A second explanation focuses on the economic changes. The growth of industry and the modernization of many cultures has improved women’s social status, leading to greater gender equality and sexual freedom, with marriage no longer being the only long-term relationship option (Bumpass, 1990). A final explanation suggests that changes in employment requirements, with many jobs now requiring more advanced education, has led to a delay in marriage while youth pursue post-secondary education (Yu & Xie, 2015). Since most people marry soon after they have competed their highest level of education (e.g., people who complete only high school generally marry at 18-19 years old whereas people who graduate college typically marry at age 24-25), this might account for the increase in the age of first marriage in many nations.

Taken together, the greater acceptance of premarital sex, and the economic and educational changes would lead to a transition in relationships. Overall, cohabitation may become a step in the courtship process or may, for some, replace marriage altogether. Similar increases in cohabitation have also occurred in other industrialized countries. For example, rates are high in Great Britain, Australia, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland. In fact, more children in Sweden are born to cohabiting couples than to married couples. The lowest rates of cohabitation in industrialized countries are in Ireland, Italy, and Japan (Benokraitis, 2005).

Cohabitation in Non-Western Cultures, the Philippines and China.  Similar to other nations, young people in the Philippines are more likely to delay marriage, to cohabitate, and to engage in premarital sex as compared to previous generations (Williams, Kabamalan, & Ogena, 2007). Despite these changes, however, many young people are still not in favor of these practices. Moreover, there is still a persistence of traditional gender norms as there are stark differences in the acceptance of sexual behavior out of wedlock for men and women in Philippine society. Young men are given greater freedom. In China, young adults are cohabitating in higher numbers than in the past (Yu & Xie, 2015). Unlike many Western cultures, in China adults with higher, rather than lower, levels of education are more likely to cohabitate. Yu and Xie suggest this may be because cohabitation is seen as more “innovative” or “modern,” and that those who are more highly educated may have had more exposure to Western cultures.

Marriage Worldwide.  Cohen (2013) reviewed data assessing most of the world’s countries and found that rates of marriage have declined universally during the last several decades. Although this decline has occurred in both poor and rich countries, the countries with the biggest drops in marriage were mostly rich: France, Italy, Germany, Japan and the U.S. Cohen argues that these declines are due not only to individuals delaying marriage, but also to higher rates of non-marital cohabitation. Delays or decreases in marriage are associated with higher income and lower fertility rates that are observed worldwide.

Marriage in the United States.  In 1960, 72% of adults age 18 or older were married, in 2010 this number had dropped to barely half (Wang & Taylor, 2011). At the same time, the age of first marriage has been increasing for both men and women. In 1960, the average age for first marriage was 20 for women and 23 for men. By 2010 this had increased to 26.5 for women and nearly 29 for men (see Figure 8.8). Many of the explanations for increases in singlehood and cohabitation provided previously (especially increasing number of years of education) can also account for the drop and delay in marriage.

Same-Sex Marriage.  In June 26, 2015, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution guarantees same-sex marriage. The decision indicated that limiting marriage to only heterosexual couples violated the 14th amendment’s guarantee of equal protection under the law. This ruling occurred 11 years after same-sex marriage was first made legal in Massachusetts, and at the time of the high court decision, 36 states and the District of Columbia had legalized same sex marriage. Worldwide, 29 countries currently have national laws allowing gays and lesbians to marry (Pew Research Center, 2019).

Cultural Influences on Marriage.  Many cultures have both explicit and unstated rules that specify who is an appropriate mate. Consequently, mate selection is not completely left to the individual. Rules of endogamy indicate the groups we should marry within and those we should not  (Witt, 2009). For example, many cultures specify that people marry within their own race, social class, age group, or religion. For example, for most of its history, the US upheld laws that criminalized marriage between people from different races; the last such laws were struck down by a Supreme Court ruling in 1967. Endogamy reinforces the cohesiveness of the group. Additionally, these rules encourage homogamy or marriage between people who share social characteristics . The majority of marriages in the U. S. are homogamous with respect to race, social class, age and to a lesser extent, religion. Homogamy is also seen in couples with similar personalities and interests.

Arranged Marriages and Elopement.  Historically, marriage was not a personal choice, but one made by one’s family. Arranged marriages often ensured proper transference of a family’s wealth and the support of ethnic and religious customs. Such marriages were considered a marriage of families rather than of individuals. In Western Europe, starting in the 18th century, the notion of personal choice in a marital partner slowly became the norm. Arranged marriages were seen as “traditional” and marriages based on love “modern.” Many of these early “love” marriages were accomplished by eloping (Thornton, 2005).

Around the world, more and more young couples are choosing their own partners, even in nations where arranged marriages are still the norm, such as India and Pakistan. Desai and Andrist (2010) found that in India only 5% of the women they surveyed, aged 25-49, had a primary role in choosing their partner. Only 22% knew their partner for more than one month before they were married. However, the younger cohort of women was more likely to have been consulted by their families before their partner was chosen than were the older cohort, suggesting that family views are changing about personal choice. Allendorf (2013) reports that this 5% figure may also underestimate young people’s choice, as only women were surveyed. Many families in India are increasingly allowing sons veto power over the parents’ choice of his future spouse, and some families give daughters the same say.

Happiness and Marital Satisfaction.  Although research frequently suggests that marriage is associated with higher rates of happiness, this does not guarantee that getting married will make you happy! The quality of one’s marriage matters greatly. When a person remains in a problematic marriage, it takes an emotional toll. Indeed, a large body of research shows that people’s overall life satisfaction is affected by their satisfaction with their marriage (Umberson, Williams, Powers, Chen, & Campbell, 2005; Proulx, Helms, & Buehler, 2007). Marital satisfaction has peaks and valleys during the course of the family life cycle. Rates of happiness are highest in the years prior to the birth of the first child. It hits a low point with the arrival of the second (or more) child. Children bring new demands and expectations to the marital relationship, along with more financial hardships and stress. Many people who are comfortable with their roles as partners find added parental duties and expectations more challenging to meet. Some couples elect not to have children, for a variety of reasons. These child-free couples, for example, may choose to focus more time and attention on their partners, careers, and interests.

Gender Role Changes.  With the coming of the first child, gender roles in committed relationships typically become more traditional. In western countries, women often take on more domestic responsibilities and childrearing duties at this time (Cooke, 2010; Saginak & Saginak, 2005). for many women, this shift away from a largely egalitarian relationship may be one of the reasons that martial satisfaction suffers. The most egalitarian gender roles typically occur when children are older, and in the empty nest stage.

Parenthood is undergoing changes in the United States and elsewhere in the world. Women in the United States have fewer children than they did previously, and children are less likely to be living with both parents.  The average fertility rate of women in the United States was about seven children in the early 1900s and has remained relatively stable at 2.1 since the 1970s (Hamilton, Martin, & Ventura, 2011; Martinez, Daniels, & Chandra, 2012). Not only are parents having fewer children, the context of parenthood has also changed. Parenting outside of marriage has increased dramatically among most socioeconomic, racial, and ethnic groups, although college-educated women are substantially more likely to be married at the birth of a child than are mothers with less education (Dye, 2010).

People are having children at older ages, too. This is not surprising given that many of the age markers for adulthood have been delayed, including marriage, completing an education, establishing oneself at work, and gaining financial independence. In 2014, the average age for American first-time mothers was 26.3 years (CDC, 2015). The birth rate for women in their early 20s has declined in recent years, while the birth rate for women in their late 30s has risen. In 2011, 40% of births were to women ages 30 and older. For Canadian women, birth rates are even higher for women in their late 30s than in their early 20s. In 2011, 52% of births were to women ages 30 and older, and the average first-time Canadian mother was 28.5 years old (Cohn, 2013). Improved birth control methods have also enabled women to postpone motherhood. Despite the fact that young people are more often delaying childbearing, most 18- to 29-year-olds want to have children and say that being a good parent is one of the most important things in life (Wang & Taylor, 2011).

Influences on Parenting.  Parenting is a complex process in which parents and children influence one another. There are many reasons that parents behave the way they do. The multiple influences on parenting are still being explored. Proposed influences on parenting include: Parent characteristics, child characteristics, and contextual and sociocultural characteristics. (Belsky, 1984; Demick, 1999).

Parent Characteristics.  Parents bring unique traits and qualities to the parenting relationship that affect their decisions as parents. These characteristics include the age of the parent, gender, beliefs, personality, developmental history, knowledge about parenting and child development, and mental and physical health. Parents’ personalities affect parenting behaviors. Mothers and fathers who are more agreeable, conscientious, and outgoing are warmer and provide more structure to their children. Parents who are more agreeable, less anxious, and less negative also support their children’s autonomy more than parents who are anxious and less agreeable (Prinzie, Stams, Dekovic, Reijntes, & Belsky, 2009). Parents who have these personality traits appear to be better able to respond to their children positively and provide a more consistent, structured environment for their children.

Parents’ developmental histories, or their experiences as children, also affect their parenting strategies. Parents may learn parenting practices from their own parents. Fathers whose own parents provided monitoring, consistent and age-appropriate discipline, and warmth were more likely to provide this constructive parenting to their own children (Kerr, Capaldi, Pears, & Owen, 2009). Patterns of negative parenting and ineffective discipline also appear from one generation to the next. However, parents who are dissatisfied with their own parents’ approach may be more likely to change their parenting methods with their own children.

Child Characteristics.  Parenting is bidirectional. Not only do parents affect their children, children influence their parents. Child characteristics, such as gender, birth order, temperament, and health status, affect parenting behaviors and roles. For example, an infant with an easy temperament may enable parents to feel more effective, as they are easily able to soothe the child and elicit smiling and cooing. On the other hand, a cranky or fussy infant elicits fewer positive reactions from his or her parents and may result in parents feeling less effective in the parenting role (Eisenberg et al., 2008). Over time, parents of more difficult children may become more punitive and less patient with their children (Clark, Kochanska, & Ready, 2000; Eisenberg et al., 1999; Kiff, Lengua, & Zalewski, 2011). Parents who have a fussy, difficult child are less satisfied with their marriages and have greater challenges in balancing work and family roles (Hyde, Else-Quest, & Goldsmith, 2004). Thus, child temperament is one of the child characteristics that influences how parents behave with their children.

Another child characteristic is the gender of the child. Parents respond differently to boys and girls. Parents talk differently with their sons and daughters, providing more scientific explanations to their sons and using more emotion words with their daughters (Crowley, Callanan, Tenenbaum, & Allen, 2001). Parents also often assign different household chores to their sons and daughters. Girls are more often responsible for caring for younger siblings and household chores, whereas boys are more likely to be asked to perform chores outside the home, such as mowing the lawn (Grusec, goodnow, & Cohen, 1996).

Contextual Factors and Sociocultural Characteristics.  The parent–child relationship does not occur in isolation. As we discussed in the previous section on families and parenting, parenting is influenced by higher-order sociocultural contexts . Sociocultural characteristics, including economic hardship, religion, politics, neighborhoods, schools, and social support, also influence parenting. Parents who experience economic hardship are more easily frustrated, depressed, and sad, and these emotional characteristics affect their parenting skills (Conger & Conger, 2002).

Culture also influences parenting behaviors in fundamental ways. Although promoting the development of skills necessary to function effectively in one’s community is a universal goal of parenting, the specific skills necessary vary widely from culture to culture. Thus, parents have different goals for their children that partially depend on their culture (Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2008). Parents vary in how much they emphasize goals for independence and individual achievements, maintaining harmonious relationships, and being embedded in a strong network of social relationships. Culture is also a contributing contextual factor. For example, Latina mothers who perceived their neighborhood as more dangerous showed less warmth with their children, perhaps because of the greater stress associated with living a threatening environment (Gonzales et al., 2011).

Other important contextual characteristics, such as the neighborhood, school, and social networks, also affect parenting, even though these settings do not always include both the child and the parent (Brofenbrenner, 1989). This would be a good time to go back and re-re the section in Unit 4: Family  on higher-order contexts of parenting,  and the two papers that examined the ways that poverty and structural racism make parenting more challenging. As you may remember, there are three major ways that status hierarchies, like those organized around class and race, make parenting more difficult:

• Inequities create objective living conditions that are developmentally hazardous to children and families;
• Hardships and discrimination force people to parent under stressful conditions; and
• Families must expend effort to counteract the pervasive effects of discrimination and prejudice on the development of their children and adolescents.

Pay special attention to the recommendations provided in that section about how to make higher-order contexts more supportive of the important jobs of parenting and providing for a family, which are challenging tasks even under the best of circumstances

The many factors that influence parenting are depicted in the following figure.

Family Life in Middle Adulthood

The sandwich generation refers to adults who have at least one parent age 65 or older and are either raising their own children or providing support for their grown children . According to a recent Pew Research survey, 47% of middle-aged adults are part of this sandwich generation (Parker & Patten, 2013). In addition, 15% of middle-aged adults are providing financial support to an older parent while raising or supporting their own children (see Figure 8.12). According to the same survey, almost half (48%) of middle-aged adults, have supported their adult children in the past year, and 27% are the primary source of support for their grown children.

Seventy-one percent of the sandwich generation is age 40-59, 19% were younger than 40, and 10% were 60 or older. Hispanics are more likely to find themselves supporting two generations: 31% have parents 65 or older and a dependent child, compared with 24% of whites and 21% of blacks (Parker & Patten, 2013). Women are more likely to take on the role of care provider for older parents in the U.S. and Germany (Pew Research, 2015). About 20% of women say they have helped with personal care, such as getting dressed or bathing, of aging parents in the past year, compared with 8% of men in the U.S. and 4% in Germany. In contrast, in Italy men are just as likely (25%) as women (26%) to have provided personal care.

The Pew survey found that almost 33% of the sandwich-generation adults were more likely to say they always feel rushed, while only 23% of other adults said this. However, the survey suggests that those who were supporting both parents and children reported being just as happy as those middle-aged adults who did not find themselves in the sandwich generation (Parker & Patten, 2013). Adults who are supporting both parents and children did report greater financial strain (see Figure 8.13). Only 28% reported that they were living comfortably versus 41% of those who were not also supporting their parents. Almost 33% were just making ends meet, compared with 17% of those who did not have the additional financial burden of aging parents.

Empty nest.  The empty nest , or post-parental period refers to the time period when children are grown up and have left home (Dennerstein, Dudley & Guthrie, 2002) . For most parents this occurs during midlife. This time is recognized as a “normative event” as parents are aware that their children will become adults and eventually leave home (Mitchell & Lovegreen, 2009). The empty nest creates complex emotions, both positive and negative, for many parents. Some theorists suggest this is a time of role loss for parents, others suggest it is one of role strain relief (Bouchard, 2013).

The role loss hypothesis predicts that when people lose an important role in their life they experience a decrease in emotional well-being. It is from this perspective that the concept of the empty nest syndrome emerged, which refers to great emotional distress experienced by parents, typically mothers, after children have left home . The empty nest syndrome is linked to the absence of alternative roles for the parent in which they could establish their identity (Borland, 1982). In Bouchard’s (2013) review of the research, she found that few parents reported loneliness or a big sense of loss once all their children had left home.

In contrast, the role stress relief hypothesis suggests that the empty nest period should lead to more positive changes for parents, as the responsibility of raising children has been lifted . The role strain relief hypothesis was supported by many studies in Bouchard’s (2013) review. A consistent finding throughout the research literature is that raising children has a negative impact on the quality of martial relationships (Ahlborg, Misvaer, & Möller, 2009; Bouchard, 2013). Most studies report that martial satisfaction often increases during the launching phase of the empty nest period, and that this satisfaction endures long after the last child has left home (Gorchoff, John, & Helson, 2008).

However, most of the research on the post-parental period has been with American parents. A number of studies in China suggest that empty-nesters, especially in more rural areas of China, report greater loneliness and depression than their counterparts with children still at home (Wu et al., 2010). Family support for the elderly by their children is a cherished Chinese tradition (Wong & Leung, 2012). The fact that children move from the rural communities to the larger cities for education and employment may explain the more negative reaction of Chinese parents compared to American samples. The loss of an adult child in a rural region may mean a loss of family income and support for aging parents. Empty-nesters in urban regions of China did not report the same degree of distress (Su et al., 2012), suggesting that it not so much the event of children leaving, but the additional hardships this may place on aging parents.

Boomerang Kids.  Young adults are living with their parents for a longer duration and in greater numbers than previous generations. In addition to those in early adulthood who are not leaving the home of their parents, there are also  boomerang kids, a term used to refer to  young adults who return after having lived independently outside the home . The first Figure 8.14 shows the number of American young people 25-35 who were living at home based on their generation (Fry, 2017). The second Figure 8.15 with the European map, shows that more young adults 18-34 in Europe are also living with their parents (Desilver, 2016). Many of the same financial reasons that are influencing young people’s decisions to delay exit from the home of their parents are underlying their decisions to return home. In addition, to financial reasons, some boomerang kids are returning because of emotional distress, such as mental health issues (Sandberg-Thoma, Snyder, & Jang, 2015).

What is the effect on parents when their adult children return home? Certainly, there is considerable research that shows that the stress of raising children can have a negative impact on parents’ well-being, and that when children leave home many couples experience less stress and greater life satisfaction (see the section on the empty nest). Early research in the 1980s and 1990s supported the notion that boomerang children, along with those who were failing to exit the home, placed greater financial hardship on the parents, and the parents reported more negative perceptions of this living arrangement (Aquilino, 1991).

Recent surveys suggest that today’s parents are more tolerant of this, perhaps because this is becoming a more normative experience than in the past. Moreover, children who return are more likely to have had good relationships with their parents growing up, so there may be less stress between parents and their adult children who return (Sandberg-Thoma et al., 2015). Parents of young adults who have moved back home because of economic reasons report that they are just as satisfied with their life as are parents whose adult children are still living independently (Parker, 2012). Parker found that adult children age 25 and older are more likely to contribute financially to the family or complete chores and other household duties. Parker also found that living in a multigenerational household may be acting as an economic safety net for young adults. In comparison to young adults who were living outside of the home, those living with their parents were less likely to be living in poverty (17% versus 10%).

So far, we have considered the impact that adult children who have returned home or have yet to leave the nest have on the lives of middle-aged parents. What about the effect on parents who have adult children dealing with personal problems, such as alcoholism, chronic health concerns, mental health issues, trouble with the law, poor social relationships, or academic or job-related problems, even if they are not living at home? The life course perspective proposes the idea of linked lives (Greenfield & Marks, 2006). The notion that people in important relationships, such as children and parents, mutually influence each other’s developmental pathways . In previous chapters you have read about the effects that parents have on their children’s development, but this relationship is bidirectional. The problems faced by children, even when those children are adults, influence the lives of their parents. Greenfield and Marks found in their study of middle-aged parents and their adult children, those parents whose children were dealing with personal problems reported more negative affect, lower self-acceptance, poorer parent-child interactions, and more family relationship stress. The more problems the adult children were facing, the worse the lives and emotional health of their parents, with single parents faring the worst.

Committed Relationships in Middle Adulthood

Singlehood.  According to a Pew Research study, 16 per 1,000 adults age 45 to 54 and 7 per 1000 age 55 and over have never-married in the U. S. (Wang & Parker, 2014). However, some of them may be living with a partner. In addition, some singles at midlife may be single through divorce or widowhood. DePaulo (2014) has challenged the idea that singles, especially the always single, fare worse emotionally and in health when compared to those married. DePaulo suggests there is a bias in how studies examine the benefits of marriage. Most studies focus on comparisons between married versus not married, which do not include a separate comparison between those always single, and those who are single because of divorce or widowhood. Her research has found that those who are married may be more satisfied with life than the divorced or widowed, but there is little difference between married and always single, especially when comparing those who are recently married with those who have been married for four or more years. It appears that once the initial blush of the honeymoon wears off, those who are wedded are no happier or healthier than those who remained single. This also suggests that it could be problematic for studies to consider the “married” category to be a homogeneous group.

Online Dating.  Montenegro (2003) surveyed over 3,000 singles aged 40–69, and almost half of the participants reported their most important reason for dating was to have someone to talk to or do things with. Additionally, sexual fulfillment was also identified as an important goal for many. Alterovitz and Mendelsohn (2013) reviewed online personal ads for men and women over age 40 and found that romantic activities and sexual interests were mentioned at similar rates among the middle-age and young-old age groups, but less for the old-old age group.

Marriage.  Trends seen in early adulthood also show up in relationships during middle adulthood, including declines in the rate of marriage, as more people are cohabitating, more are deciding to stay single, and more are getting married at a later age. As you can see in the Figure 8.16, 48% of adults age 45-54 are married; either in their first marriage (22%) or have remarried (26%). This makes marriage the most common relationship status for middle-aged adults in the United States.

Marital satisfaction tends to increase for many couples in midlife as children are leaving home (Landsford, Antonucci, Akiyama, & Takahashi, 2005). Not all researchers agree. They suggest that those who are unhappy with their marriage are likely to have gotten divorced by now, making the quality of marriages later in life only look more satisfactory (Umberson, Williams, Powers, Chen, & Campbell, 2005).

Divorce.  Livingston (2014) found that 27% of adults age 45 to 54 were divorced (see Figure 8.32). Additionally, 57% of divorced adults were women. This reflects the fact that men are more likely to remarry than are women. Two-thirds of divorces are initiated by women (AARP, 2009). Most divorces take place within the first 5 to 10 years of marriage. This time line reflects people’s initial attempts to salvage the relationship. After a few years of limited success, the couple may decide to end the marriage. It used to be that divorce after having been married for 20 or more years was rare, but in recent years the divorce rate among more long-term marriages has been increasing. Brown and Lin (2013) note that while the divorce rate in the U.S. has declined since the 1990s, the rate among those 50 and older has doubled.

They suggest several reasons for the “graying of divorce”. There is less stigma attached to divorce today than in the past. Some older women are out-earning their spouses, and thus may be more financially capable of supporting themselves, especially as most of their children have grown. Finally, given increases in human longevity, the prospect of living several more years or decades with an incompatible spouse may prompt middle-aged and older adults to leave the marriage. Gottman and Levenson (2000) found that divorces in early adulthood were angrier and more conflictual, with each partner blaming the other for the failures in the marriage. In contrast, they found that at midlife divorces tended to be more about having grown apart, or a cooling off of the relationship.

A survey by AARP (2009) found that men and women had diverse motivations for getting a divorce. Women reported concerns about the verbal and physical abusiveness of their partner (23%), drug/alcohol abuse (18%), and infidelity (17%). In contrast, men mentioned they had simply fallen out of love (17%), no longer shared interests or values (14%), and infidelity (14%). Both genders felt their marriage had been over long before the decision to divorce was made, with many of the middle-aged adults in the survey reporting that they stayed together because they were still raising children. Females also indicated that they remained in their marriage due to financial concerns, including the loss of health care (Sohn, 2015). However, only 1 in 4 adults regretted their decision to divorce.

The effects of divorce are varied. Overall, young adults struggle more with the consequences of divorce than do those at midlife, as they have a higher risk of depression or other signs of problems with psychological adjustment (Birditt & Antonucci, 2013). Divorce at midlife is more stressful for women. In the AARP (2009) survey, 44% of middle-aged women mentioned financial problems after divorcing their spouse; in comparison, only 11% of men reported such difficulties. However, a number of women who divorce in midlife report that they felt a great release from their day-to-day sense of unhappiness. Hetherington and Kelly (2002) found that among the divorce enhancers , those who had used the experience to better themselves and seek more productive intimate relationships , and the competent loners , those who used their divorce experience to grow emotionally, but who choose to stay single , the overwhelming majority were women.

Dating Post-Divorce.  Most divorced adults have dated by one year after filing for divorce (Anderson et al., 2004; Anderson & Greene, 2011). One in four recent filers report having been in or were currently in a serious relationship, and over half were in a serious relationship by one year after filing for divorce. Not surprisingly, younger adults were more likely to be dating than were middle aged or older adults, no doubt due to the larger pool of potential partners from which they could to draw. Of course, these relationships will not all end in marriage. Teachman (2008) found that more than two thirds of women under the age of 45 had cohabited with a partner between their first and second marriages.

Dating for adults with children can be more of a challenge. Courtships are shorter in remarriage than in first marriages. When couples are “dating”, there is less going out and more time spent in activities at home or with the children. So, the couple gets less time together to focus on their relationship. Anxiety or memories of past relationships can also get in the way. As one Talmudic scholar suggests “when a divorced man marries a divorced woman, four go to bed” (Secombe & Warner, 2004).

Post-divorce parents gatekeep , that is, they regulate the flow of information about their new romantic partner to their children, in an attempt to balance their own needs for romance with consideration regarding the needs and reactions of their children. Anderson et al. (2004) found that almost half (47%) of dating parents gradually introduce their children to their dating partner, giving both their romantic partner and children time to adjust and get to know each other. Many parents who use this approach do so to protect their children from having to keep meeting someone new until it becomes clear that this relationship might be a lasting one. It might also help if the adult relationship is on firmer ground so it can weather any initial push back from children when it is revealed. Forty percent of people are open and transparent with their children about the new relationship right from the outset. Thirteen percent do not reveal the relationship until it is clear that cohabitation and or remarriage is likely. Anderson and colleagues suggest that practical matters influence which gatekeeping method parents may use. Parents may be able to successfully shield their children from a parade of partners if there is reliable childcare available. The age and temperament of the child, along with concerns about the reaction of the ex-spouse, may also influence when parents reveal their romantic relationships to their children.

Rates of re-marriage.  The rate for remarriage, like the rate for marriage, has been declining overall. In 2013 the remarriage rate was approximately 28 per 1,000 adults 18 and older. This represents a 44% decline since 1990 and a 16% decline since 2008 (Payne, 2015). Brown and Lin (2013) found that the rate of remarriage dropped more for younger adults than middle aged and older adults, and Livingston (2014) found that as we age, we are more likely to have remarried (see Figure 8.17). This is not surprising as it takes some time to marry, divorce, and then find someone else to marry. However, Livingston found that unlike those younger than 55, those 55 and up are remarrying at a higher rate than in the past. In 2013, 67% of adults 55-64 and 50% of adults 65 and older had remarried, up from 55% and 34% in 1960, respectively.

Men have a higher rate of remarriage at every age group starting at age 25 (Payne, 2015). Livingston (2014) reported that in 2013, 64% of divorced or widowed men compared with 52% of divorced or widowed women had remarried. However, this gender gap has narrowed over time. Even though more men still remarry, they are remarrying at a slower rate. In contrast, women are remarrying today more than they did in 1980. This gender gap has closed mostly among young and middle-aged adults, but still persists among those 65 and older.

In 2012, Whites who were previously married were more likely to remarry than were other racial and ethnic groups (Livingston, 2014). Moreover, the rate of remarriage has increased among Whites, while the rate of remarriage has declined for other racial and ethnic groups. This increase is driven by White women, whose rate of remarriage has increased, while the rate for White males has declined.

Success of Re-marriage.  Research is mixed as to the happiness and success of remarriages. While some remarriages are more successful, especially if the divorce motivated the adult to engage in self-improvement and personal growth (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002), a number of divorced adults end up in very similar marriages the second or third time around (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002). Remarriages have challenges not found in first marriages and they can create additional stress in the marital relationship.

There can also be a general lack of clarity in family roles and expectations when trying to incorporate new kin into the family structure. Even determining the appropriate terms for these kin, along with their roles, can be a challenge. Partners may have to carefully navigate their role when dealing with their partners’ children. All of this may lead to greater dissatisfaction and even resentment among family members. Even though remarried couples tend to have more realistic expectations for marriage, they tend to be less willing to stay in unhappy situations. The rate of divorce among remarriages is higher than among first marriages (Payne, 2015), which can add additional burdens, especially when children are involved.

Children’s Influence on Re-partnering.  Do children affect whether a parent remarries? Goldscheider and Sassler (2006) found children residing with their mothers reduces the mothers’ likelihood of marriage, only with respect to marrying a man without children. Further, having children in the home appears to increase single men’s likelihood of marrying a woman with children (Stewart, Manning, & Smock, 2003). There is also some evidence that individuals who participated in a stepfamily while growing up may feel better prepared for stepfamily living as adults. Goldscheider and Kaufman (2006) found that having experienced family divorce as a child is associated with a greater willingness to marry a partner with children.

When children are present after divorce, one of the challenges the adults encounter is how much influence the child will have in the selection  a new partner. Greene, Anderson, Hetherington, Forgatch, and DeGarmo (2003) identified two types of parents. The child-focused parent allows the child’s views, reactions, and needs to influence the repartnering. In contrast, the adult-focused parent expects that their child can adapt and should accommodate to parental wishes. Anderson and Greene (2011) found that divorced custodial mothers identified as more adult focused tended to be older, more educated, employed, and more likely to have been married longer. Additionally, adult-focused mothers reported having less rapport with their children, spent less time in joint activities with their children, and the child reported lower rapport with their mothers. Lastly, when the child and partner were resisting one another, adult-focused mothers responded more to the concerns of the partner, while the child-focused mothers responded more to the concerns of the child. Understanding the implications of these two differing perspectives can assist parents in their attempts to repartner.

Grandparents

In addition to maintaining relationships with their children and aging parents, many people in middle adulthood take on yet another role, becoming a grandparent. The role of grandparent varies around the world. In multigenerational households, grandparents may play a greater role in the day-to-day activities of their grandchildren. While this family dynamic is more common in Latin America, Asia, and Africa, it has been on the increase in the U.S. (Pew Research Center, 2010). Around the world, even when not cohabitating with their children and grandchildren, grandparents are usually a major source of support for new parents and young families.

The degree of grandparent involvement depends on the proximity of the grandparents’ home to the grandchildren. In developed nations, greater societal mobility means that many grandparents live long distances from their grandchildren. Technology has brought grandparents and their more distant grandchildren together. Sorenson and Cooper (2010) found that many of the grandfathers they interviewed would text, email, or Skype with their grandchildren in order to stay in touch.

Cherlin and Furstenberg (1986) described three styles of grandparents. Thirty percent of grandparents were remote because they rarely saw their grandchildren . Usually they lived far away from the grandchildren but may also have had a distant relationship. Contact was typically made on special occasions, such as holidays or birthdays. Fifty-five percent of grandparents were described as companionate because they did things with their grandchildren but had little authority or control over them. They preferred to spend time with them without interfering in parenting. They were more like friends to their grandchildren. Fifteen percent of grandparents were described as involved because  they took a very active role in their grandchild’s life. The involved grandparent had frequent contact with and authority over the grandchild, and their grandchildren might even live with them. Depending on the circumstances (which sometimes involve problems with the grandchildren’s parents, such as illness or addiction), taking over the parenting role for grandchildren can be stressful or it can be rewarding, or both. Grandmothers, more so than grandfathers, played this role. In contrast, more grandfathers than grandmothers saw their role as family historian and family advisor (Neugarten and Weinstein, 1964). Bengtson (2001) suggests that grandparents adopt different styles with different grandchildren, and over time may change styles as circumstances in the family change. Today more grandparents are the sole care providers for grandchildren or may step in at times of crisis.

Family Caregivers

A disabled child, spouse, parent, or other family member is part of the lives of some midlife adults. According to the National Alliance for Caregiving (2015), 40 million Americans provide unpaid caregiving for family members. The typical caregiver is a 49-year-old female currently caring for a 69 year-old female who needs care because of a long-term physical condition. Looking more closely at the age of the recipient of caregiving, the typical caregiver for those 18-49 years of age is a female (61%) caring mostly for her own child (32%) followed by a spouse or partner (17%). When looking at older recipients (50+) who receive care, the typical caregiver is female (60%) caring for a parent (47%) or spouse (10%).

Caregiving places an enormous burden on the caregiver, and is one of the most demanding and stressful roles that people can take on. Caregiving for a young or adult child with special needs is associated with poorer global health and more physical symptoms among both fathers and mothers (Seltzer, Floyd, Song, Greenberg, & Hong, 2011). Marital relationships are also a factor in how caregiving affects stress and chronic conditions. Fathers who were caregivers reported more chronic health conditions than non-caregiving fathers, regardless of marital quality. In contrast, caregiving mothers reported higher levels of chronic conditions when they also reported a high level of marital strain (Kang & Marks, 2014). Age can also make a difference in how one is affected by the stress of caring for a child with special needs. Using data from the Study of Midlife in the Unites States, Ha, Hong, Seltzer and Greenberg (2008) found that older parents were significantly less likely to experience the negative effects of having a disabled child than younger parents. They concluded that an age-related weakening of the stress occurred over time, as other non-disabled children became independent and left home.  The general trend of greater emotional stability noted at midlife may also have played a role.

Currently 25% of adult children, mainly baby boomers, provide personal or financial care to a parent (Metlife, 2011). Daughters are more likely to provide basic care and sons are more likely to provide financial assistance. Adult children 50+ who work and provide care to a parent are more likely to have fair or poor health when compared to those who do not provide care. Some adult children choose to leave the work force to care for a parent, however, the cost of leaving the work force early  is high. For females, lost wages and social security benefits equals $324,044, while for men it equals $283,716 (Metlife, 2011). This loss can jeopardize the adult child’s financial future. Consequently, there is a need for greater workplace flexibility for working caregivers.

Spousal Care.  Certainly, caring for a disabled spouse can be a difficult experience that can negatively affect one’s health. However, research indicates that there can also be positive health effects for caring for a disabled spouse. Beach, Schulz, Yee and Jackson (2000) evaluated health related outcomes in four groups: Spouses with no caregiving needed (Group 1), living with a disabled spouse but not providing care (Group 2), living with a disabled spouse and providing care (Group 3), and helping a disabled spouse while reporting caregiver strain, including elevated levels of emotional and physical stress (Group 4). Not surprisingly, the participants in Group 4 were the least healthy and identified poorer perceived health, an increase in health-risk behaviors, and an increase in anxiety and depression symptoms. However, those in Group 3 who provided care for a spouse, but did not identify caregiver strain, actually reported decreased levels of anxiety and depression compared to Group 2 and were actually similar to those in Group 1. It appears that greater caregiving involvement was related to better mental health as long as the caregiving spouse did not feel strain. The beneficial effects of helping reported by the participants were consistent with previous research (Krause, Herzog, & Baker, 1992; Schulz et al., 1997).

When caring for a disabled spouse, gender differences have also been found. Female caregivers of a spouse with dementia experienced more burden, had poorer mental and physical health, exhibited increased depressive symptomatology, took part in fewer health-promoting activities, and received fewer hours of help than male caregivers (Gibbons et al., 2014). This study was consistent with previous research findings that women experience more caregiving burden than men, despite similar caregiving situations (Torti, Gwyther, Reed, Friedman, & Schulman, 2004; Yeager, Hyer, Hobbs, & Coyne, 2010). A primary factor contributing to women’s poorer caregiving outcomes is that disabled males are more aggressive than females, especially males with dementia who display more physical and sexual aggression toward their caregivers (Eastley & Wilcock, 1997; Zuidema, de Jonghe, Verhey, & Koopmans, 2009). Explanations for why women are not offered or do not use more external support, which may alleviate some of the burden, include society’s expectations that they should assume caregiving roles (Torti et al, 2004) and women’s concerns with the opinions of others (Arai, Sugiura, Miura, Washio, & Kudo, 2000). Female caregivers are certainly at risk for negative consequences of caregiving, and greater support needs to be available to them.

According to the Institute of Medicine (2015), it is estimated that 66 million Americans, or 29% of the adult population, are caregivers for someone who is dying or chronically ill. Two-thirds of these caregivers are women. This care takes its toll physically, emotionally, and financially. Family caregivers may face the physical challenges of lifting, dressing, feeding, bathing, and transporting a dying or ill family member. They may worry about whether they are performing all tasks safely and properly, as they receive little training or guidance. Such caregiving tasks may also interfere with their ability to take care of themselves and meet other family and workplace obligations. Financially, families often face high out of pocket expenses (IOM, 2015).

As can be seen in the table below, most family caregivers are providing care by themselves with little professional intervention, are employed, and have provided care for more than 3 years. In 2013, the annual loss of productivity in the U.S. was $25 billion as a result of work absenteeism due to providing this care. As the prevalence of chronic disease rises, the need for family caregivers is growing. Unfortunately, the number of potential family caregivers is declining as the large baby boomer generation enters into late adulthood (Redfoot, Feinberg, & Houser, 2013).

Table 8.5 Characteristics of family caregivers in the United States

adapted from Lally & Valentine-French, 2019 and IOM, 2015

Friendships in Middle Adulthood

Adults of all ages who reported having a confidante or close friend with whom they could share personal feelings and concerns, believed these friends contributed to a sense of belonging, security, and overall wellbeing (Dunér & Nordstrom, 2007). Having a close friend is a factor in significantly lower odds of psychiatric morbidity including depression and anxiety (Harrison, Barrow, Gask, & Creed, 1999; Newton et al., 2008). The availability of a close friend has also been shown to lessen the adverse effects of stress on health (Kouzis & Eaton, 1998; Hawkley et al., 2008; Tower & Kasl, 1995). Additionally, poor social connectedness in adulthood is associated with a larger risk of premature mortality than cigarette smoking, obesity, and excessive alcohol use (Holt-Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010).

Female friendships and social support networks at midlife contribute significantly to a woman’s feeling of life satisfaction and well-being (Borzumato-Gainey, Kennedy, McCabe, & Degges-White, 2009). Degges-White and Myers (2006) found that women who have supportive people in their lives experience greater life satisfaction than do those who live a more solitary life. A friendship network or the presence of a confidante have both been found to be important to women’s mental health (Baruch & Brooks-Gunn, 1984). Unfortunately, with numerous caretaking responsibilities at home, it may be difficult for women to find time and energy to enhance the friendships that would provide an increased sense of life satisfaction (Borzumato-Gainey et al., 2009). Emslie, Hunt and Lyons (2013) found that for men in midlife, the shared consumption of alcohol was important to creating and maintaining male friends. Drinking with friends was justified as a way for men to talk to each other, provide social support, relax, and improve mood. Although the social support provided when men drink together can be helpful, the role of alcohol in male friendships can lead to health damaging behavior from excessive drinking.

The importance of social relationships begins in early adulthood by laying down a foundation for strong social connectedness and facilitating comfort with intimacy (Erikson, 1959). To determine the impact of the quantity and quality of social relationships in young adulthood on middle adulthood, Carmichael, Reis, and Duberstein (2015) assessed individuals at age 50 on measures of social connection (types of relationships and friendship quality) and psychological outcomes (loneliness, depression, psychological well-being). Results indicated that the quantity of social interactions at age 20 and the quality, but not quantity, of social interaction at age 30 predicted midlife social interactions. Those individuals who had high levels of social information seeking (quantity) at age 20 followed by fewer social relationships but greater emotional closeness (quality), ended up showing the most positive psychosocial adjustment at midlife.

AARP. (2009). The divorce experience: A study of divorce at midlife and beyond. Washington, DC: AARP

Ahlborg, T., Misvaer, N., & Möller, A. (2009). Perception of marital quality by parents with small children: A follow-up study when the firstborn is 4 years old. Journal of Family Nursing, 15 , 237–263.

Allendorf, K. (2013). Schemas of marital change: From arranged marriages to eloping for love. Journal of Marriage and Family, 75, 453-469.

Alterovitz, S. S., & Mendelsohn, G. A. (2013). Relationship goals of middle-aged, young-old, and old-old Internet daters: An analysis of online personal ads. Journal of Aging Studies, 27, 159–165.

Anderson, E. R., & Greene, S. M. (2011). “My child and I are a package deal”: Balancing adult and child concerns in repartnering after divorce. Journal of Family Psychology, 25 (5), 741-750.

Anderson, E.R., Greene, S.M., Walker, L., Malerba, C.A., Forgatch, M.S., & DeGarmo, D.S. (2004). Ready to take a chance again: Transitions into dating among divorced parents. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 40, 61-75.

Aquilino, W. (1991). Predicting parents’ experiences with coresidence adult children. Journal of Family Issues, 12(3) , 323-342.

Arai, Y., Sugiura, M., Miura, H., Washio, M., & Kudo, K. (2000). Undue concern for other’s opinions deters caregivers of impaired elderly from using public services in rural Japan. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 15 (10), 961-968.

Beach, S. R., Schulz, R., Yee, J. L., & Jackson, S. (2000). Negative and positive health effects of caring for a disabled spouse: Longitudinal findings from the caregiver health effects study. Psychology and Aging, 15 (2), 259-271.

Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55 , 83–96.

Bengtson, V. L. (2001). Families, intergenerational relationships, and kinkeeping in midlife. In N. M. Putney (Author) & M. E. Lachman (Ed.), Handbook of midlife development (pp. 528-579). New York: Wiley.

Benokraitis, N. V. (2005). Marriages and families: Changes, choices, and constraints (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Birditt, K. S., & Antonucci, T.C. (2012). Till death do us part: Contexts and implications of marriage, divorce, and remarriage across adulthood. Research in Human Development, 9(2) , 103-105.

Borland, D. C. (1982). A cohort analysis approach to the empty-nest syndrome among three ethnic groups of women: A theoretical position. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 44 , 117–129.

Bouchard, G. (2013). How do parents reaction when their children leave home: An integrative review. Journal of Adult Development, 21 , 69-79.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989). Ecological systems theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of Child Development, Vol. 6 (pp. 187–251). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Brown, S. L., & Lin, I. (2013). The gray divorce revolution: Rising divorce among middle aged and older adults 1990-2010. National Center for Family & Marriage Research Working Paper Series. Bowling Green State University. https://www.bgsu.edu/content/dam/BGSU/college-of-arts-and- sciences/NCFMR/ documents/Lin/The-Gray-Divorce.pdf

Bumpass, L. L. (1990). What’s happening to the family? Interactions between demographic and institutional change. Demography, 27 (4), 483–498.

Carmichael, C. L., Reis, H. T., & Duberstein, P. R. (2015). In your 20s it’s quantity, in your 30s it’s quality: The prognostic value of social activity across 30 years of adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 30 (1), 95-105.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2015a). Births and natality. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/births.htm

Cherlin, A. J., & Furstenberg, F. F. (1986). The new American grandparent: A place in the family, a life apart . New York: Basic Books.

Clark, L. A., Kochanska, G., & Ready, R. (2000). Mothers’ personality and its interaction with child temperament as predictors of parenting behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79 , 274–285.

Cohen, P. (2013). Marriage is declining globally. Can you say that? Retrieved from https://familyinequality.wordpress.com/2013/06/12/marriage-is-declining/

Cohn, D. (2013). In Canada, most babies now born to women 30 and older. Pew Research Center.

Conger, R. D., & Conger, K. J. (2002). Resilience in Midwestern families: Selected findings from the first decade of a prospective longitudinal study. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 361–373.

Cooke, L. P. (2010). The politics of housework. In J. Treas & S.Drobnic (Eds.), Dividing the domestic: Men, women, and household work in cross-national perspective (pp. 59-78). Standford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Copen, C.E., Daniels, K., & Mosher, W.D. (2013) First premarital cohabitation in the United States: 2006–2010 National Survey of Family Growth. National health statistics reports; no 64. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.

Crowley, K., Callanan, M. A., Tenenbaum, H. R., & Allen, E. (2001). Parents explain more often to boys than to girls during shared scientific thinking. Psychological Science, 12 , 258–261.

Demick, J. (1999). Parental development: Problem, theory, method, and practice. In R. L. Mosher, D. J. Youngman, & J. M. Day (Eds.), Human development across the life span: Educational and psychological applications (pp. 177–199). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Dennerstein, L., Dudley, E., & Guthrie, J. (2002). Empty nest or revolving door? A prospective study of women’s quality of life in midlife during the phase of children leaving and re-entering the home. Psychological Medicine, 32, 545–550.

DePaulo, B. (2014). A singles studies perspective on mount marriage. Psychological Inquiry, 25 (1), 64-68.

Desai, S., & Andrist, L. (2010). Gender scripts and age at marriage in India. Demography, 47 , 667-687.

Desilver, D. (2016). In the U. S. and abroad, more young adults are living with their parents. Retrieved from: https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/05/24/in-the-u-s-and-abroad-more-young-adults-are-living-with-their-parents/

Dye, J. L. (2010). Fertility of American women: 2008. Current Population Reports. Retrieved from www.census.gov/prod/2010pubs/p20-563.pdf.

Eastley, R., & Wilcock, G. K. (1997). Prevalence and correlates of aggressive behaviors occurring in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 12, 484-487.

Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Guthrie, I.K., Murphy, B.C., & Reiser, M. (1999). Parental reactions to children’s negative emotions: Longitudinal relations to quality of children’s social functioning. Child Development, 70 , 513-534.

Eisenberg, N., Hofer, C., Spinrad, T., Gershoff, E., Valiente, C., Losoya, S. L., Zhou, Q., Cumberland, A., Liew, J., Reiser, M., & Maxon, E. (2008). Understanding parent-adolescent conflict discussions: Concurrent and across-time prediction from youths’ dispositions and parenting. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 73, (Serial No. 290, No. 2), 1-160.

Emslie, C., Hunt, K., & Lyons, A. (2013. The role of alcohol in forging and maintaining friendships amongst Scottish men in midlife. Health Psychology, 32 (10, 33-41.

Erikson, E. (1950) . Childhood and society. New York: Norton & Company.

Erikson, E. (1959). Identity and the life cycle . New York: Norton & Company.

Erikson, E. (1982). The life cycle completed. New York: Norton & Company.

Fehr, B. (2008). Friendship formation. In S. Sprecher, A. Wenzel, & J. Harvey (Eds.), Handbook of Relationship Initiation (pp. 29–54). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Gibbons, C., Creese, J., Tran, M., Brazil, K., Chambers, L., Weaver, B., & Bedard, M. (2014). The psychological and health consequences of caring for a spouse with dementia: A critical comparison of husbands and wives. Journal of Women & Aging, 26 , 3-21.

Goldscheider, F., & Kaufman, G. (2006). Willingness to stepparent: Attitudes about partners who already have children. Journal of Family Issues , 27 , 1415 – 1436.

Goldscheider, F., & Sassler, S. (2006). Creating stepfamilies: Integrating children into the study of union formation. Journal of Marriage and Family , 68 , 275 – 291.

Gonzales, N. A., Coxe, S., Roosa, M. W., White, R. M. B., Knight, G. P., Zeiders, K. H., & Saenz, D. (2011). Economic hardship, neighborhood context, and parenting: Prospective effects on Mexican-American adolescent’s mental health. American Journal of Community Psychology, 47, 98–113.

Gorchoff, S. M., John, O. P., & Helson, R. (2008). Contextualizing change in marital satisfaction during middle age. Psychological Science, 19 , 1194–1200.

Gottman, J. M., & Levenson, R. W. (2000). The timing of divorce: Predicting when a couple will divorce over a 14-year period. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 62 , 737-745.

Greene, S. M., Anderson, E. R., Hetherington, E., Forgtch, M. S., & DeGarmo, D. S. (2003). Risk and resilience after divorce. In F. Walsh (Ed.), Normal family processes: Growing diversity and complexity (3rd ed., pp. 96-120). New York: Guilford Press.

Greenfield, E. A., & Marks, N. F. (2006). Linked lives: Adult children’s problems and their parents’ psychological and relational well-being. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68 , 442-454.

Grusec, J. E., Goodnow, J. J., & Cohen, L. (1996). Household work and the development of concern for others. Developmental Psychology, 32, 999–1007.

Gurrentz, B. (2018). For young adults, cohabitation is up, and marriage is down. US. Census Bureau. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2018/11/cohabitaiton-is-up-marriage-is-down-for-young-adults.html.

Ha, J., Hong, J., Seltzer, M. M., & Greenberg, J. S. (2008). Age and gender differences in the well-being of midlife and aging parents with children with mental health or developmental problems: Report of a national study. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 49, 301-316.

Hamilton, B. E., Martin, J. A., & Ventura, S. J. (2011). Births: Preliminary data for 2010. National Vital Statistics Reports, 60(2). Hyattsville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Hawkley, L. C., Hughes, M. E., Waite, L. J., Masi, C. M., Thisted, R. A., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2008). From social structural factors to perceptions of relationship quality and loneliness: The Chicago health, aging, and marital status transitions and health outcomes social relations study. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 63, 375–384.

Hayslip Jr., B., Henderson, C. E., & Shore, R. J. (2003). The Structure of Grandparental Role Meaning. Journal of Adult Development , 10 (1), 1-13.

Hetherington, E. M. & Kelly, J. (2002). For better or worse: Divorce reconsidered . New York, NY: Norton.

Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., & Layton, J. B. (2010). Social relationships and mortality risk: a meta-analytic review. PLoS Medicine, 7 (7), e1000316.

Hyde, J. S., Else-Quest, N. M., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2004). Children’s temperament and behavior problems predict their employed mothers’ work functioning. Child Development, 75 , 580–594.

Institute of Medicine. (2015). Dying in America: Improving quality and honoring individual preferences near end of life. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Kang, S. W., & Marks, N. F. (2014). Parental caregiving for a child with special needs, marital strain, and physical health: Evidence from National Survey of Midlife in the U.S. 2005. Contemporary Perspectives in Family Research, 8 A, 183-209.

Kerr, D. C. R., Capaldi, D. M., Pears, K. C., & Owen, L. D. (2009). A prospective three generational study of fathers’ constructive parenting: Influences from family of origin, adolescent adjustment, and offspring temperament. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1257–1275.

Kiff, C. J., Lengua, L. J., & Zalewski, M. (2011). Nature and nurturing: Parenting in the context of child temperament. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 251–301.

Krause, N. A., Herzog, R., & Baker, E. (1992). Providing support to others and well-being in later life. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 47, P300-311.

Lachman, M. E. (2004). Development in midlife. Annual Review of Psychology , 55 (1), 305-331.

Landsford, J. E., Antonucci, T.C., Akiyama, H., & Takahashi, K. (2005). A quantitative and qualitative approach to social relationships and well-being in the United States and Japan. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 36, 1-22.

Lesthaeghe, R. J., & Surkyn, J. (1988). Cultural dynamics and economic theories of fertility change. Population and Development Review 14(1), 1–45.

Livingston, G. (2014). Four in ten couples are saying I do again. In Chapter 3. The differing demographic profiles of first-time marries, remarried and divorced adults . Pew Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2014/11/14/chapter-3-the-differing-demographic-profiles-of-first-time-married-remarried-and-divorced-adults/

Lucas, R. E. & Donnellan, A. B. (2011). Personality development across the life span: Longitudinal analyses with a national sample from Germany. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 847–861

Martinez, G., Daniels, K., & Chandra, A. (2012). Fertility of men and women aged 15-44 years in the United States: National Survey of Family Growth, 2006-2010. National Health Statistics Reports, 51(April). Hyattsville, MD: U.S., Department of Health and Human Services.

Metlife. (2011). Metlife study of caregiving costs to working caregivers: Double jeopardy for baby boomers caring for their parents. Retrieved from http://www.caregiving.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/mmi-caregiving-costs-working-caregivers.pdf

Mitchell, B. A., & Lovegreen, L. D. (2009). The empty nest syndrome in midlife families: A multimethod exploration of parental gender differences and cultural dynamics. Journal of Family Issues, 30, 1651–1670.

Montenegro, X. P. (2003). Lifestyles, dating, and romance: A study of midlife singles. Washington, DC: AARP.

National Alliance for Caregiving. (2015). Caregiving in the U.S. 2015 . Retrieved from http://www.caregiving.org/caregiving2015.

Neugarten, B. L., & Weinstein, K. K. (1964). The changing American grandparent. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 26, 199–204.

Newton, T., Buckley, A., Zurlage, M., Mitchell, C., Shaw, A., & Woodruff-Borden, J. (2008). Lack of a close confidant: Prevalence and correlates in a medically underserved primary care sample. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 13 , 185–192.

Parker, K. & Patten, E. (2013). The sandwich generation: Rising financial burdens for middle-aged Americans. Pew Research Center . Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/01/30/the-sandwich-generation/

Payne, K. K. (2015). The remarriage rate: Geographic variation, 2013. National Center for Family & Marriage Research. Retrieved from http://bgsu.edu/ncfmr/resources/data/family-profiles/payne-remarriage-rate-fp-15-08.html

Pew Research Center. (2010). The return of the multi-generational family household. Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2010/03/18/the-return-of-the-multi-generational-family-household/

Pew Research Center. (2010a). How the great recession has changed life in America . Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2010/06/30/how-the-great-recession-has-changed-life-in-america/

Pew Research Center. (2010b). Section 5: Generations and the great recession. Retrieved from http://www.people-press.org/2011/11/03/section-5-generations-and-the-great-recession/

Pew Research Center. (2015). Caring for aging parents. Family support in graying societies . Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2015/05/21/4-caring-for-aging-parents/

Pew Research Center. (2019). Same-sex marriage around the world. Retrieved from https://www.pewforum.org/fact-sheet/gay-marriage-around-the-world/

Prinzie, P., Stams, G. J., Dekovic, M., Reijntjes, A. H., & Belsky, J. (2009). The relations between parents’ Big Five personality factors and parenting: A meta-review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 351–362.

Proulx, C. M., Helms, H. M., & Buehler, C. (2007). Marital Quality and Personal Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Marriage and Family , 69 (3), 576–593

Saginak, K. A., & Saginak, M. A. (2005). Balancing work and family: Equity, gender, and marital satisfaction. Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families, 13, 162-166.

Sandberg-Thoma, S. E., Synder, A. R., & Jang, B. J. (2015). Exiting and returning to the parental home for boomerang kids. Journal of Marriage and Family, 77 , 806-818.

Schulz, R., Newsom, J., Mittelmark, M., Burton, L., Hirsch, C., & Jackson, S. (1997). Health effects of caregiving: The caregiver health effects study. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 19 , 110-116.

Seccombe, K., & Warner, R. L. (2004). Marriages and families: Relationships in social context . Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Seltzer, M. M., Floyd, F., Song, J., Greenberg, J., & Hong, J. (2011). Midlife and aging parents of adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities: Impacts of lifelong parenting. American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 116 , 479-499.

Stewart, S. D., Manning, W. D., & Smock, P. J. (2003). Union formation among men in the US: Does having prior children matter? Journal of Marriage and Family , 65 , 90 – 104.

Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Way, N., Hughes, D., Yoshikawa, H., Kalman, R. K., & Niwa, E. Y. (2008). Parents’ goals for children: The dynamic coexistence of individualism and collectivism in cultures and individuals. Social Development, 17, 183–209.

Teachman, J. (2008). Complex life course patterns and the risk of divorce in second marriages. Journal of Marriage and Family , 70 , 294 – 305.

Thornton, A. (2005). Reading history sideways: The fallacy and enduring impact of the developmental paradigm on family life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Torti, F. M., Gwyther, L. P., Reed, S. D., Friedman, J. Y., & Schulman, K. A. (2004). A multinational review of recent trends and reports in dementia caregiver burden. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 18 (2), 99-109.

Umberson, D., Williams, K., Powers, D., Chen, M., & Campbell, A. (2005). As good as it gets? A life course perspective on marital quality. Social Forces, 81 , 493-511.

Wang, W., & Parker, K. (2014). Record share of Americans have never married: As values, economics and gender patterns change. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center. http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2014/09/2014-09-24_Never-Married-Americans.pdf

Wang, W., & Taylor, P. (2011). For Millennials, parenthood trumps marriage. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.

Williams, L., Kabamalan, M., & Ogena, N. (2007). Cohabitation in the Philippines: Attitudes and behaviors among young women and men. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(5), 1244–1256.

Witt, J. (2009). SOC. New York: McGraw Hill.

Wu, Z., Sun, L., Sun, Y., Zhang, X., Tao, F., & Cui, G. (2010). Correlation between loneliness and social relationship among empty nest elderly in Anhui rural area, China. Aging and Mental Health, 14, 108–112.

Yeager, C. A., Hyer, L. A., Hobbs, B., & Coyne, A. C., (2010). Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia: The complex relationship between diagnosis and caregiver burden. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 31 (6), 376-384.

Yu, J., & Xie, Y. (2015). Cohabitation in China: Trends and determinants. Population & Development Review, 41 (4), 607-628.

Zuidema, S. U., de Jonghe, J. F., Verhey, F. R., & Koopman, R. T. (2009). Predictors of neuropsychiatric symptoms in nursing home patients: Influence of gender and dementia severity. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 24 (10), 1079-1086.

“Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective, Second Edition” by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under a CC-BY-NC-SA-3.0 /modified (new introduction text) by Dan Grimes, Portland State University

Lifespan Development by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

Media Attributions

• cohab1 © US Census Bureau is licensed under a Public Domain license
• cohab2 © US Census Bureau is licensed under a Public Domain license
• maritalstatus © Pew Research Center
• in-lieu-in-view-photography-lj3BEGiZ2fw-unsplash-2 © In Lieu In View Photography is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license
• eye-for-ebony-zQQ6Y5_RtHE-unsplash-2 © Eye for Ebony is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license
• influences parenting © Marissa L. Diener is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike) license
• sandwichgen © Pew Research Center
• finanacialstrain © Pew Research Center
• FT_17.05.03_livingAtHome_byGen2 © Pew Research Center
• FT_16.05.20_livingWithParents_Europe © Pew Research Center
• agemaritalstatus © Pew Research Center
• ST_2014-11-14_remarriage-06 © Pew Research Center is licensed under a All Rights Reserved license
• anthony-tran-rvdlDB1D68c-unsplash © Anthony Tran is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license
• jude-beck-a-nWU0o73r4-unsplash © Jude Beck is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license
• ekaterina-shakharova-L4nwL3195U0-unsplash © Ekaterina Shakharova is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license
• o-OLD-WOMEN-BEST-FRIENDS-facebook

Human Development Copyright © 2020 by Human Development Teaching & Learning Group is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Family Life Cycle: What It Is, Stages, And Transitions

Throughout your life, the composition of a family changes, just as the interpersonal relationships established in it also change.

In every family there are crisis situations such as deaths, job losses, changes of home and the evolutionary changes of children, such as the entry into adolescence or their emancipation when they are adults.

These changes and transitions are what we know as the family life cycle there are several models that specify the stages that most families go through and what makes them transition from one to another.

The family life cycle is a concept that describes the various stages and transitions that families experience over time, from formation to dissolution. Each stage of the family life cycle presents unique opportunities, challenges, and developmental tasks that shape the dynamics of family relationships and influence individual and collective well-being. In this article, we explore the intricacies of the family life cycle, shedding light on its stages, transitions, and implications for family functioning and adaptation.

Table of Contents

What is the family life cycle?

The family life cycle is all the stages that a family goes through throughout its life These stages are progressive, associated with changes in the composition of the family nucleus and, also, in the relationships between its members. Every family can be influenced and altered by internal and external factors, such as the cultural system, values, social expectations and political changes.

The concept of family life cycle is made up of several stages, which, although they vary depending on the author consulted, are assumed to correspond to the periods that most families go through within a society. These stages begin and end with the experience of different life events, events that are what most families are expected to experience at some point in their existence.

The stages of the family life cycle

The concept of family life cycle has been approached from various social sciences, such as social psychology and sociology Depending on who you ask, it is agreed that all families go through some stages or others. Among the most popular models we have two: Wells and Gubar and Duvall. Below we will mention all the stages proposed in their models:

1. Family life cycle according to Wells and Gubar (1966)

The model of William W. Wells and George Gubar It is made up of 8 stages that differ in terms of the presence of children in the home and their age

2. Family life cycle according to Duvall (1988)

Evelyn Millis Duvall’s model is also made up of 8 stages. In this model The age of the children is also taken into special consideration, but in this case it focuses on the evolutionary stage in which they are

Transitions and crises

Throughout their life cycle, families go through different crises and problems that, although they are not usually serious or cause the family nucleus to disintegrate, imply changes in family life.

Over the years All families have to deal with various natural events, such as births, deaths and the growth of their children, situations that can involve greater stress if there is an economic crisis or underlying relational problems. They are events that alter the structure of the family and test its adaptability.

Next, and taking Duvall’s model as a reference, we can see what crises and stressors that a cisheteronormative family can encounter throughout its existence:

1. Newlywed couple

This is the stage in which everything begins, as long as the relationship prospers. It is that moment when two people meet, establish a loving relationship, make life plans and get married.

In itself, the stage involves several identity crises, since Both members of the couple have to accept that they are no longer single , but the “half” of a whole. Both members of this new couple must negotiate what beliefs and expectations to adopt to create a new identity as a couple and as a future family.

2. Families in initial upbringing

At this stage the crisis occurs when two people who are in a relationship are going to become three (or four) because the woman is pregnant New parents have to adapt to their new roles as parents, establish a bond with their child, and coordinate tasks related to parenting.

• You may be interested: “ How to enjoy family vacations “

3. Families with preschool children

In this case the crisis is related to childhood, moment when first-born children acquire a little autonomy and become difficult to control for their parents, especially if the children are curious and want to explore the world around them. Additionally, at this stage there may be tensions due to imbalances in work and family roles.

• Related article: “ Children’s therapy: what it is and what are its benefits “

4. Families with school-age children

The crisis occurs because of the start of school. The child has to learn to relate to other children and other authority figures other than their parents , while parents have to interact with other parents and the center’s teachers. It is a stage in which homework, extracurricular activities, failures and passes, parent meetings…

5. Families with teenagers

The main reason for crisis in families with adolescents is related to identity conflicts typical of adolescence The family has to adjust to the onset of puberty and sexual maturity, deal with her son’s desire for independence and rebellion, and discussions that will continue with him or her due to various disagreements.

6. Families as a launching pad

Here the crisis occurs with the imminent departure of the children. Parents have to accept that their little ones have grown up, that they seek to become masters of their own lives greater independence and making their own decisions about their non-compulsory training and profession to practice.

7. Middle-aged parents

There are no more children at home Parents have to readjust their identity since for many years a large part of their routine consisted of taking care of their children and, now that they are gone, that empty space has to be filled, the space left by not being a parent 24/7.

Now, without children at home, they have to assume different roles, including serving as grandparents to their newborn grandchildren or facing retirement.

8. Family with elderly members

Finally, the last stage of the family life cycle is established with a crisis caused by the perception that one has lost one’s youth, vitality, health, and a partner , in case he has already died. Both members of the couple or the widower prepare psychologically to face the last stage of their lives before the inevitable arrival of death.

Formation Stage

Establishment of a family unit.

The formation stage marks the beginning of the family life cycle, characterized by the establishment of a new family unit through marriage, cohabitation, or other forms of partnership. During this stage, couples navigate the process of merging individual identities, values, and goals to create a shared vision for their future together. Key tasks include establishing roles and responsibilities, setting boundaries, and fostering effective communication to lay the foundation for a healthy and resilient family system.

Transition to Parenthood

For couples who choose to have children, the transition to parenthood represents a significant milestone within the formation stage. This period is marked by profound changes in roles, routines, and priorities as couples adjust to the demands of caregiving and navigate the joys and challenges of raising children. The transition to parenthood requires couples to renegotiate their relationship dynamics, support each other through the trials of parenting, and cultivate strategies for balancing work, family, and personal life.

Expansion Stage

Nurturing and growth of the family.

The expansion stage encompasses the period of raising children and nurturing their physical, emotional, and social development. Families experience profound changes as children grow and evolve, from infancy through adolescence and into young adulthood. During this stage, parents face a myriad of challenges, including managing child-rearing responsibilities, fostering positive parent-child relationships, and supporting children’s educational, social, and emotional needs.

Adolescence and Launching

As children enter adolescence and begin to assert their independence, families undergo a process of transition known as launching. Adolescents strive for autonomy, identity formation, and exploration of their values and interests, often leading to conflicts and tensions within the family system. Parents must navigate the delicate balance between offering guidance and support while allowing adolescents the freedom to explore their own paths and make decisions. The launching phase culminates in the transition to young adulthood, as children leave the family home to pursue higher education, employment, or other life endeavors.

Midlife Stage

Renegotiation of roles and priorities.

The midlife stage marks a period of reflection, introspection, and transition for individuals and couples as they navigate the challenges and opportunities of middle adulthood. Empty nest syndrome may occur as children leave home, prompting parents to reassess their identities, roles, and priorities in the absence of direct caregiving responsibilities. Midlife adults may grapple with career changes, relationship dynamics, and existential questions about meaning and purpose, leading to a period of self-discovery and reevaluation of life goals.

Sandwich Generation

Many midlife adults find themselves in the sandwich generation, simultaneously caring for aging parents while supporting their own children or grandchildren. Balancing competing demands and responsibilities can be emotionally and physically taxing, requiring individuals to cultivate resilience, time management skills, and support networks to navigate the complexities of caregiving across multiple generations.

Later Life Stage

Retirement and aging.

The later life stage encompasses the transition to retirement and the aging process, as individuals confront the realities of aging, declining health, and mortality. Retirement presents both opportunities for leisure, travel, and personal fulfillment, as well as challenges related to financial security, social isolation, and maintaining physical and mental well-being. Families play a crucial role in providing support, companionship, and care for aging relatives, fostering intergenerational connections and continuity of family traditions and values.

Legacy and Reflection

As individuals approach the later stages of life, they may engage in reflection on their legacy, values, and contributions to family and society. This period offers opportunities for intergenerational transmission of wisdom, storytelling, and life lessons, as older adults impart their knowledge and experiences to younger generations. Families serve as custodians of collective memories and traditions, preserving the rich tapestry of family history for future generations to cherish and learn from.

Weak points of classic models

The family life cycle models we just talked about were conceptualized around the 1960s Since then, the concept of family has been changing, in addition to several social changes that make it necessary to propose new models of stages of the family life cycle so that they can adapt to new realities.

Throughout the last half of the last century and so far in the current century, there has been an increase in life expectancy, a lower birth rate, changes in the social roles of women, a higher rate of divorces and second marriages, in addition to the appearance of more single-parent families and homosexual marriages.

The family life cycle is a dynamic and multifaceted journey that encompasses the various stages and transitions families experience over time. From formation and expansion to midlife and later life stages, each phase presents unique opportunities for growth, adaptation, and resilience. By understanding the developmental tasks and challenges associated with each stage of the family life cycle, individuals and families can navigate transitions more effectively, cultivate healthy relationships, and foster well-being across the lifespan.

Family Life Cycle Theory

The family life cycle theory was first developed around 1960. It is one of many tools that can be used in marriage and family counseling. It can be helpful for some families, but it doesn't apply to many others. There are newer versions of this theory, and there are other theories. Your marriage and family therapist can talk to you about their approach to counseling.

This theory uses the term "family life cycle" to describe the emotional and intellectual stages you pass through from childhood to your retirement years as a member of a family. In each stage, you face challenges in your family life that allow you to build or gain new skills. Learning the skills of each stage helps you to move from one stage of development to the next.

Not everyone passes through these stages smoothly. Issues such as severe illness, money problems, or the death of a loved one can affect how you pass through the stages. But if you miss skills in one stage, you can learn them in later stages.

Stages in the family life cycle theory

The stages of the family life cycle are:

• Independence.
• Launching adult children.
• Retirement or senior years.

Your experiences through the family life cycle will affect who you are and who you become. The more you understand about the challenges of each stage of the cycle, the more likely you are to be able to move on.

Independence stage

Independence is the most critical stage of the family life cycle. As you enter young adulthood, you start to separate emotionally from your family. During this stage, you strive to become fully able to support yourself emotionally, physically, socially, and financially. You start to form unique qualities and characteristics that define your own identity.

The goals of this stage are to:

• Learn to see yourself as a separate person in relation to your parents, siblings, and extended family members.
• Form intimate peer relationships outside the family.
• Establish yourself in your work or career.

Coupling stage

The next stage may be coupling. Using qualities gained in the independence stage, you can see if you can commit to a new family and a new way of life. The main goal at this stage is to learn interdependence. This occurs when you are able to fully enter into a relationship with another person. It also requires that you share goals. And you'll need to sometimes place the needs of another above your own.

• Form a new family with your partner.
• Realign your relationships with your family of origin and your friends to include your partner.

Parenting stage

Parenting is one of the most challenging phases of the family life cycle. During this stage, you'll need to communicate well, maintain your relationships, and solve problems. Some couples explore other ways to become parents, such as surrogacy or adoption. Some couples know that they don't want children.

This stage includes parenting young children and parenting adolescents.

Parenting young children

Adapting children into other relationships is a key emotional process of this stage. You transition from being a member of a couple to being a parent. While still evolving as individuals, you and your partner are also becoming decision-makers for your family. Being able to express your own identity while working well together as a couple builds a strong bond.

Goals when children join your family are to:

• Adjust your relationship to make space for children.
• Take on parenting roles.
• Realign your relationships with your extended family to include parenting and grandparenting roles.

Parenting adolescents

Parenting teens can be a rough time for a family. It can test your relationship skills. It's also a time for positive growth and exploring for your entire family. Families that function best during this time have strong relationships. They focus on family activities together. These are formed through good communication, problem solving, mutual caring, support, and trust. You'll need to be flexible as you encourage your child to become independent and creative. Flexibility in the roles each person plays in the family is also valuable.

Goals during the stage of parenting teens are to:

• Shift parent-child relationships to allow the child to become more independent.
• Begin a shift toward concern for older generations in your extended family.

Launching adult children stage

This stage starts when your first child leaves home and ends with the "empty nest."

Forming adult relationships with your children is a key skill in this stage. You may be challenged to accept new members into your family through your children's relationships. Self-examination, education, and counseling can enhance your life. And they can help ensure a healthy transition to the next phase.

Goals during this stage are to:

• Refocus on other relationships.
• Form adult relationships with your grown children.
• Realign relationships to include in-laws and grandchildren if your children start their own families.

Retirement or senior years

Retirement can be a fulfilling and happy time. Welcoming new family members or seeing others leave your family is often a large part of this stage as your children have relationships or you become a grandparent. Challenges may include being a support to other family members while still exploring your own interests or focusing on your relationships.

Goals of this stage are to:

• Maintain your own interests and physical function as your body ages.
• Give emotional support to your adult children and grandchildren as well as other family members.
• Deal with the loss of peers and prepare for your own death.
• Review your life and reflect on all you have learned and experienced during your life.
• Related Information
• Alcohol Use Disorder
• Elder Abuse
• Feeling Depressed
• Grief and Grieving
• Growth and Development, Ages 1 to 12 Months
• Growth and Development, Ages 11 to 14 Years
• Growth and Development, Ages 12 to 24 Months
• Growth and Development, Ages 15 to 18 Years
• Growth and Development, Ages 2 to 5 Years
• Growth and Development, Ages 6 to 10 Years
• Growth and Development, Newborn
• Menopause and Perimenopause

Current as of: October 24, 2023

Author: Healthwise Staff Clinical Review Board All Healthwise education is reviewed by a team that includes physicians, nurses, advanced practitioners, registered dieticians, and other healthcare professionals.

Next Section:

Previous Section:

Author: Healthwise Staff

Clinical Review Board All Healthwise education is reviewed by a team that includes physicians, nurses, advanced practitioners, registered dieticians, and other healthcare professionals.

Topic Contents

PeaceHealth endeavors to provide comprehensive health care information, however some topics in this database describe services and procedures not offered by our providers or within our facilities because they do not comply with, nor are they condoned by, the ethics policies of our organization.

Health Information Library

This information does not replace the advice of a doctor. Healthwise, Incorporated disclaims any warranty or liability for your use of this information. Your use of this information means that you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Learn how we develop our content .

To learn more about Healthwise, visit Healthwise.org .

© 1995-2024 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.

Family Life Cycle Stages

• Living reference work entry
• First Online: 27 May 2021
• Cite this living reference work entry

• Katja Joronen 2 &
• Anja Rantanen 3  

59 Accesses

Child and family well-being ; Family development ; Family support and the life cycle ; Stages of family development ; Stages of the family life cycle

Family life cycle stages is a theoretical framework to describe the formation, maintenance, change, and dissolution of marital and family relations.

Description

The family life cycle stages perspective is probably the most famous part of family development theory (Rodgers and White 1993 ). Evelyn Duvall’s ( 1962 , p. 9) classification table lists eight stages of the family life cycle:

Beginning families (married couple without children)

Childbearing families (oldest child, birth to 30 months)

Families with preschool children (oldest child 2½–6 years)

Families with school children (oldest child 6–13)

Families with teenagers (oldest child 13–20)

Families as launching centers (first child gone to last child’s leaving home)

Families in the middle years (empty nest to retirement)

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

Duvall, E. M. (1962). Family development (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott.

Google Scholar  

Duvall, E. M. (1977). Marriage and family development (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott.

Hill, R. (1951). Families under stress . New York: Harper & Brothers.

Hill, R., & Rodgers, R. H. (1964). The developmental approach. In H. T. Christensen (Ed.), Handbook of marriage and the family . Chicago: Rand McNally.

McGoldrick, M., & Carter, E. A. (1982). The family life cycle. In F. Walsh (Ed.), Normal family processes (pp. 167–195). New York: The Guilford Press.

Rankin, S. H. (2000). Life-span development: Refreshing a theoretical and practice perspective. Scholarly Inquiry for Nursing Practice, 14 (4), 379–388.

Rodgers, R. H., & White, J. M. (1993). Family development theory. In G. Pauline, P. G. Boss, W. J. Doherty, R. LaRossa, W. R. Schumm, & S. K. Steinmetz (Eds.), Sourcebook of family theories and methods: A contextual approach (pp. 225–254). New York: Kluwer/Plenum Press.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Russell, C. S. (1993). Family development theory as revised by Rodgers and White. Implications for practice. In G. Pauline, P. G. Boss, W. J. Doherty, R. LaRossa, W. R. Schumm, & S. K. Steinmetz (Eds.), Sourcebook of family theories and methods: A contextual approach (pp. 255–257). New York: Kluwer/Plenum Press.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Nursing Science, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

Katja Joronen

Faculty of Social Sciences, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland

Anja Rantanen

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Katja Joronen .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Dipartimento di Scienze Statistiche, Sapienza Università di Roma, Roma, Italy

Filomena Maggino

Section Editor information

Department of Sociology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands

Tanja van der Lippe

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Cite this entry.

Joronen, K., Rantanen, A. (2021). Family Life Cycle Stages. In: Maggino, F. (eds) Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_1004-2

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_1004-2

Received : 23 September 2019

Accepted : 24 January 2021

Published : 27 May 2021

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-319-69909-7

Online ISBN : 978-3-319-69909-7

eBook Packages : Springer Reference Social Sciences Reference Module Humanities and Social Sciences Reference Module Business, Economics and Social Sciences

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Family Life Cycle Theory by Carter and Mcgoldrick

This essay about the family life cycle stages discusses the sequence of developmental phases that a typical family progresses through from formation to old age. It begins with the “unmarried young adults” stage, where individuals establish independence and lay foundations for future family life. It then moves to the “newly married couples” stage, focusing on the couple’s relationship dynamics without children. The “families with young children” and “families with adolescents” stages introduce the challenges of parenting through different phases of childhood and adolescence. This is followed by the “launching children” stage, dealing with the adjustment to an empty nest. Finally, the “families in later life” stage encompasses dealing with retirement, health issues, and the role of grandparenthood. Each stage presents unique challenges and developmental tasks that are crucial for the growth and adaptation of the family unit, emphasizing the importance of understanding and adapting to these changes for family harmony and development.

How it works

The family life cycle is a theory in societal science delineating the customary phases a kin group undergoes over duration. This blueprint is pivotal in comprehending kin group dynamics and the progressing requisites and affiliations within a kin group entity. Herein, we delve into these phases, each distinguished by singular quandaries and developmental undertakings that contribute to the enlargement of the kin group system.

The preliminary phase in the family group life rotation is the “unattached juvenile grown-ups” phase. This stage entails individuals departing from their juvenile domiciles and instigating to formulate their own determinations.

The core developmental undertaking here is to institute oneself in an autonomous milieu, harmonizing personal autonomy with accountability. For many, this is a span of substantial personal and professional expansion, which lays the foundation for subsequent phases of the life rotation.

The subsequent phase is the “recently wedded pairs” phase, wherein individuals establish a new kin group entity with their companions. The focus shifts to the conjugal system where pairs must negotiate roles and responsibilities and strive towards constructing a steadfast and gratifying rapport. This phase frequently involves acclimatizing to life as a pair devoid of progeny, setting the platform for conceivable parenthood.

Subsequent to this is the “family groups with juvenile progenies” phase. This phase introduces the intricacies of parenthood where the kin group must accommodate the requisites of juvenile progenies. Guardians must adapt their conjugal system to encompass parental roles, balancing labor and kin group life, and catering to the requisites of their progenies for affection, assurance, and education. This phase is frequently demarcated by substantial adjustments in kin group structure and function as the kin group expands.

The “family groups with teenagers” phase brings fresh quandaries as progenies enter adolescence and endeavor for more autonomy. This duration tests kin group boundaries as teenagers push against rules and articulate desires for more liberty. Guardians must alter their parenting methodologies to encompass negotiation and flexibility, offering guidance while permitting teenagers to explore their individuality and independence. This phase can be notably arduous as it frequently necessitates substantial emotional adjustments from all kin group members.

The “launching progenies” phase transpires when progenies mature into adults and depart from the domicile to pursue their own courses, whether for education, employment, or marriage. This phase can be poignant for guardians as they encounter the “vacant nest.” The principal challenge here is to redefine the parental affiliation and to revert focus to the conjugal system. Pairs must ascertain novel approaches to connect and support each other in the dearth of their progenies.

As the family life persists to evolve, the “kin groups in later life” phase marks a duration where the focus is on the pair again, but with considerations towards retirement, coping with conceivable health dilemmas, and contending with the demises of peers and progenitors. Grandparenthood might also be a component of this phase, presenting fresh roles and responsibilities. This ultimate phase is about embracing the transition from being in the pivotal, active role of the kin group to a more advisory, background role.

Every phase of the family life cycle presents singular quandaries and openings for expansion. Comprehending these phases aids in foreseeing alterations within the kin group and better preparing for the transitions. It is imperative for kin group members to discern and adapt to these phases, as each contributes to the fortification and evolution of the kin group entity. By acknowledging and esteeming each phase, family groups can navigate the intricacies of life with greater concord and comprehension.

Remember, this composition serves as a commencement point for inspiration and further inquiry. For more tailored assistance and to ensure your composition complies with all academic benchmarks, contemplate reaching out to professionals at EduBirdie .

Cite this page

Family Life Cycle Theory By Carter And Mcgoldrick. (2024, Apr 29). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/family-life-cycle-theory-by-carter-and-mcgoldrick/

"Family Life Cycle Theory By Carter And Mcgoldrick." PapersOwl.com , 29 Apr 2024, https://papersowl.com/examples/family-life-cycle-theory-by-carter-and-mcgoldrick/

PapersOwl.com. (2024). Family Life Cycle Theory By Carter And Mcgoldrick . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/family-life-cycle-theory-by-carter-and-mcgoldrick/ [Accessed: 19 May. 2024]

"Family Life Cycle Theory By Carter And Mcgoldrick." PapersOwl.com, Apr 29, 2024. Accessed May 19, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/family-life-cycle-theory-by-carter-and-mcgoldrick/

"Family Life Cycle Theory By Carter And Mcgoldrick," PapersOwl.com , 29-Apr-2024. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/family-life-cycle-theory-by-carter-and-mcgoldrick/. [Accessed: 19-May-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2024). Family Life Cycle Theory By Carter And Mcgoldrick . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/family-life-cycle-theory-by-carter-and-mcgoldrick/ [Accessed: 19-May-2024]

Don't let plagiarism ruin your grade

Hire a writer to get a unique paper crafted to your needs.

Our writers will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+!

Please check your inbox.

You can order an original essay written according to your instructions.

Trusted by over 1 million students worldwide

1. Tell Us Your Requirements

2. Pick your perfect writer

3. Get Your Paper and Pay

Hi! I'm Amy, your personal assistant!

Don't know where to start? Give me your paper requirements and I connect you to an academic expert.

short deadlines

100% Plagiarism-Free

Certified writers

Family Life Cycle: The Institution of Marriage Essay

It is impossible to remain optimistic about the “institution of marriage” in the conditions of the current cultural anxiety when the importance of marriage and family is declined. Young people are more devoted to their feeling and emotions both while getting married and while divorce as being free in their decisions, people are interested in personal freedom and when they are restricted in it, they prefer to get rid of the ties which connect them. Family ties are not that important for modern people. There are a lot of different reasons which impact the desire to ignore the traditional institution of marriage and stress on personal freedom.

The first reason which makes people refuse from family as the obligatory condition for family creation is the greater freedom for women. The possession of freedom for women means that they are not going to be housewives anymore. Their desire to get a career to achieve something greater than just the clean, flat, and tasty supper makes those become stronger. Thus, they do not need the support of men as they are able to protect themselves as they feel that they are able to protect themselves, to earn enough money and make it possible to make their life comfortable.

The popular culture of the present youth is directed at independence; therefore, there is no place for the family as the institution. The traditional understanding of the family is based on the dependence on each other and circumstances. The modern situation has changed. Young people do not want to be responsible for anything, they are brought up in a world where each one is for oneself, and there is no place for others.

Second, many young people understand that they are able to bring up their children themselves, and that is why they do not hurry up to get married even if a girl is pregnant, and there are no restrictions from marriage. The popular culture has influenced the situation. Many stars of the movie and singing propaganda their private life where they are presented as good mothers or fathers, or whether they are married for several times and the modern youth wants to be like them. Of course, they want to look like their idols, and there is nothing strange that many women refuse from marriages, or even if they get married, they do not value this sacred union as their parents did.

Third, looking at the modern culture and the values people, it becomes obvious that there is no particular goal people are looking for. Education, relationships, career, etc. are just the stages on the way to achieving something greater, the goal of the whole life. The problem of modern people is that they do not have this goal; they life for something miserable, which cannot be valued on the level of the whole society. People do not have goals they may want to achieve together with their loved ones.

Moreover, it has been believed for many years that a man is a provider and a woman is a carer. However, nowadays this formula does not work. The roles of the men and women have shifted. It is possible to see a man who stays at home with a one-month-old child while a mother goes for a work. Thus, women feel that hey have the power, that they should not be wives and the institution of marriage becomes useless for them. At the same time, many men agree n such positions and do not refuse. Therefore, it is possible to conclude that the absence of the goals and the refusal from the sacred ties of marriage have led to useless nature of the institution of marriage.

Reference List

Brown, A. D. (2011). Family Life Cycle Lecture Notes. Lecture .

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2021, February 23). Family Life Cycle: The Institution of Marriage. https://ivypanda.com/essays/family-life-cycle-essay/

"Family Life Cycle: The Institution of Marriage." IvyPanda , 23 Feb. 2021, ivypanda.com/essays/family-life-cycle-essay/.

IvyPanda . (2021) 'Family Life Cycle: The Institution of Marriage'. 23 February.

IvyPanda . 2021. "Family Life Cycle: The Institution of Marriage." February 23, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/family-life-cycle-essay/.

1. IvyPanda . "Family Life Cycle: The Institution of Marriage." February 23, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/family-life-cycle-essay/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Family Life Cycle: The Institution of Marriage." February 23, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/family-life-cycle-essay/.

• Traditional Marriage and Love Marriage Comparison
• Future of Marriage: Non-Monogamy, People’s Needs in Marriage
• The Women’s Career Role in the Institution of Marriage
• Marriage Stages: Mother and Daughter's Interview
• Marriage Process in Saudi Culture
• Family Issues in "I Want a Wife" by Judy Brady
• Divorce: Agreement or Disagreement
• Advices for a Happy Marriage Life

• How It Works
• All Projects
• Top-rated Pages
• Admission essay writing
• Book report writing
• Coursework writing
• Dissertation writing
• Essay editing
• MBA essay writing
• Scholarship essay writing
• Write my essay
• Free sample essays
• Writing blog

Best Family Essay Examples

Family life-cycle stages.

1141 words | 4 page(s)

Introduction Family Life-Cycle comprises the emotional and intellectual stages that individuals go through from childhood to the retirement age. These stages are; Single adulthood, committed long-term relationships, becoming parents, divorce/relationship termination and remarriage/re-partnering and Older adulthood. At each stage, there are transitions that may be challenging but that allow one to acquire and develop new skills. These skills enable one to go through the transformations that all families must go through. However, all families do not go through transitions similarly or easily. Issues like financial challenges, severe illness or death of a family member bears significant effects on how well one goes from one stage to the other.

This paper analyzes common sexuality-related transitions at each stage. It also examines how research and theory characterize positive sexual functioning during each stage. In the end, there will be a brief description on how the author might intervene to assist clients from a Psychology practice point of view using the information gathered.

Use your promo and get a custom paper on "Family Life-Cycle Stages".

Describe two common sexuality-related transitions or concerns at each stage.

Single Adulthood Sexual beliefs incorporate individual, religious, philosophical and ideological perspectives. Today, there are more single adults and adults who live a single lifestyle by choice than there were in the past. There is a heightened pursuit of educational and career prospects in order to keep up with the economic challenges. As a result, adults get married later in life (Rossi, 1994). Single men that remain voluntary un-attached or unmarried stay away from any committed relationships in terms of quality of longevity (Rossi, 1994). They are thus at a high risk of engaging in indiscriminate or risky sexual behavior which makes them susceptible to sexually transmitted diseases. Women unintentionally get pregnant because they are sexually active outside of committed relationships. They may also form intimate companionate relationships with other women (Rossi, 1994).

Committed, long-term relationships In committed relationships, each partner is required to channel their sexual desire and energy exclusively to their partner. However, there may be the issue of sexual boredom and infidelity. Sexual boredom gets accompanied by insensible hostility due to unrealistic expectations, inhibitions and guilt. If the relationship is that of marriage, it may result in divorce.

Becoming parents When young couples become parents, they experience a disrupted sex life. Women focus their energy on their child, leading their partner to feel neglected. The man may get concerned about the physical and emotional changes of their partner while women may not feel attractive enough to have sex.

Divorce/relationship termination and remarriage/re-partnering The sexual attitudes among divorced people and among those that have terminated their relationships are more permissive than those among married and single people (Ellis & Abarbanel, 2013). Additionally, a marriage or intimate sexual relationship that went wrong translates into a deteriorated sex life (Ellis & Abarbanel, 2013). Divorced people or those just out of a relationship will rush to repair an emotionally painful period in the process of seeking validation and love (Ellis & Abarbanel, 2013). They are vulnerable at this stage as they may settle for anything that may pass off as love to reassure themselves of desirability. Sexuality in remarriage or re-partnering may be motivated mostly by the need for acceptance and security in women. Men may desire to re-establish physical contact in remarriage. These reasons are not limited to the respective gender as each motivation can and does apply in both cases.

Older adulthood Sexuality concerns and transitions in older adulthood include a decreased sexual desire and a presence of desire but an inability to perform. Decreased sexual desire is attributed to erectile dysfunction in men and menopause in women. These factors in turn cause stress, fatigue and boredom (DeLamater & Karraker, 2009). Provide two examples of how research and theory characterize positive sexual functioning during each stage.

Single adulthood Sexual functioning may be influenced by factors representing psychological, biological and social environments interaction (Ellis & Abarbanel, 2013). Positive sexual functioning in single adulthood is enhanced by virility and desire devoid of inhibitions that come with a committed relationship (Ellis & Abarbanel, 2013). In single adulthood, there is relative positive sexual self-awareness that may contribute to positive sexual functioning as opposed to during adolescence. In the adolescent stage, there are a lot of uncertainties which lead to unhealthy sexual functions.

Committed, long-term relationships Committed long-term relationships offer a sense of security due to reciprocated love which contributes positively to sexual function (Ellis & Abarbanel, 2013). Long-term relationships also offer both the benefit of meaningful intimacy and sexual pleasure in a safe environment. It avoids the risk of sexually transmitted diseases and recklessness where both partners are committed and faithful to one another.

Becoming parents When becoming parents, the couple tends to be strapped for time to pay attention to each other’s sexual needs, albeit temporarily. At this stage, positive sexual function is enhanced by a need to be more creative in allocating time for sex. The sexual experience is different from before parenthood as it is more qualitative, mainly for the purpose of reconnecting and intimacy (Frayser & Whitby, 1995).

Divorce/relationship termination and remarriage/re-partnering Divorce and termination of a relationship motivates a need for introspection. Divorced individuals or those who have terminated their relationships are open to embrace change and new, better opportunities. A positive outlook on life that signifies a fresh start translates into better sexual function (Frayser & Whitby, 1995). When an ideal partner is met as a result of re-partnering and remarriage, the result is a satisfying sexual life that is characterized by acceptance and new beginnings.

Older adulthood Older adults usually have already gone through the milestones of parenting and relationship challenges. Positive changes in older adulthood sexual function can be attributed to increased sexual agency (DeLamater & Karraker, 2009). Older adults have a better capacity to make independent sexual choices devoid of influence or coercion. A sense of agency cultivates confidence that is necessary for positive sexual function. Older adults are not worried about getting pregnant which offers a sense of freedom to have sex at whatever time they please (DeLamater & Karraker, 2009).

Briefly describe how you might intervene or use this information to assist clients. I would use the information to help clients understand that the challenges that they may face during any stage of the family are temporary and rectifiable. I would advise them to take charge of, and make helpful decisions concerning their sexual well-being so as to promote both their health and the health of their partner. For example, I would assist the divorced in getting back to the place of positive self-identity before seeking out other relationships.

• DeLamater, J., & Karraker, A. (2009). Sexual Functioning in Older Adults. Retrieved from http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/~delamate/pdfs/CPR11-1-1-01.pdf
• Ellis, A., & Abarbanel, A. (Eds.). (2013). The Encyclopaedia of Sexual Behaviour (Vol. 1). Elsevier.
• Frayser, S. G., & Whitby, T. J. (1995). Studies in human sexuality: a selected guide. Libraries unlimited.
• Rossi, A. S. (Ed.). (1994). Sexuality across the life course. University of Chicago Press.

Have a team of vetted experts take you to the top, with professionally written papers in every area of study.

We use cookies to enhance our website for you. Proceed if you agree to this policy or learn more about it.

• Essay Database >
• Essay Examples >
• Essays Topics >
• Essay on Psychology

Good Example Of Family Life Cycle Essay

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Psychology , Time , Adolescence , Parents , Life , Children , Therapy , Family

Words: 1500

Published: 03/15/2020

ORDER PAPER LIKE THIS

Carter and McGoldrick

Abstract Family bonds are the most important things in the life of human beings. These bonds have a power to build as well as destroy the proper shaping of the personality of children, especially of adolescents. Thus, in the assignment, we would discuss about the Todds, a family that had difficulties in becoming strong as a family and how they dealt with the difficulties. Also, some tips of communication for parents is discussed.

Keywords : Family, adolescents, personality, tips of communication.

The structure and type of a family varies from culture to culture. A family has both inclusive as well as exclusive elements. Keeping this in mind, the U.S. Bureau of the Census defined family as “two or more peoplerelated by birth, marriage, or adoption and residing together in the same housing unit.” The stage that I’ve chosen is the stage of family that has adolescent children. I have a neighbour who recently shifted with his family of six. The Todds were a nuclear family with a set of parents and four children. Out of the four children, two of them were adolescents and the others were toddlers. In the first few weeks, the family seemed to be peaceful but later, tensions were observed within their household. The parents had a lot of difficulty in dealing with the adolescent members of their family. The adolescents were slipping out off their hands into a crowd that was very unruly and were on the verge of ruining their entire lives. The parents had to take care of themselves and look after their toddlers at the same time. Every single day, the adolescents were getting engaged in things that were not at all healthy. They were resorting to drugs, were out drinking at clubs, and they were not known with a good reputation in school as well. On the other hand, the parents were both working parents so they never really had time to talk to their children about relationships and teenage. The daughter, Elise, and the son, Ryan, engaged themselves in too many sexual relationships and were completely diverted from studies. Their grades were going down and it had created tension among them due to which their degree of drinking and smoking and drugs increased. In teenage, it is natural to try new things but to a certain level. The Todd children seemed to be crossing that line as days passed by. Substance abuse also affected their behaviour with their family at home and also, with each other. The adolescents were completely ignorant towards their siblings and found them annoying all the time. Ryan and Elise also hated each other and their parents and wished that they never existed in their lives. The family was going through a very hard time. The parents could not find any solution for it until my father went up to them and suggested family therapy for all the members in the family of the Todds. The next day, the Todds attended the appointment they had with the counsellor for family therapy. They were willing to do everything to get back to the way their lives used to be. At first, it was hard for the parents to bring the adolescents to the therapy but later, the children agreed. They were asked to talk to each other and not hide anything. They did so. Both the parents put forward their concerns regarding their adolescent children, Ryan and Elise and the children also shared about their problems with their parents and provided reasons for how they ended up involving themselves in the crowds that were rowdy. They attended the therapy for six months and the results were very satisfactory. In my opinion, the way the Todds dealt with their familial problems was very brave and emotional. Even though they did not have togetherness in the family before the therapy, they managed to unite themselves during and after the therapy of six months. It was really good to see the Todds become a peaceful and healthy family again. In addition to this, Ryan and Elise’s grades had improved, the toddlers were being brought up very nicely and the parents had become able to manage time for themselves, their four children as well as their work. From then on, the Todds started to have family meetings once a week in which the whole family shred about their professional as well as personal lives. The Todds were very similar to other families with adolescent children. The concerns of the parents and the problems of the adolescents were the same as that of all the other families that were dealing with their difficulties at this stage. However, unlike some other families, the Todds took less time in solving their problems even though these problems were quite serious. What was even more different is the fact that after the therapeutic session with the counsellor had successfully ended, they had come up with their own way of dealing with their familial problems and concerns by holding weekly family meetings. This is not done by most of the families that have successfully gone through counselling sessions. Because of the counselling session, the family had become closer than ever and had forgotten about their past and had begun a new life again. Further, the children were also understanding towards their family. They had readily agreed to attend the therapy. But many adolescents would actually refuse to attend or just leave therapeutic session of any kind. It is quite natural as well as common to have difficulties with adolescent children. The adolescent stage is a very fragile stage. It is the stage in which children become open to new experiences. The type of family plays a very important role in this stage. The family is the only source of guidance for adolescent children at home. The teachings of the family shape the type of individual an adolescent grows up to be. This stage of life is the most influential stage in life. It is full of excitement and experiences which we laugh about later. Families with adolescent children go through a difficult time and those manage to solve such problems show how courageous and understanding they can be. However, it is unfortunate to know that there are many families that have turned out to be unsuccessful in terms of dealing with their adolescent children. Due to lack of resources, too, families have been destroyed. This is especially so in the case of families which live in poverty or an unsafe neighbourhood. Another problem faced by families with adolescent children is the inability to guide their children. The adolescent stage is the only stage of life in which many individuals develop thoughts of suicide. Thus, it is important for parents to talk to their children from time to time so that such thoughts never even enter an adolescent’s mind. In this sense, the way a family guides the adolescent plays a major role. It is very important for every family member to have patience and tolerance towards each other. There should also be courage present among families to put forward their problems and concerns. Parents should also make sure that they never make their children, especially adolescents, feel less loved. This was so in the case of the Todds to some extent but they managed to overcome the obstacle. It is the duty of the parents to talk to their adolescent children and let them share things no matter how busy they might be. It is important for parents to let their adolescent children to know that they are listening. This can be done by the following tips : “When your children are talking about concerns, stop whatever you are doing and listen. Express interest in what they are saying without being intrusive. Listen to their point of view, even if it's difficult to hear. Let them complete their point before you respond. Repeat what you heard them say to ensure that you understand them correctly” (From Helpcenter, Communication tips for parents, American Psychological Association). Thus, this stage of family is the most difficult as well as the happiest stage and if people put more effort, they can be able to overcome all problems in life and family.

The family life cycle: Phases, stages, and crises. Gerson, Randy Mikesell, Richard H. (Ed); Lusterman, Don-David (Ed); McDaniel, Susan H. (Ed), (1995). Integrating family therapy: Handbook of family psychology and systems theory. , (pp. 91-111). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association, xvii, 645 pp. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/10172-005. Allen, T.D., & Finkelstein, L.M. (2014). Work-family conflict among members of full-time dual-earner couples: An examination of family life stage, gender, and age. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19(3), 376-384. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/ocp/19/3/376/.

Cite this page

Share with friends using:

Removal Request

Finished papers: 2041

This paper is created by writer with

ID 267093230

If you want your paper to be:

Well-researched, fact-checked, and accurate

Original, fresh, based on current data

Eloquently written and immaculately formatted

275 words = 1 page double-spaced

Get your papers done by pros!

Other Pages

Trigger book reviews, aftermath book reviews, mechanism book reviews, union book reviews, box book reviews, definition book reviews, genre book reviews, candidate case studies, free research paper on is abstinence only sex education morally justifiable, nanotechnology research paper examples 2, theatrical acts essay example, these factors include but not limited to economics inequality and preexisting conditions research paper examples, example of essay on poetry analysis, free hypocrisy literature review example, econ202 essay examples, good example of research paper on legal authority of the purchasing officer, free research paper on medicine 3, example of essay on corporate and social responsibility, research paper on ethical leadership in business, free population health measurement purposes and key determinants essay example, example of healthy weight is the new sexy essay, life event essay example, united states the state of health care essay, researching travel biography using qualitative interview methods essay, dysplasia essays, theodore dreiser essays, graf essays, medicine man essays, self objectification essays, darney essays, weatherby essays, porterville essays, self punishment essays, babyak essays, spellings essays, buffets essays, bowden essays, hague essays, wilsey essays, calpine essays, brook essays, cogeneration essays, plunkett essays.

Password recovery email has been sent to [email protected]

Use your new password to log in

You are not register!

By clicking Register, you agree to our Terms of Service and that you have read our Privacy Policy .

Now you can download documents directly to your device!

Check your email! An email with your password has already been sent to you! Now you can download documents directly to your device.

or Use the QR code to Save this Paper to Your Phone

The sample is NOT original!

Short on a deadline?

Don't waste time. Get help with 11% off using code - GETWOWED

No, thanks! I'm fine with missing my deadline