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• What Is Ethnography? | Definition, Guide & Examples

What Is Ethnography? | Definition, Guide & Examples

Published on March 13, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Ethnography is a type of qualitative research that involves immersing yourself in a particular community or organization to observe their behavior and interactions up close. The word “ethnography” also refers to the written report of the research that the ethnographer produces afterwards.

Ethnography is a flexible research method that allows you to gain a deep understanding of a group’s shared culture, conventions, and social dynamics. However, it also involves some practical and ethical challenges.

Table of contents

What is ethnography used for, different approaches to ethnographic research, gaining access to a community, working with informants, observing the group and taking field notes, writing up an ethnography, other interesting articles.

Ethnographic research originated in the field of anthropology, and it often involved an anthropologist living with an isolated tribal community for an extended period of time in order to understand their culture.

This type of research could sometimes last for years. For example, Colin M. Turnbull lived with the Mbuti people for three years in order to write the classic ethnography The Forest People .

Today, ethnography is a common approach in various social science fields, not just anthropology. It is used not only to study distant or unfamiliar cultures, but also to study specific communities within the researcher’s own society.

For example, ethnographic research (sometimes called participant observation ) has been used to investigate  football fans , call center workers , and police officers .

Advantages of ethnography

The main advantage of ethnography is that it gives the researcher direct access to the culture and practices of a group. It is a useful approach for learning first-hand about the behavior and interactions of people within a particular context.

By becoming immersed in a social environment, you may have access to more authentic information and spontaneously observe dynamics that you could not have found out about simply by asking.

Ethnography is also an open and flexible method. Rather than aiming to verify a general theory or test a hypothesis , it aims to offer a rich narrative account of a specific culture, allowing you to explore many different aspects of the group and setting.

Disadvantages of ethnography

Ethnography is a time-consuming method. In order to embed yourself in the setting and gather enough observations to build up a representative picture, you can expect to spend at least a few weeks, but more likely several months. This long-term immersion can be challenging, and requires careful planning.

Ethnographic research can run the risk of observer bias . Writing an ethnography involves subjective interpretation, and it can be difficult to maintain the necessary distance to analyze a group that you are embedded in.

There are often also ethical considerations to take into account: for example, about how your role is disclosed to members of the group, or about observing and reporting sensitive information.

Should you use ethnography in your research?

If you’re a student who wants to use ethnographic research in your thesis or dissertation , it’s worth asking yourself whether it’s the right approach:

• Could the information you need be collected in another way (e.g. a survey , interviews)?
• How difficult will it be to gain access to the community you want to study?
• How exactly will you conduct your research, and over what timespan?
• What ethical issues might arise?

If you do decide to do ethnography, it’s generally best to choose a relatively small and easily accessible group, to ensure that the research is feasible within a limited timeframe.

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There are a few key distinctions in ethnography which help to inform the researcher’s approach: open vs. closed settings, overt vs. covert ethnography, and active vs. passive observation. Each approach has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Open vs. closed settings

The setting of your ethnography—the environment in which you will observe your chosen community in action—may be open or closed.

An open or public setting is one with no formal barriers to entry. For example, you might consider a community of people living in a certain neighborhood, or the fans of a particular baseball team.

• Gaining initial access to open groups is not too difficult…
• …but it may be harder to become immersed in a less clearly defined group.

A closed or private setting is harder to access. This may be for example a business, a school, or a cult.

• A closed group’s boundaries are clearly defined and the ethnographer can become fully immersed in the setting…
• …but gaining access is tougher; the ethnographer may have to negotiate their way in or acquire some role in the organization.

Overt vs. covert ethnography

Most ethnography is overt . In an overt approach, the ethnographer openly states their intentions and acknowledges their role as a researcher to the members of the group being studied.

• Overt ethnography is typically preferred for ethical reasons, as participants can provide informed consent…
• …but people may behave differently with the awareness that they are being studied.

Sometimes ethnography can be covert . This means that the researcher does not tell participants about their research, and comes up with some other pretense for being there.

• Covert ethnography allows access to environments where the group would not welcome a researcher…
• …but hiding the researcher’s role can be considered deceptive and thus unethical.

Active vs. passive observation

Different levels of immersion in the community may be appropriate in different contexts. The ethnographer may be a more active or passive participant depending on the demands of their research and the nature of the setting.

An active role involves trying to fully integrate, carrying out tasks and participating in activities like any other member of the community.

• Active participation may encourage the group to feel more comfortable with the ethnographer’s presence…
• …but runs the risk of disrupting the regular functioning of the community.

A passive role is one in which the ethnographer stands back from the activities of others, behaving as a more distant observer and not involving themselves in the community’s activities.

• Passive observation allows more space for careful observation and note-taking…
• …but group members may behave unnaturally due to feeling they are being observed by an outsider.

While ethnographers usually have a preference, they also have to be flexible about their level of participation. For example, access to the community might depend upon engaging in certain activities, or there might be certain practices in which outsiders cannot participate.

An important consideration for ethnographers is the question of access. The difficulty of gaining access to the setting of a particular ethnography varies greatly:

• To gain access to the fans of a particular sports team, you might start by simply attending the team’s games and speaking with the fans.
• To access the employees of a particular business, you might contact the management and ask for permission to perform a study there.
• Alternatively, you might perform a covert ethnography of a community or organization you are already personally involved in or employed by.

Flexibility is important here too: where it’s impossible to access the desired setting, the ethnographer must consider alternatives that could provide comparable information.

For example, if you had the idea of observing the staff within a particular finance company but could not get permission, you might look into other companies of the same kind as alternatives. Ethnography is a sensitive research method, and it may take multiple attempts to find a feasible approach.

All ethnographies involve the use of informants . These are people involved in the group in question who function as the researcher’s primary points of contact, facilitating access and assisting their understanding of the group.

This might be someone in a high position at an organization allowing you access to their employees, or a member of a community sponsoring your entry into that community and giving advice on how to fit in.

However,  i f you come to rely too much on a single informant, you may be influenced by their perspective on the community, which might be unrepresentative of the group as a whole.

In addition, an informant may not provide the kind of spontaneous information which is most useful to ethnographers, instead trying to show what they believe you want to see. For this reason, it’s good to have a variety of contacts within the group.

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The core of ethnography is observation of the group from the inside. Field notes are taken to record these observations while immersed in the setting; they form the basis of the final written ethnography. They are usually written by hand, but other solutions such as voice recordings can be useful alternatives.

Field notes record any and all important data: phenomena observed, conversations had, preliminary analysis. For example, if you’re researching how service staff interact with customers, you should write down anything you notice about these interactions—body language, phrases used repeatedly, differences and similarities between staff, customer reactions.

Don’t be afraid to also note down things you notice that fall outside the pre-formulated scope of your research; anything may prove relevant, and it’s better to have extra notes you might discard later than to end up with missing data.

Field notes should be as detailed and clear as possible. It’s important to take time to go over your notes, expand on them with further detail, and keep them organized (including information such as dates and locations).

After observations are concluded, there’s still the task of writing them up into an ethnography. This entails going through the field notes and formulating a convincing account of the behaviors and dynamics observed.

The structure of an ethnography

An ethnography can take many different forms: It may be an article, a thesis, or an entire book, for example.

Ethnographies often do not follow the standard structure of a scientific paper, though like most academic texts, they should have an introduction and conclusion. For example, this paper begins by describing the historical background of the research, then focuses on various themes in turn before concluding.

An ethnography may still use a more traditional structure, however, especially when used in combination with other research methods. For example, this paper follows the standard structure for empirical research: introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion.

The content of an ethnography

The goal of a written ethnography is to provide a rich, authoritative account of the social setting in which you were embedded—to convince the reader that your observations and interpretations are representative of reality.

Ethnography tends to take a less impersonal approach than other research methods. Due to the embedded nature of the work, an ethnography often necessarily involves discussion of your personal experiences and feelings during the research.

Ethnography is not limited to making observations; it also attempts to explain the phenomena observed in a structured, narrative way. For this, you may draw on theory, but also on your direct experience and intuitions, which may well contradict the assumptions that you brought into the research.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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What is Ethnographic Research? Methods and Examples

Ethnographic research , rooted in the discipline of anthropology, is a systematic and immersive approach for the study of individual cultures. Ethnographic research methods involve the examination of cultural phenomena from the perspective of the subjects under investigation. This method of social research places a particular emphasis on participant observation, where researchers engage with the setting or individuals being studied, documenting intricate patterns of social interaction and analyzing the participants’ own interpretations of their behavior within their local contexts.   

While ethnography originated in social and cultural anthropology in the early twentieth century, its application has extended to various disciplines. Widely adopted as a qualitative data collection strategy, ethnographic research design stands out for its reliance on observing life as it naturally unfolds, dispensing with the controlled environment of a laboratory. Ethnographic observation seeks to understand societies and individuals through direct observation and interviews, providing valuable insights into how they interact with their surroundings in their natural environments.  

Here are some ethnographic research examples :  

• An anthropologist observing the people and culture of an Indigenous tribe by living with them for several months.  
• A child psychologist observing the social dynamics of toddlers in a play school (interactions with teachers and with one another).   
• A potential startup looking to create a product and a market for that product by observing how a group of potential customers interact with and discuss similar products in various stores over a specified length of time.

Table of Contents

What is ethnographic research ?  

Ethnographic research systematically studies cultures and behaviors, relying on participant observation and exploring cultural phenomena from the perspective of the subjects. Its versatility and qualitative nature make it a valuable data collection strategy in the social and behavioral research sciences. It has transcended disciplinary boundaries, making its way into various social science disciplines, notably sociology. Some key points to better understand what is ethnographic research ? and what are the advantages of ethnography research ? are as follows:  

• Ethnographic research is an immersive approach that aims to document detailed patterns of social interaction and behavior.   
• Ethnographic observation provides a rich source of qualitative data.  
• Ethnographic research methods acknowledge the unpredictability of real-world situations, offering a more authentic understanding of societal dynamics and individual behaviors.  
• Ethnographic research puts the point of view of the subject of the research first.  

Main aim of ethnographic research  

The main aim of ethnographic research is to deep dive into the perspectives and actions of subjects, capturing the variables that characterize their daily experiences. It offers researchers a comprehensive understanding of how subjects perceive the world and navigate their interactions with the surrounding elements.    

Types of ethnographic research  

Ethnographic observation might be applied in fields of business, medicine, education, psychology, and more. There are various types of ethnographic research , broadly based on the study discipline and the activity under study, with each shedding light on human behavior, experiences, and cultural nuances.  

Below are different types of ethnographic research , which will give you a broad idea about how to conduct ethnographic research in various fields:  

1. Psychology ethnography

To explore human experiences and behaviors within a cultural context, researchers immerse themselves in the natural habitat of individuals, applying ethnographic research methods such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and field notes. 

2. Life history ethnography

Life history ethnography looks at the tapestry of an individual’s life, offering a nuanced understanding of their experiences, challenges, and cultural influences. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews, collect personal documents, and may even observe the subject in their daily life to capture a comprehensive life narrative. By zooming in on a single life, researchers can uncover patterns, transitions, and unique perspectives that might be overlooked in broader ethnographic studies.  

3. Business ethnography

In business and retail, ethnographic research focuses on consumer habits and target markets to discern market demands and attitudes toward products or services. Fieldwork, interviews, and online surveys are used to identify preferences and meet market demands effectively.   

4. Educational ethnography

Researchers employing educational ethnography observe students’ learning attitudes and motivations using non-participant and direct participant observation.  

5. Medical ethnography

In medicine and healthcare, ethnographic research involves qualitative exploration of patient behavior across various healthcare scenarios to understand patient needs, reactions to prescriptions and treatment procedures, suggestions for improvement, etc.  

6. Digital ethnography

Digital ethnography or desk study is conducted remotely. Researchers rely on second- or third-hand information collected by others to compile knowledge about a particular ethnic group without direct observation. This method leverages the wealth of information available online.   

7. Literary ethnography

Novels and books, often overlooked in traditional ethnographic discussions, offer a unique avenue for cultural exploration. Literary ethnography involves analyzing fictional works, autobiographies, and cultural narratives to extract insights into societal norms, values, and historical contexts. This method recognizes the power of storytelling as a medium through which cultural knowledge is transmitted.   

Methods of ethnographic research    

Various methodologies are employed in ethnography, from direct observation, diary studies, video recordings and photography to the analysis of devices used by individuals. The duration of ethnographic studies varies, with observation periods ranging from a few hours to several months, depending on the specific research objectives. Thus, ethnographic research methods employed will depend on the field, the size of the sample, and the research goal.    

So, what are ethnographic methods employed by researchers to answer questions in diverse disciplines? Let’s take a look:  

1. Triangulation  

A researcher used multiple data collection strategies and data sources to obtain a complete picture of the topic in focus and to cross-check information.  

2. Field notes  

A researcher collects, records, and compiles notes on-site during the study. This can be considered a researcher’s primary tool to collect data.  

3. Naturalism  

This is probably the oldest ethnographic research method . In this ethnographic research design , one spends time in the group’s natural environment to observe and record research variables.   

4. Participant observation  

Similar to the above approach, in participant observation, the ethnographer actively interacts with the research subjects. The difference lies in the ethnographer participating in the group. Participant observation gives ethnographers more data. They better understand the research subjects’ experiences and habits from the participant’s perspective.  

5. Interviews  

For authentic and relevant research results, the ethnographer interacts with the research group, asking questions about the research group, while conducting research-related activities.  

6. Surveys  

Ethnography surveys help the researcher obtain and analyze data to arrive at objective conclusions. Multiple choice questions, Likert scale, open-ended, and close-ended ethnography survey questions are commonly used. This approach saves time and costs.   

7. Archival research  

This qualitative ethnographic research method examines existing literature and records of relevant research rather than by the researcher’s physical presence.   

Examples of ethnographic research  

To better understand ethnographic research meaning , methods, and design, let’s take a look at some ethnographic research examples :  

Observing urban street performers: Over the course of several months, a researcher observes urban street performers’ performances and their interactions with passersby, exploring how these individuals collaborate or compete with one another for attention and recognition.  

Studying patterns of coffee shop regulars: Through a combination of direct observation and casual conversations, a researcher might uncover the habits and interactions of regular patrons and the social dynamics that characterize the daily lives of individuals who frequent the establishment.   

Exploring online gaming communities: In the realm of virtual spaces, a researcher might examine online gaming communities to understand the social structures, communication patterns, and shared norms among players. Through active participation and observation within the gaming environment, the researcher might seek insights into how relationships form, conflicts are resolved, and cultural practices evolve within this digital subculture.  

Observing farmers’ market vendors: At a local farmers’ market, a researcher may closely examine the interactions between vendors, customers, and the broader community. This study aims to uncover the cultural nuances of the market environment, exploring aspects such as negotiation tactics, vendor-customer relationships, and the role of the market in creating a sense of community.  

Advantages of ethnography research  

The advantages of ethnography research are manifold. Ethnographic observation allows first-hand observation of subjects’ interactions in their natural environment. This might help uncover subjects’ unconscious or implicit behaviors. Ethnographic research also enables a researcher to gain longitudinal insights as ethnography often involves extended periods of fieldwork, allowing researchers to observe changes and developments over time. Further, this approach often captures the holistic nature of social phenomena by considering various interconnected elements within a cultural context. This holistic approach is beneficial for understanding complex social structures, rituals, and the interplay of different factors influencing behaviors.  

Finally, ethnographic research involves a variety of data collection methods, and this multi-faceted approach yields rich and diverse data, enhancing the depth and validity of the research findings.  

Disadvantages of ethnography research  

Despite its relevance to certain studies, ethnographic research is not without its limitations. One significant challenge lies in the necessity to establish and sustain intimate face-to-face interactions with participants, a task that can prove difficult depending on the study’s nature and the type of participants involved. Prolonged fieldwork might prove costly in terms of time and resources. Second, culture, being an abstract concept, poses difficulties when used as an interpretive lens. Third, ethnographic research lacks reliability and validity since it cannot be easily replicated, and its findings may not extend to other similar situations    

Frequently asked questions  

Q: What are some examples of ethnographic research?

A: Some ethnographic research examples are as follows:  

• Studying yoga retreat participants: An ethnographer may immerse themselves in the experience of a yoga retreat, observing the behaviors, rituals, and social dynamics among participants. This research involves both active participation in yoga sessions and passive observation of communal activities, providing insights into how individuals connect, form bonds, and integrate spiritual practices into their daily lives.  
• Life history ethnography: An in-depth interview of a stroke survivor to obtain an account of their personal struggle for recovery, followed by a narrative analysis based on the transcription, coding, and analysis of transcripts from hours of interviews.  
• Field study on a remote island: A researcher visits a remote island inhabited by an obscure tribe. The researcher then lives and spends a significant amount of time getting to know their daily life customs and practices.  
• Surveying nurses in a trauma hospital: A researcher conducts in-depth surveys to understand the psychological effects of working late-night shifts and dealing with patients with severe trauma.  

Q: What is the main aim of ethnographic research ?

A: The main aim of ethnography is to remain objective and to collect and report what the researcher observes to add to the body of knowledge about the group. It is not to make judgments about the group’s characteristics or methods of interaction or devise approaches to improve or change the group.

Q: Can ethnography be applied to various fields?  

A: Yes, ethnographic research is versatile and can be applied across various disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, marketing, design, education, healthcare, and more. Its adaptability makes it a valuable method for gaining insights into diverse aspects of human behavior and culture.    

Q: Is ethnography only suitable for studying small or isolated communities?  

A: No, while ethnography is often associated with studying small or isolated communities, it can also be applied to larger populations and urban settings. The focus is on understanding the cultural context and social dynamics, regardless of the size or location of the community.  

Q: Can the findings from ethnographic research be generalized to broader populations?  

A: Ethnographic observation is often more concerned with depth than breadth, so generalizability to larger populations may be limited. However, the insights gained can inform broader theories and provide a foundation for further research in similar contexts.  

Q: How should researchers ensure ethical conduct in ethnographic research?  

A: Ethnographers must prioritize ethical considerations by obtaining informed consent from participants, maintaining confidentiality, and being transparent about the research purpose. They also navigate potential conflicts of interest and consider the impact of their presence on the community being studied.  

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• Ethnographic Research: Types, Methods + [Question Examples]

Ethnographic research is a qualitative research approach that involves observing variables in their natural environments or habitats in order to arrive at objective research outcomes. As the name suggests, ethnographic research has its roots in ethnography which is the in-depth study of people, cultures, habits and mutual differences. 

This type of systematic investigation interacts continuously with the variables and depends, almost entirely, on the data gathered from the observation of the research variables. Ethnographic research is sometimes referred to as a thick description because of its in-depth observation and description of the subjects.

In recent times, ethnography has been adopted to the internet in the form of netnography. This means that researchers can now study how online communities interact in order to identify social communication patterns. 

What is Netnography?

Simply put, netnography is online ethnography research, that is, it is the conducting of ethnography research via the internet. Netnography adapts the ethnographic research methodology to the study of online communities in order to discover the natural behavioral patterns of internet users. 

As a modern model of ethnographic investigation, netnography uses the data gathered through digital communications in varying online communities to trace and analyze patterns of social interaction. Just like ethnography research, netnography also requires close observation of interactional patterns in order to arrive at the most objective conclusions. 

Types of Ethnographic Research   

There are several types of ethnographic research, namely; business, educational and medical ethnographic research. All based on different fields of human endeavor and each type is defined by specific characteristics. Ethnographic research is a multi-dimensional research design that can be adapted to different fields including business, medicine, education, and psychology. 

Business Ethnographic Research

Business ethnographic research is a research design that involves observing consumer habits and target markets in order to discover true market needs and the overall disposition to your product or service. It is an extremely beneficial research tool that can help your organization identify its customers’ needs and satisfy market demands. 

This research method combines different techniques including fieldwork, physical interviews and online surveys in order to gather useful data on the consumer habits of target markets. Business ethnographers use these techniques to analyze how clients interact with an organization’s services and come up with useful conclusions that can be used to develop effective market strategies. 

In carrying out a business ethnographic research, it is necessary to work with a customer or client-oriented framework that focuses on target markets rather than the business. The aim of this research design is to discover recurring client behavioral patterns that can serve as key market insights.

In order to gather useful data, the researcher must ask the right questions. Some question samples for business ethnographic research include the following:

• What do you enjoy about this product or service?
• Why do you use this product?
• What specific needs does the product meet for you?
• What specific needs does the product fail to meet?
• Does the pricing of the product equate its value?

Educational Ethnographic Research 

Educational ethnographic research is a research design that involves observing teaching and learning methods and how these affect classroom behaviors. This research model pays attention to pedagogy, its effects on learning outcomes and overall engagements by stakeholders within the classroom environment. 

Typically, educational ethnographic research studies students’ attitudes, academic motivations, and dispositions to learning. To do this, the researcher combines non-participant observation methods with direct participant observation techniques in order to gather the most relevant and objective data. 

Question samples for educational ethnography research include:

• Do you enjoy this teaching method?
• Does the teacher allow for feedback in his or her classes?
• Does the teaching method communicate objectives clearly?
• What is the student’s attitude toward learning?

What is Pedagogy: Definition, Principles & Application

Medical Ethnographic Research 

Medical ethnographic research is a type of ethnographic research used for qualitative investigations in healthcare. This research design helps medical practitioners to understand the dispositions of patients ranging from the simplest to the most complex behavioral patterns. 

Medical ethnographic research enables the healthcare provider to have access to a wealth of information that will prove useful for improving a patient’s overall experience. For example, through ethnographic research, a healthcare product manufacturer is able to understand the needs of the target market and this will, in turn, influence the product’s design. 

In addition, medical ethnographic research exposes healthcare professionals to insights on the complex needs of patients, their reaction to prescriptions and treatment methods plus recommendations for improvement. Here are a few questions that can be used for medical ethnographic research:

• For how long have you used this drug?
• For how long have you been on this treatment?
• What positive changes have you noticed so far?
• Have you noticed any side effects so far?
• Does this medication or treatment meet your needs?

Method of Ethnographic Research 

Typically, there are 5 basic methods of ethnographic research which are naturalism, participant observation, interviews, surveys, and archival research. Carrying out ethnographic research will involve one or more research techniques depending on the field, sample size, and purpose of the research

• Live and work

Also known as naturalism, live and work is an ethnography research technique in which the researcher observes the research variables in their natural environment in order to identify and record behavioral patterns. It may involve living in the natural environment of the group or individuals being researched for a period of time in order to record their activities. 

Naturalism is the oldest method of ethnographic research and it may create some degree of rapport between the ethnographer and the research variables . When using this method, the researcher must ensure that he or she limits interference with the subjects to the barest minimum in order to arrive at the most objective research outcomes. 

Naturalistic observation can be disguised or undisguised. Disguised naturalistic observation involves recording the subjects in such a way that they are unaware of being studied while in undisguised naturalistic observation, the research subjects are aware of the fact that they are being understudied. 

The live and work method allows the researcher to gather the most accurate and most relevant data as a result of observing the research subjects in their natural environment. However, this technique is not favored by modern ethnographers, especially in fields like medicine and education, because it is expensive and it takes a lot of time. 

• Participant Observation

Participant observation is a data collection method in ethnography research where the ethnographer gathers information by participating actively and interacting with the research subjects. This method is quite similar to life and work techniques. 

The major difference between participant observation and live and naturalism is that in the former, the ethnographer becomes an active member of the group being observed. This gives the researcher access to information that can only be made available to members of the group. 

There are 2 types of participant observation which are, disguised participant observation and undisguised participant observation. In the former, the ethnographer pretends to be a part of the research subjects while hiding his or her true identity of being a researcher. 

In undisguised participant observation, the ethnographer becomes a part of the group being observed and reveals his or her identity as a researcher to the group. This technique is more prone to reactivity, unlike disguised participant observation. 

The primary advantage of participant observation as a research technique is that the ethnographer is exposed to more information. He or she is better able to understand the experiences and habits of the research subjects from the participant’s point of view. 

There are a number of limitations associated with this research technique. First, the presence of the researcher can affect the behaviors of the research subjects; especially with undisguised participant observation, and this can affect the authenticity of the result. 

In addition, there can be the issue of biased research outcomes. As a result of the relationship between the researcher and the group, the ethnographer may become less objective and this can lead to experimental bias which affects the research outcomes. 

An ethnographic interview is a qualitative research method that merges immersive observation with one-on-one discussions in order to arrive at the most authentic research outcomes. In this research design, the ethnographer converses with members of the research group as they engage in different activities related to the research context. 

During this contextual inquiry, the researcher gathers relevant data related to the goals and behaviors of the members of the research group. As the ethnographer observes the research subject in its natural environment, he or she has the opportunity to ask questions that reveal more information about the research group.

An ethnographic interview is usually informal and spontaneous, and it typically stems from the relationship between the researcher and the subjects. The ethnographic interview often results from the participant observation method where the ethnographer actively engages with the members of the research group in order to find out more about their lives. 

As a two-way research method, an ethnographic interview allows the researcher to gather the most relevant and authentic information from the research group. However, it can also be affected by experimental bias as a result of the relationship between the ethnographer and the subjects. 

 An ethnography survey is an inductive research method that is used to gather information about the research subject. This research design is also referred to as analytic induction and it involves outlining hypotheses in the form of survey questions and administering these questions in the research environment. 

Administering a survey will help the ethnographer gather relevant data, analyze this data and arrive at objective findings. The aim of carrying out an analytic induction is to discover the causative factors of certain habits of the research group and come up with accurate explanations for these behaviors. 

In order to gather the most relevant responses using this, it is best to include different question types in your survey. Likert scale questions , open-ended questions, multiple-choice questions , and close-ended questions are common types of ethnography survey questions. 

To make your ethnography survey even more effective, you can create and administer it online using data-collection tools like Formplus . Formplus allows you to build your ethnography survey form in minutes using the Formplus builder and you can easily share your survey with respondents via available multiple sharing options.

High survey drop-out rates and survey response bias are some of the major limitations of this research method. However, this method is fast and cost-effective especially when carried out online and if done right, it can reveal useful insights about a research group. 

• Archival Research

Archival research is a qualitative approach to ethnographic research in which the researcher analyzes existing research, documents and other sources of information about the research group in order to discover relevant information. This method can also be referred to as understanding.

Archival research adopts ethnography to a collection of related documents from the past which substitute for actual physical presence in the research environment. It pays absolute attention to every piece of information about the research variables. 

As a method of data collection in ethnography, archival research reduces the chances of experimental biases since the researcher does not directly interact with the subjects. Also, it allows the ethnographer to have access to a large repository of research data that results in more accurate findings. 

However, because archival research is often subject to randomization, its findings may not accurately reflect the research group. Also, archival data is not full-proof as there may be biases when the data is recorded and this will affect the research outcomes. 

When to Use Ethnography Research

Ethnographic research should be used in the early stages of user-focused systematic investigations. This is because ethnography research helps you to gather useful information about the dispositions, goals, and habits of the research variables in specific contexts. 

Ethnography research is most suitable for complex research processes especially in markets and customer settings. In market research, ethnography allows organizations to gain insights into consumer habits and receive first-hand feedback on the extent to which their product or service meets the needs of target markets.

This research design is also useful for examining social behaviors and interactions. It is extremely beneficial in the study employees’ disposition to organizational work culture and policies. 

While ethnographic research helps businesses bridge product gaps and improve consumers’ experience, there are certain situations where this research design is counter-productive. Ethnographic research should not be used in processes that require statistically valid analysis, test-runs or group comparisons. 

How to Conduct Ethnographic Research with Online Surveys 

Formplus is a data-gathering tool that allows you to create and administer online surveys for ethnography research easily while saving time and cost, and improving your research sample size. 

Here is a step-by-step guide on how to conduct ethnographic research with online surveys using Formplus: 

Access Formplus Builder

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create your ethnography survey form by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus . 

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on “Create Form ” to begin. 

Edit Form Title

• Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “ETHNOGRAPHIC SURVEY”.

• Click on the edit button to edit the form.
• Add Fields: Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for survey forms in the Formplus builder.
• Edit fields
• Click on “Save”
• Preview form.

Customize Form

Formplus allows you to add unique features to your ethnographic survey form. You can personalize your form using various customization options in the builder. Here, you can add background images, your organization’s logo, and other features. You can also change the display theme of your form. 

Save your ethnographic survey form and share the link with respondents. 

Advantages of ethnographic research .

• Ethnographic research allows you to have access to a wider and more accurate data scope than other research designs. This qualitative research approach collects first-hand information about the research variables and gives the ethnographer a wider range of data to work with thereby resulting in more objective research outcomes.
• Ethnography research enables the researcher to partake in the experiences of the research variables in their natural environment.
• Ethnography research accounts for complex group behavioral patterns and highlights interrelationships among research variables.
• It helps researchers understand the scope, reason(s) and context of the habits of research variables.

Disadvantages of Ethnographic Research

• Ethnographic research requires expertise and it is time-consuming. It takes time to observe research variables in order to arrive at cogent findings.
• Ethnographic research is capital-intensive too.
• It is subject to experimental biases stemming from the relationship between the subjects and the researcher.
• Issues of data sample size can also arise with ethnographic research. This is because small data samples can suggest false assumptions about the disposition of the research group while large quantities of data may not be processed effectively.

Risks Associated with Ethnographic Research

Unlike other research methods, ethnographic research tends to be sporadic and extends for a long period of time. And although respondents can stop participating in the research process at any time, there are still a few risks they are likely to encounter during this research

1. Psychological Risks

During uncomfortable topics, respondents may feel psychological triggers like guilt, fear, sadness, etc This can cause them to lose interest in the research or pull out from participating. In some cases, research participants may need constant reassurance to encourage them.

2. Social Risks

Depending on the research subject, there are social risks that are posed to a respondent during ethnographic research. These risks include stigmatization or condemnation from their community particularly if confidential information is shared and friction in personal relationships. This can further lead to a psychological risk. 

3. Physical and Economical Risks

Although these risks are uncommon in ethnographic research, it is imperative that you prepare for them as a researcher. In politically volatile communities, or research that involves tedious physical activity, physical risks are on the high side.

Economic risks can arise when research participants are removed from their jobs or limited from carrying out profitable ventures.

During your study, ensure that you disclose the possible risks to your research participants and elaborate on how you intend to mitigate these risks. 

FAQ’s on Ethnographic Research

• Does Ethnographic research come before or after a survey?

Most research uses data collected from various studies to validate a hypothesis or seek better clarity. So it is often conducted after a large-scale survey or quantitative segmentation study. However, it all largely depends on what the goal of the research is.

• Is ethnographic research qualitative or quantitative?

Ethnographic research is a qualitative research method where researchers study their respondents in their own environment

• How long does an ethnographic research project take?

The duration of your ethnographic research completely depends on the scope of your study. However, they usually last for a couple of months.

• Do ethnographers use field guides?

Yes. In ethnographic research, there are field guides to help guide the research process. However, it’s just a tool, and most times, it isn’t followed verbatim on the field. 

• How do I create a database for comparative analysis during Ethnographic?

You can compile your data using the Formplus PDF Builder to create PDFs of your analysis or create forms for documentation and save them using the secure Formplus storage.

Conclusion 

Ethnographic research helps individuals and organizations to gain useful insights into users’ behaviors as influenced by their natural environment. This form of systematic investigation bridges the gap between the ethnographer and the research variables because the researcher has the opportunity to be a part of their experiences. 

Administering online surveys for ethnographic research will speed up your data collection process and would allow you to save costs and have more control over your sample size. You can use Formplus to create and administer online ethnographic research surveys easily. 

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An Introduction to the Basics of Ethnographic Research Design with real-life examples

In the realm of qualitative research designs, ethnography stands out as a profound and immersive approach to understanding cultures and communities. A journey into the heart of human experiences, this methodology transcends the confines of traditional research, inviting us to live, breathe, and unravel the intricate threads that weave the fabric of societies. Imagine stepping into the daily lives of communities, observing their rituals, and embracing their stories. This is the essence of ethnography—a method that beckons researchers to venture beyond statistical abstractions and engage with the living pulse of culture.

In this blog post, we discuss the basics of ethnographic research design. From the fundamental question of “What is Ethnography?” to the intricacies of participant observation, cultural sensitivity, and the dynamic, ever-evolving nature of this approach, we seeks to demystify the art and science of ethnographic research. This post will mainly cover the following important areas:

What is Ethnography?

• What is an ethnographic research design?

Why is it called ethnographic research design?

• Definitions of ethnographic research design
• Understanding of ethnographic research design from different perspectives

A brief history of ethnographic research design

What are the major fields of study in which ethnographic research design is used?

• Can ethnographic qualitative research design be used in health care?

What are the key characteristics/features of ethnographic research design?

What are the types of ethnographic research design?

• What is the main aim/purpose of Ethnographic research design?

These topics are discussed here one by one in detail with relevant examples:

Ethnography is a qualitative research method that involves the systematic study and observation of people and their cultures within their natural environment. Derived from the Greek words “ethnos” (meaning people or culture) and “grapho” (meaning to write), ethnography literally means “writing about people” and is characterized by its in-depth exploration of social phenomena.

It involves hands-on, on-the-scene learning and is predicated on the diversity of culture at home, wherever that may be. The aim of an ethnographic study is to produce a rich, comprehensive account of a social setting from the participants’ point of view, providing detailed and authentic information about the research subjects, including a detailed account of their behavior and why they occur

Ethnography is employed across various disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, education, and business. Researchers use this method to explore cultural practices, social structures, and the subjective experiences of individuals within specific communities. It contributes to a deeper and more nuanced understanding of human behavior, shedding light on the diverse ways in which people construct meaning and navigate their social worlds.

What is an ethnographic research design?

An ethnographic research design refers to the systematic and strategic plan employed by researchers to conduct ethnography- a qualitative research method that involves the study of people and cultures within their natural settings. Ethnographic research design outlines the methodology, techniques, and procedures for gathering, analyzing, and interpreting data to gain a comprehensive understanding of the social phenomena under investigation.

An effective ethnographic research design serves as a roadmap for researchers, guiding them through the complexities of fieldwork and ensuring that the study is conducted rigorously, ethically, and with a focus on generating in-depth insights into the cultural phenomena of interest.

The term “ethnographic research design” is rooted in the historical development and key characteristics of the ethnographic research method. Let’s break down the components of the term to understand why it is called “ethnographic research design”:

• The word “ethnographic” is derived from the Greek word “ethnos,” which means people or culture.
• The use of “ethnographic” emphasizes a focus on studying and understanding people, particularly their cultures, social practices, and ways of life.
• The term “research” denotes a systematic and organized inquiry aimed at gaining knowledge or understanding about a particular subject.
• In the context of ethnography, research involves the systematic study of human cultures through direct engagement and observation.
• “Design” refers to the intentional and strategic planning of a study, outlining the methodology, procedures, and approaches to be used in the research process.
• The inclusion of “design” in the term emphasizes the systematic and deliberate nature of the research plan in ethnography.

Combining these elements, “ethnographic research design” conveys the systematic, intentional, and organized approach to studying and understanding people within their cultural contexts. The term encapsulates the following key aspects:

• Cultural emphasis:  The use of “ethnographic” underscores a focus on studying and documenting the nuances of cultures, emphasizing the importance of understanding people within their cultural frameworks.
• Systematic inquiry:  The term “research” signifies a rigorous and systematic inquiry, highlighting the methodological and systematic nature of ethnographic studies.
• Strategic planning:  The inclusion of “design” emphasizes the intentional and strategic planning that goes into crafting a research plan for ethnography. This involves decisions regarding data collection methods, participant selection, ethical considerations, and the overall structure of the study.
• Immersive observation:  Ethnographic research design often involves immersive, long-term observation and engagement with the studied community. The term reflects the commitment to understanding the social phenomena under investigation through direct participation and observation.

In summary, “ethnographic research design” is named to convey a methodological approach that is culturally focused, systematically conducted, and intentionally designed to provide a deep and holistic understanding of human cultures and behaviors.

Various definitions of ethnographic research design

Ethnographic research design refers to the specific strategies and methods used to conduct an ethnographic study. It involves carefully planning and organizing the research process to ensure that it is rigorous, ethical, and produces valuable data. Here are several comprehensive definitions of ethnographic research design provided by different authors:

• Ethnography is a holistic, in-depth study of people in their natural environment, aiming to understand their way of life, cultural practices, and the meanings they ascribe to their actions. Central to ethnographic research is the researcher’s immersion in the social context, employing participant observation to capture the intricacies of everyday life (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1983).
• According to Denzin and Lincoln (2018), “A qualitative research design characterized by its emphasis on understanding and interpreting the social phenomena of a particular group or community within its natural setting. Researchers engage in long-term immersion, employing a combination of observational, interview, and interpretive methods to uncover the underlying cultural meanings that shape behavior and social interactions.”
• It involves the systematic collection and analysis of ethnographic information guided by a set of principles, techniques, and theories. This qualitative research design requires researchers to become participant observers, embedding themselves within the culture they are studying, documenting experiences, and uncovering patterns that provide insight into the cultural dynamics (Fetterman, 2010).
• Spradley (1980), argues that it is the process of discovering and describing a culture, providing a detailed account of the social life and beliefs of a particular group of people. This research design involves the systematic collection of data through participant observation, interviews, and other ethnographic techniques. The goal is to create a nuanced and holistic understanding of the studied culture.
• It is a form of qualitative research that involves “the researcher immersing themselves in the day-to-day lives of the people under study. It is an evolving process that combines both insider and outsider perspectives to generate a comprehensive and contextually rich understanding of a culture. Ethnographic research design is characterized by its flexibility, allowing for the adaptation of methods based on emergent findings during fieldwork” (Wolcott, 1995).

These definitions collectively highlight the core elements and key characteristics of ethnographic research design, including immersion in the natural environment, participant observation, and the pursuit of a holistic understanding of culture through qualitative data collection and analysis. By carefully considering these definitions and principles, researchers can design and conduct ethnographic studies that are successful in producing rich and meaningful insights into human behavior and culture.

Understanding ethnographic research design from different perspectives

Understanding ethnographic research design from different perspectives involves exploring how scholars from various disciplines and traditions conceptualize and approach the study of cultures and communities. Here’s an exploration of ethnographic research design from anthropological, sociological, and interpretive perspectives:

Anthropological Perspective:

• Focus on cultural context:  Anthropologists view ethnography as a method for gaining a deep understanding of cultures. The emphasis is on immersing oneself in the community, learning the language and participating in daily activities. Ethnographic research design from this perspective involves capturing the intricate web of cultural practices, rituals, and beliefs that define a particular group.
• Participant observation as key:  In anthropology, participant observation is often considered the hallmark of ethnographic research. The researcher becomes a part of the community, observing and participating in events to gain insights that extend beyond superficial observations. This immersion is essential for understanding the cultural nuances that may not be apparent through other research methods.

Sociological Perspective:

• Structural and Interactional Dynamics:  Sociologists utilize ethnographic research design to explore social structures, institutions, and interactions within specific communities. Ethnography allows sociologists to investigate how individuals navigate and negotiate their roles within larger societal frameworks. The emphasis is on uncovering patterns of social behavior and the influence of social structures on individuals.
• Power and inequality:  Sociological perspectives within ethnography often highlight power dynamics and inequalities within communities. Researchers may examine how social hierarchies, class structures, or gender dynamics shape the lived experiences of individuals. Ethnographic research design, in this context, seeks to unveil the social forces that influence behavior and interactions.

Interpretive Perspective:

• Meaning-making and symbolism:  Interpretive approaches to ethnography focus on understanding the subjective meanings that individuals ascribe to their actions and experiences. Researchers from this perspective explore the symbols, rituals, and cultural meanings embedded in everyday life. Ethnographic research design, in an interpretive framework, involves uncovering the layers of significance individuals attach to their actions.
• Contextual understanding:  Interpretive ethnographers stress the importance of contextual understanding. The research design aims to contextualize behavior within the broader cultural and social milieu. By delving into the unique perspectives of participants, researchers can unveil the cultural symbols and interpretations that guide human behavior.

Cross-Cutting Themes:

• Holistic exploration:  Across perspectives, there is an emphasis on a holistic exploration of cultures. Ethnographic research design encourages researchers to consider the interconnectedness of various elements within a cultural context, whether it be rituals, social structures, or individual experiences.
• Reflexivity and subjectivity:  Ethnographers across disciplines increasingly acknowledge the importance of reflexivity. Researchers reflect on their own biases, subjectivities, and the impact of their presence on the community. This self-awareness is crucial for producing nuanced and ethical ethnographic studies.

In summary, understanding ethnographic research design from different perspectives involves recognizing the unique lenses through which anthropologists, sociologists, and interpretive researchers approach the study of cultures. While the emphasis may vary, common threads include participant observation, immersion, and a commitment to uncovering the rich tapestry of human experience.

The history of ethnographic research design is intertwined with the development of anthropology as a discipline, evolving over a period of time to encompass a variety of approaches and methodologies. It spans over a century, evolving from its roots in anthropology to becoming a widely utilized qualitative research method across various disciplines. Here’s a brief and comprehensive overview of the history of ethnographic research design:

Early 20th Century: Foundations of Ethnography

• Often considered the pioneer of ethnography, Malinowski’s immersive fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands laid the foundation for participant observation. He emphasized the importance of living among the studied community to understand their culture from an insider’s perspective.  Similarly, Franz Boas, a prominent figure in American anthropology, advocated for cultural relativism, challenging ethnocentrism. His work contributed to the holistic and context-dependent nature of ethnographic research.
• Urban sociologists like Robert Park and Ernest Burgess applied ethnographic methods to study the dynamics of city life. This marked a shift from traditional anthropological settings to urban environments, expanding the scope of ethnography.

Mid-20th Century: Evolution of ethnographic writing

• Ethnography evolved during this period not only as a research method but also as a distinct form of writing. Scholars like Clifford Geertz emphasized “thick description,” encouraging detailed, context-rich accounts of cultures.
• Ethnographers began acknowledging their role in the research process, emphasizing reflexivity. This recognition of subjectivity and the impact of the researcher on the study became an integral part of ethnographic practice.

Late 20th Century Onward: Contemporary trends

• Anthropologist George Marcus and others developed the concept of multi-sited ethnography, recognizing the interconnectedness of cultures across different locations. This approach aimed to study global processes and networks.
• Critical ethnography emerged, incorporating perspectives from critical theory to address power dynamics, social inequalities, and issues of social justice. Researchers engaged in critical ethnography aim to uncover and challenge oppressive systems within the cultures they study.

Digital Ethnography (2000s Onward):

• With the rise of digital technologies, ethnographers adapted their methods to study online communities, virtual spaces, and digital interactions. Digital ethnography explores the intersection of technology and culture.
• Ethnographic research design has diversified to include various approaches, such as autoethnography, collaborative ethnography, and applied ethnography. Researchers adapt methods to study diverse cultural contexts, including healthcare, business, education, and more.

As we move forward, ethnographic research design continues to evolve, responding to societal changes, technological advancements, and the interdisciplinary nature of contemporary research. The rich history of ethnography serves as a foundation for ongoing exploration and understanding of the diverse and dynamic cultures that shape our world.

It reflects its adaptability to changing social landscapes and its continual evolution as a dynamic and responsive qualitative research method. From its early anthropological roots to contemporary applications in diverse fields, ethnography continues to shape our understanding of human cultures and societies.

Ethnographic research design is a versatile and adaptable methodology that can be employed across various fields to explore and understand diverse aspects of human life. Here are examples from different fields to illustrate the applications of ethnographic research:

• Anthropology:  Ethnography has its roots in anthropology, and it continues to be a primary method for studying and understanding different cultures, societies, and communities. Anthropologists use ethnographic research design to explore aspects of kinship, rituals, belief systems, and social structures.  Example:  An anthropologist conducts ethnographic research in a remote indigenous community to understand their cultural practices, social structures, and traditional belief systems. The researcher lives among the community members, participating in daily activities and rituals to gain an in-depth understanding of their way of life.
• Sociology:  Sociologists employ ethnography to investigate social structures, institutions, and behaviors within specific communities. Urban ethnography, for example, is often used to study life in cities and urban settings, examining issues such as poverty, crime, and community dynamics.  Example:  A sociologist uses ethnography to study a low-income urban neighborhood, exploring issues such as poverty, crime, and community dynamics. Through participant observation and interviews, the researcher uncovers the social structures and interactions that shape the residents’ experiences.
• Education:  Ethnographic research is widely utilized in education to study classrooms, schools, and educational institutions. Researchers immerse themselves in educational settings to understand teaching methods, student interactions, and the cultural dynamics within educational environments.  Example:  An educational researcher employs ethnographic methods to study a primary school classroom. By observing teacher-student interactions, classroom dynamics, and the learning environment, the researcher gains insights into teaching practices, student engagement, and the impact of the school culture on learning outcomes.
• Business and Marketing:  Ethnographic methods are employed in business and marketing research to gain insights into consumer behavior, organizational culture, and workplace dynamics. Observing consumers in their natural environment helps researchers understand how products and services are used and experienced.  Example:  A marketing researcher conducts ethnographic interviews and observations in homes to understand how families use a particular brand of cleaning products. The insights gathered help the company tailor their marketing strategies to better align with the actual needs and behaviors of consumers.
• Healthcare:  Ethnography is increasingly applied in healthcare settings to study patient experiences, healthcare delivery systems, and the cultural aspects of health. Researchers may observe interactions between healthcare professionals and patients, explore health practices, and investigate the impact of cultural beliefs on health outcomes.  Example:  In a hospital setting, an ethnographer observes and interviews healthcare professionals and patients to study the cultural aspects of healthcare delivery. The research explores how cultural beliefs, communication styles, and social dynamics influence patient experiences and health outcomes.
• Community Development:  Ethnographic approaches are often employed in community development initiatives to understand the unique needs, challenges, and strengths of communities. This helps in designing more effective and culturally sensitive development programs.  Example:  A community development organization uses ethnographic research to understand the needs of a marginalized community. Researchers live in the community, engage with residents, and document their daily lives to inform the development of culturally sensitive programs and initiatives.
• Cultural Studies:  Cultural studies researchers use ethnography to explore the production and consumption of culture. This may include studying popular culture, media, and subcultures to understand how cultural practices shape identity and societal norms.  Example:  A cultural studies researcher conducts ethnography to explore the practices and rituals of a fandom community centered around a popular TV show. By participating in fan activities and analyzing online interactions, the researcher unveils the cultural meanings and identity constructions within the fan community.
• Organizational Studies:  Ethnographic research is applied in organizational settings to study workplace cultures, organizational structures, and interpersonal dynamics. Researchers immerse themselves in the organization to understand the lived experiences of employees and the cultural aspects of work.  Example:  An organizational researcher uses ethnography to study workplace culture within a multinational corporation. By observing daily operations, conducting interviews, and participating in meetings, the researcher uncovers the organizational dynamics, communication patterns, and informal structures that shape the work environment.

These are just a few examples, and ethnographic research design continues to find applications in an ever-expanding array of fields. Its strength lies in its ability to provide rich, context-specific insights that are invaluable for understanding the complexities of human behavior and social phenomena in diverse settings.

What are the key components of ethnographic research design?

Ethnographic research design involves a systematic and strategic plan to study and understand cultures, communities, and social phenomena within their natural contexts. The key components of ethnographic research design encompass various elements, from defining research questions to data analysis. Here are the essential components of it:

• Research questions and objectives:  In this section, you need to clearly articulate the research questions and objectives that guide the study here. Define the scope and focus of the research to ensure a clear purpose and direction.  Example :  In a study of urban youth subcultures, the research questions might include, “How do urban youth construct and express their identity within their local subcultures?”.
• Study site selection:  Choose an appropriate field site or setting for the study. Consider factors such as access, relevance to research questions, and ethical considerations.  Example :  Selecting a specific urban neighborhood known for its diverse subcultures, providing a rich context for exploring youth identities.
• Participant selection:  Here you need to define criteria for selecting participants, considering demographics, roles within the community, and willingness to participate. Ensure diverse representation to capture a range of perspectives. Example :  Targeting individuals aged 18-25 who actively engage in the identified urban subcultures, ensuring a diverse representation.
• Data collection methods:  Outline methods and tools for data collection, including participant observation, interviews, focus groups, and document analysis. Specify how these methods will be used in combination to provide a comprehensive view of the culture. Example :  Employing participant observation to immerse in the subcultures, conducting in-depth interviews with key informants, and analyzing relevant documents like graffiti or zines.
• Sampling strategy:  Determine the sampling strategy, whether it be purposive, snowball, or convenience sampling. Balance the need for depth with practical considerations in the research context. Example :  Purposively selecting individuals who exhibit unique characteristics within the subcultures to ensure a range of perspectives.
• Data analysis approach:  Describe the approach to data analysis, including coding procedures, thematic analysis, or other qualitative analytical methods. Address how the researcher will manage and interpret the qualitative data collected. Example :  Coding observational notes for recurring themes related to communication styles, analyzing interview transcripts for emerging patterns, and conducting thematic analysis for document content.
• Cultural sensitivity:  Emphasize the importance of cultural sensitivity throughout the research process. Describe how the researcher plans to navigate cultural differences, demonstrate respect, and avoid cultural appropriation.  Example :  Being aware of and respecting the cultural norms and practices of the youth subcultures to ensure ethical engagement.
• Engagement with community:  Emphasize the importance of establishing rapport and building relationships within the community. Describe how the researcher plans to engage with and contribute to the community during the research process. Example :  Holding regular check-ins with participants, attending company events, and seeking feedback to foster collaboration and trust.

By incorporating these key components into the ethnographic research design, researchers can create a robust plan that guides them through the complexities of fieldwork and contributes to the generation of rich, contextually grounded insights.

Ethnographic research design is characterized by a set of distinctive features that distinguish it as a qualitative research approach focused on understanding cultures and communities within their natural contexts. Here are the key characteristics and features of ethnographic research design:

• Participant observation:  Ethnographers immerse themselves in the community or culture they are studying, actively participating in the daily lives and activities of the people they observe. This hands-on approach allows researchers to gain an insider’s perspective and a deep understanding of the social context. Example :  A researcher joining a sports team to observe team dynamics, rituals, and communication patterns during practices and competitions.
• Long-term engagement:  Ethnographic research is often conducted over an extended period, allowing researchers to establish rapport, build relationships, and witness the nuances of social interactions over time. This extended engagement is crucial for capturing the dynamic nature of cultures.  Example :  Studying a nomadic tribe’s migration patterns over several seasons to understand how environmental changes impact their way of life.
• Holistic understanding:  Ethnographers aim to understand the cultural context as a whole rather than focusing on isolated aspects. This holistic approach involves studying not only explicit behaviors but also implicit cultural meanings, rituals, symbols, and social structures.  Example :  Investigating a religious community by not only attending religious ceremonies but also exploring family structures, economic practices, and social interactions.
• Contextualization:  Ethnographic research emphasizes the importance of understanding behavior within its specific cultural and social context. By examining actions in relation to the cultural environment, researchers can uncover the deeper meanings behind observed phenomena. Example :  Conducting a study on community dynamics by immersing oneself in a rural village and participating in daily activities to gain insights into local customs with particular context.
• Data collection methods:  Ethnographers use a variety of data collection methods, including participant observation, interviews, focus groups, and the analysis of artifacts. The goal is to gather rich, qualitative data that provides a comprehensive view of the culture being studied.  Example :  Combining participant observation during religious ceremonies with interviews to understand participants’ personal beliefs and motivations.
• Cultural sensitivity:  Ethnographers need to be culturally sensitive and reflexive, recognizing their own biases and subjectivities. This awareness is essential for producing accurate and respectful representations of the studied culture. Example :  Adapting research methods to align with local customs, seeking permission before conducting observations, and respecting privacy boundaries.
• Thick description:  Coined by anthropologist Clifford Geertz, the concept of “thick description” encourages ethnographers to provide detailed, context-rich accounts of observed behaviors, avoiding simplistic interpretations and uncovering the layers of meaning embedded in cultural practices. Example :  Describing not only the rituals performed during a cultural ceremony but also the emotions, symbols, and historical context that accompany each ritual.

Incorporating these key characteristics into ethnographic research design ensures a rigorous and culturally sensitive approach, facilitating a deep and nuanced understanding of the studied community and its cultural context.

Ethnographic research design encompasses various approaches and methods, each tailored to specific research goals and contexts. Here are some common types of ethnographic research designs:

• Classic Ethnography:  It involves long-term immersion in a community to provide a holistic and in-depth understanding of its culture. Emphasizes participant observation, interviews, and detailed field notes. Anthropologists studying remote tribes, urban neighborhoods, or specific cultural groups often employ classic ethnography. Example :  Margaret Mead’s study of adolescence in Samoa, where she lived among the Samoan people to understand their cultural attitudes towards adolescence.
• Autoethnography:  The researcher becomes a participant and subject of the study, reflecting on personal experiences within a cultural context. Blends autobiography with ethnography, emphasizing self-reflection and personal narratives. Useful for exploring personal and cultural identity, particularly in fields like sociology and cultural studies.  Example :  An academic reflecting on their experiences as a member of a subculture, exploring the impact of personal identity on cultural understanding.
• Critical Ethnography:  Focuses on power dynamics, social inequalities, and issues of social justice within a cultural context. Explores how power structures influence and shape social phenomena. Often used in sociology, education, and political science to analyze and critique societal structures.  Example :  Pierre Bourdieu’s examination of the role of education in perpetuating social inequality, exploring how cultural capital impacts access to resources.
• Visual Ethnography:  Incorporates visual methods (photography, video, etc.) as central components of data collection and analysis. Utilizes visual artifacts to complement traditional ethnographic methods. Effective in capturing cultural practices, rituals, and non-verbal expressions, commonly used in anthropology and media studies.  Example :  John Collier Jr.’s photographic study of the Hopi people in the American Southwest during the 1940s, providing a visual record of their culture.
• Netnography:  Focuses on studying cultures and communities in online or virtual spaces. Involves observing and analyzing online interactions, forums, and communities. Particularly relevant for understanding digital cultures, online communities, and social media dynamics.  Example :  A researcher studying an online gaming community to understand the social dynamics, language use, and cultural practices within the digital space.
• Collaborative Ethnography:  Involves collaboration between researchers and members of the community throughout the research process. Aims to give voice to participants and share authority in the research. Applied in community development, education, and healthcare, where collaboration enhances the authenticity of findings.  Example :  An anthropologist working with a local community to document and preserve traditional knowledge, involving community members in the research process.
• Applied Ethnography:  Focuses on addressing specific problems or informing practical solutions within a particular context. Research is directly applicable to real-world issues, and findings may inform interventions or policy changes. Commonly used in fields like business, healthcare, and community development to inform practical decision-making.  Example :  A healthcare researcher using ethnography to study patient experiences and improve the quality of healthcare services in a specific clinic.
• Mobile Ethnography:  Involves studying individuals or communities on the move, exploring their experiences in various locations. Incorporates the flexibility of movement and adaptability to changing contexts. Useful for studying migrant communities, nomadic groups, or exploring the impact of mobility on culture. Example :  Researching the lifestyle and cultural practices of nomadic communities, studying how they adapt to different environments.

These types of ethnographic research designs highlight the flexibility and adaptability of the approach across diverse fields, allowing researchers to choose the most suitable method based on their research questions and objectives.

What is the main aim of ethnographic research design?

The main aim of ethnographic research design is rooted in the systematic exploration and understanding of cultures and communities within their natural contexts. It is driven by a set of overarching goals that guide the research process. Here are the main aims of ethnographic research design:

Cultural understanding:  Ethnographic research is driven by the primary goal of gaining a profound and nuanced understanding of a particular culture. This involves delving into the intricacies of cultural practices, social structures, and the meanings embedded within them.

Example :  Imagine an ethnographer studying a rural farming community in a developing country. The aim is not just to observe agricultural practices but to understand the cultural significance of farming within the community. Through participant observation, interviews, and immersion in daily life, the researcher aims to uncover the cultural beliefs, rituals, and social dynamics related to agriculture. This in-depth exploration goes beyond the surface-level activities, providing a holistic understanding of the community’s connection to the land.

Contextualization of behavior:  Ethnographic research seeks to contextualize observed behaviors within the broader cultural and social context. It aims to go beyond superficial interpretations and understand the reasons behind the behaviors exhibited by individuals within a particular community.

Example :  Consider an ethnographer studying a nomadic pastoralist community. Instead of merely documenting the movement of herds, the researcher aims to understand the cultural and ecological factors influencing migration patterns. By engaging in participant observation and in-depth interviews, the researcher uncovers how environmental conditions, traditions, and social structures shape the nomadic lifestyle. This contextualization provides a more meaningful interpretation of the observed behaviors.

Emic perspective:  Ethnographic research values the emic perspective, seeking to understand cultural phenomena from the insider’s viewpoint. The goal is to avoid imposing external frameworks and to recognize the meanings and interpretations held by the community being studied.

Example :  In studying a traditional indigenous ceremony, the ethnographer aims to grasp the cultural significance as understood by the community members. By actively participating and immersing themselves in the ritual, the researcher gains insights into the symbolic meanings, spiritual beliefs, and communal values associated with the ceremony. This emic perspective provides a more authentic portrayal of the cultural event.

Long-term engagement:  Ethnographic research often involves long-term engagement with the community, allowing researchers to capture cultural changes, adaptations, and the evolution of practices over time.

Example :  Consider an ethnographer studying an urban neighborhood undergoing gentrification. By establishing a long-term presence, the researcher can document the social, economic, and cultural shifts occurring within the community. Over the years, the ethnographer observes changes in demographics, community dynamics, and cultural expressions, providing a comprehensive understanding of the impact of gentrification.

These examples illustrate how the basic aims of ethnographic research design manifest in real-world studies, emphasizing the depth, contextuality, insider perspectives, and temporal aspects of cultural exploration. In summary, the main aim of ethnographic research design is to uncover the depth and complexity of cultures by immersing researchers in the lived experiences of the community. It emphasizes a holistic, context-rich exploration that values the perspectives of those being studied. Ethnography ultimately seeks to contribute to cultural understanding, both within academic disciplines and for the benefit of the communities involved.

Conclusion:

As we conclude our discussion about the basics of ethnographic research design, we find ourselves standing at the intersection of understanding and appreciation for the intricacies of human culture. Ethnography, with its roots embedded in participant observation, cultural sensitivity, and the holistic study of societies, emerges as a dynamic and powerful lens through which we can examine the diverse tapestry of humanity.

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Ethnographic Research: What is it, Types, Methods + Pros & Cons

The social and behavioral research sciences frequently use ethnography as a qualitative data collection strategy. Data are gathered through observations and interviews to determine how societies and individuals work.

Instead of attempting to control life in a lab, ethnographers observe it as it is. Because life is unpredictable, ethnographers frequently need help summarizing their initiatives in a format that the Board can consider.

However, for the researchers to accept research, it must provide a thorough justification.

Helping researchers understand the research parameters, how participants will be contacted and participate, and the hazards will enable them to embrace flexible research.

This blog will explain ethnographic research, its types, methods to follow, and some pros & cons that might help researchers.

What is ethnographic research?

Ethnographic research examines how a group of people act and interact with each other in their environment. It’s mostly about making observations about people rather than focusing on complex data and numbers.

A classic example of ethnographic research would be for an anthropologist to go to an island, live there for years, and research the people and culture, thereby living with them and observing them for a long time.

This is what Margaret Mead, the most famous anthropologist in history, did for her 1928 book Coming of Age in Samoa.

Even though you probably won’t be going to any remote islands any time soon, you can still learn a lot from this about how to do ethnographic research, such as:

• How important is context
• Putting the subject of the research’s point of view first
• In-depth information about a group of people and their lives
• Observing a society from inside it
• Holistic and based on quality

Type of ethnographic research

Ethnographic research comes in various forms, including business, educational, and ethnographic medical research. They are based on several categories of human activity, and particular traits identify each type.

Business, medicine, education, and psychology are just a few areas where ethnographic research can be applied. It is a multifaceted research design.

1. Psychology Ethnographic Research

This is referred to as psychological ethnography when ethnographic research methodologies are used in psychology to examine human experience and behavior.

This approach may involve observing and engaging with them in their natural habitat to comprehend people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in the context of their culture, community, and social dynamics.

In addition to quantitative methods, psychological ethnographers may utilize qualitative methods to collect information and understand psychological phenomena, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and field notes.

Psychological ethnography offers a thorough and nuanced understanding of psychological processes and experiences influenced by cultural and social influences.

Examples of questions for ethnographic psychology research include:

• How do people’s ideas and behavior differ depending on their cultural background?
• What effects do a person’s social and communal networks have on their mental health and well-being?
• How do cultural values and conventions influence how people feel and express their emotions?
• What strategies do people use to navigate and compromise their cultural identities in various social contexts?

2. Business Ethnographic Research

Business ethnographic research observes consumer habits and target markets to determine market demands and product/service attitudes. It’s a great research technique for identifying client wants and meeting market demands.

This research method uses fieldwork, interviews, and online surveys to obtain target market consumer habits. Business ethnographers utilize these methods to study customer behavior and develop efficient marketing tactics.

Business ethnographic research requires a consumer or client-oriented framework that prioritizes target markets over the business. This research design seeks to identify repeating customer behavior for market insights.

Asking the right questions helps researchers get relevant data. Business ethnographic research question samples:

• What features of this product or service do you like?
• What drives your use of this product?
• What particular requirements does the product satisfy for you?
• What unique needs does the product not satisfy?
• Does the product’s price reflect its value?

3. Educational Ethnographic Research 

Educational ethnography entails studying teaching and learning methods and how they affect classroom behavior. This study paradigm examines how pedagogy affects learning outcomes and stakeholder participation in the classroom.

Educational ethnography research examines students’ learning attitudes, motivations, and dispositions. To get the most relevant and objective data, the researcher uses non-participant observation and direct participant observation.

Educational ethnography research types of question include:

• Do you favor this educational approach?
• Does the educator permit feedback in the classroom?
• Does the teaching approach clearly express the goals?
• How does the student feel about learning?

4. Medical Ethnographic Research

Medical ethnography research is qualitative healthcare research. This research design helps doctors understand patient behavior from simple to sophisticated.

Medical ethnographic research gives healthcare providers valuable information to improve patient care. Ethnographic research helps a healthcare product maker understand target market needs, influencing product design.

Medical ethnographic research also gives healthcare practitioners insights into patients’ complex demands, reactions to prescriptions and treatment procedures, and improvement suggestions. 

Medical ethnographic research questions:

• How long have you been using this drug?
• How long have you been undergoing this therapy?
• What constructive adjustments have you already noticed?
• Do you currently have any side effects?
• Does this prescription or course of treatment fit your needs?

Methods of ethnographic research

Ethnographic research may use one or more research methods depending on the field, the size of the sample, and the research goal. There are usually five main ways to do ethnographic research: 

• Naturalism, 
• Participant observation, 
• Interviews, 
• Surveys, and 
• Research in archives.

So let’s dig into the details:

1. Naturalism

Naturalism, also known as live and work ethnography research, involves observing research variables in their natural context to identify and record behavioral patterns. It may include spending time in the group’s natural habitat to record their activities.

Naturalism, the oldest ethnographic research method, may build rapport between the ethnographer and the variables. The researcher must minimize subject interference to get the most objective results when utilizing this method.

Undisguised naturalistic observation is possible. In disguised naturalistic observation, people are ignorant of being examined, but in undisguised observation, they are aware.

Observing subjects in their native environment in the life and work technique yields the most accurate and relevant data. Modern ethnographers, especially in health and education, avoid this method since it is expensive and time-consuming.

2. Participant observation

Participant observation in ethnography research involves the ethnographer actively interacting with the research subjects. This method resembles life and work.

Participant observation differs from live and naturalistic in that the ethnographer participates in the group. The researcher gets group-only information.

Disguised and undisguised participant observation exists. The ethnographer disguises himself as a research subject in the former.

In undisguised participant observation, the ethnographer joins the gathering and discloses their researcher status. This method is different from hidden participant observation in that it is reactive.

Participant observation gives ethnographers more data. They better understand the research subjects’ experiences and habits from the participant’s perspective.

This research method is limited. First, the researcher’s presence can influence research subjects’ conduct, especially in undisguised participant observation, which might skew results.

Research bias is another concern. Due to their interaction with the group, ethnographers may become less objective, which can lead to experimental bias and impact research results.

3. Interviews

Ethnographic interviews combine profound observation with one-on-one discussions to produce the most authentic research results. The ethnographer talks to the research group while conducting research-related activities in this design.

This contextual inquiry collects data about the research group’s goals and behavior. The ethnographer might ask questions about the research group while observing it in its natural habitat.

The researcher’s relationship with the interviewees frequently leads to an informal, spontaneous ethnographic interview. Participant observation often leads to the ethnographic interview when the ethnographer interacts with the research group to learn about their life.

An ethnographic interview, a two-way research approach, lets the researcher get the most relevant and authentic information from the research group. However, ethnographer-subject relationships can cause experimental bias.

Ethnography surveys are inductive research methods used to learn about the issue. Analytic induction is a research design that uses survey questions to test hypotheses.

A survey will assist the ethnographer in obtaining data, analyzing it, and reaching objective conclusions. Analytic induction seeks to identify the causes of the research group’s habits and provide reliable explanations.

Use multiple question types in your survey to get the most relevant results. Likert scale, open-ended, multiple-choice, and close-ended ethnography survey questions are prevalent.

Softwares like QuestionPro can let you build and run an ethnographic survey online. The QuestionPro survey software enables you to create an ethnographic survey form in minutes and distribute it to respondents.

Survey response bias and high drop-out rates are important drawbacks of this research strategy. However, this strategy is fast and cost-effective online and can give significant insights about a research group.

5. Research in archives

Archival research is a qualitative ethnographic research method that evaluates existing research, records, and other sources concerning the research group to find useful information. Understanding describes this process.

Archival research uses ethnography to research connected historical materials in place of physical presence. It analyzes all research variable data.

Since the ethnographer does not have contact with the subjects, archive research lowers experimental biases. The ethnographer can also use a huge data set for more accurate findings.

Archival research may misrepresent the research group due to randomization. Archival data may be biased, affecting research results.

Pros & cons of Ethnographic Research

At first glance, there are a lot of benefits to ethnographic research. But it’s important to remember that it can also have several research problems . Read on to find out more about ethnography and its pros and cons.

Ethnographic research is a great way to learn more about your users and the problems they might face in their daily lives. The research will show you things about your users that you might have yet to see if you had asked them to do a task in a lab.

Ethnographic research, on the other hand, can be expensive and take a lot of time. You must use the right research method to ensure you get the answers to your research questions .

After you’ve done your research, you need to present your results clearly and effectively so that teams can use the information to make changes. You should also ensure that your opinions have stayed in the results.

QuestionPro Research Suite facilitates ethnographic research. Its tools let you collect and evaluate qualitative data from various sources to learn about human culture, society, and behavior.

QuestionPro simplifies data collection for participant observation, interviews, focus groups, and visual ethnography so that you may focus on insights and comprehension.

Sign up for QuestionPro today to perform ethnographic research with qualitative research power.

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What Is Ethnographic Research: Methods, Examples, and Applications

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• Key Takeaways

Ethnographic research involves researchers deeply immersing themselves in the culture or community being studied, offering rich, contextual insights.

Key methods include participant observation and in-depth interviews, which help gather detailed, qualitative data on human behaviors and social interactions.

Ensuring informed consent and maintaining participant privacy are crucial ethical aspects of conducting ethnographic research.

Researchers must navigate the challenges of balancing objectivity and subjectivity, constantly reflecting on and mitigating their own biases.

Practical issues such as gaining access, requiring significant time, and securing adequate resources are inherent in ethnographic research.

Ethnographic research is used across various fields, from anthropology to marketing, providing valuable insights that other research methods might overlook.

Ethnographic research deeply explores human cultures. It involves researchers in subjects’ daily lives, offering unique insights. This method, useful in fields like anthropology and marketing, uncovers significant details. So, what sets it apart, and how does it change our view of human behavior?

Introduction to Ethnographic Research

• What is Ethnographic Research?

Ethnographic research is a method to study people and cultures from inside. Researchers live with subjects, learning about their behaviors and social interactions.

This method emphasizes “participant observation.” Researchers stay in the community for long periods. This immersive approach yields deep insights into cultural phenomena. It’s crucial for understanding complex social situations.

• Why Use Ethnographic Research?

Gaining Deep Cultural Understanding

Ethnographic research deepens cultural understanding. Researchers visit people in their daily settings to study social interactions, rituals, and habits. This approach uncovers subtle norms and values. Unlike other methods, it yields rich, detailed data. Thus, it offers both in-depth and genuine insights.

Uncovering Unforeseen Insights

Ethnographic research shines at revealing unexpected insights. Its open and flexible approach allows for exploring unanticipated themes. Researchers can follow leads and adapt as needed.

Being in the field, they spot patterns, behaviors, and meanings missed by traditional methods. This skill is key in suggesting new ideas and deepening our grasp of human behavior.

Contextualizing Quantitative Data

Ethnographic research is key for understanding numbers. It complements quantitative methods. These methods provide stats but often lack context. Ethnography, however, offers stories to explain behaviors.

It shows how culture and society influence actions. By using both, researchers can better understand their findings. This leads to more effective interventions and policies.

Conducting Ethnographic Research

• Research Design

Choosing a Research Site and Population

Ethnographic research begins with selecting an appropriate site and population for study. The chosen site should offer rich cultural or social interactions relevant to the research questions. Researchers typically immerse themselves in environments where participants live, work, or socialize.

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Selecting a population involves identifying a group whose behaviors, practices, and interactions will provide valuable insights. The goal is to gain a deep understanding of the cultural context and social dynamics at play.

Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations are paramount in ethnographic research. Informed consent is essential, ensuring that participants understand the research purpose, procedures, and potential impacts.

Researchers must also guarantee confidentiality, protecting the identity and privacy of participants. Ethical ethnographic research respects the rights and well-being of participants, addressing any ethical dilemmas that may arise during the study.

• Data Collection Methods

1. Participant Observation

Participant observation is vital in ethnographic research. Researchers join participants in their daily routines. This way, they observe behaviors and interactions in natural settings.

It offers direct data on social practices and cultural norms. Also, by engaging in observed activities, researchers gain deeper insights and build community rapport.

2. Interviews (Individual & Group)

Interviews, both individual and group, are critical for collecting detailed personal and collective perspectives. Individual interviews provide in-depth information about personal experiences, beliefs, and motivations.

Group interviews, or focus groups, facilitate discussion among participants, revealing shared and divergent viewpoints within the community. These interviews are often recorded for accuracy and later analysis.

3. Field Notes & Recordings

Field notes and recordings are essential tools for documenting observations and interactions. Researchers take detailed notes during their fieldwork, capturing not only what they observe but also their reflections and interpretations.

Audio or video recordings of interactions and interviews provide an accurate record that can be revisited during analysis. These records form a comprehensive data set for ethnographic research.

4. Document Analysis

Document analysis studies cultural artifacts like texts, images, and objects. It aims to understand their cultural context. These artifacts range from written documents to visual media, adding diverse data. Researchers then explore both symbolic and material aspects of the culture under study.

• Data Analysis Techniques

Coding and Thematic Analysis

Coding and thematic analysis are common techniques for analyzing ethnographic data. Coding involves categorizing data into meaningful segments, often by assigning labels to specific pieces of information.

Thematic analysis identifies patterns and themes across the data, revealing recurring topics and relationships. This method helps researchers organize and interpret complex qualitative data systematically.

Narrative Analysis

Narrative analysis looks at stories and accounts shared by participants. It examines how people build and share their experiences. This method focuses on narrative structure and content. By studying these stories, researchers can find deeper meanings and cultural importance.

Conducting ethnographic research needs careful planning, ethics, and varied data methods. It offers a deep look into cultural and social dynamics, shedding light on human behavior.

Examples of Ethnographic Research

• Anthropology: Studying a Remote Tribe’s Social Structure

In anthropology, ethnographic research often means living with a remote tribe. The goal? To understand its social setup. Researchers join tribe activities and watch interactions. This approach uncovers insights.

They document customs, rituals, and social norms shaping the tribe’s culture. By mapping the social hierarchy, kinship systems, and communal roles, researchers grasp how the tribe manages its society and the environment.

• Sociology: Examining Interactions in a Workplace Setting

Sociologists use ethnographic research to study workplace interactions. They spend a long time in an organization, watching and joining in daily activities. This way, they learn about relationships between employees, management, and the culture.

The method reveals behavior patterns, communication styles, and social networks that affect productivity and satisfaction. By focusing on real interactions and the social setting, ethnographic research sheds light on workplace relationships and behavior.

• Design: Understanding User Experience with a New Product

Ethnographic research is key in design, especially for new product user experience. Designers watch users use the product in their own settings. They observe how users navigate, solve problems, and adjust the product.

This process uncovers usability problems, unmet needs, and gathers feedback for improvements. Ultimately, it ensures the design process focuses on users. This leads to products that better suit their needs and preferences.

• Marketing: Analyzing Consumer Behavior in Different Cultures

In marketing, ethnographic research studies consumer behavior in various cultures. Marketers live with consumers to see their shopping habits and how culture impacts choices.

This approach uncovers the values, beliefs, and social norms influencing consumer actions across cultures. By understanding how people from different cultures view and use products, marketers can create better, culturally fitting strategies.

Applications of Ethnographic Research

• 1. Application in Social Sciences

Insights into Cultural Practices

Ethnographic research delves into cultural practices. It involves researchers in subjects’ daily lives. This method reveals rituals, traditions, and social interactions.

These elements shape cultures. By observing and joining activities, researchers can study the meanings and significance of behaviors. They aim to offer a full view of diverse cultural patterns.

Contributions to Sociology and Anthropology

Sociology and anthropology rely on ethnographic research to understand human behavior and social structures. It enables detailed descriptions. These descriptions help compare societies.

Moreover, the method deepens our grasp of social norms, kinship, and power dynamics. This knowledge supports academic studies and applications in social policy and community development.

• 2. Application in Market Research

Understanding Consumer Behavior

Ethnographic research in market research means observing consumers in their environments. This offers real insights into their actions, likes, and buys. It helps businesses see how their products fit into daily life.

By studying these interactions, companies can spot unmet needs and issues. This leads to better marketing and products that match their audience’s real experiences.

Enhancing Product Development

Adding ethnographic research to product development helps companies make designs that users love. By talking with and watching users, researchers get feedback. This feedback guides the design.

In the end, products meet user needs and expectations. This leads to higher satisfaction and better sales. Thus, this research bridges the gap between what users say they want and what they actually use. It results in more innovative, successful products.

• 3. Application in Healthcare

Patient-Centered Research

Ethnographic research in healthcare examines the patient experience fully. Researchers observe patients and providers to understand care complexity. They consider emotional, social, and cultural factors. This approach helps find barriers to care. It also tailors interventions to meet patient needs. As a result, the quality of care improves.

Improving Health Services Delivery

Ethnographic research in healthcare spots inefficiencies and areas for growth. It observes how staff and patients interact, as well as medical facility workflows. This approach pinpoints issues in service delivery.

Then, it suggests improvements in processes and communication. In short, it enhances service quality. Moreover, this research offers a complete view of the healthcare environment. It crafts solutions that boost patient experiences and health outcomes.

• Ethical and Methodological Challenges

Ethical Issues: Informed Consent and Privacy

Ethnographic research requires deep involvement in a community or culture, so ethics are crucial. Getting informed consent is key. It ensures that participants understand the study and join willingly.

Researchers must explain the research’s purpose, data use, and any risks clearly. Protecting participants’ identities and information is vital. This involves securing data and making sensitive information anonymous to prevent harm.

Methodological Issues: Objectivity and Subjectivity

Ethnographic research faces a key challenge: staying objective when deeply involved in the study. Researchers often get close to participants, making their observations biased.

So, they need to regularly check for their biases’ impact on findings. Using many data sources and cross-referencing findings can reduce these biases. It leads to a more balanced and accurate view of the community.

Practical Issues: Access, Time, and Resources

Conducting ethnographic research demands significant time and resources, often posing practical challenges. Gaining access to the community or setting being studied can be difficult, requiring researchers to build trust and rapport with participants. This process can be time-consuming and requires patience and persistence.

Additionally, ethnographic research often involves prolonged periods of fieldwork, which can be resource-intensive. Researchers need adequate funding, support, and flexibility to navigate these practical challenges, ensuring that the study can be conducted effectively and ethically.

Ethnographic research offers deep insights into cultures and communities. Researchers immerse themselves in the lives of participants. They use methods like observation and interviews to collect detailed, qualitative data. Despite challenges in ethics, methods, and practicality, it’s still a major tool for understanding complex social issues. It benefits various fields by providing unique perspectives.

• What is an ethnographic research PDF?

An ethnographic research PDF is a document that provides detailed information about ethnographic studies, including methodologies, case studies, and theoretical frameworks. These PDFs are often used as educational resources or references for researchers and students in social sciences and related fields. They serve as comprehensive guides for conducting and understanding ethnographic research.

• Can you provide some examples of ethnographic research?

Examples of ethnographic research include studying the daily lives of indigenous communities, examining consumer behaviors in retail environments, and investigating classroom dynamics in educational settings. These studies typically involve immersive fieldwork where researchers observe and interact with participants in their natural settings to gather in-depth insights.

• What are the main methods used in ethnographic research?

The main methods used in ethnographic research include participant observation, where researchers immerse themselves in the community they are studying, and conducting interviews, both structured and unstructured, to gather detailed personal insights. Additionally, researchers often take comprehensive field notes and may use audio-visual recordings to document their findings.

• What are the different types of ethnographic research?

Different types of ethnographic research include realist ethnography, which aims to provide an objective account of the culture being studied, and critical ethnography, which focuses on power dynamics and social injustices within the community. There are also autoethnographies, where the researcher reflects on their own experiences within the cultural context, and focused ethnographies, which concentrate on specific aspects of the culture.

• What is ethnography in qualitative research?

Ethnography in qualitative research is a method used to study cultures and communities through direct observation, participation, and interaction. It involves collecting detailed descriptions of people’s behaviors, beliefs, and social interactions to understand their cultural practices and societal structures. This approach provides deep, contextual insights that are often unattainable through other research methods.

• How is ethnography used in research design?

Ethnography in research design involves creating a study framework that emphasizes immersive fieldwork, participant observation, and qualitative data collection. Researchers design their studies to integrate into the community, often living among the participants for extended periods. This design allows for a holistic understanding of the cultural context and nuanced insights into human behaviors and social patterns.

• What is ethnography in sociology?

In sociology, ethnography is a research method used to study the social interactions, behaviors, and perceptions of people within their communities. Sociologists use ethnographic methods to explore how individuals and groups navigate their social worlds, providing rich, detailed accounts of societal norms, practices, and power relations. This method helps to uncover the underlying meanings and dynamics of social life.

• What are the aims of ethnographic research?

The aims of ethnographic research are to provide a comprehensive understanding of the cultural practices, beliefs, and social interactions of a community. Researchers seek to uncover the meanings behind these practices and how they shape individuals’ lives within their social contexts. Ethnographic research aims to offer in-depth insights that can inform policy, education, and further academic study.

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The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews
• Research question
• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework
• Data collection
• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research
• Case studies
• Introduction

Defining ethnographic research

What are the methods in ethnographic research, how do i conduct an ethnography.

• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

What is ethnographic research?

An ethnographic study is one of the most ambitious endeavors a researcher can pursue in qualitative research . It involves using several ethnographic methods to observe and describe social life, social relations, or human society as a whole. Time-consuming and arduous as the data collection and data analysis might be, conducting an ethnography can be one of the most rewarding challenges in cultural anthropology, social anthropology, and similar qualitative research areas.

Let's look at the fundamentals of ethnographic research, examples of ethnographic studies, and the fundamentals of ethnography as a qualitative research method.

"Culture" is an ambiguous term that resists an easy definition. What defines a culture? What takes place inside a culture? What cultures does a particular individual belong to? Who decides who belongs to any specific culture?

Even within a particular context, there are several layers of cultures. Take the United States, for example. Given how diverse and as big as it is, how can one define American culture in as brief an explanation as possible? What are the different social groups within this one country, and how do those groups interact with each other?

Quantitative research is often incapable of capturing such detail, especially because it is extremely difficult to adequately capture a culture in quantitative terms. As a result, researchers often conduct traditional ethnographic research when they want to understand a culture. A credible, written account of a social group is challenging to produce. It requires looking at participant experiences, interviews , focus groups , and document collection, which are different ways to collect data for ethnographic research.

Ethnography belongs squarely in the realm of observational research . In other words, writing culture and cultural critique cannot be based on experiments performed in controlled settings. Ethnography aims to provide an immersive experience in a culture for audiences who are unfamiliar with it. In that case, the researcher must observe the intricate dimensions of social interaction in its natural environment. In ethnographic research, this observation is active and involves being part of the culture to understand the dimensions of cultural norms from the inside.

That said, even observation alone cannot capture concepts such as social relationships or cultural practices. Researchers conducting ethnographic studies acknowledge that simply observing and describing actions are insufficient to grasp social interaction fully. The concept of thick description, or the description of perspectives and beliefs informing those actions in addition to the actions themselves, guides the use of various methods to capture social phenomena from multiple angles.

What is the purpose of ethnographic research?

Ethnographic studies are heavily used in social and cultural anthropology disciplines to generate and expand theory. Outside of anthropology, the insights uncovered by ethnography help to propose or develop theories that can be verified by further qualitative or quantitative research within the social and human sciences.

In simple terms, ethnographic studies relate what a culture is to audiences who are otherwise unfamiliar outsiders. Armed with this understanding, researchers can illustrate and persuade audiences about patterns that emerge from a community or group of people. These patterns are essential to generating theory and pioneering work.

What are examples of ethnographic research?

Ethnographic research aims to reach a deep understanding of various socially-constructed topics, including:

• Rituals and other cultural practices in everyday life
• Social interaction among people of different cultures
• People's interactions with their natural environment
• Creation of and tensions in social relationships

Ethnography as a qualitative method is common in social and cultural anthropology and any scholarly discipline concerned with social interaction. The traditional role of ethnography is to inform scholars interested in cultures they wouldn't otherwise have contact or experience with. Various topics that have been explored by such research with ethnography include:

• health care workers interacting with patients
• teachers and students constructing classroom dialogue
• workplace relations between employees and managers
• experiences of refugees in conflict zones

Other disciplines, especially in the social sciences, employ ethnographic research methods for varied reasons, including understanding:

• effective teaching practices
• socialization processes
• intercultural cohesiveness
• company-customer relations

The range of inquiries that ethnography can answer is vast, highlighting the importance of ethnographic methods in studies where the researcher seeks a deep understanding of a particular topic.

Even within anthropology, there is a lack of consensus on the particular processes for conducting research through ethnography. Interaction among people is unpredictable to the extent that the researcher might encounter unexpected issues with research participants not foreseen at the outset of a study. Because no observational research can be conducted in a fully controlled setting, it is a challenge to define an exact process for an ethnography beyond the general principles guiding an ethnographic approach.

In broad terms, ethnographic data collection methods are varied. Still, all such methods carry the assumption that a single research method cannot fully capture a thorough understanding of a cultural phenomenon. A systematic study that employs ethnographic research methods collects data from observations, participant observations, and interviews . The researchers' reflections also contribute to the body of data since personal experiences are essential to understanding the unfolding ethnography.

Participant observation

At the core of field research is a method called participant observation . Scholars in contemporary ethnography have long acknowledged the importance of active participation in understanding cultural life. This method allows the researcher to experience activities and interactions alongside participants to establish an understanding they wouldn't otherwise achieve by observing from afar. In active participant observation, the ethnographic researcher takes field notes of what they see and experience. They are essential during fieldwork as they create a record that the researcher can look at later on to structure their analysis and recall crucial developments useful to data analysis .

During participant observation, the researcher may also collect other forms of data, including photographs and audio and video recordings . Sensory data is beneficial to ethnography because it helps the researcher recall essential experiences with vivid detail and provides potentially abundant supporting evidence for the arguments in their findings.

Interviews and focus groups

Participant observation provides data for seeing what people say and do in their natural environment. However, observation has its limits for capturing what people think and believe. As a result, an ethnographic researcher conducts interviews to follow up on what they saw in fieldwork with research participants.

A common type of interview in an ethnography is the stimulated recall interview. In a stimulated recall interview, research participants are asked questions about the events the researcher observed. These questions help research participants remember past experiences while providing the researcher with their way of thinking about those experiences.

A focus group involves interactions between the researcher and multiple research participants. Suppose the researcher is interested in the interpersonal dynamics between research participants. In that case, they might consider conducting focus groups to elicit interactions that are markedly different from one-on-one exchanges between a single research participant and the researcher. Interviews and focus groups also help uncover insights otherwise unfamiliar to the researcher, who can then use those insights to guide their theoretical understanding and further data collection .

Document collection

Documents often make up an essential aspect of cultural practices. Think about these examples:

• student homework
• medical records
• newspaper articles
• informational posters

The visual elements uncovered during an ethnography are potentially valuable to theoretical insights, and a researcher might find it important to incorporate documents in their project data.

Reflections

In any ethnography, the researcher is the main instrument of data collection. Their thoughts and beliefs are consequential to the data analysis in that any theoretical insights are filtered by their interpretations . As a result, a researcher should take field notes during participant observation and reflection notes about any connections between what they saw and what it might mean for generating theory during data analysis.

As with taking field notes, a researcher might not remember all the different things that transpire during an ethnography without being able to refer to some sort of record later on. More importantly, reflecting on theory during participant observation may be challenging. A useful practice involves sitting down after observations or interviews and writing down potential theoretical insights that come to mind.

Reflections guide participant observations during an ethnography and theoretical analysis afterward. They point the researcher toward phenomena that are most relevant to theory and guide discussion of that theory when the time comes to write a description of their ethnographic study.

Organizing data

With a research approach as complex as ethnography, you will likely collect abundant data that require organization to make the analytical process more efficient. Researchers can use ATLAS.ti to store all their data in a single project. Document groups allow you to categorize data into different types (e.g., text, audio, video), different contexts (e.g., hospital room, doctor's office), or even different dates (e.g., February 17th observation, March 21st observation).

Moreover, researchers can integrate text with multimedia in ATLAS.ti, which is ideal for analyzing interviews, because you can look at transcripts and their video or audio recordings simultaneously. This is a valuable feature in ethnographic studies examining how people speak and what they say. Photos and other visual documents can also easily be incorporated and analyzed, adding further valuable dimensions to your research.

Choose ATLAS.ti for analysis of all forms of data.

Download a free trial of ATLAS.ti to put your project data to work.

Now that we have established a foundational understanding of the various methods associated with ethnography, let's look at what an ethnographic approach to research might look like.

Defining your research questions

As with any research study, ethnographic studies begin when researchers want to know more about something unfamiliar. Do you want to understand how a particular group of people interact with their natural environment? What about how group members decide on a social structure? How is daily life affected by changing economic conditions over a long period of time?

Ethnographic research may also be appropriate for conducting a comparative study of multiple cultures. For example, consider the different groups of soccer fans in several parts of the world: fans in South America might act differently from fans in Europe or Asia. Teaching and learning in high school are bound to look different than teaching and learning in university settings. Emergency room medicine and hospice care have distinct purposes that affect the nature of interactions between doctors and patients.

Whatever the inquiry, the researcher benefits from defining a focus for their ethnography. A clear research question can help the researcher narrow their field of perception during participant observation . Suppose the research question has to do with doctor-patient interactions. In that case, the ethnographer can lend more focus to those conversations and less emphasis on ancillary developments within their research context. With a more specific view, they can examine how doctors speak to their patients while being less concerned about the hospital executives in earshot or the orderlies passing by unless and until they are relevant to the research inquiry.

Choosing theoretical perspectives

To further narrow the focus of the ethnography, a theoretical lens can direct the ethnographer toward aspects relevant to theory. Continuing with the example regarding doctor-patient interactions, let's imagine that the ethnographic study explores the role of reassuring language in situations regarding dire medical conditions. Are there relevant theories about what people can say to give peace of mind to others?

Typically, theories in qualitative research consist of a framework with discrete indicators you can use to organize knowledge. For example, let's suppose that there exists a concept of reassurance that can be broken down like this:

empathy - understanding and affirming other people's emotions evidence - providing examples of favorable results in similar situations responsiveness - actively listening to and validating others' concerns

With this sort of theory in mind, an ethnography can focus on listening for instances of these particular indicators during participant observation and recording these examples in field notes . Naturally, a theory is more credible if it's grounded in previous research.

Entering ethnographic fieldwork

The next step is to choose an appropriate and accessible context for your ethnography. Ethics are an important part of contemporary research in the social sciences, requiring permission from potential participants to observe and interact with them for research purposes.

Before any meaningful data collection, make sure to obtain informed consent from the research participants you are studying. Essentially, this involves receiving permission from your participants to document what they say and do after explaining the purpose of your study and the rights they have while participating in your ethnography.

Ethnographic collection of data

With a context and theory in mind, it's now time to conduct your ethnography. In general terms, this means entering the field and capturing as much rich data relevant to your research question as possible.

Good ethnographic practice relies on pursuing multiple research methods to capture data. Participant observation can help you document what people say and do, but good ethnographies also capture what people believe about their everyday actions.

However, the research method most associated with ethnographic research is note-taking. Field notes capture the researcher's personal experience with the culture they observe, which is necessary to fully understand the captured data. With the ethnographer as the main instrument of data collection, readers of ethnographic studies can attain a sense of the possible ways they can view cultures through the researcher's eyes.

Moreover, ethnography relies on rapport with research participants. Ethnographers who want to conduct interviews later will benefit from establishing good relationships with their research participants. As a result, more involved interactions during fieldwork can generate deeper and richer data for your study.

Considerations during fieldwork

It's important to remember that the ethnographer's presence can affect how people behave. Especially in participant observation, your interactions with research participants will directly influence what they do in their daily lives. Even our natural environment is affected by what we do in it. When writing your reflections, qualifying your interactions in the field with a sufficient accounting of how your presence might change what others say and do is important.

There are also ethical questions about what to document and how to use the resulting data afterward. Within anthropology, there are issues of representing cultural groups with respect and ensuring you have their permission to use what you observe and collect from the field. Top scholarly journals and academic conferences also want to know how you observed research ethics during fieldwork, so it is necessary to use your reflection memos to document your ethics practices in addition to the data you collect.

Further development in ethnographic fieldwork

Unexpected issues in field research , especially long-term fieldwork, can help you refine your theoretical framework . Returning to the example of the concept of reassurance, you might observe a doctor's explanation of a medical procedure and find that it's similar to providing evidence. Still, it does not fully align with the established theory. In other words, studying real-world episodes of medical explanations may contribute novel insights about reassurance, helping you further develop your focus in subsequent observations.

As you continue your ethnography, refining the scope of your theoretical perspective helps you more easily gather observational data relevant to your research inquiry and thus provide a fully developed framework for your data.

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20 Jun, 2024

What is ethnographic research? Definition, examples & methods

Insights • Jayshree Ochwani • 11 Mins reading time

Imagine walking in the heart of a bustling marketplace and being captivated by a group of women weaving vibrant fabrics, their laughter blending with the hum of conversation. This scene sparked your curiosity, igniting a desire to uncover the stories hidden within their daily lives. This is where ethnographic research comes in! 

Ethnographic research, by definition, allows us to put ourselves in others’ shoes, immerse ourselves in their environment, and discover hidden truths. Ethnographic research study is a journey of discovery guided by curiosity and a deep respect for the diversity of human experience.

The significance and use of ethnographic research UX in this modern world cannot be emphasized. In an increasingly interconnected world where globalization and cultural exchange are the norm, ethnography qualitative research provides a unique perspective for understanding and appreciating the intricacies of human cultures.

In today’s fast-paced world, where technical advances and societal change are continual, ethnography is still an essential tool for comprehending the intricacies of human life.

It connects the gap between practice and theory, providing critical insights to influence policymaking, shape initiatives, and foster cross-cultural understanding in a fast-changing global society.

Ethnographic research definition

Ethnographic research goes beyond simply collecting data or conducting interviews. It emphasizes the need to go into the field and experience the culture firsthand. 

By immersing themselves in society, ethnographers can better understand the social norms, rituals, and customs that create the group’s identity.

Through participant observation, ethnographers engage in various activities alongside the group, which allows them to observe and document day-to-day interactions, routines, and rituals. 

This method helps capture the nuances and complexities of the group’s culture that might not be apparent through interviews or surveys alone.

Furthermore, ethnographic research meaning also involves conducting interviews and focus groups to gather the participants’ perspectives, experiences, and interpretations.

These ethnography qualitative research data collection methods help provide a well-rounded view of the community under investigation.

Real-life ethnographic research examples

1. marginalized communities in urban settings.

An ethnographer spends several months living in a low-income neighborhood in an urban city, documenting residents’ daily lives. 

The researcher learns about the issues inhabitants confront through participant observation, interviews, and community participation, such as poverty, limited access to education, discrimination, etc. 

This ethnographic research example helps inform policies addressing urban inequality and improving the well-being of marginalized populations.

2. Online gaming communities

An ethnographer immerses themselves in an online gaming community, participating in virtual gameplay and interacting with players. 

Through observation of in-game behaviors, analysis of online forums and chat logs, and interviews with gamers, the researcher explores the social dynamics, norms, and identities that emerge within the gaming community. 

This research provides insights into how online spaces shape social interactions and relationships.

3. Classroom dynamics in elementary schools

An ethnographer spends a semester observing and interacting with students and teachers in an elementary school classroom. 

By observing classroom activities, interviewing teachers and students, and analyzing classroom artifacts, the researcher explores the social and cultural dynamics of learning, peer interactions, and teacher-student relationships. 

This ethnographic research study adds to our understanding of practical teaching approaches and student involvement in various educational environments.

Watch this video to understand better the meaning of ethnographic research ux with this video. 

Why is ethnography qualitative research conducted?

1. To gain rich insights

Ethnographic research allows researchers to thoroughly grasp a group’s social and cultural surroundings, revealing rich and nuanced insights into their beliefs, attitudes, and traditions.

2. To challenge assumption 

Ethnographic research allows researchers to challenge preconceived notions or stereotypes about a particular group or community, leading to a more accurate and nuanced understanding.

3. To inform decision-making

Ethnographic research findings can help develop and execute interventions, programs, or policies suited to the target group’s individual needs and cultural settings.

4. To bridge gaps in knowledge

Ethnographic research contributes to current knowledge by revealing new viewpoints and revealing previously unknown characteristics of a culture or group.

By conducting ethnographic research, researchers can generate data beyond surface-level information, providing a comprehensive understanding of the group under study.

Applications of ethnographic research study in various fields

1. Anthropology

As the birthplace of ethnographic research, anthropology extensively uses this method to study cultural groups, past and present.

2. Sociology

Ethnographic research helps sociologists understand specific communities’ social dynamics, relationships, and behaviors.

3. Market research

Ethnographic research observes and interacts with consumers, providing insights into consumer behavior, preferences, and purchasing patterns.

4. Education

Ethnographic research is employed to understand classroom dynamics, teaching methods, and student experiences.

5. Business

Ethnographic research can help businesses understand customer needs, improve product development, and enhance user experiences.

The vast applications extend beyond these fields, demonstrating ethnographic research’s versatility and cross-disciplinary nature.

Ethnographic research methods and techniques

Ethnographic research employs various methods and techniques to collect data and generate insights. These include:

1. Participant observation

Researchers immerse themselves in the community under study, observing and participating in its daily activities, rituals, and routines. This observation lets them better comprehend the group’s culture and social dynamics.

2. Interviews

Ethnographers conduct individual or group interviews to gather participants’ perspectives, experiences, and interpretations, which provide rich qualitative data.

3. Field notes

Researchers maintain detailed field notes, documenting their observations, interactions, and reflections. Field notes record the ethnographer’s experiences and form an essential part of the analysis.

4. Audio and video recordings

Ethnographers may use audio and video recordings to capture moments, conversations, and rituals in their natural context. These recordings supplement the field notes, aiding in data analysis and interpretation.

5. Documents and artifacts

This research may include analyzing documents, such as diaries or historical records, and artifacts with cultural significance within the community.

These ethnographic research methods and techniques combined help researchers gather comprehensive data that provides a holistic view of the community being studied.

Challenges and limitations of ethnographic research study

Despite its strengths, the ethnographic research method also has several challenges and limitations:

1. Time-consuming

Conducting ethnographic research UX requires a significant investment of time and resources. The approach’s immersive nature often requires spending considerable time in the field.

2. Subjectivity

The ethnographic research method is subjective since the researcher’s interpretations and biases can influence the data collection and analysis.

3. Generalizability

The ethnographic research study focuses on specific groups or communities, challenging generalizing findings to larger populations or other contexts.

4. Ethical considerations

When conducting community research, ethnographers must navigate ethical concerns about informed consent, privacy, and cultural sensitivity.

Understanding these challenges is crucial for researchers to address potential biases and limitations within their research findings.

Ethical considerations in ethnography qualitative research

Ethnographic research method raises various ethical considerations:

1. Informed permission

Researchers must obtain permission from participants and ensure that they understand the study’s goal, nature, and potential dangers.

2. Confidentiality

Ethnographers must protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants by anonymizing data and ensuring that sensitive information remains confidential.

3. Cultural sensitivity

Researchers should approach the community culturally, respecting their customs, beliefs, and practices. They should avoid exploiting or misrepresenting the community’s culture for personal gain.

4. Beneficence

The goals of an ethnographic research study must be the well-being of the subjects and the larger community. Researchers must consider how their findings can positively impact the community and minimize potential harm.

Adhering to ethical guidelines can help researchers establish trust, maintain integrity, and mitigate any potential negative impacts of their research.

Types of ethnographic research

Ethnographic research includes various tactics and procedures suited to the study’s specific environment and aims. Some types are:

1. Classic ethnography

This ethnography research involves long-term immersion in a particular cultural group or community. Researchers live among the people they study, participate in their daily activities, and build rapport with community members. 

Classic ethnography aims to provide a holistic understanding of the community’s culture, social structure, beliefs, and practices.

2. Autoethnography

Researchers reflect on their experiences and observations within a cultural context. They may use personal narratives, journals, or creative forms of expression to explore their own identity and relationship to the culture being studied. 

Autoethnography allows for a subjective exploration of culture and self, offering insights into the researcher’s perspective as an insider-outsider.

3. Virtual ethnography

With the proliferation of digital technologies, virtual ethnography research involves studying online communities, social media platforms, and digital spaces. Researchers engage with participants in virtual environments, observe online interactions, and analyze digital artifacts such as posts, comments, and images. 

Virtual ethnography provides insights into the dynamics of online cultures, identities, and social networks.

4. Applied ethnography

Applied ethnography applies ethnographic methods and insights to real-world problems and contexts. Researchers collaborate with organizations, communities, or policymakers to address specific challenges or develop interventions. 

Applied ethnography may involve conducting needs assessments, program evaluations, or community-based research to inform decision-making and social change efforts.

5. Multi-sited ethnography

Researchers study cultural phenomena dispersed across multiple locations or contexts in multi-sited ethnography. They may follow people, ideas, or practices as they move across different sites, tracing connections and interactions between them. 

Multi-sited ethnography allows for exploring transnational or global processes, mobility, and networks of influence.

6. Visual ethnography

Visual ethnography incorporates photography, film, or other visual media to document and represent culture. Researchers use visual methods to complement traditional ethnographic techniques, capturing aspects of culture that may be difficult to convey through text alone. 

Visual ethnography can provide powerful, evocative representations of cultural practices, rituals, and landscapes.

These types of ethnographic research demonstrate the flexibility and adaptability of ethnographic research methods to diverse research contexts and objectives, highlighting ethnographers’ rich array of approaches.

Conclusion: The impact of ethnographic research

Ethnographic is pivotal in deepening our understanding of diverse cultures, communities, and social interactions. The unique approach of ethnographic research design provides invaluable insights that can inform decision-making, challenge assumptions, and bridge gaps in knowledge.

Ethnographers uncover rich and nuanced information beyond surface-level understanding by immersing themselves in a community’s natural setting.

However, it is crucial to approach ethnographic research methods with cultural sensitivity, ethical considerations, and an awareness of its limitations.

As we look toward the future, technological developments and society’s changing nature offer new opportunities and challenges for ethnographic research methods, ensuring their continued relevance and impact.

At Octet , we leverage ethnography qualitative research to enhance our UI/UX design services . We understand that the best designs are those that resonate deeply with the end-users. 

By employing ethnographic research meaning, and methods, we immerse ourselves in the environments and experiences of our client’s target audiences. This lets us gather profound insights into their needs, behaviors, and pain points. 

With this knowledge, we craft user-centered designs that are functional, culturally, and contextually relevant, ultimately creating more intuitive and engaging user experiences.

Frequently asked questions:

What is the aim of an ethnographic research study.

Ethnographic aims to gain a deep, contextualized understanding of human behavior, experiences, and the sociocultural dynamics within a specific group or community.

What are different ethnographic research methods?

Ethnographers immerse themselves in the participants’ natural settings, observing and interacting with them over an extended period to uncover the underlying patterns, meanings, and nuances that shape their lived realities.

The ethnographic research method typically involves a combination of participant observation, in-depth interviews, and the collection of relevant artifacts and documents.

What are the steps in ethnography qualitative research?

The key steps in research include establishing rapport with the participants, making detailed observations and taking field notes, conducting interviews to gather personal narratives and perspectives, and synthesizing the data to identify meaningful patterns and cultural dynamics.

How to use ethnography research in design?

Ethnographic is particularly valuable in fields such as anthropology, sociology, and human-centered design, where a deep understanding of human experiences and the contextual factors that shape them is crucial for developing effective solutions, policies, or interventions. 

By immersing themselves in the participants’ lived realities, ethnographers can uncover rich, contextual insights that may be missed through more traditional research methods, ultimately contributing to a more holistic and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under study.

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Home » Ethnographic Research -Types, Methods and Guide

Ethnographic Research -Types, Methods and Guide

Table of Contents

Ethnographic Research

Definition:

Ethnographic research is a qualitative research method used to study and document the culture, behaviors, beliefs, and social interactions of a particular group of people. It involves direct observation and participation in the daily life and activities of the group being studied, often for an extended period of time.

Ethnographic Study

An ethnographic study is a research method that involves the detailed and systematic study of a particular group, culture, or community. Ethnographic studies seek to understand the beliefs, values, behaviors, and social dynamics of a group through direct observation and participation in their daily life.

Ethnographic Research vs Ethnographic Study

here’s a table comparing ethnographic study and ethnographic research:

While there are some differences between the two, they are similar in that they both use qualitative research methods to study a particular group, culture, or community. The main difference is that an ethnographic study involves the researcher spending an extended period of time within the community being studied in order to develop a deep understanding, while ethnographic research is focused on documenting and analyzing the culture, beliefs, behaviors, and social interactions of the group being studied.

Ethnographic Research Types

Ethnographic research can be divided into several types based on the focus of the study and the research objectives. Here are some common types of ethnographic research:

Classic Ethnography

This type of ethnographic research involves an extended period of observation and interaction with a particular community or group. The researcher aims to understand the community’s culture, beliefs, practices, and social structure by immersing themselves in the community’s daily life.

Autoethnography

Autoethnography involves the researcher using their own personal experiences to gain insights into a particular community or culture. The researcher may use personal narratives, diaries, or other forms of self-reflection to explore the ways in which their own experiences relate to the culture being studied.

Participatory Action Research

Participatory action research involves the researcher working collaboratively with members of a particular community or group to identify and address social issues affecting the community. The researcher aims to empower community members to take an active role in the research process and to use the findings to effect positive change.

Virtual Ethnography

Virtual ethnography involves the use of online or digital media to study a particular community or culture. The researcher may use social media, online forums, or other digital platforms to observe and interact with the group being studied.

Critical Ethnography

Critical ethnography aims to expose power imbalances and social inequalities within a particular community or culture. The researcher may use their observations to critique dominant cultural narratives or to identify opportunities for social change.

Ethnographic Research Methods

Some common ethnographic research methods include:

Participant Observation

This involves the researcher directly observing and participating in the daily life and activities of the group being studied. This technique helps the researcher gain an in-depth understanding of the group’s behavior, culture, and social dynamics.

Ethnographic researchers use interviews to gather information about the group’s beliefs, values, and practices. Interviews may be formal or informal and can be conducted one-on-one or in group settings.

Surveys can be used to collect data on specific topics, such as attitudes towards a particular issue or behavior patterns. Ethnographic researchers may use surveys as a way to gather quantitative data in addition to qualitative data.

Document Analysis

This involves analyzing written or visual documents produced by the group being studied, such as newspapers, photographs, or social media posts. Document analysis can provide insight into the group’s values, beliefs, and practices.

Field Notes

Ethnographic researchers keep detailed field notes of their observations and interactions with the group being studied. These notes help the researcher organize their thoughts and observations and can be used to analyze the data collected.

Focus Groups

Focus groups are group interviews that allow the researcher to gather information from multiple people at once. This technique can be useful for exploring shared beliefs or experiences within the group being studied.

Ethnographic Research Data Analysis Methods

Ethnographic research data analysis methods involve analyzing qualitative data collected from observations, interviews, and other sources in order to identify patterns, themes, and insights related to the research question.

Here are some common data analysis methods used in ethnographic research:

Content Analysis

This involves systematically coding and categorizing the data collected from field notes, interviews, and other sources. The researcher identifies recurring themes, patterns, and categories in the data and assigns codes or labels to each one.

Narrative Analysis

This involves analyzing the stories and narratives collected from participants in order to understand how they construct and make sense of their experiences. The researcher looks for common themes, plot structures, and rhetorical strategies used by participants.

Discourse Analysis

This involves analyzing the language and communication practices of the group being studied in order to understand how they construct and reproduce social norms and cultural meanings. The researcher looks for patterns in the use of language, including metaphors, idioms, and other linguistic devices.

Comparative Analysis

This involves comparing data collected from different groups or communities in order to identify similarities and differences in their cultures, behaviors, and social structures. The researcher may use this analysis to generate hypotheses about why these differences exist and what factors may be contributing to them.

Grounded Theory

This involves developing a theoretical framework based on the data collected during the research process. The researcher identifies patterns and themes in the data and uses these to develop a theory that explains the social phenomena being studied.

How to Conduct Ethnographic Research

To conduct ethnographic research, follow these general steps:

• Choose a Research Question: Identify a research question that you want to explore. It should be focused and specific, but also open-ended to allow for flexibility and exploration.
• Select a research site: Choose a site or group that is relevant to your research question. This could be a workplace, a community, a social movement, or any other social setting where you can observe and interact with people.
• Obtain ethical clearance: Obtain ethical clearance from your institution or organization before beginning your research. This involves ensuring that your research is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner, and that the privacy and confidentiality of participants are protected.
• Conduct observations: Observe the people in your research site and take detailed notes. This involves being present and engaged in the social setting, participating in activities, and taking note of the behaviors, interactions, and social norms that you observe.
• Conduct interviews : Conduct interviews with people in the research site to gain deeper insights into their experiences, perspectives, and beliefs. This could involve structured or semi-structured interviews, focus groups, or other forms of data collection.
• Analyze data: Analyze the data that you have collected, looking for themes and patterns that emerge. This involves immersing yourself in the data and interpreting it within the social and cultural context of the research site.
• Write up findings: Write up your findings in a clear and concise manner, using quotes and examples to illustrate your key points. This may involve creating narratives, tables, or other visual representations of your findings.
• Reflect on your process: Reflect on your process and methods, thinking about what worked well and what could be improved for future research.

When to Use Ethnographic Research

Here are some situations where ethnographic research may be particularly appropriate:

• When exploring a new topic: Ethnographic research can be useful when exploring a topic that has not been well-studied before. By engaging with members of a particular group or community, researchers can gain insights into their experiences and perspectives that may not be visible from other research methods.
• When studying cultural practices: Ethnographic research is particularly useful when studying cultural practices and beliefs. By immersing themselves in the cultural context being studied, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the ways in which cultural practices are enacted, maintained, and transmitted.
• When studying complex social phenomena: Ethnographic research can be useful when studying complex social phenomena that cannot be easily understood through quantitative methods. By observing social interactions and behaviors, researchers can gain insights into the ways in which social norms and structures are created and maintained.
• When studying marginalized communities: Ethnographic research can be particularly useful when studying marginalized communities, as it allows researchers to give voice to members of these communities and understand their experiences and perspectives.

Overall, ethnographic research can be a useful research approach when the goal is to gain a deep understanding of a particular group or community and their cultural practices, beliefs, and experiences. It is a flexible and adaptable research method that can be used in a variety of research contexts.

Applications of Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research has many applications across a wide range of fields and disciplines. Some of the key applications of ethnographic research include:

• Informing policy and practice: Ethnographic research can provide valuable insights into the experiences and perspectives of marginalized or underrepresented groups, which can inform policy and practice in fields such as health care, education, and social services.
• Developing theories and concepts: Ethnographic research can contribute to the development of theories and concepts in social and cultural anthropology, sociology, and other disciplines, by providing detailed and nuanced accounts of social and cultural phenomena.
• Improving product design and marketing: Ethnographic research can be used to understand consumer behavior and preferences, which can inform the design and marketing of products and services.
• Studying workplace culture: Ethnographic research can provide insights into the norms, values, and practices of organizations, which can inform efforts to improve workplace culture and employee satisfaction.
• Examining social movements: Ethnographic research can be used to study the practices, beliefs, and experiences of social movements, which can inform efforts to understand and address social and political issues.
• Studying healthcare practices: Ethnographic research can provide insights into healthcare practices and patient experiences, which can inform efforts to improve healthcare delivery and patient outcomes.

Examples of Ethnographic Research

Here are some real-time examples of ethnographic research:

• Anthropological study of a remote indigenous tribe: Anthropologists often use ethnographic research to study remote indigenous tribes and gain insights into their culture, beliefs, and practices. For example, an anthropologist may live with a tribe for an extended period of time, observing and participating in their daily activities, and conducting interviews with members of the community.
• Study of workplace culture: Ethnographic research can be useful in studying workplace culture and understanding the dynamics of the organization. For example, an ethnographer may observe and interview employees in a particular department or team to gain insights into their work practices, communication styles, and social dynamics.
• Study of consumer behavior: Ethnographic research can be useful in studying consumer behavior and understanding how people interact with products and services. For example, an ethnographer may observe and interview consumers as they use a particular product, such as a new smartphone or fitness tracker, to gain insights into their behaviors and preferences.
• Study of health care practices: Ethnographic research can be useful in studying health care practices and understanding how patients and providers interact within the health care system. For example, an ethnographer may observe and interview patients and providers in a hospital or clinic to gain insights into their experiences and perspectives.
• Study of social movements: Ethnographic research can be useful in studying social movements and understanding how they emerge and evolve over time. For example, an ethnographer may observe and interview participants in a protest movement to gain insights into their motivations and strategies.

Purpose of Ethnographic Research

The purpose of ethnographic research is to provide an in-depth understanding of a particular group or community, including their cultural practices, beliefs, and experiences. This research approach is particularly useful when the research question is exploratory and the goal is to generate new insights and understandings. Ethnographic research seeks to understand the experiences, perspectives, and behaviors of the participants in their natural setting, without imposing the researcher’s own biases or preconceptions.

Ethnographic research can be used to study a wide range of topics, including social movements, workplace culture, consumer behavior, and health care practices, among others. The researcher aims to understand the social and cultural context of the group or community being studied, and to generate new insights and understandings that can inform future research, policy, and practice.

Overall, the purpose of ethnographic research is to gain a deep understanding of a particular group or community, with the goal of generating new insights and understandings that can inform future research, policy, and practice. Ethnographic research can be a valuable research approach in many different contexts, particularly when the goal is to gain a rich, contextualized understanding of social and cultural phenomena.

Advantages of Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research has several advantages that make it a valuable research approach in many different fields. Here are some of the advantages of ethnographic research:

• Provides in-depth and detailed information: Ethnographic research involves direct observation of the group or community being studied, which allows researchers to gain a detailed and in-depth understanding of their beliefs, practices, and experiences. This type of information cannot be obtained through other research methods.
• Offers a unique perspective: Ethnographic research allows researchers to see the world from the perspective of the group or community being studied. This can provide unique insights into the ways in which different cultural practices and beliefs are constructed and maintained.
• Promotes cultural understanding: Ethnographic research can help to promote cultural understanding and reduce stereotypes by providing a more nuanced and accurate picture of different cultures and communities.
• Allows for flexibility: Ethnographic research is a flexible research approach that can be adapted to fit different research contexts and questions. Researchers can adjust their methods based on the needs of the group being studied and the research goals.
• Generates rich and diverse data: Ethnographic research generates rich and diverse data through a combination of observation, interviews, and other methods. This allows researchers to analyze different aspects of the group or community being studied and identify patterns and themes in the data.
• Supports theory development: Ethnographic research can support theory development by providing empirical data that can be used to test and refine theoretical frameworks.

Limitations of Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research has several limitations that researchers should consider when selecting this research approach. Here are some of the limitations of ethnographic research:

• Limited generalizability: Ethnographic research typically involves studying a small and specific group or community, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other contexts or populations.
• Time-consuming: Ethnographic research is a time-consuming process that requires a significant investment of time and resources. Researchers must spend time observing and interacting with the group being studied, which may not be feasible in all research contexts.
• Subjectivity: Ethnographic research relies on the researcher’s interpretation and analysis of the data collected, which may introduce subjective bias into the research findings.
• Limited control: Ethnographic research involves studying a group or community in their natural setting, which limits the researcher’s control over the research context and the behavior of the participants.
• Ethical concerns: Ethnographic research can raise ethical concerns, particularly when studying marginalized or vulnerable populations. Researchers must be careful to ensure that they do not harm or exploit the participants in the research process.
• Limited quantitative data: Ethnographic research typically generates qualitative data, which may limit the types of analysis that can be conducted and the types of conclusions that can be drawn.

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Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Ethnographic Research

What is ethnographic research.

Ethnography is a research method that involves immersing oneself in the natural context of individuals to collect quantitative insights into their behavior and culture. This method emphasizes observation, engagement, and analysis of human experiences in real-world settings.

Ethnographic research is widely used in UX design since it provides detailed data about users' preferences and behaviors. This data is used to create products and services that meet the needs of diverse user groups. It also ensures user-centered and culturally sensitive design. Research of this type helps designers comprehend how users interact with technology in a range of settings. It also reveals areas that have the potential for growth.

While ethnographic research has several advantages, there are also some potential drawbacks to consider, even more so when conducting ethnographic research in cross-cultural contexts. It's important for researchers to be aware of their own biases and to approach the culture being studied with respect and sensitivity. 

Benefits and Limitations of Ethnographic Research

Thanks to its immersive nature, ethnographic research offers several advantages over other qualitative research methods, for example:

It enables researchers to understand the cultural context in which their subjects live, work, and interact.

It offers crucial insights into the factors that influence how individuals make decisions, act, and perceive their environment.

It allows for flexibility in data collection since researchers can adapt their methods as they go along and explore new areas of interest that may emerge during the study.

While ethnography can provide an understanding of human behavior and culture, researchers must be aware of its limitations and possible ethical concerns. Some of the most common challenges associated with ethnographic research include its time-consuming and expensive nature, the difficulty of addressing certain research questions or populations effectively, the potential language barriers, and the challenges to accessing the culture to study.

Still, this method reveals how different cultures operate and interact. For example, a study of workplace culture in Japan might show differences in communication styles or decision-making processes compared to a similar study conducted in the United States.

Ethnographic Research Methods

Ethnographic research is a qualitative research method to study human behavior and societies and culture.

The most common methods of ethnographic research are participant observation and interviews.

Participant Observation: The researcher immerses themselves in the natural environment of the people they study. They observe their behavior firsthand and may even participate in activities alongside them.

Interviews: The researcher conducts interviews with individuals from the culture of interest to understand how they perceive and experience their culture. These interviews can be structured (with a predefined or standardized set of questions) or unstructured (less formal conversations that allow the researcher to explore topics as they arise) and may be conducted one-on-one or in a group setting.

Ann Blandford, expert in qualitative user studies and professor of Human-Computer Interaction at University College London, explains the characteristics of a semi-structured interview:

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Examples of Ethnographic Research in Various Fields

© CIFOR, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

Ethnographic research has been employed in several fields to understand human behavior and culture better. Here are some examples:

Anthropology: Anthropologists have long used ethnographic research to study different cultures worldwide. Margaret Mead is a well-known example of an ethnographic researcher who studied the people of Samoa, revealing important information about their social and cultural practices.

Sociology: Sociologists also use ethnographic research to understand social phenomena. For example, Erving Goffman's classic work The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life used participant observation to explore how individuals present themselves to others in everyday interactions.

Marketing: Ethnographic research is increasingly being used in marketing to gain insights into consumer behavior. For example, a company may conduct ethnographic research by observing consumers in a natural setting (such as a grocery store) to understand their purchasing decisions and what factors influence those decisions.

UX Design: Ethnographic research allows designers to understand their users' habits, mental models and behaviors deeply. For instance, a UX designer working on a travel booking platform might use ethnographic research to investigate how travelers plan and book their trips.

Ethical Considerations in Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research involves observing individuals in their natural environment, which can raise ethical concerns. It's important for researchers to carefully weigh the risks and benefits of their studies and obtain informed consent from participants.

One fundamental consideration in ethnographic research is privacy. Researchers must take steps to protect the privacy of their subjects.

Obtain permission before taking photographs or recording conversations.

Be careful not to reveal personal information about subjects that could lead to their identification. 

It’s also important to obtain informed consent from subjects before conducting any study activities. This means that people understand the study's purpose, what will be involved, and any potential risks or benefits. Ensure that any study does not cause harm or distress to subjects, either physically or emotionally. This may involve avoiding sensitive topics or situations that could trigger trauma.

The Role of Technology in Ethnographic Research

Technology has become an increasingly important tool for ethnographic research. Here are a few ways in which researchers use technology in ethnographic research:

Digital Recording: One of the most basic ways to use technology in ethnographic research is through digital recording. Researchers can use audio or video recording devices to capture conversations, interactions, and other observations.

Online Platforms: Social media is making it easier for researchers to observe and interact with people from all over the world, which can be especially useful when studying cultures that are difficult to access due to geography or political barriers.

Mobile Apps: Mobile apps can also be helpful tools for ethnographic research. For example, a researcher could develop an app that allows participants to record their daily activities and thoughts, offering unique perspectives on their behavior and experiences.

Virtual Reality: Virtual reality (VR) is another emerging technology with potential ethnographic research applications. VR allows researchers to create immersive environments that simulate real-world situations, allowing participants to interact with simulated objects and people as if they were actually there.

While technology can provide many benefits for ethnographic research, it's important for researchers also to consider its limitations. For example, relying too heavily on digital recordings may prevent researchers from noticing important nonverbal cues or context that may be lost when not observed directly in person. Additionally, some cultures may need more access or knowledge about specific technologies, making it difficult to use them in certain contexts.

Learn More about Ethnographic Research

Learn how to get better results from ethnographic research.

Explore when and how to conduct ethnographic research in different contexts. 

Read this comprehensive guide to conducting ethnographic research .

Understand some of the key methods used in ethnography .

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What is the main purpose of ethnographic research in UX design?

• To provide detailed insights into user behavior and cultural context
• To provide large sets of statistical data for various end products
• To provide lower costs of product development

Which method do designers commonly use to gather data in ethnographic research?

• Controlled experiments
• Participant observation
• Quantitative surveys

What is a common challenge in ethnographic research?

• Designers can conduct the research quickly and cheaply.
• Designers limit it to digital interactions only.
• It may require significant time and resources.

How do researchers use technology in ethnographic research?

• To facilitate remote user interviews
• To replace human researchers entirely
• To virtually simulate real-world environments

Which ethical consideration is key in ethnographic research?

• To guarantee profitability of the research outcomes
• To limit the scope of the research to non-sensitive topics
• To obtain informed consent from participants

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Literature on Ethnographic Research

Here’s the entire UX literature on Ethnographic Research by the Interaction Design Foundation, collated in one place:

Learn more about Ethnographic Research

Take a deep dive into Ethnographic Research with our course Mobile UX Strategy: How to Build Successful Products .

All open-source articles on Ethnographic Research

Ethnography.

7 Simple Ways to Get Better Results From Ethnographic Research

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15 Great Ethnography Examples

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Ethnography is a research method that involves embedding yourself in the environment of a group or community and recording what you observe. It often involves the researcher living in the community being studied. This leads to a much richer understanding of the people being examined than doing quantitative research.

The thing I love about ethnography is that it paints a thorough picture of people’s lives. It is, in its own way, the most raw, honest, and detailed form of academic research.

In my previous blog posts, I have discussed my admiration for thick description as a way to pierce beyond stereotypes and view the world through the lens of our subjects.

And there’s no doubt that ethnographic research has helped us learn so much more about how people navigate their cultural circumstances.

Below are some examples of ethnography – both abstract (with the hope that it helps students think about some ways they can do ethnography) and real-life (with the hope that you will read some inspiring ethnographic studies).

Ethnography Examples

To start, here are some ways you could potentially do ethnography:

• Ethnography of Indigenous People: There are many examples of ethnographic studies that look at indigenous cultures and how they’re similar or different to Western culture. Beware of the trap of colonialism during this work.
• Mundane Ethnography: Remember, ethnography doesn’t have to happen in a far off land. You can do autoethnography where you study yourself , or a study of somewhere very banal, like your workplace or home.
• Educational Ethnography: There is a rich history of teachers and researchers using ethnographic methods in classrooms to explore how learning happens.
• Ethnography in a Shop: Be the ethnographer within a supermarket by interacting with the people there on a daily basis (maybe as the cashier) and observe how people interact and collide within the space.
• Working-Class and Immigrant Ethnography: Many sociologists use ethnographic methods to take an inside look at how people on the margins of society grapple with global concepts like capitalism, globalization, and race.
• Digital Ethnography: Since the rise of the internet, there have been many researchers interested in the digital lives of people. Some of my favorite studies have revealed how we create our identities online.

My Favorite Ethnographic Research Books

1. learning to labour.

Author: Paul Willis

One of my favorite ethnographic works, Learning to Labour follows working-class ‘lads’ in the British Midlands as they participate in counter-cultural and ‘anti-social’ behaviors.

The most fascinating aspect of this book is the rich elucidation of how these working-class boys reject narratives of upward mobility and revel in rejecting mental work at school. But at the same time, they create their own value hierarchies.

In fact, the boys don’t even leave school when they are legally allowed, despite giving a veneer of being anti-school. Instead, they remain there, because there is their own social and even educational value they can get out of it. They prize the manual labor they do in class and, after leaving school, continue to prize physical labor in the workplace while deriding and dismissing mental labor.

2. Being Maori in the City

Author: Natacha Gagné

When indigenous people live in urban environments, their authenticity as indigenous peoples is often brought into question.

Thus, Gagné’s examination of Maori identity in Auckland presents a valuable insight into how people continue to live out their indigenous identities in a changing, urbanized, and colonized landscape.

Gagné spent two years living with Maori people in Auckland and highlights in the book how their identity continues to be central to how they interact both with one another and with broader society.

3. Ethnography of a Neoliberal School

Author: Garth Stahl

While a wide range of academic research has looked at how neoliberalism can affect education, an ethnographic approach allows Stahl to demonstrate how it turns up as lived experience.

Neoliberalism is an approach to governance that focuses on the corporatization of society. In education, this means that schools should be run like companies.

There is no better example, of course, than charter schools .

In my favorite chapter, Stahl demonstrates within one anonymized charter school how teachers are increasingly subjected to performance quotas, KPIs, and governance that narrow down the purpose of education and give them very little freedom to exercise their expertise and provide individualized support to their students.

4. Coming of Age in Samoa

Author: Margaret Mead

Margaret Mead’s groundbreaking ethnography, Coming of Age in Samoa , had implications for two important reasons:

• It highlighted the importance of feminist perspectives in ethnographic research.
• It challenged a universalizing stage-based conceptualization of human development.

Mead’s work was conducted at a time when the Western world was in a moral panic about adolescents’ stress and emotional behaviors. The prevailing idea – promoted mainly by male psychologists – was that most of those behaviors were a natural part of the developmental cycle.

Mead, however, saw that female Samoan adolescents had much different experiences of adolescence and would not have fitted into the western mold of how a female adolescent would behave or be treated.

The Samoan society’s liberal ideas around intimacy and the lower levels of academic stress placed on the girls meant they lived very different realities with far less stress and social pressure than their Western counterparts.

5. Ghetto at the Center of the World

Author: Gordon Mathews

Mathews’s Ghetto at the Center of the World explores a multiethnic high-density housing complex in Hong Kong.

While seen by many locals as a ghetto (despite its relative safety!), Mathews shows how the motley group of residents, migrants, and tourists in the building live rich lives at what appears to be ground zero of globalization.

For the people in the building, globalization has offered opportunities but hasn’t solved all their problems. Each person that Mathews follows has their own story of how they navigate a globalized world while maintaining hope for a better future.

Additional Influential Ethnographic Studies

• Argonauts of the Western Pacific – This study was notable because it presented a turn toward participant observation in ethnography rather than attempts at fly-on-the-wall objectivity.
• The Remembered Village – A study of caste systems in India, this study is most notable for its methodological influence. Srinivas, the author, lost his field notes, but he continued on with presenting his findings, causing widespread controversy about its methodological merits.
• Space and Society in Central Brazil – This study explores the experiences of the Panará indigenous people of Brazil as they attempt to secure protected space from the colonialization occurring around them. It’s notable for its insights into how the Panará people organize themselves both culturally and spatially.
• White Bound – This book follows two groups, a white anti-racist group and a white nationalist group, and explores how each deals with whiteness. While the groups have fundamentally different goals, even the anti-racist group continue to contribute to white privilege .
• City, Street and Citizen – Suzanne Hall’s study of the mundane city street explores how multiethnicity is played out in globalized cities. It is a fascinating look at how lives take place within shared spaces where social contact occurs.

Ethnography is, in my humble (and of course subjective) opinion, the most exciting form of primary research you can do. It can challenge assumptions, unpick social norms, and make us all more empathetic people.

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 10 Reasons you’re Perpetually Single
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 20 Montessori Toddler Bedrooms (Design Inspiration)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 21 Montessori Homeschool Setups
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 101 Hidden Talents Examples

3 thoughts on “15 Great Ethnography Examples”

Thanks very much for that. I am an early childhood teacher, already published on the topic of bilingual and multilingual children in our sector. One of my lecturers has suggested an ethnographic study of some of our immigrant children. Not sure where to start with that, but this has put me in the right frame of mind. Thanks again

Dear Chris,

Any suggested topic on ethnographic research i can start with here in the hospital where i am working. I am a nurse for cardiovascular patients undergoing open heart surgeries.

As you’re in a high risk setting, you might be best asking your managers at the workplace about this one. You could also consider an autoethnography where you do a study on yourself within the settings.

Best of luck with the study.

Regards, Chris

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Ethnographic Research – Complete Guide with Examples

Published by Carmen Troy at August 14th, 2021 , Revised On August 29, 2023

What is Ethnographic Research?

Ethnography is a  type of research where a researcher observes people in their natural environment.

Ethnographers spend time studying people and their day-to-day lives and cultural activities carefully. It takes a long-term commitment and exciting methods of data collection .

It has two unique features

• The researcher carries out ethnographic research in a natural environment.
• A researcher acts as a participant and researcher at the same time.

History of Ethnographic Research

During the period of colonialism, anthropology emerged as a formal and notable discipline. Anthropologists started to study traditional people and their cultures. There are many types of ethnographic studies used for various purposes.

Uses of Ethnographic Research    

Ethnographic research has the following uses;

• Documentation of endangered cultures
• Studying distant or new cultures.
• Studying and observing people’s behaviour in a specific society or community over a more extended period with changing circumstances.

Example: Malinowski’s six years of research on the people of Trobriand islands in Melanesia.

Today ethnographic research is also used in social sciences.

Examples:                                                                                                                                  Investigations done by detectives, police officers to solve any criminal mystery.        Investigations are carried out to learn the history and details of culture, community, religion, or games. The research was performed to understand the social interactions of the people.                Research to understand the roles of families and organisations.

Advantages of Conducting Ethnographic Research

There are various  methods of research  based on the requirements and aim of the investigation. Here is the list of the key features of  ethnographic research

• You can conduct ethnographic research alone.
• It allows you to observe the changes in people’s behaviour and culture over time and record it.
• You can conduct it in any place.
• It allows you to be a part of the community as a participant and take a close look at their lifestyle.
• You can gather a piece of detailed information with abundant experience, which helps you in further research.
• It provides the opportunity and pleasure of adventure as well as research.
• You don’t need to spend anything on the setup and equipment.
• You can learn to use any language of your choice during the research.
• You can find out about historical  changes and events.
• You can use and enhance your skills and knowledge.
• You are solely responsible for experimenting.
• You get the opportunity to get to know the underlying realities and opinions of the people.
• You get the chance to focus on the verbal and non-verbal behavior of the people.

Disadvantages of Ethnographic Research

• It requires a lot of time.
• It is challenging to conclude the results.
• The researcher needs to work alone.
• It requires patience, skills to interact with people, and staying within the community as a community member.
• Personal safety and privacy would be at risk.

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What to do Before Starting your Ethnographic Research?

You need to identify your  research question(s)  and decide the mode of data collection. It’s better to choose a small group of people and aim to complete your studies within a short period. 

It would help if you asked a few questions to yourself.

• Who will be your target participants?
• Do you have enough time to conduct the research?
• What’s the purpose of your study?
• What kinds of resources do you have?
• Do you have enough funds to conduct your research?
• Do you have access to the community you want to study?

Types of Ethnographic Research

Realistic ethnographic research.

It is unbiased documentation written in the third person. You can use the collected notes for interpretations. 

A  case study is a documented history and detailed analysis of a situation concerning organisations, industries, and markets. It aims at discovering new facts of the condition under observation. 

It includes data collection from multiple sources over time.

Critical Ethnographic Research

It focuses on the marginalised community to study inequality and dominance.

How to Conduct Ethnographic Research?

Step 1: problem formulation.

Before conducting any research, the essential step is selecting the problem  you want to carry out your study.

Step 2: Select a Research Setting

After Selecting a research problem, you need to select the location of your research. It will help if you prefer a familiar place and community in which you can fit comfortably.

Step 3: Get Access to the Community

You need to get access to the community you want to study. How do you reach the community you want to study? 

You need to get official permission to conduct your research on a specific group of people. You can also join the community as a volunteer instead of a researcher.

There are two types of access, such as:

Open access: You don’t need to seek permission to conduct your research and  collect data in this type of access. You can observe the population. You need to get accepted by the group to proceed with your research.

Example: Public in market places, parties, concerts, etc., are regarded as open-access groups.

Closed-access:  In this type of access, you need to get permission from the gatekeeper of the community you want to study. 

Example:  Schools, colleges, corporations, etc.

Step 4: Represent yourself to the Group

It would help if you asked yourself a few questions before introducing yourself to the group members.

• How will you introduce yourself to the community you want to study?
• What would be your role in the group?
• How actively do you want to participate in the group’s day-to-day activities?
• Will the group accept you as a researcher and allow you to conduct your research?

You can either inform the participants about the experiment, and it’s called the overt approach. You can hide the research and oversee people’s behaviour. It’s called a covert approach.

You can also act as a participant of the community performing the activities like the group, called active observation. It allows the community to feel more comfortable with the researcher.

Similarly, you can keep yourself away from the group without performing any activities like them and observe them as a researcher. It is called passive observation.

It would help if you tried various approaches until you find a suitable method to proceed with your research.

Step 5: Collecting and Recording the Information

You can collect the data by the following methods;

Observation: You can participate in the group activities or observe the group’s behavior, either informing them about the experiment or keeping them unaware of the investigation.

Interviewing:  You can carry out direct conversations with all group members or obtain information from a specific member of the group. It’s better not to rely on the informants as they may interpret the data according to their perception rather than delivering in its actual context. 

Archival Research:  You can also use existing information stored in the previous researchers’ records to proceed with your research.

It becomes difficult to gather and record the information at the same time. 

What should you do in this situation?

You can maintain a notepad to record your observation immediately or sometimes wait until you leave the setting to record your observation. It’s better to note down your observations as soon as possible before you forget them and struggle to recall them. You can write down your field notes or record the people’s audios or videos while talking to them.

Your notes should include the following features:

Running/Field Notes:  these are the observations that you note down daily. The idea is to record your observation immediately after observing it. It would help if you observed the individual activities of the group members and perspectives.

How to describe Ethnographic Research?

Ethnographic research involves immersing in a community or culture to understand its nuances. Researchers observe, participate, and interview to grasp social practices, beliefs, and behaviors. It provides rich insights into how people experience and interpret their world.

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• What Is Ethnography? | Meaning, Guide & Examples

What Is Ethnography? | Meaning, Guide & Examples

Published on 6 May 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 6 April 2023.

Ethnography is a type of qualitative research that involves immersing yourself in a particular community or organisation to observe their behaviour and interactions up close. The word ‘ethnography’ also refers to the written report of the research that the ethnographer produces afterwards.

Ethnography is a flexible research method that allows you to gain a deep understanding of a group’s shared culture, conventions, and social dynamics. However, it also involves some practical and ethical challenges.

Table of contents

What is ethnography used for, different approaches to ethnographic research, gaining access to a community, working with informants, observing the group and taking field notes, writing up an ethnography.

Ethnographic research originated in the field of anthropology, and it often involved an anthropologist living with an isolated tribal community for an extended period of time in order to understand their culture.

This type of research could sometimes last for years. For example, Colin M. Turnbull lived with the Mbuti people for three years in order to write the classic ethnography The Forest People .

Today, ethnography is a common approach in various social science fields, not just anthropology. It is used not only to study distant or unfamiliar cultures, but also to study specific communities within the researcher’s own society.

For example, ethnographic research (sometimes called participant observation ) has been used to investigate football fans , call centre workers , and police officers .

Advantages of ethnography

The main advantage of ethnography is that it gives the researcher direct access to the culture and practices of a group. It is a useful approach for learning first-hand about the behavior and interactions of people within a particular context.

By becoming immersed in a social environment, you may have access to more authentic information and spontaneously observe dynamics that you could not have found out about simply by asking.

Ethnography is also an open and flexible method. Rather than aiming to verify a general theory or test a hypothesis , it aims to offer a rich narrative account of a specific culture, allowing you to explore many different aspects of the group and setting.

Disadvantages of ethnography

Ethnography is a time-consuming method. In order to embed yourself in the setting and gather enough observations to build up a representative picture, you can expect to spend at least a few weeks, but more likely several months. This long-term immersion can be challenging, and requires careful planning.

Ethnographic research can run the risk of observer bias . Writing an ethnography involves subjective interpretation, and it can be difficult to maintain the necessary distance to analyse a group that you are embedded in.

There are often also ethical considerations to take into account: for example, about how your role is disclosed to members of the group, or about observing and reporting sensitive information.

Should you use ethnography in your research?

If you’re a student who wants to use ethnographic research in your thesis or dissertation , it’s worth asking yourself whether it’s the right approach:

• Could the information you need be collected in another way (e.g., a survey , interviews)?
• How difficult will it be to gain access to the community you want to study?
• How exactly will you conduct your research, and over what timespan?
• What ethical issues might arise?

If you do decide to do ethnography, it’s generally best to choose a relatively small and easily accessible group, to ensure that the research is feasible within a limited time frame.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

There are a few key distinctions in ethnography which help to inform the researcher’s approach: open vs closed settings, overt vs covert ethnography, and active vs passive observation. Each approach has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Open vs closed settings

The setting of your ethnography – the environment in which you will observe your chosen community in action – may be open or closed.

An open or public setting is one with no formal barriers to entry. For example, you might consider a community of people living in a certain neighbourhood, or the fans of a particular football team.

• Gaining initial access to open groups is not too difficult …
• … but it may be harder to become immersed in a less clearly defined group.

A closed or private setting is harder to access. This may be for example a business, a school, or a cult.

• A closed group’s boundaries are clearly defined and the ethnographer can become fully immersed in the setting …
• … but gaining access is tougher; the ethnographer may have to negotiate their way in or acquire some role in the organisation.

Overt vs covert ethnography

Most ethnography is overt . In an overt approach, the ethnographer openly states their intentions and acknowledges their role as a researcher to the members of the group being studied.

• Overt ethnography is typically preferred for ethical reasons, as participants can provide informed consent …
• … but people may behave differently with the awareness that they are being studied.

Sometimes ethnography can be covert . This means that the researcher does not tell participants about their research, and comes up with some other pretence for being there.

• Covert ethnography allows access to environments where the group would not welcome a researcher …
• … but hiding the researcher’s role can be considered deceptive and thus unethical.

Active vs passive observation

Different levels of immersion in the community may be appropriate in different contexts. The ethnographer may be a more active or passive participant depending on the demands of their research and the nature of the setting.

An active role involves trying to fully integrate, carrying out tasks and participating in activities like any other member of the community.

• Active participation may encourage the group to feel more comfortable with the ethnographer’s presence …
• … but runs the risk of disrupting the regular functioning of the community.

A passive role is one in which the ethnographer stands back from the activities of others, behaving as a more distant observer and not involving themselves in the community’s activities.

• Passive observation allows more space for careful observation and note-taking …
• … but group members may behave unnaturally due to feeling they are being observed by an outsider.

While ethnographers usually have a preference, they also have to be flexible about their level of participation. For example, access to the community might depend upon engaging in certain activities, or there might be certain practices in which outsiders cannot participate.

An important consideration for ethnographers is the question of access. The difficulty of gaining access to the setting of a particular ethnography varies greatly:

• To gain access to the fans of a particular sports team, you might start by simply attending the team’s games and speaking with the fans.
• To access the employees of a particular business, you might contact the management and ask for permission to perform a study there.
• Alternatively, you might perform a covert ethnography of a community or organisation you are already personally involved in or employed by.

Flexibility is important here too: where it’s impossible to access the desired setting, the ethnographer must consider alternatives that could provide comparable information.

For example, if you had the idea of observing the staff within a particular finance company but could not get permission, you might look into other companies of the same kind as alternatives. Ethnography is a sensitive research method, and it may take multiple attempts to find a feasible approach.

All ethnographies involve the use of informants . These are people involved in the group in question who function as the researcher’s primary points of contact, facilitating access and assisting their understanding of the group.

This might be someone in a high position at an organisation allowing you access to their employees, or a member of a community sponsoring your entry into that community and giving advice on how to fit in.

However,  i f you come to rely too much on a single informant, you may be influenced by their perspective on the community, which might be unrepresentative of the group as a whole.

In addition, an informant may not provide the kind of spontaneous information which is most useful to ethnographers, instead trying to show what they believe you want to see. For this reason, it’s good to have a variety of contacts within the group.

The core of ethnography is observation of the group from the inside. Field notes are taken to record these observations while immersed in the setting; they form the basis of the final written ethnography. They are usually written by hand, but other solutions such as voice recordings can be useful alternatives.

Field notes record any and all important data: phenomena observed, conversations had, preliminary analysis. For example, if you’re researching how service staff interact with customers, you should write down anything you notice about these interactions – body language, phrases used repeatedly, differences and similarities between staff, customer reactions.

Don’t be afraid to also note down things you notice that fall outside the pre-formulated scope of your research; anything may prove relevant, and it’s better to have extra notes you might discard later than to end up with missing data.

Field notes should be as detailed and clear as possible. It’s important to take time to go over your notes, expand on them with further detail, and keep them organised (including information such as dates and locations).

After observations are concluded, there’s still the task of writing them up into an ethnography. This entails going through the field notes and formulating a convincing account of the behaviours and dynamics observed.

The structure of an ethnography

An ethnography can take many different forms: It may be an article, a thesis, or an entire book, for example.

Ethnographies often do not follow the standard structure of a scientific paper, though like most academic texts, they should have an introduction and conclusion. For example, this paper begins by describing the historical background of the research, then focuses on various themes in turn before concluding.

An ethnography may still use a more traditional structure, however, especially when used in combination with other research methods. For example, this paper follows the standard structure for empirical research: introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion.

The content of an ethnography

The goal of a written ethnography is to provide a rich, authoritative account of the social setting in which you were embedded – to convince the reader that your observations and interpretations are representative of reality.

Ethnography tends to take a less impersonal approach than other research methods. Due to the embedded nature of the work, an ethnography often necessarily involves discussion of your personal experiences and feelings during the research.

Ethnography is not limited to making observations; it also attempts to explain the phenomena observed in a structured, narrative way. For this, you may draw on theory, but also on your direct experience and intuitions, which may well contradict the assumptions that you brought into the research.

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• Qualitative Research and Ethnography [SAGE video] Dr. Marsha Henry discusses ethnography and broader feminist qualitative research. She defines ethnography as embedded and embodied research, then explores the implications of that definition. She also touches on the differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches, and how feminism is challenging long-held assumptions about research.
• What Do You Mean by the Term “Ethnography”? [SAGE video] Dr. Sara Delamont discusses ethnography and ethnographic research. Ethnographic research is done primarily through observation, usually over a long period of time. Delamont examines ethnography through research that she has done, primarily in classrooms.
• Researching Rural Schools Using an Ethnographic Approach [SAGE video] Dr. Sam Hillyard describes her ethnographic research into the idea that schools are at the heart of village communities. She highlights unexpected findings, particularly in how and in where the village has changed. She also brings in concepts of space and agency from human geography.
• Researching Multiracial Identity Using Ethnographic Methods [SAGE video] Dr. Jennifer Jones discusses her ethnographic research into multiracial identity and whether "mixed race" is a simple category or a cohesive identity group. She explains the challenges she faced as well as the importance of theory building throughout the research process.

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Ethnographic research as an evolving method for supporting healthcare improvement skills: a scoping review

Georgia b. black.

Department of Applied Health Research, UCL, London, UK

Sandra van Os

Samantha machen, naomi j. fulop, associated data.

All papers included in the review are listed in Additional file 4 and are publicly available from their publishers’ websites.

The relationship between ethnography and healthcare improvement has been the subject of methodological concern. We conducted a scoping review of ethnographic literature on healthcare improvement topics, with two aims: (1) to describe current ethnographic methods and practices in healthcare improvement research and (2) to consider how these may affect habit and skill formation in the service of healthcare improvement.

We used a scoping review methodology drawing on Arksey and O’Malley’s methods and more recent guidance. We systematically searched electronic databases including Medline, PsychINFO, EMBASE and CINAHL for papers published between April 2013 – April 2018, with an update in September 2019. Information about study aims, methodology and recommendations for improvement were extracted. We used a theoretical framework outlining the habits and skills required for healthcare improvement to consider how ethnographic research may foster improvement skills.

We included 274 studies covering a wide range of healthcare topics and methods. Ethnography was commonly used for healthcare improvement research about vulnerable populations, e.g. elderly, psychiatry. Focussed ethnography was a prominent method, using a rapid feedback loop into improvement through focus and insider status. Ethnographic approaches such as the use of theory and focus on every day practices can foster improvement skills and habits such as creativity, learning and systems thinking.

Conclusions

We have identified that a variety of ethnographic approaches can be relevant to improvement. The skills and habits we identified may help ethnographers reflect on their approaches in planning healthcare improvement studies and guide peer-review in this field. An important area of future research will be to understand how ethnographic findings are received by decision-makers.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12874-021-01466-9.

Research can help to support the practice of healthcare improvement, and identify ways to “improve improvement” [ 1 ]. Ethnography has been identified particularly as a research method that can show what happens routinely in healthcare, and reveal the ‘ what and how of improving patient care [ 2 ]. Ethnography is not one method, but a paradigm of mainly qualitative research involving direct observations of people and places, producing a written account of natural or everyday behaviours and ideas [ 3 ]. Ethnographic research can identify contextual barriers to healthcare improvement. For example, Waring and colleagues suggested that hospital discharge could be improved by allowing staff to have more opportunities for informal communication [ 4 ].

There have been advances in ethnographic methods that support its role in supporting healthcare improvement. Multi-site, collaborative modalities of ethnography have evolved that suit the networked nature of modern healthcare [ 5 ]. Similarly, rapid ethnographic approaches (e.g. Bentley et al. [ 6 ];) meet the needs of improvement activities to produce findings within short timeframes [ 7 ]. However, the production of sustained ethnographic fieldwork has waned in response to demands for rapid evidence [ 6 , 8 , 9 ]. Critics of rapid ethnographic methods worry that they are diluting ethnography within applied contexts more widely [ 5 , 10 ].

The relationship between ethnography and healthcare improvement has been the subject of methodological concern [ 8 ]. The first concern is that some research identified as ethnography does not fit within the ethnographic paradigm, merely collecting observational data without a theoretical analysis, interpretation or researcher reflexivity [ 11 ]. A second concern is whether the topics of ethnographic inquiry produce findings that are seen as useful for improvement [ 12 ], particularly if they do not make explicit recommendations or produce checklists [ 8 , 13 – 15 ]. Authors fear that ethnographic findings that capture complexity [ 16 ] and expose taken-for-granted behaviours and phenomena [ 14 , 17 ] may be too abstract to be relevant to healthcare improvement [ 8 ]. However, these critiques position ethnographic research as a product which may be taken up by healthcare improvers, rather than seeing ethnographic work itself as an improvement activity. We take the view that healthcare improvement aims to change human behaviour to improve patient care, and is therefore reliant on the development of particular skills and habits (such as good communication) [ 18 ]. We would consider that engaging in ethnographic research may support skill development and habit formation that serves healthcare improvement.

In the literature of ethnography in healthcare improvement, there is not much discussion of the close relationship between methodological features of ethnographic research, and their impact on improvement skills. The aim of this paper is twofold: (1) to describe current ethnographic methods and practices in healthcare improvement research and (2) to consider how these may affect habit and skill formation in the service of healthcare improvement [ 19 ].

This is a scoping review following the methods outlined by Arksey & O’Malley and later refined by Levac et al., [ 20 , 21 ] including a systematically conducted literature review and reported in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR; see Additional file 1 for PRISMA checklist). No protocol was published for this review. Our literature search and analyses were conducted iteratively, searching reference lists and undertaking discussions with colleagues about key lines of argument. We also held a workshop at Health Services Research UK conference in 2018 on this topic to gain a wide range of stakeholder views.

Systematic retrieval of empirical papers and purposive sampling

Our search strategy was designed to capture a wide range of approaches to ethnography from different journals, healthcare settings and types of research environment. It was not our aim to capture every study using this methodology, but to map the current field. Thus we did not search grey literature, books or monographs. The search strategy was developed and piloted in consultation with a health librarian. Medline (on OVID platform), PsychINFO, CINAHL and EMBASE databases were searched, and six journals were hand-searched, including: BMJ Quality & Safety, Social Science and Medicine, Medical Anthropology, Cochrane library, Sociology of Health and Illness and Implementation Science. These databases were searched between dates April 2013 – April 2018 and an update was performed in September 2019 using the search terms outlined in Additional file 2 . We limited the search to these dates in order to capture the most recent methodological characteristics of ethnographic studies in this field.

We screened titles and then abstracts according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria detailed in Table ​ Table1. 1 . We included studies which self-identified as using ethnography or ethnographic methods rather than using our own criteria. This is because ethnography can be hard to define, and use of criteria may risk excluding papers which exemplify the sorts of tensions and workarounds we are trying to capture.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

The retrieved papers were screened by GB, SVO and SM based on inclusion and exclusion criteria (Table ​ (Table1). 1 ). The total number of papers after screening titles, abstracts and full texts was 274 (Fig. ​ (Fig.1 1 ).

PRISMA statement of all references retrieved, screened and included in the scoping review

Numerical charting

Characteristics of each paper, such as title, authors, journal, year, country and healthcare subject area were extracted (see Table ​ Table2 2 ).

Characteristics of studies in review

a some studies have been allocated to more than one region

Thematic analysis and development

We coded all 274 papers using NVivo software for stated aims and recommendations. This included close reading, and retrieval of key ideas and quotations from the papers that exemplified key ideas in relation to healthcare improvement, methodology and the authors’ reflections on these. The coded extracts of aims and recommendation in conjunction with the closer reading of the sub-sample were used to inductively develop conceptual ideas, such as how the corpus of papers explicitly aimed to contribute to healthcare improvement, and if not, how this affected the types of conclusions drawn. Some papers were read in greater depth to understand how the authors’ methods related to their findings and conclusions. In order to consider how ethnography supports habits and skills associated with healthcare improvement, we drew on a framework which identifies five habits of ‘improvers’: creativity, learning, systems thinking, resilience and influencing [ 19 ]. Applying this model to our selected papers, we mapped traits or approaches to the ethnographic studies that exemplified these habits either in the authors, or as part of developing these habits in others (e.g. healthcare decision-makers and professionals). Thematic interpretations and lines of argument were generated and discussed by all the authors.

Overview of study characteristics

The included studies covered a wide range of ethnographic methodologies and healthcare subjects, published internationally (Table ​ (Table2) 2 ) in predominantly social science and clinical journals (see Additional file 3 ). The full list of the 274 included studies is available in Additional file 4 .

Most studies described themselves as an ‘ethnography’ or ‘ethnographic’, although some described their methodology as ‘mixed methods’ including ethnographic components. For example, Collet et al. conducted a mixed methods participatory action research study using observations to produce an “ethnographic description” [ 22 ].

Almost all studies relied on observation and interviews as the main data sources. It was not always specified whether researchers took a participant or non-participant approach to observation. There were some examples of other data sources e.g. video data, surveys, documents, field notes, diaries, and artefacts. A few examples contained a paucity of data, such as only video data [ 23 ], limited fieldwork [ 24 ], a small number of interviewees [ 25 ], or reliance on focus group data alone [ 26 ]. Methods associated with qualitative methodology (but not necessarily ethnographic) were also used, such as data ‘saturation’ to denote that additional data did not provide new insights into the topic [ 27 ].

There were a number of minority or unusual ethnographic variations:

• Quantitative ethnography [ 23 ]: temporal coding of physicians' workflow and interaction with the electronic health record system, and their patient.
• Cognitive ethnography [ 28 ]: “identifying and elaborating distributed cognitive processes that occur when an individual enacts purposeful improvements in a clinical context”.
• Street-level organizational ethnography [ 29 ]: intensive case study methods to explore the implications of healthcare policy at a street level.
• Phenomenological ethnographies [ 30 ]: focussing on the lived experience and meanings associated with a phenomenon.
• Geo-mapping [ 31 ]: geomapping of selected service data to define Latino immigrant community before conducting interviews and observations.

Use of different types of ethnography to support healthcare improvement

We found that many studies used methods that could identify issues relating to power and vulnerability, with potential relevance to how healthcare improvement problems are defined and solved, and by whom [ 1 ]. For example we noted a significant minority of studies using institutional and critical ethnography, mostly in vulnerable populations (see Table ​ Table3). 3 ). These studies were explicitly attentive to systems and power relations, rather than on individual practices. We suggest that the use of geographically-oriented methods such as geo-mapping and street-level organisational ethnography are also attentive to the power structures inherent in place and space, and could be relevant to other geographical healthcare improvement topics such as networked healthcare systems, care at home and patient travel for treatment.

Ethnographic methodology and its relevance to healthcare improvement

The high prevalence of ethnographic studies with vulnerable populations (e.g. psychiatry, end of life care) suggests that ethnography is also being conceptualised as an emancipatory method, reversing healthcare power structures in its focus. This has been a traditional focus of ethnography since social changes in power and representation in the 1970s, incorporated into the development of healthcare research methodology [ 40 , 41 ]. Some methods used were calculated to maximise the potential for supporting vulnerable groups, for example, Nightingale et al. [ 42 ] used focused ethnography (prolonged fieldwork in a small number of settings) to look at patient-professional interactions in paediatric chronic illness settings. The authors suggested that focussed ethnography is particularly suited to settings where fostering trust is essential. We would also suggest that ethnography may be particularly suited to settings in which participants are less able to verbalise their experiences.

The reviewed studies suggested that video ethnography can support healthcare improvement at a team level. For example, Stevens et al. [ 43 ] promoted video ethnography as a way to capture in-depth data on intimate interactions, in their study of elective caesareans. The video data allowed them to make use of timing data (e.g. of certain actions), physical positioning of different actors and equipment, and verbatim dialogue recording. The video data also suited the technical nature of the procedure, which was relatively time-limited. This form of data collection may not suit environments where healthcare activities are more spread out.

The impact of healthcare practitioner involvement in ethnographic fieldwork and findings

We noted that the use of ethnography for healthcare improvement has led to healthcare practitioners’ widespread involvement in data collection or analysis. We suggest that this is a form of negotiation across the healthcare-academia boundary, translating from ‘real world’ to data and back again. This has potential to create rich and relevant ethnographic studies that are geared towards improvement. However, some studies were undermined by a lack of reflexivity about the dual practitioner-ethnographer role.

A significant number of papers involved healthcare practitioners in fieldwork (e.g. Abdulrehman, 2017, Hoare et al. 2013; [ 37 , 44 ]). For example in Hoare et al. the lead researcher was a nurse, and wrote that they hoped “to bring both an emic and etic perspective to the data collection by bracketing my emic sense of self as a nurse practitioner in order to become a participant observer within my own general practice ” [ 37 ]. In this study, the findings fed directly into local service improvement as the lead researcher felt compelled to “share new ‘best practice’ information and join in the conversation.” There was little discussion about how this affected the generalisability of the findings, and whether their recommendations were adopted.

Similarly, Bergenholz et al. [ 45 ] conducted a study where a nursing researcher completed the main fieldwork and “assisted the nurses with practical care .” They acknowledged that “This may have caused limitations with regards to ‘blind spots’ in the nursing practice, but that it also gave access to a field that might be difficult for ‘outside-outsiders’ to gain .” However, there was no commentary on where the blind spots or extra access occurred, and how this may have affected the relevance and dissemination of their findings.

How might ethnography support healthcare improvement habits?

In this section, we evaluate the studies included in the review in terms of how their methods relate to improvement. We draw on the idea that successful improvement is based on a set of habits and their related skills acquired through experience and practice [ 19 ]. This section is structured around Lucas’s five habits of ‘improvers’: creativity, learning, systems thinking, resilience and influencing [ 19 ]. Under those headings, we describe the mechanisms by which ethnographic studies can support healthcare improvement habits, using illustrative examples.

Resilience is defined as being adaptable, particularly tolerating calculated risks and uncertainty, and proceeding with optimism. Being able to recover from adverse events is core to improvement, reframing them as opportunities. Adaptation and the ability to bounce back from adverse events and variation are core to improvement.

Tolerating the uncertainty of ethnographic data collection

While we did not relate these traits to any particular ethnographic approach in our studies, we would consider that undertaking any ethnographic project requires resilience, as data collection is inherently exploratory and uncertain. For example, Belanger et al. wanted to know how health care providers and their patients approach patient participation in palliative care decisions. The authors explicitly eschewed the pull to create guidelines or other formalised knowledge, but aimed to explore the “unforeseen and somewhat unavoidable ways in which discursive practices prompt or impede patient participation during these interactions.” [ 46 ]

Creativity is defined as working together to encourage fresh thinking by generating ideas and thinking critically.

Using a theoretical lens

Researchers may consider healthcare through a particular theory or framework (e.g. private ordering [ 47 ], masculine discourse [ 48 ], compassion [ 49 ]). The restriction of the theoretical lens enables critical thinking, and keeps the ethnographer creatively engaged. For example, Mylopoulos & Farhat [ 28 ] used the concept of adaptive expertise in a cognitive ethnography to explore “the phenomenon of purposeful improvement” in a teaching hospital. This theoretical lens revealed that clinicians were engaging in “invisible” improvement in their daily work, in “specific activities such as scheduling, establishing patient relationships, designing physical space and building supporting resources”. The authors suggested that these practices were devalued in comparison to more formal improvement activities, justifying the utility of the ‘adaptive expertise’ theory in bringing the daily improvement practices to light.

Challenging current problems and perspectives

We identified studies that challenged or reframed existing improvement problems e.g. Mishra [ 50 ]. This role removes the ‘blinkers’ of improvement research [ 51 ], and can ‘dissolve’ previously intractable implementation problems. For example, Boonan et al. [ 52 ] studied the practice of bar-coded medication from the perspective of nurses using the intervention. In their discussion, the authors challenge the assumption that if you introduce technology, then you will mitigate human factor risks. They highlighted that external pressures on hospitals perpetuate this perspective, and that “nurses and patients are consequently drawn into this discourse and institutional ruling, to which they are not oblivious”. Their recommendation was to understand the skills of nurses in tailoring technology to meet individual patients’ needs rather than trusting in systems blindly.

Learning is defined as harnessing curiosity and using reflective processes to extract meaning from experience.

Inviting reflection

We noted that some studies did not make explicit recommendations for improvement, but wrote their findings in a manner that would invite reflection on its subject matter. For example, Thomas & Latimer [ 53 ] wrote that they view their role as provocateurs of new ideas, stating that their intention “is not to propose specific policies or discourses designed to change or improve practice. More modestly, we hope that by analysing the everyday and by theorising the mundane, this article will ignite reflexive, ethical and pluralistic dialogues – and so better communication between practitioners, parents and the wider lay public – around reproductive technologies and medical conditions” (authors’ underline; p.951-2) [ 53 ]. Others such as Mackintosh et al [ 54 ] used their discussion section to examine their results in the context of other theories and provide illumination: “Our focus on trajectories illuminates the physiological process of birth and the unfolding pathology of illness (and death). This frame provides a means for us to link the agency of those involved in organising the care of acutely ill patients with the wider socio-political factors beyond the clinic, such as governmentality and risk (Heyman 2010, Waring 2007), death brokering (Timmermans 2005) and the medicalisation of birth and death (De Vries 1981).” (p.264). These two examples show that ethnographic work can be offered as an opportunity for learning and reflection, without a translation to specific recommendations.

Supporting a more ethical, expansive, inclusive, and participatory mode of healthcare

Problem-finding is highlighted as an important part of learning in improvement [ 19 ]. Several studies paid attention to multivocality and power, using this to find problematic, unethical and exclusive practices in healthcare. For example, some studies reported previously unheard viewpoints [ 55 – 57 ], or identified restrictive organisational barriers and normative assumptions [ 58 , 59 ]. Others promoted ethnography as a way of exploring ethics and morality [ 47 , 60 , 61 ], such as criticising research that prioritizes the needs of individuals over the good of society [ 62 ]. Ross et al. [ 63 ] suggested that it is also more ethical to use critical ethnography than other evaluative methods in researching vulnerable populations (e.g. neurological illness), by being able to “explore perceived political and emancipatory implications, [clarify] existing power differentials and [maintain] an explicit focus on action” .

Some studies directly researched power within the healthcare setting. For example, Batch and Windsor’s study of nursing workforce suggested that senior nurse leaders should use their positions to advocate for better working conditions [ 35 ], “ Manageable nurse/patient ratios, flexible patient-centred work models, equal opportunity for advancement, skill development for all and unit teamwork promotion”. Challenging traditional cultural assumptions that have produced and reproduced stereotypes is problematic because they most often are, by their very nature, invisible. In a more critical approach, Gesbeck’s thesis [ 62 ] on diabetes care work challenges the very mechanism of achieving healthcare improvement through research, stating that “we need to change the social and political context in which health care policy is made. This requires social change that prioritizes the good of the society over the good of the individual—a position directly opposed to the current system oriented toward profit and steeped in the ideology of personal responsibility.”

Systems thinking

Systems thinking is defined as seeing whole systems as well as their parts and recognising complex relationships, connections and interdependencies.

Suggesting reorientation to new ‘problem’ areas

We found that many ethnographic studies emphasised skills of synthesis and connection-making, reorienting improvement to different areas, for example in overarching policy recommendations (e.g. Hughes [ 36 ]; Liu et al. [ 64 ], Matinga et al. [ 65 ]), or resetting priorities. For example, Manias’ [ 66 ] ethnography of communication relating to family members' involvement in medication management in hospital suggests that “greater attention should be played on health professionals initiating communication in proactive ways ” [p.865]. In another example, Cable-Williams & Wilson’s (2017) focussed ethnography captures cultural factors within long-term care facilities. Their discussion suggests that acknowledgement of death is under-represented in front-line practice and government policy, reorienting discussions towards an integration of living and dying care.

Exposing hidden practices within the everyday

We found that several studies drew attention to ‘hidden’ practices in healthcare work, allowing them to evaluated and improved. For example, we found reference to practices such as coordinating [ 67 ], repair [ 68 ], caretaking [ 69 ], scaffolding [ 68 ], tinkering [ 52 ] and bricolage [ 58 ]. We also found that some studies had new interpretations of ‘the everyday’ or ‘taken-for-granted’ (e.g. nursing culture [ 34 , 35 , 45 , 70 ], interprofessional practice [ 67 , 71 – 75 ]). Authors’ outputs included frameworks [ 76 ] or models [ 69 , 71 , 77 , 78 ] that map these types of practices in a way that is helpful for intervention development or quality improvement. For example, Mackintosh et al. [ 54 ] looked at rescue practices in medical wards and maternity care settings using Strauss’s concept of the patient trajectory. Their findings highlighted the risks inherent in the wider social practices of hospital care, and suggested that improvement was needed at a level “beyond individual and team processes and technical safety solutions.”

Influencing

Influencing is defined as engaging others and gaining buy-in using a range of facilitative processes.

Direct translation of findings to targets for improvement

Lucas suggests that to be influential, ethnographic studies need to have some empathy with clinical reality, whilst being facilitative and comfortable with conflict [ 19 ]. This was shown in ethnographic studies that made pragmatic recommendations, such as in Jensen’s study of clinical simulation. They advised that simulation might be useful in staging “adverse event scenarios with a view to creating more controlled and safer environments.” ( 80). In MacKichan et al. [ 79 ] observations and interviews were used to understand how primary care access influenced decisions to seek help at the emergency department. The authors made empathic, actionable recommendations such as “ simplifying appointments systems and communicating mechanisms to patients.” (p.10).

Evaluating the context of healthcare improvement

By capturing contextual and social aspects of healthcare improvement, ethnographic evaluations can support leaders and managers who are trying to implement improvement activities. This is a particularly helpful trait in ethnographic studies that pay attention to politics, governance and social theory in their evaluation of new interventions, “zooming out” [ 80 ] beyond the patient-clinician interaction to broader social networks. For example, Tietbohl et al. [ 81 ] investigated the difficulties of implementing a patient decision support intervention (DESI) in primary care through the theoretical lens of relational coordination between “physician and clinical staff groups (healthcare professionals)”. The authors’ recommended attention to the “underlying barriers such as the relational dynamics in a medical clinic or healthcare organization” when creating policies and programs that support shared decision-making using support interventions. This sort of insight can make it more likely that new policies or interventions will succeed. This skill was particularly fertile in the tradition of techno-anthropology, exploring technology-induced errors and the real-world interaction between people and technology, e.g. decision-support tools [ 81 – 86 ], the introduction of robot caregivers [ 87 ] and clinical simulations [ 88 ]. Other approaches included an investigation of one intervention or change but with a theoretical lens of inquiry.

Summary of findings

This scoping review has identified the methodological characteristics of 5 years of published papers that self-identify as ethnography or ethnographic in the field of healthcare improvement. Ethnography is currently a popular research method in a wide range of healthcare topics, particularly in psychiatry, e.g. mental health, dementia and experiential concerns such as quality of life. Focused ethnography is a significant sub-group in healthcare, suggesting that messages about the importance of research timeliness have taken hold [ 89 ].

We have identified ethnographic methods reported in these papers, and considered their utility in developing skills and habits that support healthcare improvement. Specific practices associated with the ethnographic paradigm can encourage good habits (resilience, creativity, learning, systems thinking and influencing) in healthcare, which can support improvement. For example, using relevant theories to look at every day work in healthcare can foster creativity. The use of critical and institutional ethnography could increase skills in ‘systems thinking’ by critically evaluating how healthcare improvement problems are defined and solved, and by whom.

Comparison with previous literature

This scoping review is the first to consider how current ethnographic methods and practices may relate to healthcare improvement. Within the paradigm of applied healthcare research, there is normative value in being ‘useful’ or ‘impactful’ in our research, which affects our prospects for funding and career success [ 12 ]. However, our review has uncovered a multitude of ways that an ethnographic study can be useful in relation to healthcare improvement, without creating actionable findings. We found a spectrum of interactions with healthcare improvement: some authors explicitly eschewed recommendations or clinical implications; others made imperative statements about required changes to policy or practice. However, this diversity was not necessarily a reflection on how ‘traditional’ the ethnographic methodology was. This challenges the paper by Leslie et al. which puts ethnographic studies in two output categories with respect to healthcare improvement: critique versus feedback [ 8 ]. Instead, we uncovered a variety of ways that ethnography can support healthcare improvement habits, such as encouraging reflection, problem-finding and exposing hidden practices in healthcare.

We did find that supporting healthcare improvement through ethnographic research can require strategic effort, however. For example, we noted that several authors wrote multiple articles based on the same project, often for different types of journal to reach different audiences such as diverse readerships in health services and academic settings. For example, Collier and colleagues published two papers based on a video ethnography of end-of-life care (both in 2016), one in a healthcare quality journal [ 32 ] and one in a qualitative research journal [ 76 ]. The former is shorter, with explicit recommendations for patient safety, whereas the latter is longer, has more detailed results and long sections on reflexivity. Similarly, Grant published an article in a sociology journal [ 90 ] and a healthcare improvement paper [ 91 ] on the same work about medication safety. The sociological paper covered “spatio-temporal elements of articulation work” whereas the other put forward “key stages” and risks, suggesting that it was more closely oriented to improvement.

There have been some considerable debates about changes in ethnographic methods and tools, with concerns about lost researcher identity, dilution of the method, and challenges to “upholding ethnographic integrity” [ 92 ] . We contest this, suggesting that new variants such as focussed and cognitive ethnography are evolving in response to the complexity of hospitals and healthcare [ 93 ], while also being highly regulated, standardised and ordered by biomedicine. Such complex environments cannot be studied and improved under one paradigm alone. Ethnographic identity and method have also been affected by the cross-pollination of ethnography with other social science paradigms and applied environments (e.g. clinical trials, technology development). Debates about theoretical and methodological choices are not only made merely with respect to healthcare improvement, but also in response to professional pressures (e.g. university requirements for impact) [ 12 ], and the mores of taste situated within the overlapping communities of practice that evaluate ethnographic healthcare research [ 94 ]. That said, we echo previous authors’ calls for attention to reflexivity, particularly in embedded or clinician-as-researcher roles [ 95 ].

Our scoping review challenges a previously expressed concern that ethnographic studies may not produce findings that are useful for improvement [ 10 , 12 , 16 ]. By considering different ethnographic designs in relation to skills and habits needed for improvement, we have shown that studies need not necessarily produce ‘actionable findings’ in order to make a valuable contribution. Instead, we would characterise ethnography’s role in the canon of healthcare research methodologies as a way of enhancing improvement habits such as comfort with conflict, problem-finding and connection-making.

Strengths and limitations

This review has a number of limitations. The search may not have found all relevant studies, however the retrieved papers are intended as an exemplar rather than an exhaustive or aggregative review. The review is also limited to journal articles as evidence of researchers’ approach to improvement. This ignores many other ‘offline’ and ‘online’ activities such as meetings, presentations, blogs, books, and websites, which are conducted to disseminate findings and ideas. Our reliance on self-report for the identification of ethnographic studies will have excluded some studies within an ethnographic paradigm who chose different terms for their methodology (e.g. critical inquiry, case study). The strengths of this paper are its comprehensive coverage, incorporating all representative studies in healthcare research published within a five year period, and a wide range of ethnographic sub-types and healthcare subjects, drawn from an international pool of research communities.

We did not prescribe the right way for ethnographers to engage in healthcare improvement, indeed, we have identified that a variety of approaches can be relevant to improvement. The habits we identified may help ethnographers reflect on their approaches in planning healthcare improvement studies and guide peer-review in this field. Issues of taste, traditionalism and researcher identity need to be scrutinised in favour of value and audience. An important area of future research will be to understand how ethnographic findings are received by decision-makers, and further focused reviews on the relationship(s) between ethnographic methods, quality improvement skills and improvement outcomes.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Lorelei Jones, Natalie Armstrong, Justin Waring and Bill Lucas for their insightful comments and direction in the undertaking of this work.

Authors’ contributions

NJF and GB led the development and conceptualization of this scoping review and provided guidance on methods and design of the scoping review. GB, SVO and SM made contributions to study search, study screening, and all data extraction work. All authors analysed the data. All authors contributed to the writing and editing of the paper, and all authors have read and approved the manuscript.

This paper is independent research funded by the National Institute for Health Research CLAHRC North Thames. The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the National Institute for Health Research or the Department of Health and Social Care.

NJF is an NIHR Senior Investigator. GB is supported by the Health Foundation’s grant to the University of Cambridge for The Healthcare Improvement Studies Institute.

Availability of data and materials

Declarations.

The authors have no competing interests to declare.

The original online version of this article was revised: due to incorrect figure 1 and the number of included papers need to be changed from "283" to "274".

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Change history

A Correction to this paper has been published: 10.1186/s12874-022-01587-9

Qualitative study design: Ethnography

• Qualitative study design
• Phenomenology
• Grounded theory

Ethnography

• Narrative inquiry
• Action research
• Case Studies
• Field research
• Focus groups
• Observation
• Surveys & questionnaires
• Study Designs Home

To describe the characteristics of a particular culture/ethnographic group. 

Ethnography is the study of culture (Taylor & Francis, 2013) it is in many ways similar to anthropology; this being the study of human societies and cultures. 

Exploration and data collection can occur in either an emic or etic approach. Emic meaning that the observation happens from within the culture. Etic meaning the observation is external looking in (Taylor et al., 2006) 

Used to explore questions relating to the understanding of a certain group's beliefs, values, practices and how they adapt to change. (Taylor & Francis, 2013) 

Ethnographic studies can be about identifying inequalities. For example exploring racial and cultural aspects of how a cultural group functions and the rules that guide behaviours. (Taylor & Francis, 2013) 

One form of ethnography is an auto-ethnography which involves exploration of the self as the topic being explored. 

The researcher places themselves as a ‘participant observer’ amidst the culture. 

The setting is a very important consideration within ethnographic studies as the exploration of the people and their behaviours must be within the context of that cultural situation. 

Methods used include, but are not limited to: observation, interviews, focus groups, review of documentary evidence and keeping field notes. (Taylor & Francis, 2013) 

Steps involved include:  

Identify the culture to be studied  

Identify the significant variables within the culture 

Review existing literature 

Gain entrance 

Immerse within the culture or observe the culture 

Acquire the informants 

Gather data 

Describe the culture 

Develop theories. 

(Taylor & Francis, 2013) 

Direct insight into the lives and experiences of the people and the group of interest. 

Allows for rich detailed data to be collected (Howitt, 2019). 

Provides an opportunity for researchers to uncover new unknown ways of thinking. Researchers may become aware of behaviors, trends and beliefs that are present within one culture although these may be previously unknown to other cultures. This enables new opportunities for improved ways of viewing and solving issues within other cultures.   

Limitations

Biases can be apparent because a researcher will always bring with them their own culture and own perspective which may impact their interpretations of the experiences they observe within this different culture. 

Genuine co-operation and engagement from the people of interest may not always be forthcoming and rapport might be difficult to establish. 

There can be a greater cost involved for this study type than others. Due to the need for transport, accommodation and researcher time that is spent in the field among the participants. This can be greater than what would be spent in a different research methodology where the engagement may be limited to a laboratory or shorter duration. 

Certain logistics can pose challenges for this type of research approach, such as travelling and gaining access to communities depending on their unique cultural values, for example there are many indigenous societies that only permit people of certain genders to have access. 

As the setting may be very specific to a particular group or community of people it may not be possible to generalise and apply the findings very broadly. 

Researchers need to be aware of the impact that their presence can have on the behaviours of the population they are investigating. 

The “Hawthorne effect” can be a limitation to observing genuine behaviours within a group. This is a situation founded by Dickson and Roethlisberger in 1966 when they reviewed previous experiments conducted at the Hawthorne factory. These experiments observed the ways that different influences, such as the level of lighting, impacted on the efficiency of factory workers. Their re-examination demonstrated that participants can behave differently to what they usually would when they are aware that they are being studied or recorded. As such, the methods selected need to counteract this effect for all study types, but for ethnographic studies especially, as authenticity of the cultural experience is quite important to ethnographic methodology. 

Example questions

What expectations and beliefs do people within specific communities hold about their healthcare options? 

What practices are being undertaken by healthcare professionals in specific settings and are these consistent with best practice? 

What barriers are certain communities experiencing in relation to different healthcare access? 

Are people within a specific community receiving the appropriate information and communication about aspects of their health for them to then make informed educated decisions? 

Example studies

Coughlin, C. (n.d.). An ethnographic study of main events during hospitalisation: perceptions of nurses and patients . Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22(15–16), 2327–2337.  

Molloy, L., Walker, K., Lakeman, R., & Lees, D. (2019). Mental Health Nursing Practice and Indigenous Australians: A Multi-Sited Ethnography. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 40(1), 21–27. 

Rainsford, S., Phillips, C. B., Glasgow, N. J., MacLeod, R. D., & Wiles, R. B. (2018). The ‘safe death’: An ethnographic study exploring the perspectives of rural palliative care patients and family caregivers. Palliative Medicine, 32(10), 1575–1583. 

Newnham, E., McKellar, L., & Pincombe, J. (2017). ‘It’s your body, but…’ Mixed messages in childbirth education: Findings from a hospital ethnography. Midwifery, 55, 53–59 

King, P. (2019). The woven self: An auto-ethnography of cultural disruption and connectedness . International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation, 8(3), 107–123.  

Howitt, D. (2019). Introduction to qualitative research methods in psychology: putting theory into practice. Pearson Education.

Taylor, B. J., & Francis, K. (2013). Qualitative research in the health sciences: methodologies, methods and processes: Routledge.

Taylor, B. J., Kermode, S., & Roberts, K. L. (2006). Research in nursing and health care: creating evidence for practice (Third edition. ed.): Thomson. 

O’Connor, S. J. (2011). Context is everything: The role of auto‐ethnography, reflexivity and self‐critique in establishing the credibility of qualitative research findings. European Journal of Cancer Care, 20(4), 421–423. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2354.2011.01261.x 

Dickson, W. J & Roethlisberger, F. J., (1966) Counseling in an organization: a sequel to the Hawthorne researches. 1898-1974 & Western Electric Company (U.S.) Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University, Boston   

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What is Ethnographic Research? Definition, Methods, Examples

Appinio Research · 05.01.2024 · 38min read

Ever wondered how researchers immerse themselves in the intricacies of different cultures, communities, and human behaviors to uncover profound insights? In ethnographic research, the quest to understand the richness of human experience takes center stage. This guide will unravel the techniques, challenges, and transformative potential of ethnographic research. From delving into the foundations of this captivating methodology to exploring real-world applications, we'll journey through the captivating world of ethnography, offering you a passport to an in-depth understanding of people, societies, and the intricate tapestry of their lives.

What is Ethnographic Research?

Ethnographic research is a qualitative research method that seeks to understand and interpret the social and cultural behaviors, practices, and beliefs of individuals or groups within their natural context. Unlike other research approaches, ethnography emphasizes immersion in the research setting, allowing researchers to observe and interact with participants to gain deep insights into their lives. It is a holistic and participant-focused approach that aims to uncover the underlying meanings and significance of cultural phenomena.

The primary purpose of ethnographic research is to explore and describe the complexities of human behavior, culture, and society. This research method allows researchers to:

• Gain In-Depth Understanding : Ethnography enables researchers to immerse themselves in the lives of participants, gaining a profound understanding of their experiences, perspectives, and worldviews.
• Contextualize Behavior : By observing and interacting with individuals or groups within their natural settings, ethnographers can contextualize behavior and cultural practices, understanding why and how they occur.
• Uncover Hidden Insights : Ethnographic research often uncovers insights that may be hidden from traditional research methods. It sheds light on the nuances, contradictions, and subtleties of human behavior and culture.
• Inform Decision-Making : Findings from ethnographic studies can inform decision-making processes in various fields, such as education, healthcare, marketing, and community development. This research method provides practical insights that can drive positive change.
• Challenge Assumptions : Ethnography challenges preconceived notions and stereotypes, promoting a more nuanced and empathetic understanding of diverse cultures and societies.

Historical Context and Development

Ethnographic research has deep historical roots, dating back to the late 19th century when anthropologists and sociologists began conducting fieldwork among various cultures and societies. Pioneers like Bronisław Malinowski and Franz Boas played instrumental roles in shaping the discipline.

Over the years, ethnographic research has evolved and diversified. While its early focus was primarily on remote and non-Western societies, contemporary ethnographers explore various settings, including urban environments, workplaces, educational institutions, and healthcare facilities.

The development of ethnography has also been influenced by technological advances, allowing for new data collection and analysis methods. Ethnographers now have access to digital tools, audiovisual recording devices, and qualitative analysis software, enhancing the depth and breadth of their research.

Importance of Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research holds immense importance in today's interconnected and multicultural world. Its significance lies in its ability to:

• Bridge Cultural Gaps : Ethnography fosters cross-cultural understanding by enabling researchers to immerse themselves in the lived experiences of others, transcending cultural barriers.
• Inform Policy and Practice : Findings from ethnographic studies inform the development of policies, interventions, and practices that are culturally sensitive and effective.
• Humanize Research : Ethnography humanizes research by focusing on the stories, voices, and perspectives of individuals, making research more relatable and impactful.
• Challenge Stereotypes : It challenges stereotypes and assumptions, promoting a more inclusive and respectful appreciation of diverse cultures and societies.
• Enhance Empathy : Ethnographic research cultivates empathy by encouraging researchers to see the world through the eyes of their participants, fostering a deeper connection and understanding of the human experience.

As we delve deeper into the world of ethnographic research, these foundational concepts, historical context, and the significance of this research method will serve as a solid framework for our exploration of its techniques, applications, and impact.

How to Prepare for Ethnographic Research?

Ethnographic research is a journey of discovery that begins long before you step into the field. Proper preparation is vital to ensure the success of your study. Let's delve into the essential aspects of preparation.

Research Planning and Objectives

Before embarking on your ethnographic research, you must clearly define your research objectives. Ask yourself what you hope to achieve through this study. Are you seeking to gain insights into consumer behavior, understand the dynamics of a particular community, or explore cultural practices within an organization? Your objectives will guide your research design and methodology.

To set effective objectives:

• Start with a clear and concise statement of what you want to learn.
• Ensure your objectives are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).
• Consider the practical implications of your research and its potential impact on your field or industry.

Selection of Study Population

Choosing the right study population is a critical decision that will shape the trajectory of your ethnographic research. The demographics, location, and characteristics of your participants should align with your research objectives.

• Demographics : Who are the people you want to study? Consider factors such as age, gender, socio-economic status, and cultural background.
• Location : Where will you conduct your research? Is it a specific geographic area, an online community, or a workplace?
• Characteristics : What unique qualities or experiences do your participants possess that are relevant to your study?

Your study population is the lens through which you will observe and understand the world you are researching, so choose wisely.

Data Collection Methods and Tools

Ethnographic research relies on a variety of data collection methods to capture the richness of human experiences and behaviors. Familiarize yourself with these methods and select the ones that best align with your research objectives. Some standard methods include:

• Participant Observation : Immerse yourself in the community or setting you are studying, actively participating and recording your observations.
• In-depth Interviews : Conduct open-ended interviews to gather personal narratives and insights from participants.
• Focus Groups : Bring together a small group of participants to engage in discussions about specific topics, revealing group dynamics and shared beliefs.
• Surveys and Questionnaires : Use structured surveys to collect quantitative data alongside qualitative findings, allowing for broader insights.

Choosing the correct data collection methods and tools is essential for capturing the depth and breadth of your research subject. Each method has its strengths and limitations, so consider a mix of approaches to obtain a comprehensive view.

Ethical Considerations in Ethnographic Research

Ethical integrity is at the core of ethnographic research. As you immerse yourself in the lives and experiences of others, it's essential to uphold ethical principles and protect the well-being and rights of your participants.

• Informed Consent : Obtain informed consent from participants, ensuring they understand the purpose, scope, and potential consequences of the research.
• Anonymity and Confidentiality : Safeguard the identities and sensitive information of participants, using pseudonyms if necessary.
• Respect for Cultural Sensitivity : Be culturally sensitive and aware of potential biases when conducting research in diverse communities or settings.
• Balancing Observation and Intervention : Strive for a balance between observing and intervening, ensuring your presence does not harm or disrupt the environment.

Ethical dilemmas can arise during ethnographic research, and addressing them transparently and responsibly is essential. Seek guidance from ethical review boards or colleagues when faced with complex ethical decisions. Your commitment to ethical conduct will enhance the credibility and impact of your research.

With these essential preparations in place, you are ready to embark on your ethnographic research journey with confidence and purpose.

How to Conduct Ethnographic Research?

Now that you've laid the groundwork in preparation, it's time to delve into the heart of ethnographic research: data collection and analysis. We will explore the various methods used to gather insights into the world you are studying.

Participant Observation

Participant observation is a hallmark of ethnographic research, where you become an active participant in the community or setting you are studying. It involves immersing yourself in the culture and environment, actively engaging with the people and events.

• Engage and Build Rapport : Establish trust and build relationships with the participants. Engage in conversations and activities to gain access to their perspectives.
• Taking Field Notes : Document your observations, experiences, and interactions meticulously. Keep a field journal to record your thoughts, emotions, and key events.
• Participate and Reflect : Actively participate in the community's activities while reflecting on your experiences. Be mindful of your role as an observer and its potential impact on the environment.
• Maintain Objectivity : Strive to maintain objectivity while acknowledging your own biases and perspectives. Balance immersion with the critical distance necessary for analysis.

In-depth Interviews

In-depth interviews provide a window into individual experiences and perspectives. They offer a deeper understanding of specific aspects of your research subject. To conduct effective in-depth interviews:

• Develop Open-ended Questions : Craft questions encouraging participants to share their stories, experiences, and insights. Avoid leading or closed-ended questions.
• Active Listening : Be an active listener, allowing participants to express themselves fully. Show empathy and curiosity to elicit rich responses.
• Establish Trust : Create a comfortable and non-judgmental environment. Assure participants of confidentiality and their right to withdraw from the interview at any time.
• Sampling Diversity : Consider diversity in your interviewee selection to capture a range of perspectives and experiences within the community or setting.

Focus Groups

Focus groups are a valuable method for understanding group dynamics, shared beliefs, and diverse opinions within a community or setting.

• Define Clear Objectives : Specify the goals of the focus group and the topics to be discussed. Ensure participants understand the purpose of the discussion.
• Moderation Skills : Be an effective moderator, guiding the conversation while allowing participants to interact freely. Encourage open dialogue and diverse viewpoints.
• Small and Diverse Groups : Keep focus groups small (typically 6-10 participants) and diverse to stimulate discussions and explore varying perspectives.
• Record and Analyze : Record focus group discussions and transcribe them for analysis. Identify common themes, disagreements, and emerging ideas.

Surveys and Questionnaires

Surveys and questionnaires can complement qualitative data with quantitative insights, allowing for a broader understanding of your research subject. To use surveys effectively:

• Design with Clarity : Craft clear and concise questions. Ensure survey items are free from ambiguity and bias. Pilot-test the survey to identify any issues.
• Sampling Strategy : Define your target audience and select a representative sample. Consider using random or stratified sampling techniques to minimize bias.
• Data Analysis : Use statistical tools to analyze survey data. Identify trends, correlations, and patterns that can enhance your qualitative findings.

Data Recording and Analysis

Accurate data recording and thorough analysis are essential to extract meaningful insights from your ethnographic research.

• Organized Data Collection : Maintain well-organized records of your data, including field notes, interview transcripts, and survey responses. Use digital tools to assist with data management.
• Thematic Coding : Employ thematic coding to categorize and organize qualitative data. Identify recurring themes, patterns, and concepts within your data.
• Narrative Analysis : Dive into the narratives and stories within your data. Explore the cultural context and underlying meanings embedded in the narratives.
• Triangulation : Consider using multiple data sources and methods to enhance the credibility and validity of your findings. Triangulation involves cross-referencing information to ensure accuracy.
• Iterative Process : Data analysis is often an iterative process. Continuously revisit your research questions and objectives as you delve deeper into your findings.

In ethnographic research, data collection and analysis are the tools that help you uncover the hidden layers of culture, behavior, and society. Remember that each method has its strengths and limitations, so choose and adapt your approach based on your research goals and the nature of your study population.

Data Analysis in Ethnographic Research

Once you've gathered a wealth of ethnographic data, the next crucial step is to analyze it effectively. Let's examine the various methods and tools used to make sense of the rich qualitative data you've collected.

Thematic Coding

Thematic coding is a systematic approach to organizing and categorizing qualitative data. It helps you identify recurring themes, patterns, and concepts within your data.

• Data Familiarization : Begin by thoroughly familiarizing yourself with your data—this may include field notes, interview transcripts, and survey responses.
• Code Development : Create a set of codes or keywords representing key ideas, concepts, or themes in your data. These codes serve as labels for different aspects of your data.
• Coding Process : Go through your data systematically, assigning relevant codes to specific portions of text or data points. Be consistent in your coding approach.
• Coding Software : Consider using qualitative data analysis software like NVivo or MAXQDA to streamline the coding process and manage large datasets.
• Theme Emergence : As you code, pay attention to emerging themes and patterns. These may be unexpected and can lead to deeper insights.
• Data Reduction : Once coding is complete, summarize and condense the data under each code. This helps in the later stages of analysis.
• Cross-referencing : Cross-reference coded data to see how themes relate to one another. This can reveal complex relationships within your data.

Thematic coding is a powerful tool for identifying the core ideas and concepts that emerge from your ethnographic research. It provides a structured framework for further analysis.

Narrative Analysis

Narrative analysis focuses on the stories and narratives within your ethnographic data. It delves into the cultural context and underlying meanings embedded in the narratives.

• Story Identification : Identify the narratives or stories within your data. Look for personal experiences, anecdotes, and accounts that reveal cultural insights.
• Contextualization : Understand the cultural, social, and historical context in which the narratives are situated. This context provides crucial insights into the meaning of the stories.
• Character Analysis : Analyze the characters within the narratives, their roles, and their relationships. Pay attention to how they shape the narrative.
• Plot and Structure : Examine the narrative structure, including the beginning, middle, and end. Identify any patterns or shifts in the storytelling.
• Themes and Motifs : Identify recurring themes, motifs, or symbols within the narratives. These elements often carry cultural significance.
• Interpretation : Interpret the narratives by considering the cultural norms, values, and ideologies embedded in the stories. Analyze the implications of these narratives for your research.

Narrative analysis allows you to dig deep into the storytelling aspect of your data, uncovering the cultural narratives that shape the experiences and perspectives of your participants.

Comparative Analysis

Comparative analysis involves comparing different cases or groups within your ethnographic study. This method can highlight variations and similarities, shedding light on significant trends.

• Case Selection : Select specific cases or groups within your study that you intend to compare. Ensure these cases are relevant to your research objectives.
• Data Comparison : Compare data from different cases or groups systematically. Look for patterns, differences, and commonalities in their behaviors, experiences, or beliefs.
• Pattern Recognition : Identify recurring patterns and themes that emerge through comparison. These patterns may relate to cultural practices, behaviors, or attitudes.
• Contextual Understanding : Consider the context in which each case or group operates. Understanding the unique context is crucial for accurate interpretation.
• Cross-case Analysis : Conduct a cross-case analysis to draw meaningful conclusions about the overarching themes or trends in your data.

Comparative analysis allows you to gain a broader perspective on your research subject by examining how different contexts or groups influence the phenomena you're studying.

Qualitative Data Software

Qualitative data analysis software is valuable for managing and analyzing ethnographic data, particularly when dealing with large datasets. These software programs, such as NVivo, MAXQDA, and Dedoose, offer several advantages:

• Data Management : Store and organize your data in a structured manner, making it easy to locate and retrieve specific information.
• Efficient Coding : Streamline the coding process by using features that allow you to tag and categorize data quickly.
• Cross-referencing : Easily cross-reference coded data, facilitating in-depth analysis and exploration of relationships.
• Visualization Tools : Create visual representations of your data, such as charts and graphs, to aid in data interpretation and presentation.
• Collaboration : Collaborate with other researchers by sharing your data and analysis within the software platform.
• Project Documentation : Keep track of your research process, coding decisions, and analysis notes within the software, ensuring transparency and reproducibility.

Using qualitative data software can save you time and enhance the rigor of your ethnographic data analysis. It offers a user-friendly interface and various features tailored to the needs of qualitative researchers.

With these tools and techniques at your disposal, you can confidently embark on the journey of data analysis in ethnographic research, unraveling the intricate tapestry of insights hidden within your qualitative data. Remember that the depth of your analysis will determine the richness of the stories you uncover.

How to Report Ethnographic Findings?

Having conducted your ethnographic research and analyzed the data, the next critical step is to communicate your findings effectively. Here are some strategies and techniques for reporting and presenting ethnographic insights.

Writing Ethnographic Research Reports

Writing a well-structured and comprehensive research report is essential for conveying the depth and significance of your ethnographic findings. To craft an impactful ethnographic research report:

• Clear Structure : Begin with an introduction that sets the stage for your research. Provide a clear statement of your objectives and research questions. Outline the structure of your report.
• Detailed Methodology : Describe your research methodology in detail, including data collection methods, participant selection, and ethical considerations. Transparency is key.
• Rich Description : Present your findings using rich descriptions, incorporating quotes, anecdotes, and narratives to illustrate key points. Paint a vivid picture of the cultural and social context.
• Thematic Presentation : Organize your report thematically, presenting key themes and patterns that emerged from your data. Use clear headings and subheadings to guide the reader.
• Interpretation and Analysis : Offer thoughtful interpretation and analysis of the themes, connecting them to your research objectives. Discuss the implications of your findings.
• Visual Aids : Supplement your text with visuals such as photographs, charts, and graphs where appropriate. Visual aids can enhance understanding and engagement.
• Recommendations : Provide practical recommendations or insights that can be applied in relevant fields, whether it's marketing, healthcare, education, or community development.
• Conclusion : Summarize your key findings and their significance. Highlight the contributions of your research and suggest avenues for future studies.
• Citations and References : Ensure proper citation of sources and references. Use a consistent citation style (e.g., APA, MLA) throughout your report.
• Appendices : Include any supplementary materials, such as interview transcripts, in an appendix for those who wish to delve deeper into your data.

Writing an ethnographic research report is not just about presenting facts; it's about telling a compelling and informative story that captures the essence of your research subject.

Visual Presentation of Data

In addition to a written report, visual presentation of data can be a powerful way to convey your ethnographic findings. Visuals can make complex information more accessible and engaging.

• Charts and Graphs : Use charts and graphs to illustrate quantitative data or show trends and comparisons. Bar charts, pie charts, and line graphs are commonly used for this purpose.
• Photographs and Images : Include relevant pictures and images that provide visual context to your findings. Ensure proper permissions and ethical considerations for using participant photos.
• Infographics : Create infographics that condense key information into visually appealing and easy-to-understand formats. Infographics can be particularly useful for summarizing complex data.
• Maps : If your research involves geographic elements, use maps to visually represent locations and spatial relationships. Geographic information systems (GIS) can assist in creating informative maps.
• Flowcharts and Diagrams : Utilize flowcharts and diagrams to illustrate processes, workflows, or relationships within your research subject.
• Visual Consistency : Maintain a consistent visual style throughout your presentation to enhance readability and professionalism. Use colors, fonts, and formatting consistently.
• Accessibility : Ensure your visual elements are accessible to all audiences, including those with disabilities. Provide alternative text for images and use accessible design principles.
• Captions and Labels : Include clear captions and labels for all visuals to provide context and explanations.

Visual presentation of data can be a powerful supplement to your ethnographic research report, enabling your audience to grasp the essence of your findings at a glance.

Effective Communication of Ethnographic Insights

Effectively communicating ethnographic insights goes beyond the written report and visual aids. It involves engaging with various stakeholders and tailoring your communication to your target audience.

• Know Your Audience : Understand who will be consuming your research findings. Are they academics, business professionals, community members, or policymakers? Tailor your communication to their needs and interests.
• Engage Stakeholders : Actively engage with stakeholders throughout your research process. Involve them in discussions, share preliminary findings, and gather their input.
• Storytelling : Use the power of storytelling to convey your ethnographic insights. Share compelling anecdotes and narratives that resonate with your audience and illustrate key points.
• Visual Presentations : When presenting your findings in person, consider using visual aids like slideshows or posters. Ensure these visuals complement your spoken narrative.
• Interactive Workshops : Organize workshops or interactive sessions to engage your audience actively. Encourage discussions and collaboration to deepen understanding.
• Plain Language : Avoid jargon and academic language. Use plain language that is accessible to a broader audience. Explain technical terms when necessary.
• Feedback and Q&A : Be open to questions and feedback from your audience . Address their inquiries with clarity and patience.
• Actionable Insights : Highlight actionable insights your audience can use in their respective fields or decision-making processes. Emphasize the practical implications of your research.

Effective communication ensures that your ethnographic insights have a meaningful impact and can drive positive change in the areas to which they apply. It bridges the gap between research and real-world application.

In summary, reporting and presenting ethnographic findings is about translating your in-depth research into formats that are accessible, engaging, and relevant to your intended audience. Whether through written reports, visual elements, or interpersonal communication, the goal is to convey the richness of your ethnographic research in a compelling and informative manner.

Ethnographic Research Applications

Ethnographic research is a versatile and robust method that can be applied across various fields and disciplines. We'll delve into some applications of ethnographic research, shedding light on how it can provide valuable insights in diverse areas.

Marketing and Consumer Behavior Studies

Ethnographic research is pivotal in understanding consumer behavior , preferences, and decision-making processes. By immersing researchers in the consumer's world, it uncovers hidden motivations and contextual factors that drive choices. Here's how ethnographic research is applied in marketing:

• Consumer Insights : Ethnography allows marketers to gain deep insights into the daily lives, habits, and aspirations of their target audience. This understanding helps in tailoring products and marketing strategies.
• Observing Purchase Behaviors : Researchers can observe and analyze how consumers behave in real-life shopping situations . This includes tracking shopping patterns, in-store navigation, and product selections.
• Brand Perception : Ethnography uncovers how consumers perceive and interact with brands . It provides insights into brand loyalty, trust, and the emotional connections that drive consumer choices.
• Product Innovation : Ethnographic research can inspire product innovation by identifying unmet needs and opportunities. By witnessing how products fit into consumers' lives, companies can design solutions that truly resonate.
• Market Segmentation : Ethnographic insights enable the creation of more refined market segments based on actual behaviors and lifestyles rather than demographic data alone.

Healthcare and Medical Anthropology

Ethnographic research is instrumental in healthcare and medical anthropology, offering a holistic understanding of health-related practices, patient experiences, and cultural factors influencing health outcomes.

• Patient-Centered Care : Ethnographic studies explore patient perspectives, beliefs, and healthcare-seeking behaviors. This information helps healthcare providers offer patient-centered care that respects cultural norms and values.
• Cultural Competency : Healthcare professionals and policymakers use ethnographic insights to develop cultural competency, ensuring that healthcare services are sensitive to diverse cultural backgrounds.
• Public Health Interventions : Ethnographic research informs the design and implementation of public health interventions. It identifies barriers to health behavior change and effective strategies for outreach.
• Medical Decision-Making : Understanding how patients and families make medical decisions helps medical professionals communicate effectively and provide tailored care plans.
• Healthcare Disparities : Ethnography uncovers disparities in access to healthcare, highlighting social, economic, and cultural factors that impact health outcomes.

Education and Classroom Observations

In education, ethnographic research provides valuable insights into classroom dynamics, teaching methods, and student experiences. It helps educators and researchers improve educational practices.

• Understanding Learning Environments : Ethnography offers a window into the daily experiences of students and teachers in the classroom. Researchers can observe interactions, teaching styles, and learning challenges.
• Curriculum Development : Insights from ethnographic research can inform curriculum development by tailoring educational content to meet the needs and interests of students.
• Teacher-Student Relationships : Ethnography allows for the exploration of teacher-student relationships, identifying factors that enhance or hinder effective teaching and learning.
• Cultural Awareness : Teachers can benefit from ethnographic studies highlighting cultural diversity within classrooms. This awareness helps create inclusive and culturally sensitive teaching practices.
• Policy and Reform : Ethnographic research provides data that informs education policy and reforms. It helps policymakers understand the realities of classrooms and make evidence-based decisions.

Urban Planning and Community Development

Ethnographic research is vital in urban planning and community development initiatives, offering insights into the dynamics of neighborhoods, communities, and urban spaces.

• Community Engagement : Ethnography involves engaging with community members, listening to their concerns, and involving them in the planning process. This participatory approach fosters community buy-in and empowers residents.
• Understanding Neighborhoods : Researchers use ethnographic methods to understand the social, economic, and cultural dynamics of neighborhoods. This knowledge informs urban development projects and revitalization efforts.
• Public Spaces : Ethnography can shed light on how public spaces are used and experienced by residents. It guides the design of parks, plazas, and other community areas.
• Social Services : Ethnographic research helps identify social service needs within communities, allowing for targeted interventions and support programs.
• Cultural Preservation : In culturally diverse urban areas, ethnography assists in preserving and celebrating cultural traditions, languages, and heritage.

Ethnographic research empowers urban planners and community developers to create more vibrant, inclusive, and sustainable urban environments by considering the perspectives and needs of the people who inhabit them.

Ethnographic Research Examples

To truly grasp the power and potential of ethnographic research, let's delve into some compelling real-world examples where this methodology has been employed to gain profound insights and drive impactful decisions.

Example 1: Enhancing User Experience in a Social Media Platform

Research Focus : Improving the user experience (UX) of a popular social media platform.

Methodology : Ethnographers embedded themselves within the platform's user community. They observed how users interacted with the platform, from posting content to engaging with others. In-depth interviews and surveys were conducted to understand user preferences and pain points.

Findings : The ethnographic study revealed that users valued real-time interaction and visual content. However, they felt overwhelmed by the sheer volume of information. Armed with these insights, the platform redesigned its algorithms to prioritize relevant content and introduced features that encouraged more meaningful interactions. As a result, user engagement and satisfaction significantly increased.

Example 2: Transforming Healthcare Delivery in Rural Areas

Research Focus : Improving healthcare delivery in underserved rural communities.

Methodology : Ethnographic researchers spent months immersed in rural healthcare clinics. They observed patient journeys, interactions with healthcare providers, and the challenges faced by both patients and medical staff. In-depth interviews and focus group discussions were conducted with community members.

Findings : The ethnographic study unveiled barriers such as limited access to transportation and healthcare information, which hindered timely medical care. Armed with these insights, healthcare organizations partnered with local transportation providers and launched educational outreach programs. These interventions led to improved healthcare access and better health outcomes for rural residents.

Example 3: Revitalizing an Urban Neighborhood

Research Focus : Revitalizing a declining urban neighborhood.

Methodology : Ethnographic researchers integrated themselves into the neighborhood's fabric, attending community events, engaging with residents, and documenting their daily lives. They also conducted surveys and interviews to understand the aspirations and concerns of residents.

Findings : The ethnographic study highlighted the importance of community pride and a desire for safer public spaces. With these insights, urban planners and community leaders initiated projects to refurbish parks, enhance street lighting, and promote local cultural events. These efforts not only transformed the neighborhood aesthetically but also fostered a sense of belonging and community cohesion.

These real-world examples demonstrate the versatility and impact of ethnographic research in diverse contexts. From digital platforms to healthcare and urban planning, ethnography uncovers hidden truths, informs strategic decisions, and drives positive change. It's a methodology that celebrates the human experience, one immersive observation at a time.

Ethnographic Research Best Practices

To overcome the challenges and maximize the effectiveness of ethnographic research, researchers can follow best practices that have evolved over time. These practices are instrumental in ensuring the quality and rigor of ethnographic studies.

• Clear Research Objectives : Begin with well-defined research objectives and questions to guide your study.
• Participant Observation : Immerse yourself in the research setting, actively engaging with participants and gaining their trust.
• Triangulation : Use multiple data sources and methods to enhance the reliability and validity of your findings.
• Ethical Considerations : Prioritize ethical conduct, obtain informed consent, and protect the privacy and dignity of participants.
• Continuous Reflexivity : Reflect on your role as a researcher and your potential biases throughout the research process.
• Transparency : Document your research methods, decisions, and any changes made during the study to ensure transparency and replicability.
• Member Checking : Consider involving participants in the research process by sharing findings with them and seeking their input.
• Pilot Testing : Pilot-test your data collection instruments and methods to identify and address potential issues.
• Data Management : Organize and manage your data systematically, using qualitative analysis software if needed.
• Collaboration : Collaborate with colleagues and seek peer feedback to enhance the quality of your research.
• Contextualization : Always place your findings in the broader cultural, social, and historical context to enhance their meaning and significance.
• Interdisciplinary Approach : Consider drawing from other disciplines and approaches to enrich your ethnographic research.

By adhering to these best practices, ethnographic researchers can navigate challenges and ensure the integrity and impact of their studies. Ethnography remains a dynamic and adaptable research method that continues to evolve and adapt to the complexities of the modern world.

Ethnographic Research Challenges and Limitations

While ethnographic research offers invaluable insights, it also presents unique challenges and limitations researchers must navigate. Understanding these challenges is essential to conduct ethnographic research effectively.

• Time-Intensive : Ethnographic research can be time-consuming, requiring extended periods of immersion and data collection. Researchers must commit to long-term fieldwork.
• Resource Demands : Conducting ethnography often demands significant resources, including funding, research assistants, and access to the research site.
• Subjectivity : The researcher's presence and subjectivity can influence the data collected. It's essential to acknowledge and manage biases and maintain objectivity.
• Access and Trust : Gaining access to certain communities or settings may be challenging, and building trust with participants can take time.
• Ethical Dilemmas : Ethnographic research may present ethical dilemmas, especially when observing sensitive or vulnerable populations. Researchers must navigate these ethical complexities.
• Generalizability : Ethnographic findings are often context-specific and may not be easily generalized to broader populations. Researchers must be cautious about overgeneralization.
• Limited Sample Size : Due to the intensive nature of ethnography, sample sizes tend to be small. This limits the statistical power of the research.
• Data Management : Managing and analyzing qualitative data from ethnographic research can be complex, requiring specialized skills and tools.
• Researcher Fatigue : Prolonged fieldwork can lead to researcher fatigue, potentially affecting the quality of data collected.
• Interpretation Challenges : Interpreting ethnographic data can be challenging, as it often involves qualitative analysis that may be open to multiple interpretations.

Conclusion for Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research serves as a powerful compass for exploring human cultures, behaviors, and societies. It enables researchers to step into the shoes of those they study, uncovering hidden stories and perspectives that might otherwise remain concealed. By embracing the principles and best practices outlined in this guide, you too can embark on journeys of discovery, fostering a deeper appreciation for the diverse world we inhabit. Ethnography is not merely a research method; it is a bridge that connects researchers to the lived experiences of others. It empowers us to break down barriers, foster empathy, and drive positive change in a multitude of fields. So, whether you are a student, a professional, or a curious explorer of the human condition, remember that ethnographic research offers a profound lens through which to view and understand the world around us. Embrace the journey, and may your ethnographic endeavors yield meaningful insights and lasting impacts.

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Ethnographic Research: Methods And Examples

Ethnography is a research method used to learn about the lives of others. It helps us understand how and why…

Ethnography is a research method used to learn about the lives of others. It helps us understand how and why people behave differently in various societies or cultures.

Ethnographic research is the process of collecting data about a group of people. It’s a popular technique used by anthropologists, sociologists and others who study human behavior. It’s mainly thought of as a qualitative research method, which means it allows us to study subjects that don’t lend themselves to numerical data. But, it can be used to collect quantitative data as well.

To find out more about the meaning of ethnographic research, read on.

What Is Ethnographic Research?

Ethnographic research methods, when to use ethnographic research methods, examples of ethnographic research, challenges of ethnographic research, advantages of ethnographic research.

When we wish to understand a particular social phenomenon, ethnographic research can be a useful tool.

Ethnography is a great method to understand how cultures work and affect the people who belong to them. To do this properly requires detailed observations about what is going on in a particular society. Here are some defining features of this type of research:

• We can conduct ethnographic research in the natural setting of subjects or respondents. Researchers must travel to where their subjects are. The fieldwork can be completed by several researchers who specialize in this type of work if it spans a large sample size or a wide geographical area.
•   Ethnographic researchers avoid making judgments about specific cases. They don’t judge people on dimensions such as morality and social behavior. Instead, they describe their experience of social groups. They don’t treat people as objects for data collection but as subjects who must give their informed consent for such research.  
• There are focused ethnographic methods where only one type of data is collected. For example, if the subject is food eaten in a certain culture, researchers may concentrate on kitchen habits, recipes and how food is sourced.
• You can collect demographic data, which includes information about the culture’s people. This is where quantitative data can also come into play.
• Ethnographers need large amounts of data. The more time researchers spend immersed in the subject’s society, the better understanding they’ll have of the culture.

Now that we’ve answered the question, “What is ethnographic research?”, let’s look at how it’s done.

As we’ve discovered, ethnographic research is a method often used to study another culture or group of people. It’s a powerful tool to understand the world better. It can be done through observation, active participation and even interviews with the people being studied.

In the field, anthropologists often take notes while observing their subjects. They also record conversations and keep a journal of what they see. Later, these findings get transcribed and analyzed for accuracy. In addition, multiple researchers can work to get a clear picture of a culture or community. All of this data can go into a book, article, or scientific report that describes the findings of the group’s research.

Let’s look at some specific research techniques used in an ethnographic study:

Observational Study

As the goal of ethnographic research is closely studying an individual (or group) in their natural environment, observation is the primary method used. Researchers can observe the same people or groups on a regular basis for several weeks or months at a time.

Paired Observation

The researchers can interview two people within the same culture. They may be related to each other in some way or involved in different actions. This method is used to gather data in many types of research, including medical research.

Participant Observation

The researcher joins a group of people being studied, either by living with them or by observing them for an extended period of time during the day. They record what they see. Participant observation is most often used in social science fields, including anthropology, social psychology and sociology.

Field Notes

Field notes come in two types: primary and secondary. In some types of research, such as participatory action research, field notes are the primary documents for analysis and interpretation. ( https://woodlees.com/ ) However, field notes are often secondary documents used to provide background information for analysis and interpretation.

While ethnography is a useful method of research, it isn’t suitable for all situations.

Some consider ethnographic research more art than science. Cultures and cultural phenomena aren’t easy to quantify, so they can be open to interpretation. That’s when the meaning of ethnographic research really comes into its own.

Quantitative researchers try to gather data objectively through numbers and statistics, while qualitative researchers use their observations to describe what they see taking place in a particular culture or society. Quantitative research tries to infer from past experiences to predict future events or results. Qualitative researchers aim to understand a culture or society by listening to what its members have to say about it.

Ethnographers can employ quantitative methods in their study. But, it’s the qualitative component that sets this method apart. The data can shed light on an issue. That’s why ethnographic methods can be so effective in getting to know groups of people, their cultures and social interactions. It tends to be used in anthropology, sociology and political science but has wider applications too.

Ethnographic research can be used to study issues big and small, cultural or business-related. Here are a few examples of its uses:

• The principal subject of ethnography or ethnological research is to study culture, society, ethnic groups and human behavior.
•  Among cognitive scientists, ethnographic research is usually done to understand the general functioning of cognition in a particular group of people.
• In business, we can see examples of ethnographic research used for product development, where companies learn how consumers use their products.
• It also applies to marketing research, where companies can develop a sense of how the public thinks about their product.
• In social work, ethnographic research is used to find out how people cope with problems and challenges they face in their daily lives.
• Another application is in the design of interactive technologies. By observing how people interact with existing technologies, engineers can design new ones that are more effective and user-friendly.

These are just a few examples of how ethnographic research can be used.

As with other research methods, there are challenges to ethnographic research. It’s important to consider these before choosing the right research method. Here are some points to keep in mind:

• It’s time-consuming. In almost every case, it takes a lot of effort for anthropologists to go into another culture and learn about it.
• Results from ethnographic research only apply to the people being studied. It’s difficult to generalize those results to other cultures or societies as a whole.
• The specifics of what was said in an interview may not be reported accurately due to communication barriers. It may also be because researchers weren’t sensitive to the people being studied. If an ethnographer is insensitive to a culture’s people, they may not talk with them freely.
• It’s subject to interpretation. A researcher’s interpretation of the data may be biased.
• Sometimes people don’t want their cultural information shared with outsiders. This may prevent them from speaking clearly or giving consent to researchers.
• There are practical and ethical concerns of ethnographic research. However, getting prior consent of the participants, maintaining their confidentiality and a proper research design can mitigate these issues.

Just as there are drawbacks, there are clear advantages to using ethnographic research. Let’s recap these:

• Ethnography can make it easier for researchers to understand a culture and the way people see themselves. This gives researchers a wider view of how cultures function, which can be very helpful.
• Ethnographic research also allows researchers to document a society or group of people. People around the world can then benefit from that knowledge.
• It provides a different way to collect data about social structures and the way people interact with one another.
• We can also use ethnographic research as a form of advocacy. For example, anthropologists can help those being studied gain access to resources that were previously unavailable to them. By studying remote or marginalized communities, we can better understand their needs and priorities.

These are just a few of the strengths of ethnographic research, a widely used method in the social sciences. Ethnographic research can provide valuable insights into people and how they live. That’s important information to have for a professional on an upward trajectory.

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Breaking Down Barriers – Using Ethnography to Build Cultural Understanding

Ethnography is a research method used to study human cultures and societies. At its core, ethnography is the study of human cultures and societies through observation and participation in their day-to-day activities.

Ethnographers aim to gain an in-depth understanding of the culture they are studying by immersing themselves in it and observing it from within. This approach allows them to gather rich qualitative data that can help explain how people think, behave, interact with one another, and make sense of their world.

This research method is widely used across various fields such as anthropology, sociology , education, business, and more to gain insights into different cultures and ways of life.

Ethnography – An Introduction

Ethnography is a research method that involves the systematic study of human cultures and societies through observation and participation in their daily activities. It typically requires immersion in the culture being studied, often for an extended period of time, to gain a deep understanding of its norms, values, beliefs, and practices.

The key components of ethnography include participant observation, fieldwork, and data analysis.

Participant observation involves the researcher taking an active role in the culture they are studying by participating in its activities and observing its members’ behaviour. Fieldwork refers to the process of collecting data through direct observation, interviews, and other methods while living among the people being studied. Data analysis involves interpreting the data collected during fieldwork to develop insights into the culture under study.

Ethnography differs from other research methods like surveys or interviews in several ways. Surveys typically involve collecting data from a large group of people using standardized questions or measurements. Interviews involve asking individuals about their experiences or opinions on a particular topic. In contrast, ethnography emphasizes direct observation of cultural practices and behaviors within their natural context rather than relying on self-reported information.

Overall, ethnography provides a unique perspective on human cultures and societies that cannot be obtained through other research methods. By immersing themselves in a culture and experiencing it first-hand, ethnographers can gain insights into how people think, behave, and interact with one another that would be difficult to obtain through any other means.

Participant Observation

Participant observation is a research method used in ethnography and other social sciences that involves the researcher taking an active role in the culture or group being studied.

In participant observation, the researcher immerses themselves in the culture and participates in its activities while observing and recording their experiences. This approach allows the researcher to gain a deep understanding of the culture’s norms, values, beliefs, and practices from an insider’s perspective.

Participant observation typically involves several stages, including gaining entry into the culture or group being studied, establishing trust with its members, learning about its social structure and dynamics, participating in its activities while observing them, and collecting data through field notes or other methods.

The process is time-consuming and challenging, but it can provide rich qualitative data that would be difficult to obtain through other means.

Fieldwork is a research method used in ethnography and other social sciences that involves conducting research in the natural environment or “field” where the culture or group being studied is located. In the context of ethnography, fieldwork typically involves immersing oneself in the culture being studied to gain a deep understanding of its norms, values, beliefs, and practices.

During fieldwork, researchers may engage in participant observation by actively participating in the activities of the culture they are studying while observing and recording their experiences. They may also conduct interviews with members of the culture to gain additional insights into their perspectives and experiences.

Cultural Informant Interviews

Cultural informants are individuals who are knowledgeable about the culture being studied and can provide valuable information to researchers. The ethnographer interviews them to gain insights into their perspectives, experiences, and beliefs.

During cultural informant interviews, researchers ask open-ended questions to gather information about the society’s norms, values, beliefs, and practices. The goal is to gain a deep understanding of the culture from the perspective of its members. Informants may be chosen based on their expertise in specific areas or because they are representative of particular groups within the culture being studied.

Cultural informant interviews can be conducted individually or in groups and may take place in person or remotely. They typically involve building rapport with informants over time to establish trust and create an open dialogue.

Analysing and Describing Ethnographic Findings

Analyzing and describing ethnographic findings involves interpreting the data collected during fieldwork in order to draw conclusions about the culture being studied. The anthropologist begins by organizing their field notes, transcripts, and other data into categories or themes that emerge from the data itself. This involves identifying recurring patterns, themes, or ideas that arise during observation or interviews.

Once the anthropologist has organized their data into categories or themes, they identify the key cultural concepts that emerge from their analysis. These may include values, beliefs, practices, symbols, or social structures that are central to the culture being studied.

The anthropologist then uses their data to describe the norms and behaviors that are common within the culture being studied. This could involve discussing how people interact with each other in social settings or how they communicate with one another.

To understand cultural practices and beliefs fully, it’s important for the anthropologist to provide context for them. One of the ways anthropologists achieve this aim is by using a style known as thick description .

Thick description refers to the practice of providing detailed, contextualized accounts of cultural phenomena. When writing anthropological reports, ethnographers aim to provide readers with enough information to understand the cultural context in which events or activities took place. This type of detailed description is essential for understanding the complexities of human cultures and societies.

Based on their analysis of the data, the anthropologist draws conclusions about what they have learned about the culture being studied. This could involve making generalizations about cultural values or identifying unique features of a particular group within the culture.

Finally, the anthropologist presents their findings in a clear and concise manner using appropriate qualitative research methods such as narrative description, thematic analysis, or grounded theory.

Best Practices for Conducting Ethnographic Research

Develop a clear research question: Before beginning your research, it’s important to have a well-defined research question that will guide your study and help you stay focused on what you want to learn.

Build rapport with participants: Ethnography often involves spending extended periods of time in the field and building relationships with members of the community being studied. It’s essential to establish trust and create an open dialogue with participants.

Use multiple methods: Ethnographers use a variety of data collection methods, including observation, interviews, surveys, and document analysis. Using multiple methods can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the culture being studied.

Maintain detailed field notes: Accurate and detailed field notes are crucial for ethnographic research as they provide a record of observations, conversations, and experiences that can be analyzed later.

Practice reflexivity: Reflexivity is the process of reflecting on one’s own role in the research process and how this may impact data collection and analysis. Ethnographers should be aware of their own biases and assumptions and actively work to minimize their influence on the study.

Ensure confidentiality: Confidentiality is critical in ethnographic research as participants may share personal information or engage in behaviors that could put them at risk if made public. Researchers must take steps to protect participant privacy and ensure that any information shared is kept confidential.

Analyze data systematically: After collecting data, it’s essential to analyze it systematically using established qualitative research methods such as coding, thematic analysis, or grounded theory.

By following these best practices, ethnographers can conduct rigorous and ethical research that provides valuable insights into human cultures and societies while also respecting the rights and privacy of participants.

How Ethnography Differs from Other Qualitative Methods

Ethnography differs from other qualitative research methods, such as focus groups or interviews, in two key ways.

First, the main aim of ethnographic research is the interpretation of the shared norms and beliefs of the community under study. This means that ethnographers are more interested in understanding how a group interacts with each other and their cultural worlds than they are in individual perspectives.

Second, ethnography relies heavily on fieldwork. This means that ethnographers must immerse themselves in the daily lives of the people they are researching in order to understand their culture. This can be done through direct observation or participation in activities. This means that ethnographers often live with the people they are researching for extended periods of time in order to really understand their culture.

The Ethical Considerations of Ethnographic Research

When conducting ethnographic research, there are a number of ethical considerations that need to be taken into account in order to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner. This is especially important when working with vulnerable populations.

The following are some of the challenges involved in conducting ethnographic research and the ethical considerations that need to be taken into account.

Informed Consent

Conducting anthropological research requires gaining the trust of those being studied. This can be a challenge, especially if the researcher is coming from a different culture.

It is important to build relationships of trust and mutual respect in order to conduct ethical research. This can be done by spending time getting to know the people you will be working with, learning about their culture and customs, and respecting their way of life. If people do not trust you, they will not participate in your research.

It is also important to obtain informed consent from those who will be participating in your research. This means that participants must be made aware of what the research entails, what their role in the research will be, and how their personal information will be used. Participants must also be given the opportunity to ask questions and withdraw from the study at any time.

Respecting Privacy and Confidentiality

Another ethical consideration is protecting the confidentiality of participants. This means keeping their information safe and ensuring that it will not be used for any purpose other than what was originally agreed upon.

In some cases, researchers may need to change the names of participants or use pseudonyms in order to protect their identity. Any recordings or notes that are made during the course of the research should also be kept confidential.

This can be a challenge in ethnographic research because the very nature of the methodology involves observing people in their natural environment. This means that researchers may inadvertently collect personal information about participants without their knowledge or consent. One way to overcome this challenge is to establish clear boundaries with participants at the beginning of the research process and make sure they are aware of what information will be collected and how it will be used.

Code of Ethics

All anthropologists are bound by a code of ethics which sets out principles for conducting responsible and ethical research. The code of ethics includes principles such as respect for human dignity, protecting participant welfare, minimizing harm, upholding confidentiality, and obtaining informed consent.

The Challenges of Conducting Ethnographic Research

The goal of ethnographic research is to understand how people interact with each other and the world around them. In order to do this, ethnographers immerse themselves in the lives of the people they are studying. This can be a challenge, both logistically and emotionally. Here are some of the challenges involved in conducting ethnographic research.

Gaining access to the people being studied

One of the biggest challenges in conducting ethnographic research is gaining access to the necessary people and places. This can be difficult for a number of reasons, including language barriers, unfamiliarity with local customs, and lack of personal connections.

One way to overcome this challenge is to partner with someone who is already familiar with the community you’re researching. This person can act as a guide and introduce you to key members of the community who can provide valuable insights into your research topic.

Another challenge faced by many ethnographers is gaining the cooperation of research subjects. This can be difficult because people are often reluctant to talk about sensitive topics or share personal information with strangers. One way to overcome this challenge is to build rapport with your research subjects by establishing trust and demonstrating your understanding of their culture and values. Only once you have gained their trust should you begin asking questions about your research topic.

Time Commitment

Another challenge is the time commitment required. In order to really understand a culture, an ethnographer needs to spend a significant amount of time observing and interacting with the people in that culture. This can be logistically difficult, especially if the society under study is located in a different country or region. It can also be emotionally challenging, as it requires an ethnographer to be open and vulnerable with the people they are studying.

Analysis and Interpretation

Once an ethnographer has collected their data, they then face the challenge of analysis and interpretation. This is difficult because ethnographers must not only understand the culture they are studying, but also their own culture and biases.

In addition, ethnographic data often takes the form of unstructured observations, interviews, and field notes, which can be challenging to organize and interpret. One way to overcome this challenge is to use data management software like NVivo or Atlas.ti to help you organize and analyse your data.

And finally, the ethnographer must find a way to communicate their findings to others who have not experienced the society first hand. This is where thick description is crucial.

Conclusion – Ethnography is a Powerful Tool

Ethnography is a powerful research method that allows anthropologists to study human cultures and societies in depth. Its strength lies in its ability to provide rich, detailed descriptions of cultural practices, beliefs, and values while also providing context for these phenomena.

Ethnography differs from other qualitative research methods in that it emphasizes the importance of long-term fieldwork and participant observation as a way of gaining deep insights into cultural phenomena. By immersing themselves in the culture being studied, ethnographers can gain a nuanced understanding of complex social processes and interactions.

As such, ethnography continues to be an important tool for anthropologists seeking to understand the diverse ways in which people live and interact with one another around the world.

Related Terminology:

Thick description: A type of ethnographic data that provides highly detailed, contextualized accounts of social phenomena.

Triangulation: A method used by ethnographers to corroborate their findings by collecting data from multiple sources.

Qualitative research : A type of research that uses inductive, observational methods to generate rich, detailed data about a particular phenomenon.

Quantitative research: A type of research that uses deductive, statistical methods to generate numerical data about a particular phenomenon.

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5 Examples of Ethnographic Research Driving Design (and 8 Tips for Designers)

A cornerstone of Fuzzy Math’s user-centered design process is understanding our users through research. In some cases, remote interviews and screen shares don’t quite cut it — in order to really get the insights we need, we need to do ethnographic research and observe people in the real contexts that we’re designing for. Ethnographic research in design has some unique challenges but ultimately rewards us with highly applicable insights.

Here we explore five times that ethnographic research helped to drive effective design at Fuzzy Math and share our expert tips for conducting your own research in the field.

What is Ethnographic Research? 

Put simply, ethnographic research (or ethnography) describes UX research that is observational and done in context. Just as an anthropologist travels to observe and participate in another culture , a UX designer or researcher conducting ethnographic research puts themselves right next to their user, observing their process and seeking to understand the entire ecosystem in which that process takes place.

The majority of user research done at Fuzzy Math is a combination of ethnographic research and in-depth interviews that we refer to as “ contextual inquiry .” This type of research allows us to observe the participant as they complete tasks in their typical environment while also asking questions to better understand how and why they’re doing what they are.

 Need some help understanding your users? Ethnographic research is a core component of what we do at Fuzzy Math.

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As we conduct ethnographic research across many industries and contexts, we hope that some of our experiences and tips below might help inspire you to conduct some ethnographic research of your own.

5 Examples of Ethnographic Research in Design

1. in-home tax research.

Anthropologist Margaret Mead once said that “what people say, what people do, and what people say they do are entirely different things.” So in doing research for how people file their taxes, we needed to actually watch them file their taxes. We asked people to meet us in person in their homes (or offices, or a cafe) to watch them file their taxes in whatever context they normally did them.  

What We Did

Fuzzy Mathletes went in pairs to meet people wherever they were planning to file their taxes. We began each session with a few questions about the tax process and their previous experiences with it, and then watched participants as they filed their taxes, asking some questions along the way to gain additional thoughts and details during the task. We asked about everything from whether and why someone chose different software each year to how taxes made them feel and what the best and worst parts of the process were for them. During each session, we used physical artifacts — printouts with timelines and a Likert scale to measure their comfort level with filing their taxes — to supplement our conversations; we filled them out while asking participants to confirm what we wrote, and we asked follow-up questions spurred by the content created during the research.

Tips for Success

Creating artifacts like printouts to help ground conversations and to reference during an interview is useful not only during the interview but also to reference during analysis. For the parts of the interview relevant to the printouts (e.g. we took notes on a timeline about the tax process throughout the year), it was easy to go back and find similarities and differences between people’s processes in a relatively standardized format, rather than trying to dig through pages of notes for each of the 20 interviews.

What people say, what people do, and what people say they do are entirely different things. Margaret Mead

2. Warehouse Research for a Grocery Distributor

We visited a warehouse for a national grocery distributor to talk to the workers on the ground managing products arriving into the warehouse. Our end goal: to redesign the process of tracking discrepancies between what was ordered from the vendor and what made it to the warehouse.

Because the process at the time was done entirely between paper forms and a handheld scanner connected directly to their warehouse management system, remote research simply was not an option. We spent time early in the project doing ethnographic research and observing the receiving team as they worked on the warehouse floor trying to get products off the dock and put away as quickly as possible. This gave us a pretty good feel for the process of unpacking, counting boxes, doing math on the sides of boxes and in the margins of packing slips, and constantly stopping to scribble notes about any problems with the shipment.

Both of these user groups in the warehouse had their attention pulled in 10 different directions at all times. Because we had first-hand knowledge of what their environment was like, we were able to effectively advocate for their needs — increasing time spent on the computer does not make sense for these users.

The shipping industry is beholden to the whims of Mother Nature, and there were times when our scheduled ethnographic research couldn’t take place simply because the workers were not able to do their typical jobs as ice storms kept trucks out of the receiving dock. During those sessions, having a backup plan was crucial. Prior to arriving we prepared a rough outline of interview questions that we could ask both receivers and clerks so that even when our ethnographic research fell through, our trip was still valuable. 

We were also fortunate enough to have access to a warehouse near our home base in Chicago that allowed us to do our ethnographic research at multiple stages of the project. This means that we were able to return to follow up on processes we had talked about but hadn’t seen ourselves. However, this is not always the case, and you should always have a backup plan in place in the event that you are not able to conduct the research you expected. 

3. Fraud Analysis Call Center Research

There’s a whole group of people out there whose job it is to make sure that travel bookings are legitimate. They determine whether or not it makes sense that this person is booking this hotel in Abu Dhabi or that flight to Iceland. Fuzzy Math was brought in to redesign their fraud analysis software with the goal of helping the fraud analysts connect the dots between a variety of data points in order to help them quickly identify fraudulent transactions. 

Not knowing much about this space, we embarked on a two-day on-site research trip that included both in-context observation and interviews with junior and senior users of the current fraud analysis tool. 

There were several challenges that presented during our on-site research. First was the layout of the room in which these users worked. There were a lot of people, all of whom were constantly on the phone with hotels and credit card companies trying to confirm the information they had in front of them. This hectic environment made one-on-one conversation difficult, so our team relied on observation, watching users dissect the information and piece it back together in a way that made sense. 

In-person observation also allowed us to see parts of users’ workflows that was taking place outside of the tool. This included supporting information like notes on jargon, phonetic alphabet codes, and codes for common processes and errors that were taped to computer monitors. We also saw that users were going out of the tool to take notes because the process of taking notes in the tool took them out of their current workflow, yet notes were required in order to finalize any decision. 

Taking the time to debrief after each session allowed us to adjust as we went to make sure we were getting a good understanding of the product’s use across the board. 

Being on-site, we had the opportunity to observe training, which was incredibly useful in gaining an understanding of how the tool was being used and the very real workarounds for common errors that are communicated from one generation of workers to the next. When observing training, be sure to ask questions of both the expert trainer as well as the new user in order to get multiple perspectives within one setting.

By observing how new users are being trained to use a specific tool, researchers may gain insight into the very real workarounds for common errors that are communicated from one generation of workers to the next.

Take note of the users’ environment. What notes are they taking? What notes do they keep in eyesight? These may give you a valuable perspective on the types of information that are important to your users that can’t be readily found elsewhere. 

4. Research for an Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Software in the Metals Processing Industry

Our client was developing a “one-stop shop” tool to track and manage the lifespan of an order: from the initial sales process to knowing what needs to be done to fulfil the order to financials and accounting. Because this tool was to be used by everyone from the sales team to warehouse workers, we needed to observe the process end to end. 

We spent a day on-site at a metals processing warehouse, and spent time with the sales, accounting, and warehouse teams in order to follow the natural process of the tool.

While running research in the cubicles was pretty standard for our process (and something we do a lot ), running ethnographic research in the warehouse presented its own set of challenges. Walking around the warehouse, of course, meant relying on paper and pens for notes. Between trucks backing up, the bandsaw behind us, and a nail gun going off in some far recesses of the warehouse, it was also hard to hear during any interviews we may be conducting. This meant that though we came prepared with session guides to make sure we knew broadly what to hone in on, the majority of our time was spent observing. We watched the warehouse workers work “as they usually do,” and asked them to go back step-by-step if we needed further insight. Again, we took 15 minutes after each session to return to the office and debrief. During these reviews, we aligned on our notes to make sure all of our researchers were hearing similar things.

While observation can be a crucial part of preliminary design research, there’s nothing “normal” about having three design consultants rolling in to do watch how you work. As such, researchers don’t always get a true sense of everyday working style by observation alone. Ask questions along the way, and know that making some assumptions to fill in the blanks is okay, particularly if low on availability.

Availability can be another challenge of running research. While it’s great if we have the opportunity to observe multiple users or facilitate multiple research sessions, we usually only have a limited amount of time. In this case, preparing as much as possible in advance can set you up for success in your own ethnographic research. 

5. Hospital & Other Healthcare Research

Our team has conducted ethnographic research in a number of healthcare settings including dynamic emergency rooms, as well as more static healthcare settings like sports medicine clinics. 

Working in a medical setting presents several challenges to conducting useful ethnographic research. 

Aside from the obvious challenge of running research in the high-stakes, high-intensity environment of an emergency room, there were also confidentiality and HIPAA concerns in all healthcare-related environments, particularly when it came to allowing researchers to observe situations where personal health information (PHI) would be present. We were not allowed to take contextual photos and therefore relied on handwritten notes and photos of the setting minus any patients or personal information.

However, we were still able to observe products in use and gained a greater understanding of how healthcare technology and other healthcare UX services can integrate into a practitioner’s larger process and ecosystem. 

When working in a chaotic environment like an emergency room, you might not get the opportunity to directly interact with your users — they’re busy already and don’t need an extra distraction. Relying on observation, staying out of the way as much as possible, and asking questions only in the spare moments of downtime (or better yet, in a follow-up interview) are the best keys to success. 

When dealing with information sensitive and private to your users, it’s important to be clear and upfront about what you’re doing, why you’re doing it, and how the information you’re gathering is going to be used. It’s your job to get consent from your participants every time. Ask permission before recording or taking photos, and have a backup plan in case the answer is no.

Tips for Conducting Ethnographic Research

Using ethnographic research in design to inform ux .

Ethnographic research in design can be done across the project life cycle, from early discovery to testing a live product in the field. But how do you decide that you need ethnography? 

While location or budget constraints sometimes necessitate limiting research to a remote user interview or survey, there are a few questions you can ask yourself to determine whether or not your project is a good candidate for ethnographic research: 

• Who are the users? When you’re designing with or for a group that is vastly different from yourself in culture or ability or any of a million different things, it’s important to understand the larger context of how your users will interact with the end product. Put yourself into their shoes, have more empathy. This is part of a larger conversation around design ethics that we (as designers) must be having. And while it’s, of course, best to have an inclusive group of designers working on the project, not taking the time to talk to and test your designs with the actual end users can have a disastrous effect (like this and this ). 
• What is their environment like? Is your user sitting at a desk doing the same task for 8 hours a day? If their process is repeatable and predictable, a screen share might be a more time- and budget-efficient way to come to the same insights. Is your user is walking around a busy warehouse? Trying to read a screen in direct sunlight? When your user is affected by a number of external forces, in-person research can give you a better understanding of the environment where your end product will be used—and the design considerations that need to be made to accommodate that environment.
• How do they interact and communicate with each other? Are they having a conversation off-line? Is someone popping their head up above their cubicle to ask a neighbor, “Have you ever run into this problem before?” and “What do I do when…”? These off-line conversations are hard to communicate during an interview or remote observation. If facilitating communication between users is a feature of your product, conducting ethnographic research may help you gain insight into how users communicate today and how they need to communicate in the future.  

It comes down to having an understanding of the larger context in which your product will exist. Although interviews are incredibly valuable, sometimes you just can’t beat being there in person and seeing with your own eyes what your users are encountering on a day-to-day basis.

Strategies for Conducting  Ethnographic Research in Design

Ethnographic research in design can be challenging for a variety of reasons. Some of those challenges can include:

• Fast-paced environments where you don’t get to take as many/as detailed notes or ask as many follow-up questions as you’re used to
• Consistent attention is required to capture and process information as you’re observing
• Sensory challenges such as loud background noise and/or low visibility
• Highly variable conditions , from different contexts to different use cases between individuals
• Time-limited observations that may not be able to fully capture the scenarios you want to observe, or where tasks are highly dependent on completion at a certain time

With that said, what are some strategies for doing effective ethnographic research in design?

Rely heavily on your eyes and ears.  

Pay attention to conversations that people are having, comments that your participant makes, and what kinds of artifacts they have in their workspace that help them complete tasks.

When possible (and when participants will allow it), taking audio and/or video recordings of your research is helpful when you want to review what happened later. Photos can also be incredibly useful to that end.

Always be prepared.  

Don’t forget the basics when prepping for your ethnographic research. Extra pens, batteries, and backup recording equipment are all good to keep handy. Make sure you have pockets or a bag to keep your backup equipment in, particularly if you might be on the move.

Be aware of your presence. 

Consider the environment that you’re in and how your presence might change things from the norm. This is especially important when in environments where observation often has a negative connotation. Be clear that you are not there to judge your users’ actions or report back to management. After all, you’re there to study your users, not your users’ reactions to your presence. 

Plan and schedule as much as possible in advance. 

Give yourself room to figure out logistics – what you need to do, who you need to speak with, what space you need to be in, what tasks you need to observe, and what dates and times you can align all of those factors for the best insights. Determine when things are slowest or busiest, most representative, etc. and weigh your options.

Have separate sessions for contextual ethnographic research and for more traditional research interviews. 

This ensures you can get in-the-moment observations as well as more reflective conversations without potential distractions. When possible, it’s ideal for each of your participants to partake in both types of sessions to give you more complete pictures of those individuals and their processes.

Prioritize your questions. 

You may only get the chance to ask a few questions, so figure out which are essential and which aren’t. You may be able to rank all of your questions based on which you think will be most useful to you. You could also categorize your questions by theme and select one or two per theme that you find most pertinent.

Pair up. 

The more there is going on, the more helpful a second (or third) set of eyes and ears will be. Agree on roles—one person should focus on leading the conversation, and the other should focus on notetaking.

Debrief early and debrief often. 

You don’t have to wait until all of your research and interviews are done to start discussing what you’re seeing. Keep a running document of interesting or important observations you make during each session. Discuss what works well in each session and what could be improved for the next one. Figure out if you should shift your focus from one session to the next, or dive deeper into something you saw in the previous session.

• • • 

Advocating for Ethnographic Research in Your Next Project

Fuzzy Math advocates for ethnographic research in design any time we hope to get insights outside of just what someone is doing on a screen — it provides more context and therefore more value than a regular interview might (though interviews are still valuable!). Despite the challenges that come with ethnographic research, we believe it provides immense value due to its contextual nature that we wouldn’t normally get otherwise. In the world of UX research, context can mean the difference between a design that feels like a natural part of the user’s workflow and one they try to avoid.

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