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biography , form of literature , commonly considered nonfictional, the subject of which is the life of an individual. One of the oldest forms of literary expression, it seeks to re-create in words the life of a human being—as understood from the historical or personal perspective of the author—by drawing upon all available evidence, including that retained in memory as well as written, oral, and pictorial material.

Biography is sometimes regarded as a branch of history , and earlier biographical writings—such as the 15th-century Mémoires of the French councellor of state, Philippe de Commynes , or George Cavendish’s 16th-century life of Thomas Cardinal Wolsey —have often been treated as historical material rather than as literary works in their own right. Some entries in ancient Chinese chronicles included biographical sketches; imbedded in the Roman historian Tacitus ’s Annals is the most famous biography of the emperor Tiberius ; conversely , Sir Winston Churchill ’s magnificent life of his ancestor John Churchill, first duke of Marlborough , can be read as a history (written from a special point of view) of Britain and much of Europe during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14). Yet there is general recognition today that history and biography are quite distinct forms of literature. History usually deals in generalizations about a period of time (for example, the Renaissance), about a group of people in time (the English colonies in North America), about an institution (monasticism during the Middle Ages). Biography more typically focuses upon a single human being and deals in the particulars of that person’s life.

Both biography and history, however, are often concerned with the past, and it is in the hunting down, evaluating, and selection of sources that they are akin. In this sense biography can be regarded as a craft rather than an art: techniques of research and general rules for testing evidence can be learned by anyone and thus need involve comparatively little of that personal commitment associated with art.

A biographer in pursuit of an individual long dead is usually hampered by a lack of sources: it is often impossible to check or verify what written evidence there is; there are no witnesses to cross-examine. No method has yet been developed by which to overcome such problems. Each life, however, presents its own opportunities as well as specific difficulties to the biographer: the ingenuity with which the biographer handles gaps in the record—by providing information, for example, about the age that casts light upon the subject—has much to do with the quality of the resulting work. James Boswell knew comparatively little about Samuel Johnson ’s earlier years; it is one of the greatnesses of his Life of Samuel Johnson LL.D. (1791) that he succeeded, without inventing matter or deceiving the reader, in giving the sense of a life progressively unfolding. Another masterpiece of reconstruction in the face of little evidence is A.J.A. Symons ’ biography of the English author and eccentric Frederick William Rolfe , The Quest for Corvo (1934). A further difficulty is the unreliability of most collections of papers, letters, and other memorabilia edited before the 20th century. Not only did editors feel free to omit and transpose materials, but sometimes the authors of documents revised their personal writings for the benefit of posterity , often falsifying the record and presenting their biographers with a difficult situation when the originals were no longer extant .

The biographer writing the life of a person recently dead is often faced with the opposite problem: an abundance of living witnesses and a plethora of materials, which include the subject’s papers and letters, sometimes transcriptions of telephone conversations and conferences, as well as the record of interviews granted to the biographer by the subject’s friends and associates. Frank Friedel, for example, in creating a biography of the U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt , had to wrestle with something like 40 tons of paper. But finally, when writing the life of any person, whether long or recently dead, the biographer’s chief responsibility is vigorously to test the authenticity of the collected materials by whatever rules and techniques are available. When the subject of a biography is still alive and a contributor to the work, the biographer’s task is to examine the subject’s perspective against multiple, even contradictory sources.

Definition of Biography

Common examples of biographical subjects, famous examples of biographical works, difference between biography, autobiography, and memoir, examples of biography in literature, example 1:  savage beauty: the life of edna st. vincent millay  (nancy milford).

One of the first things Vincent explained to Norma was that there was a certain freedom of language in the Village that mustn’t shock her. It wasn’t vulgar. ‘So we sat darning socks on Waverly Place and practiced the use of profanity as we stitched. Needle in, . Needle out, piss. Needle in, . Needle out, c. Until we were easy with the words.’

Example 2:  The Invisible Woman: The Story of Nelly Ternan and Charles Dickens  (Claire Tomalin)

The season of domestic goodwill and festivity must have posed a problem to all good Victorian family men with more than one family to take care of, particularly when there were two lots of children to receive the demonstrations of paternal love.

Example 3:  Virginia Woolf  (Hermione Lee)

‘A self that goes on changing is a self that goes on living’: so too with the biography of that self. And just as lives don’t stay still, so life-writing can’t be fixed and finalised. Our ideas are shifting about what can be said, our knowledge of human character is changing. The biographer has to pioneer, going ‘ahead of the rest of us, like the miner’s canary, testing the atmosphere , detecting falsity, unreality, and the presence of obsolete conventions’. So, ‘There are some stories which have to be retold by each generation’. She is talking about the story of Shelley, but she could be talking about her own life-story.

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I Biography: Inventing the Truth

• Published: February 1995
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It is suggested that biography is essentially, and by its very origins, disreputable. The four problems (ethics, authenticity, celebrity, and empathy) that do not devalue the modern form of biography are outlined. But they make it complicated, provisional, and to some degree perilous. If biography is to have a future, it has to face up to the problems it has inherited. All these seem to express the original, underlying tension found in its genealogy: invention marrying truth. It is remarkable that the shadow or projection of a fictional form would in other hands become Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde . It is possible for a good biography to tell the truth, and to enlighten and encourage.

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How to Write a Biography in 8 Steps (The Non-Boring Way!)

Compelling biographies help us better connect with others while fostering empathy and understanding. Discover the steps to write one that captivates your audience!

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Have you ever been captivated by someone’s life story? From the ancient tales of great conquerors to the modern accounts of influential figures, biographies have enchanted readers and viewers for centuries. 

The stories of real people’s lives not only entertain and educate but also provide a unique window into the human experience. In fact, according to research 1 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8796048/ , human stories like biographies can help us better connect with others while fostering empathy and understanding.

In this article, let’s dive into how to write a compelling biography, from the research phase to delivery.

What Are the Key Elements of a Biography?

The key elements of a well-written biography bring characters to life. They include thorough research, relevant interviews, clear structure, captivating prose, compelling themes, and a balance between objectivity and empathy. 

• Thorough research: Helps create an accurate portrayal of your subject
• Relevant interviews: Insights help provide a deeper understanding of your subject
• Clear structure: Helps you outline your ideas for a compelling narrative
• Captivating prose: Provides descriptive language to paint a picture of your subject
• Compelling themes: Showcases the motivations and desires behind your subject
• A balance between objectivity and empathy: Keeps biases in check and allows your subject to shine for who they are

As you develop your biography, remember that these stories hold an enduring appeal because they offer people an opportunity to explore the depths of the human psyche, unravel extraordinary accomplishments, and discover the vulnerabilities and triumphs of individuals who have left their mark on the world. 

Here are the topics a biography typically covers:

• Early life and background : Provide context about the subject’s upbringing, family, and cultural influences.
• Achievements and milestones: Highlight notable accomplishments, contributions, and significant events throughout their life.
• Challenges and struggles: Explore the obstacles they faced, the lessons learned, and how they overcame adversity.
• Personal characteristics: Describe their personality traits, values, beliefs, and motivations that shaped their actions and decisions.
• Impact and legacy: Discuss the lasting influence and contributions of the subject, both during their lifetime and beyond.

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Let’s look at the six key elements of a well-written biography more closely and the steps you can follow to develop your own.

How to Write a Biography in 8 Steps Using Key Elements

Choose your presentation format.

Presenting your biography can take on various forms, the most traditional being written form. The basis for this article assumes you’re writing a conventional biography; however, this foundation can also help you create a multimedia presentation or website as well. 

Consider these various formats to present your biography:

• Traditional Written Biographies: This classic approach provides a comprehensive account of a person’s life through the written word. Traditional biographies can be published in print or ebooks , allowing readers to engage deeply with the subject’s story.
• Multimedia Presentations: In the digital age, multimedia presentations offer a dynamic way to present biographies. Incorporate audio, video, photographs, and interactive elements to enhance the audience’s experience.
• Online Platforms: Online platforms, such as blogs or dedicated biography websites, provide accessible avenues for sharing biographies. They allow for easy updates, reader engagement, and the incorporation of multimedia elements. 

Choose your subject and conduct research

To create a vivid and accurate portrayal of a person’s life, conduct extensive research. Dive into archives, read letters, examine diaries, explore photographs, and immerse yourself in the historical and cultural context surrounding your subject. This will help you unearth the small details that breathe life into your biography. 

Whether you’re writing a biography about a historical figure, contemporary icon, or everyday individual, you’ll want to consider the different factors to focus on. Here are some examples of three types of individuals and the kind of research that will be most helpful.

• Historical Figures: When writing about historical figures, immerse yourself in their era. Understand the social, political, and cultural forces that shaped their lives. I recommend visiting your local library and connecting with a research librarian for support. Otherwise, other tools for historical research include Google Scholar. Analyze primary sources and multiple perspectives to present a well-rounded account.
• Contemporary Icons: Biographies of modern icons offer a chance to delve into their ongoing impact. Conduct interviews or gather insights from their close associates to understand their present-day influence. Stay current with the latest developments, and be prepared to update your work as the subject’s story unfolds.
• Everyday Individuals: Biographies need not be reserved for the famous. Every day individuals possess stories that can be just as compelling. Uncover the extraordinary within the ordinary, highlighting the struggles, triumphs, and personal growth of individuals who might otherwise remain unsung.
• Yourself! Want to write a biography on yourself? Autobiographies are a great way to explore who you are. Get ready to do some serious self-reflection with the steps below.

Pro Tip: Compile your research digitally using helpful cloud filings systems like Google Drive , OneDrive , or Dropbox . Organize your files by category, including information about their youth, family, achievements, and life lessons. You may also choose to write down research references or collect paper clippings on note cards, categorizing your physical files of research along the way.

Develop compelling themes and motifs 

Identify overarching themes or motifs that emerge from the subject’s life. These could be resilience, ambition, love, or societal change. Weave these elements into the narrative, highlighting their significance and impact on the person’s journey. Here are some examples:

• Overcoming Adversity: These biographies feature perseverance, resilience, and determination. Examples include Helen Keller, Nelson Mandela, and Malala Yousafzai.
• Pursuit of Excellence: These biographies highlight people who have worked tirelessly to achieve their goals. Examples include Steve Jobs, Serena Williams, and Michael Jordan.
• Quest for Knowledge: These biographies focus on the curiosity that led to significant contributions to our world. Examples include Albert Einstein, Marie Curie, and Charles Darwin.
• Personal Transformation: These biographies explore a change in beliefs, values, or priorities. Examples include Malcolm X, Oprah Winfrey, and Maya Angelou.
• Legacy and Impact: These biographies examine a body of work that made a lasting contribution to society. Examples include Martin Luther King Jr., Mother Teresa, and Mahatma Gandhi.

Conduct relevant interviews 

Whenever possible, seek firsthand accounts from those who knew or interacted with the subject. Conduct interviews with family members, friends, colleagues, or experts in the field. Their insights and anecdotes can provide a deeper understanding of the person’s character and experiences.

When conducting interviews for a biography, consider the following tips to ensure a productive and insightful conversation:

• Familiarize yourself with the interviewee’s background and accomplishments.
• Develop a list of well-thought-out questions that cover key aspects of their lives and experiences, including questions about your subject’s youth, family, achievements, and life transitions or struggles.
• Begin the interview by establishing a comfortable and friendly atmosphere to put the interviewee at ease.
• Show genuine interest in their story and listen actively to their responses.
• Ask open-ended questions encouraging detailed and reflective responses.
• Avoid yes/no questions and ask for their insights, memories, and personal perspectives.
• Some topics you might consider for your questions include early life, achievements, challenges, motivations, values, relationships, lessons learned, and advice.
• Pay close attention to the interviewee’s answers, body language, and tone of voice.
• Ask follow-up questions to clarify or delve deeper into specific topics.
• Show empathy and understanding, creating a safe space for the interviewee to share personal or sensitive information.
• Remain flexible during the interview, allowing the conversation to flow naturally.
• Be prepared to deviate from your prepared questions if unexpected but relevant topics arise.
• Respect the interviewee’s boundaries and be mindful of any topics they may not wish to discuss.
• Take thorough and organized notes during the interview to capture important details.
• Consider recording the interview (with permission) to ensure accurate quotes and references.
• Ask for permission to follow up with additional questions or for clarification.
• Doing a biography on yourself? Ask yourself deep questions to harvest new stories and anecdotes.

Remember, the goal of the interview is to gather valuable information and personal perspectives that will contribute to the authenticity and depth of your biography. Approach the interview process with sensitivity, respect, and genuine curiosity about the interviewee’s life and experiences.

Develop a clear structure

Outline your biography, ensuring a logical and engaging narrative flow. Consider the chronological order, significant milestones, and turning points in the subject’s life. Organize your gathered information to capture the essence of their journey while maintaining a compelling rhythm throughout. 

A good outline for a biography can vary depending on the specific subject and the desired structure of the narrative. However, here’s a general outline that can serve as a starting point:

A. Introduction

a) Hook or engaging opening to capture the reader’s attention

b) Background information (birthplace, date, family, etc.)

c) A brief overview of the subject’s significance or why they are worth exploring

B. Early Life and Background

a) Childhood and upbringing

b) Influences, such as family, education, or cultural factors

c) Formative experiences or events that shaped the subject’s character or interests

C. Major Achievements and Milestones

a) A chronological exploration of the subject’s notable accomplishments, contributions, or milestones

b) Focus on key moments or achievements that highlight their impact or significance.

c) Provide context and details to paint a vivid picture of their achievements

D. Challenges and Obstacles

a) Discussion of the challenges, setbacks, or adversities the subject encountered

b) How they overcame obstacles or grew through difficult experiences

c) Insights into their resilience, determination, or problem-solving abilities

E. Personal Life and Relationships

a) Exploration of the subject’s relationships, such as family, friends, or romantic partners

b) Insights into their personal joys, struggles, or transformative experiences

c) How their personal life intersected with their professional or public achievements

F. Legacy and Impact

a) Examination of the subject’s lasting influence, contributions, or impact on society

b) Discuss how their work or actions continue to resonate or shape the world today

c) Reflection on their legacy and the lessons we can learn from their life story

G. Conclusion

a) Summarize the key aspects of the subject’s life and their significance

b) Provide a final reflection or insight on their overall journey or impact

c) Leave the reader with a lasting impression or call to action

Pro Tip: Looking for help drafting an outline to get you started? Use free tools like ChatGPT to jumpstart your outline by putting in a prompt request like, “Write an outline for a biography about X, including any relevant details on the subject that should be included.”

Craft captivating prose

Employ descriptive language to transport readers into the subject’s world. Paint vivid portraits of their physical appearance, mannerisms, and surroundings. Use sensory details to evoke emotions and create a strong connection between the reader and the subject. 

Here are some examples:

• “She was a force of nature, with a fierce determination and an unwavering commitment to justice.” (Ruth Bader Ginsburg)
• “His piercing blue eyes seemed to look right through you, and his voice had a commanding presence that demanded attention.” (Winston Churchill)
• “She moved with a grace and elegance that belied her inner strength and resilience.” (Audrey Hepburn)
• “His rugged features and piercing gaze made him a natural leading man, but it was his depth and vulnerability that set him apart.” (Marlon Brando)
• “She had a contagious energy and a magnetic personality that drew people to her like a moth to a flame.” (Princess Diana)
• “His quiet intensity and unwavering dedication to his craft made him one of the greatest artists of his time.” (Leonardo da Vinci)

Action Step: While writing descriptive prose takes some practice, it’s an art you can master with little creative writing skills. To help you write descriptive prose, practice closing your eyes and imagining your subject. 

• What expression is on their face? 
• How are they dressed? 
• What does their body language express? 
• How do they smell? 
• How do they make you feel? 
• How do they make others feel? 
• What’s in their surroundings? 
• What are they doing with their hands? 
• What do you imagine they’re thinking about? 

With questions like these, you’ll start to use descriptive language to bring your subject to life.

Build a balance of objectivity and empathy

Strive for an objective portrayal while infusing empathy and understanding into your writing. Remain aware of biases and preconceived notions, giving your subject the space to shine in their unique light. 

To check yourself, filter your writing and interviewing with these tips:

• Verify Information: Cross-reference information from various sources to ensure accuracy. Use tools like Fact Check Explorer to fact-check claims, dates, and events to avoid errors or inaccuracies that could skew the narrative. 
• Multiple Perspectives: Seek out different viewpoints on the subject. This includes interviewing or reaching out to people with significant interactions or relationships with the subject. Incorporating diverse perspectives can counterbalance biases and provide a broader understanding.
• Empathetic Listening: During interviews or conversations, practice active listening and empathize with the interviewee’s experiences and emotions. This allows you to understand the subject’s perspective and incorporate their insights and feelings into the narrative.
• Contextualize Emotions: When sharing the subject’s emotional experiences or personal struggles, provide sufficient context and background. This helps readers understand the motivations and circumstances behind their actions and allows for empathetic understanding without veering into excessive sentimentality.
• Credible Interpretation: While interpreting the subject’s thoughts, motives, or intentions, be clear about what is factual and what is speculative. Clearly distinguish between evidence-based information and your interpretations to maintain objectivity.
• Respect Boundaries: Be mindful of the subject’s privacy and any requests they may have regarding sensitive or personal information. Respecting their boundaries shows empathy and allows for a respectful portrayal while maintaining the necessary level of objectivity.
• Acknowledge Limitations: Recognize that achieving complete objectivity in a biography is challenging. Biases can inadvertently seep into the narrative. However, by being aware of your biases and consciously presenting a fair and balanced account, you can mitigate their influence.

Respect truth, privacy, and sensitivity

Remember, writing biographies carries ethical responsibilities. It’s important to maintain accuracy through credible research and gain consent while being sensitive to controversial or difficult topics. Here are some considerations:

• Accuracy: Maintain a commitment to truth and accuracy. Verify facts and corroborate information from multiple sources to ensure the reliability of your narrative. Cite your sources and be transparent about any uncertainties or gaps in knowledge.
• Privacy and Consent: Respect the privacy of living individuals mentioned in your biography. Seek consent when sharing personal details or sensitive information. Balance the subject’s right to privacy with the importance of honesty and transparency.
• Sensitivity: Approach sensitive or controversial topics with care and empathy. Consider the potential impact of your words on the subject’s loved ones or affected communities—present differing perspectives without sensationalism or bias.

Writing a Biography FAQs

The length of a biography can vary greatly, depending on the subject and the depth of exploration. Some biographies span a few hundred pages, while others extend to multiple volumes. Focus on capturing the subject’s life’s essence rather than strictly adhering to a predetermined length.

Some common mistakes to avoid when writing a biography include the following: Lack of thorough research or reliance on a single source. Inaccurate or misleading information. Excessive personal bias or projection onto the subject. Neglecting to verify facts or failing to cite sources. Poor organization or a disjointed narrative flow. Neglecting to balance objectivity with empathy. Overloading the biography with irrelevant details or digressions. Failing to respect privacy or ethical considerations.

While chronological order is commonly used in biographies, it is not required. Some biographers employ a thematic approach or explore specific periods or events in the subject’s life. Experiment with different structures to find the most engaging way to tell your subject’s story.

The purpose of writing a biography is to capture and share an individual’s life story. Biographies provide insights into a person’s experiences, achievements, and challenges, offering readers inspiration, knowledge, and understanding. They preserve the legacy of individuals, contribute to historical records, and celebrate the diversity of human lives.

When choosing a subject for your biography, consider someone who inspires you, interests you, or has significantly impacted society. It could be a historical figure, a contemporary icon, or even an everyday individual with a remarkable story. Choose a subject with sufficient available information, access to primary sources or interviews, and a narrative that resonates with you and potential readers.

Key elements to include in a biography are: Early life and background: Provide context about the subject’s upbringing, family, and cultural influences. Achievements and milestones: Highlight notable accomplishments, contributions, and significant events throughout their life. Challenges and struggles: Explore the obstacles they faced, the lessons learned, and how they overcame adversity. Personal characteristics: Describe their personality traits, values, beliefs, and motivations that shaped their actions and decisions. Impact and legacy: Discuss the lasting influence and contributions of the subject, both during their lifetime and beyond.

Including personal anecdotes can add depth and humanize the subject of your biography. However, be selective and ensure that the stories are relevant, contribute to understanding the person’s character or experiences, and align with the overall narrative. Balancing personal anecdotes with factual information is critical to maintaining accuracy and credibility.

Conducting research for a biography involves exploring a variety of sources. Start with primary sources such as personal papers, letters, journals, and interviews with the subject or people who knew them. Secondary sources such as books, articles, and academic papers provide additional context and perspectives. Online databases, archives, libraries, and museums are valuable resources for finding relevant information.

Consult a wide range of sources to ensure a comprehensive and accurate biography. Primary sources, such as personal documents, letters, diaries, and interviews, offer firsthand accounts and unique insights. Secondary sources provide broader context and analysis, including books, articles, scholarly works, and historical records. Remember to evaluate the credibility and reliability of your sources critically.

Organize the information in your biography logically and engagingly. Consider using a chronological structure, starting with the subject’s early life and progressing through significant events and milestones. Alternatively, adopt a thematic approach, grouping related information based on themes or significant aspects of their life. Use clear headings, subheadings, and transitions to guide readers through the narrative flow.

Writing Biographies Key Takeaways

In summary, take note of these ideas and tips before you start writing your biography:

• Biographies hold enduring appeal, offering a glimpse into the human experience across time.
• Thorough research, interviews, and captivating prose are essential for crafting compelling biographies.
• Ethical considerations, such as accuracy, privacy, and sensitivity, are crucial when writing about real people’s lives.
• Choose subjects that genuinely inspire and resonate with you.
• Immerse yourself in the subject’s world to understand their motivations and challenges.
• Develop strong research skills and utilize a wide range of sources.
• Craft a compelling narrative that engages readers from the very first page.
• Seek feedback from trusted sources to refine your writing and storytelling abilities.
• Continuously explore new biographies to broaden your understanding of different styles and approaches.
• Embrace the unique voice and perspective you bring to the storytelling process.

Writing a biography book? Check out this helpful article, How to Write a Book: 10 Questions to Ask Before You Start Writing !

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Brian K. Goodman

Phd in american studies, harvard university.

What is Biography?

Semester: , offered: .

I was a teaching fellow for this history seminar led by Jill Lepore. Here is the course description: "Biographers write histories of lives. Their storytelling is often novelistic but their standards of evidence are those of the historian. They confront distinctive questions: What lives are worth writing? What is the relationship between the individual and society? What rules govern the relationship between biographers and their subjects? How has the art of biography changed over the centuries, and what forces have driven those changes? In this section, we’ll read both notable biographies and the critical literature on biography as a genre that is often seen to be at odds with the conventions of other kinds of historical writing." 

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Blog • Perfecting your Craft

Posted on Jun 30, 2023

How to Write a Biography: A 7-Step Guide [+Template]

About the author.

Reedsy's editorial team is a diverse group of industry experts devoted to helping authors write and publish beautiful books.

About Dario Villirilli

Editor-in-Chief of the Reedsy blog, Dario is a graduate of Mälardalen University. As a freelance writer, he has written for many esteemed outlets aimed at writers. A traveler at heart, he can be found roaming the world and working from his laptop.

From time to time, nonfiction authors become so captivated by a particular figure from either the present or the past, that they feel compelled to write an entire book about their life. Whether casting them as heroes or villains, there is an interesting quality in their humanity that compels these authors to revisit their life paths and write their story.

However, portraying someone’s life on paper in a comprehensive and engaging way requires solid preparation. If you’re looking to write a biography yourself, in this post we’ll share a step-by-step blueprint that you can follow. 

How to write a biography: 

1. Seek permission when possible 

2. research your subject thoroughly, 3. do interviews and visit locations, 4. organize your findings, 5. identify a central thesis, 6. write it using narrative elements, 7. get feedback and polish the text.

FREE RESOURCE

Biography Outline Template

Craft a satisfying story arc for your biography with our free template.

While you technically don’t need permission to write about public figures (or deceased ones), that doesn't guarantee their legal team won't pursue legal action against you. Author Kitty Kelley was sued by Frank Sinatra before she even started to write His Way , a biography that paints Ol Blue Eyes in a controversial light. (Kelley ended up winning the lawsuit, however).  

Whenever feasible, advise the subject’s representatives of your intentions. If all goes according to plan, you’ll get a green light to proceed, or potentially an offer to collaborate. It's a matter of common sense; if someone were to write a book about you, you would likely want to know about it well prior to publication. So, make a sincere effort to reach out to their PR staff to negotiate an agreement or at least a mutual understanding of the scope of your project. 

At the same time, make sure that you still retain editorial control over the project, and not end up writing a puff piece that treats its protagonist like a saint or hero. No biography can ever be entirely objective, but you should always strive for a portrayal that closely aligns with facts and reality.

If you can’t get an answer from your subject, or you’re asked not to proceed forward, you can still accept the potential repercussions and write an unauthorized biography . The “rebellious act” of publishing without consent indeed makes for great marketing, though it’ll likely bring more headaches with it too. 

✋ Please note that, like other nonfiction books, if you intend to release your biography with a publishing house , you can put together a book proposal to send to them before you even write the book. If they like it enough, they might pay you an advance to write it.  

Book Proposal Template

Craft a professional pitch for your nonfiction book with our handy template.

Once you’ve settled (or not) the permission part, it’s time to dive deep into your character’s story.  

Deep and thorough research skills are the cornerstone of every biographer worth their salt. To paint a vivid and accurate portrait of someone's life, you’ll have to gather qualitative information from a wide range of reliable sources. 

Start with the information already available, from books on your subject to archival documents, then collect new ones firsthand by interviewing people or traveling to locations. 

Browse the web and library archives

Put your researcher hat on and start consuming any piece on your subject you can find, from their Wikipedia page to news articles, interviews, TV and radio appearances, YouTube videos, podcasts, books, magazines, and any other media outlets they may have been featured in. 

Establish a system to orderly collect the information you find 一 even seemingly insignificant details can prove valuable during the writing process, so be sure to save them. 

Depending on their era, you may find most of the information readily available online, or you may need to search through university libraries for older references. 

For his landmark biography of Alexander Hamilton, Ron Chernow spent untold hours at Columbia University’s library , reading through the Hamilton family papers, visiting the New York Historical Society, as well as interviewing the archivist of the New York Stock Exchange, and so on. The research process took years, but it certainly paid off. Chernow discovered that Hamilton created the first five securities originally traded on Wall Street. This finding, among others, revealed his significant contributions to shaping the current American financial and political systems, a legacy previously often overshadowed by other founding fathers. Today Alexander Hamilton is one of the best-selling biographies of all time, and it has become a cultural phenomenon with its own dedicated musical. 

Besides reading documents about your subject, research can help you understand the world that your subject lived in. 

Try to understand their time and social environment

Many biographies show how their protagonists have had a profound impact on society through their philosophical, artistic, or scientific contributions. But at the same time, it’s worth it as a biographer to make an effort to understand how their societal and historical context influenced their life’s path and work.

An interesting example is Stephen Greenblatt’s Will in the World . Finding himself limited by a lack of verified detail surrounding William Shakespeare's personal life, Greenblatt, instead, employs literary interpretation and imaginative reenactments to transport readers back to the Elizabethan era. The result is a vivid (though speculative) depiction of the playwright's life, enriching our understanding of his world.

Many readers enjoy biographies that transport them to a time and place, so exploring a historical period through the lens of a character can be entertaining in its own right. The Diary of Samuel Pepys became a classic not because people were enthralled by his life as an administrator, but rather from his meticulous and vivid documentation of everyday existence during the Restoration period.

Once you’ve gotten your hands on as many secondary sources as you can find, you’ll want to go hunting for stories first-hand from people who are (or were) close to your subject.

With all the material you’ve been through, by now you should already have a pretty good picture of your protagonist. But you’ll surely have some curiosities and missing dots in their character development to figure out, which you can only get by interviewing primary sources.

Interview friends and associates

This part is more relevant if your subject is contemporary, and you can actually meet up or call with relatives, friends, colleagues, business partners, neighbors, or any other person related to them. 

In writing the popular biography of Steve Jobs, Walter Isaacson interviewed more than one hundred people, including Jobs’s family, colleagues, former college mates, business rivals, and the man himself.

🔍 Read other biographies to get a sense of what makes a great one. Check out our list of the 30 best biographies of all time , or take our 30-second quiz below for tips on which one you should read next. 

Which biography should you read next?

Discover the perfect biography for you. Takes 30 seconds!

When you conduct your interviews, make sure to record them with high quality audio you can revisit later. Then use tools like Otter.ai or Descript to transcribe them 一 it’ll save you countless hours. 

You can approach the interview with a specific set of questions, or follow your curiosity blindly, trying to uncover revealing stories and anecdotes about your subject. Whatever your method, author and biography editor Tom Bromley suggests that every interviewer arrives prepared, "Show that you’ve done your work. This will help to put the interviewee at ease, and get their best answers.” 

Bromley also places emphasis on the order in which you conduct interviews. “You may want to interview different members of the family or friends first, to get their perspective on something, and then go directly to the main interviewee. You'll be able to use that knowledge to ask sharper, more specific questions.” 

Finally, consider how much time you have with each interviewee. If you only have a 30-minute phone call with an important person, make it count by asking directly the most pressing questions you have. And, if you find a reliable source who is also particularly willing to help, conduct several interviews and ask them, if appropriate, to write a foreword as part of the book’s front matter .

Sometimes an important part of the process is packing your bags, getting on a plane, and personally visiting significant places in your character’s journey.

Visit significant places in their life

A place, whether that’s a city, a rural house, or a bodhi tree, can carry a particular energy that you can only truly experience by being there. In putting the pieces together about someone’s life, it may be useful to go visit where they grew up, or where other significant events of their lives happened. It will be easier to imagine what they experienced, and better tell their story. 

In researching The Lost City of Z , author David Grann embarked on a trek through the Amazon, retracing the steps of British explorer Percy Fawcett. This led Grann to develop new theories about the circumstances surrounding the explorer's disappearance.

Hopefully, you won’t have to deal with jaguars and anacondas to better understand your subject’s environment, but try to walk into their shoes as much as possible. 

Once you’ve researched your character enough, it’s time to put together all the puzzle pieces you collected so far. 

Take the bulk of notes, media, and other documents you’ve collected, and start to give them some order and structure. A simple way to do this is by creating a timeline. 

Create a chronological timeline

It helps to organize your notes chronologically 一 from childhood to the senior years, line up the most significant events of your subject’s life, including dates, places, names and other relevant bits. 

You should be able to divide their life into distinct periods, each with their unique events and significance. Based on that, you can start drafting an outline of the narrative you want to create.  

Draft a story outline 

Since a biography entails writing about a person’s entire life, it will have a beginning, a middle, and an end. You can pick where you want to end the story, depending on how consequential the last years of your subject were. But the nature of the work will give you a starting character arc to work with. 

To outline the story then, you could turn to the popular Three-Act Structure , which divides the narrative in three main parts. In a nutshell, you’ll want to make sure to have the following:

• Act 1. Setup : Introduce the protagonist's background and the turning points that set them on a path to achieve a goal. 
• Act 2. Confrontation : Describe the challenges they encounter, both internal and external, and how they rise to them. Then..
• Act 3. Resolution : Reach a climactic point in their story in which they succeed (or fail), showing how they (and the world around them) have changed as a result. 

Only one question remains before you begin writing: what will be the main focus of your biography?

Think about why you’re so drawn to your subject to dedicate years of your life to recounting their own. What aspect of their life do you want to highlight? Is it their evil nature, artistic genius, or visionary mindset? And what evidence have you got to back that up? Find a central thesis or focus to weave as the main thread throughout your narrative. 

Or find a unique angle

If you don’t have a particular theme to explore, finding a distinct angle on your subject’s story can also help you distinguish your work from other biographies or existing works on the same subject.

Plenty of biographies have been published about The Beatles 一 many of which have different focuses and approaches: 

• Philip Norman's Shout is sometimes regarded as leaning more towards a pro-Lennon and anti-McCartney stance, offering insights into the band's inner dynamics. 
• Ian McDonald's Revolution in the Head closely examines their music track by track, shifting the focus back to McCartney as a primary creative force. 
• Craig Brown's One Two Three Four aims to capture their story through anecdotes, fan letters, diary entries, and interviews. 
• Mark Lewisohn's monumental three-volume biography, Tune In , stands as a testament to over a decade of meticulous research, chronicling every intricate detail of the Beatles' journey.

Finally, consider that biographies are often more than recounting the life of a person. Similar to how Dickens’ Great Expectations is not solely about a boy named Pip (but an examination and critique of Britain’s fickle, unforgiving class system), a biography should strive to illuminate a broader truth — be it social, political, or human — beyond the immediate subject of the book. 

Once you’ve identified your main focus or angle, it’s time to write a great story. 

While biographies are often highly informative, they do not have to be dry and purely expository in nature . You can play with storytelling elements to make it an engaging read. 

You could do that by thoroughly detailing the setting of the story , depicting the people involved in the story as fully-fledged characters , or using rising action and building to a climax when describing a particularly significant milestone of the subject’s life. 

One common way to make a biography interesting to read is starting on a strong foot…

Hook the reader from the start

Just because you're honoring your character's whole life doesn't mean you have to begin when they said their first word. Starting from the middle or end of their life can be more captivating as it introduces conflicts and stakes that shaped their journey.

When he wrote about Christopher McCandless in Into the Wild , author Jon Krakauer didn’t open his subject’s childhood and abusive family environment. Instead, the book begins with McCandless hitchhiking his way into the wilderness, and subsequently being discovered dead in an abandoned bus. By starting in the middle of the action  in medias res, Krakauer hooks the reader’s interest, before tracing back the causes and motivations that led McCandless to die alone in that bus in the first place.

You can bend the timeline to improve the reader’s reading experience throughout the rest of the story too…

Play with flashback 

While biographies tend to follow a chronological narrative, you can use flashbacks to tell brief stories or anecdotes when appropriate. For example, if you were telling the story of footballer Lionel Messi, before the climax of winning the World Cup with Argentina, you could recall when he was just 13 years old, giving an interview to a local newspaper, expressing his lifelong dream of playing for the national team. 

Used sparsely and intentionally, flashbacks can add more context to the story and keep the narrative interesting. Just like including dialogue does…

Reimagine conversations

Recreating conversations that your subject had with people around them is another effective way to color the story. Dialogue helps the reader imagine the story like a movie, providing a deeper sensory experience. 

One thing is trying to articulate the root of Steve Jobs’ obsession with product design, another would be to quote his father , teaching him how to build a fence when he was young: “You've got to make the back of the fence just as good looking as the front of the fence. Even though nobody will see it, you will know. And that will show that you're dedicated to making something perfect.”

Unlike memoirs and autobiographies, in which the author tells the story from their personal viewpoint and enjoys greater freedom to recall conversations, biographies require a commitment to facts. So, when recreating dialogue, try to quote directly from reliable sources like personal diaries, emails, and text messages. You could also use your interview scripts as an alternative to dialogue. As Tom Bromley suggests, “If you talk with a good amount of people, you can try to tell the story from their perspective, interweaving different segments and quoting the interviewees directly.”

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These are just some of the story elements you can use to make your biography more compelling. Once you’ve finished your manuscript, it’s a good idea to ask for feedback. 

If you’re going to publish your own  biography, you’ll have to polish it to professional standards. After leaving your work to rest for a while, look at it with fresh eyes and edit your own manuscript eliminating passive voice, filler words, and redundant adverbs. 

Then, have a professional editor give you a general assessment. They’ll look at the structure and shape of your manuscript and tell you which parts need to be expanded on or cut. As someone who edited and commissioned several biographies, Tom Bromley points out that a professional “will look at the sources used and assess whether they back up the points made, or if more are needed. They would also look for context, and whether or not more background information is needed for the reader to understand the story fully. And they might check your facts, too.”  

In addition to structural editing, you may want to have someone copy-edit and proofread your work.

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Importantly, make sure to include a bibliography with a list of all the interviews, documents, and sources used in the writing process. You’ll have to compile it according to a manual of style, but you can easily create one by using tools like EasyBib . Once the text is nicely polished and typeset in your writing applications , you can prepare for the publication process.  

In conclusion, by mixing storytelling elements with diligent research, you’ll be able to breathe life into a powerful biography that immerses readers in another individual’s life experience. Whether that’ll spark inspiration or controversy, remember you could have an important role in shaping their legacy 一 and that’s something not to take lightly. 

Continue reading

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• Writing Biography: Historians and Their Craft

In this Book

• Lloyd E. Ambrosius
• Published by: University of Nebraska Press
• View Citation

Table of Contents

• Frontmatter
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• Introduction
• pp. vii-xiii
• 1. Biography Matters: Why Historians Need Well-Crafted Biographies More than Ever
• 2. Culture and Context in Biographical Studies: The Case of China
• 3. Reshaping Tudor Biography: Anne Boleyn and Anne of Cleves
• 4. Conception, Conversation, and Comparison: My Experiences as a Biographer
• 5. Ut Pictura Poesis; or, The Sisterhood of the Verbal and Visual Arts
• pp. 103-131
• 6. Did Friedrich Schelling Kill Auguste Böhmer and Does It Matter? The Necessity of Biography in the History of Philosophy
• pp. 133-153
• List of Contributors
• pp. 155-157
• pp. 159-166

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The Holistic Life-Crafting Model: a systematic literature review of meaning-making behaviors

Llewellyn e. van zyl.

1 Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Eindhoven, Eindhoven, Netherlands

2 Optentia Research Unit, North-West University, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa

3 Department of Human Resource Management, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands

4 Department of Social Psychology, Institut für Psychologie, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany

Noah C. M. Custers

Bryan j. dik.

5 Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States

Leoni van der Vaart

6 Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway

Jeff Klibert

7 Department of Psychology, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, United States

Associated Data

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Pursuing meaningful life experiences is vital for wellbeing and health. Crafting strategies, such as job crafting and work-life balance crafting, have been developed to create meaning in specific life domains. However, these strategies share common underlying behaviors that transcend specific contexts. Building on this understanding, we propose a comprehensive “holistic life-crafting” approach that integrates overlapping behaviors from various crafting strategies. This study aims to clarify the theoretical conceptualization of life-crafting by identifying common strategies and behaviors underlying different meaning-making crafting approaches. Through a systematic literature search of six databases between January and April 2022, we identified 16,479 published records. Using predefined inclusion–exclusion criteria, 51 records (reflecting five crafting approaches, resulting in 223 different crafting behaviors) remained. Through content analysis, we grouped these behaviors into seven broader crafting strategies, forming the “holistic life-crafting” approach. Findings suggest that life-crafting is a holistic, continuous process of proactive meaning-making by intentionally balancing life demands with available resources and altering life’s cognitive, environmental, interest, relational, skill, and task-related aspects to promote personal growth and wellbeing. The holistic approach encompasses cognitive, environmental, interest, relational, resources-demands, skill, and task crafting strategies. This framework provides a comprehensive understanding of how individuals can actively shape their lives to promote more meaningful life experiences across different domains.

Systematic review registration

PROSPERO, identifier CRD42022333930.

Introduction

Pursuing meaningful life experiences is a fundamental objective of the human condition and vital for overall wellbeing and flourishing ( Jacob and Steger, 2021 ). Meaning, defined as “the sense that people make of their existence and having an overarching life purpose they pursue” ( Steger et al., 2014 , p. 27), is an essential antecedent for various positive individual (e.g., happiness), organizational- (e.g., performance), and societal outcomes (e.g., economic prosperity; Jacob and Steger, 2021 ). Given these benefits, there is increasing interest in understanding the mechanisms and practical approaches to develop meaning ( Van Zyl et al., 2010 , 2020 ). According to Jacob and Steger (2021) , ‘crafting strategies/approaches’ have become increasingly popular in the literature to help individuals actively create or (re)shape meaningful experiences in different life domains, like work, leisure, or careers. Crafting strategies pertain to a collection of domain-specific behaviors and conscious efforts aimed at changing the physical nature or perception of life/work to better align such with one’s core values, needs, strengths, and goals ( Demerouti et al., 2020 ; Chen et al., 2022 ).

Largely, the crafting literature developed from industrial/organizational psychology and world of work perspectives, leading to the construction of job crafting ( Wrzesniewski and Dutton, 2001 ). This bottom-up approach helps employees redesign their work experiences by empowering self-directed and value-driven movement toward positive change in meeting complex work demands ( Roczniewska et al., 2023 ). However, researchers and theorists soon started broadening out the concept of crafting to other life domains, including nonwork ( De Bloom et al., 2020 ; Laporte et al., 2021 ), family ( Wan et al., 2021 ), and leisure ( Berg et al., 2010 ; Kosenkranius et al., 2020 ) contexts. Currently, there is a strong push to extend the concept of crafting by creating integrative models of meaning-making that cut across different fields of study. In response to these calls, various forms of domain-specific crafting strategies have emerged, ranging from job, home, and career crafting to leisure, story, and work-life balance crafting ( Chen et al., 2022 ). In fact, the literature is saturated with crafting strategies and behaviors, including, but not limited to, cognitive crafting, relational crafting, resource crafting, challenge crafting, demands crafting, task crafting, home crafting, family crafting, leisure crafting, temporal crafting, location crafting, and developmental crafting. These crafting approaches and strategies increase wellbeing and performance in various life domains ( Demerouti et al., 2020 ) but have also been criticized for the fact that their underlying behaviors are stringently context-bound (e.g., crafting in work-related contexts or family life; Chen et al., 2022 ).

Although meaning arises through domain-specific activities ( Messmann and Mulder, 2012 ; De Jong et al., 2020 ), human behavior is not entirely context-dependent ( Snyder and Tanke, 1976 ). According to the cognitive consistency theory, people prefer congruence between their thoughts, beliefs, values, attitudes, and behaviors. They are motivated to behave consistently to reduce cognitive dissonance and create coherence in their self-concepts ( Kruglanski et al., 2018 ). Trait activation theory also suggests latent personality traits generate habitual behavioral patterns regardless of context ( Tett and Burnett, 2003 ). Moreover, as creatures of habit, people’s approach to challenges and life tasks is habitual and thus fairly consistent across domains ( Snyder and Tanke, 1976 ; Heimlich and Ardoin, 2008 ). Deviating from these ingrained, habitual behaviors requires substantial mental effort because they are rooted in deep-seated beliefs, values, personality, skills, enculturation, and socialization ( Heimlich and Ardoin, 2008 ; Wood and Rünger, 2016 ). Neuroscience also supports the assumption that individuals have a ‘default mode network’ in the brain that reverts thinking and behavior to innate or natural setpoints after situational deviations ( De Haan et al., 2023 ). Therefore, individuals’ underlying psychological makeup and resulting behavioral tendencies remain relatively stable despite their contexts. Hence, crafting strategies may be domain-specific on the surface, but their underlying behaviors are likely to generalize across life domains ( Chen et al., 2022 ). We, therefore, contend that there is an overlap between the different behaviors underpinning different domain-specific crafting strategies. The overlap may lead to a more holistic and encompassing meaning-making or crafting approach: Life-Crafting .

Life-crafting is a relatively new concept in the literature referring to a general crafting strategy comprised of universal meaning-making behaviors–but questions remain regarding its conceptualization, operationalization, and measurement ( Dekker et al., 2020 ; Chen et al., 2022 ). Existing literature presents two approaches to life-crafting. The first approach, described by Schippers and Ziegler (2019) , views life-crafting as an intervention framework focused on helping students discover their values/passions, reflect on their present and future competencies/habits-and social lives, consider their ideal future, set concrete goals, and undertake actions to align their values and needs to important areas of life (e.g., social, career, and leisure). Despite its novelty, no empirical evidence of the effectiveness of this approach nor a valid or reliable means to measure underlying concepts was presented. Despite providing a contextual definition for life-crafting, Schippers and Ziegler (2019) neither provide inductive or deductive reasoning for life-crafting as a meaning-making strategy nor link the components to any known meaning-centered theoretical framework. The theoretical basis for the intervention is stated to draw from several different fields (e.g., salutogenesis, positive psychology, goal-setting theory). Still, the connections between these fields and the components of their life-crafting approach are not fully fleshed out ( Chen et al., 2022 ). Chen et al. (2022) echo these concerns by stating that “the conceptual construction of Schippers and Ziegler’s (2019) life-crafting and what it entails is severely lacking” (p. 2). The theoretical grounding and connection to the different components of this approach remain unclear.

Chen et al. (2022) offered an alternative perspective to life-crafting as a collection of meaning-centered behaviors that helps people align their inherent life goals, values, and capabilities to create more meaningful life experiences. Chen et al. (2022) drew from other crafting approaches in the literature to operationalize life-crafting as a foundation for constructing their definition and model and developing/validating a psychometric instrument to measure such. Chen et al. (2022) found evidence and support for a three-factor model of life-crafting. The model defines life-crafting as “the conscious efforts individuals exert to create meaning in their lives through (a) cognitively (re-)framing how they view life, (b) by seeking social support systems to manage life challenges, and (c) to actively seeking challenges to facilitate personal growth” ( Chen et al., 2022 , p. 23).

While promising, questions remain regarding Chen et al.’s (2022) conceptualization and measurement of life-crafting. First, they identified eight overlapping crafting strategies (positive thinking, personal goal attainment, creating new relationships, optimizing current relationships, utilizing social resources, resources crafting, challenges crafting, and demands crafting), which were later confirmed through qualitative interviews. However, the associated Life-crafting Scale showed that only three factors could be meaningfully extracted: cognitive crafting, seeking social support, and seeking challenges ( Chen et al., 2022 ). Although the authors attempt to provide a psychometric explanation for why these factors did not manifest as intended (e.g., wording effects, shared variance between factors), no theoretical argument was explored for the absence of these factors. It is further unclear why ‘positive thinking’ and ‘goal attainment’ were removed from the overall assessment framework.

Second, the qualitative approach employed to explore the life-crafting strategies was conducted with a sample of Chinese participants and later confirmed within a sample from the Netherlands. However, this approach may have overlooked indigenous meaning-making behaviors specific to the Dutch sample. Because considerable cultural variations exist between Western and Eastern societies in meaning-making, people’s underlying behaviors to create more meaningful life experiences may differ ( Wong, 2020 ; Van Zyl et al., 2023b ). This position could explain why only three overarching life-crafting strategies were extracted from the data. Overall, cultural variation in life-crafting strategies represents a significant topic for which additional research is clearly needed to support more inclusive and responsive crafting theories.

Third, the theoretical foundation Chen et al. (2022) used to construct life-crafting is deeply rooted in the conservation of resources theory ( Chen et al., 2022 ). Specifically, life-crafting is primarily focused on preventing the current or future loss of resources. This scope of evaluation is limited and dismisses a plethora of theoretical and empirical evidence suggesting that the function of meaning-making strategies, like life-crafting, is more expansive and integrated ( Wong, 2020 ). For instance, unique features underlying life-crafting serve to support personal growth by increasing engagement in health-coping efforts ( Folkman, 1997 ), expanding access to resilience and well-being resources ( Ryff, 2014 ), bolstering insights on how to find flourishing through suffering ( Wong et al., 2021 ), finding acceptance and reconfiguring ways to “make sense” out of adversity ( Park, 2010 ), and navigating and transcending chaos ( Bushkin et al., 2021 ). Taken as a whole, Chen et al.’s (2022) conceptualization of life-crafting seems restrictive, built mainly around conservation rather than generation or growth, a limitation acknowledged in their work. Moving forward, it will be important to shape life-crafting frameworks by evaluating the intersectionality among different theoretical approaches to meaning-making.

Fourth, the Life-Crafting Scale also posed several psychometric issues. Notably, several items reported significant and large cross-loadings between constructs. These cross-loadings suggest that there may be limited differentiation between life-crafting components ( Morin et al., 2020 ; Van Zyl and Ten Klooster, 2022 ). Furthermore, the authors do not explain why certain items were dropped from the questionnaire. Chen et al. (2022) only mentioned that three items per construct were essential for parsimony but did not explain or support the process of reducing the item set. The resulting ambiguity risks undermining the conceptualization of life-crafting and its different components, a limitation actively acknowledged by Chen et al. (2022) .

Taken together, these limitations provide substantive opportunities to expand the theoretical operationalization of life-crafting. The lack of consensus on the essential elements of life-crafting between Schippers and Ziegler (2019) and Chen et al. (2022) , coupled with the conceptual and empirical limitations in both approaches, highlights a need for a more comprehensive, systematic investigation into the theoretical underpinnings of this concept. As such, the present study aims to advance life crafting’s theoretical foundation by identifying common behaviors underpinning different meaning-making or ‘crafting’ approaches/strategies to frame an integrative definition and model of life-crafting.

Literature review

Crafting strategies and approaches.

Individuals can proactively cultivate meaning through active ‘crafting’, which refers to intentionally changing cognitive, physical, and social features of work, home, or life in general ( Wrzesniewski and Dutton, 2001 ). Wrzesniewski and Dutton (2001) suggested that crafting fosters meaning by helping people (a) assert more control over their lives and avoid alienation, (b) develop a positive self-image, and (c) fulfill basic needs for human connection. This approach, built around the principle of coherence, conveys that meaning-making is a continuous process of creating a closer alignment between the needs/values/strengths of the individual and the requirements of their environment ( Wrzesniewski and Dutton, 2001 ). As such, various forms of domain-specific work (e.g., job [re]crafting) and personal (e.g., home, family, and leisure crafting) crafting approaches and more general crafting strategies (e.g., needs crafting and life-crafting) have emerged in the literature.

Work-related crafting approaches foster meaning by helping people consciously reframe the purpose of work, change the nature of work tasks, and create more fulfilling personal relationships at work ( Wrzesniewski and Dutton, 2001 ). Job crafting is one of the most popular approaches to creating more meaningful work experiences; it refers to the conscious effort employees initiate to reshape the nature, function, and demands of their work environment to better fit their needs and strengths ( Wrzesniewski and Dutton, 2001 ; Tims and Bakker, 2010 ). This involves a process by which individuals either change the physical characteristics of their work (i.e., increasing structural job resources, social resources, challenging demands or decreasing hindering job demands; Tims and Bakker, 2010 ) or reshaping the perceptive boundaries of work-related tasks, relationships, and ways of thinking about work ( Wrzesniewski and Dutton, 2001 ). These proactive strategies help people expand (a) their work’s nature, scope, and boundaries, (b) the meanings they attach to or derive from work, and (c) their professional identities to feel more fulfilled ( Wrzesniewski and Dutton, 2001 ). Job crafting is also directly linked to work engagement, pro-social behaviors, innovation, and higher levels of work-related performance ( Bakker et al., 2012 ; Dubbelt et al., 2019 ). Because of the noted benefits, job crafting is an important positive psychological intervention strategy to enhance employee wellbeing ( Bakker et al., 2012 ; Van Zyl et al., 2020 ).

On the other hand, personal crafting approaches focus on cultivating meaning in general life domains ( Chen et al., 2022 ). These personal crafting strategies are context-bound, often pertaining to areas outside of work-life, including home crafting, family crafting, leisure crafting, and relational crafting ( Chen et al., 2022 ). Like Tims and Bakker (2010) conceptualization of job crafting, these crafting behaviors draw heavily from the conservation of resources theory. For example, Demerouti et al. (2020) defined home crafting as “the changes that employees make to balance their home demands and home resources with their personal abilities and needs to experience meaning and create or restore their person-environment fit” (p. 1013). In deconstructing home crafting, there are several underlying proactive behaviors, including reducing home demands (i.e., behaviors initiated to reduce the mental/emotional/physical load of strenuous activities at home after work), seeking resources (i.e., creating more variety in tasks or asking others for help) and seeking challenges (i.e., being busy at home and looking for activities to stretch one’s capabilities). Essentially, home crafting helps manage negative spillovers from work by generating more positive ‘energy’ at home ( Demerouti et al., 2020 ).

Similarly, Wan et al. (2021) conceptualized family crafting as an extension of the job crafting framework. Drawing from the conservation of resources theory, they argued that family crafting refers to behaviors people engage in to create more meaningful family experiences by closing the gap between the family’s needs and capabilities ( Wan et al., 2021 ). Like job crafting and home crafting, family crafting is delineated by three components: reducing hindering family demands and increasing structural family resources and challenging demands. Family crafting highlights one’s ability to alter family-related obligations, relationships, and activities to improve family functioning ( De Bloom et al., 2020 ). Regarding interpersonal outcomes, family crafting strategies buffer against the negative effects of interpersonal conflict on positive family experiences and overall family functioning ( Wan et al., 2021 ).

Theoretically, leisure crafting is a unique facet of meaning-making. It draws from the conservation of resources theory but is more concerned with the proactive pursuit of goal setting, human connection, learning, and personal development ( Petrou et al., 2017 ). Petrou and Bakker (2016) argued that leisure crafting helps people change the nature of their hobbies or tasks and reshapes the relational boundaries of their free time. As with other forms of crafting, leisure crafting is (a) proactive and intentional, (b) facilitates personal growth through mastery and challenging demands, and (c) builds companionship and offers new pathways to form relationships ( Petrou and Bakker, 2016 ). Thus, leisure crafting is an important meaning-making mechanism, highly associated with needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness ( Chen et al., 2022 ).

All these approaches to crafting consider the context (e.g., work or home life) as the primary unit of analysis and define the pathways or behaviors people take to create more meaningful life experiences ( Chen et al., 2022 ). However, a domain-specific approach “violates a more holistic account of human behavior, in which individuals in their work and not work context would be considered [simultaneously]” ( Wrzesniewski and Dutton, 2001 , p. 196). As such, these domain-specific crafting strategies give credence to developing more general approaches to crafting , which consider one’s overall life approach as the unit of analysis (i.e., need-based and life-crafting approaches).

Needs crafting refers to the proactive behaviors individuals engage in to consciously manage experiences related to their basic psychological needs, including awareness of personal need satisfaction sources and a propensity to take action based on that awareness ( De Bloom et al., 2020 ). Alternatively, life crafting refers to continuously, holistically shaping life experiences for meaning ( Dekker et al., 2020 ). It is “a process in which people actively reflect on their present and future life, set goals for important areas of life–social, career, and leisure time–and, if required, make concrete plans and undertake actions to change these areas in a way that is more congruent with their values and wishes” ( Schippers and Ziegler, 2019 , p. 3). Drawing heavily from the conservation of resources theory, an alternative approach to life-crafting argues that it is “conscious efforts individuals exert to create meaning in their lives through (a) cognitively (re-)framing how they view life, (b) by seeking social support systems to manage life challenges, and (c) to actively seeking challenges to facilitate personal growth” ( Chen et al., 2022 , p. 23). These three approaches provide a set of general meaning-making behaviors which aim to satisfy inherent personal needs, facilitate growth, or help align one’s true-self to life goals.

Crafting behaviors

Given that most of these approaches draw from the conservation of resources theory, it is not surprising that there is considerable overlap in the associated behaviors people use to craft meaning in different life domains. A brief review of crafting strategies reveals six overlapping meaning-making behaviors: (a) cognitive crafting, (b) relational crafting, (c) task crafting, (d) resources crafting, and (e) demands/challenges crafting.

Cognitive crafting involves active efforts to alter how life and work are viewed to be more meaningful ( Slemp and Vella-Brodrick, 2013 ). Specifically, it involves proactive attempts to understand how one’s life or work elements are connected to the success of one’s organization, community, or society ( Wrzesniewski and Dutton, 2001 ). According to Berg et al. (2013) , this cognitive framing approach is focused on changing one’s perceptions about one’s boundaries and contribution to society through expanding perceptions, focusing perceptions, and linking perceptions.

Relational crafting refers to behaviors that foster meaning by changing how, when, and with whom people interact daily ( Berg et al., 2013 ). These behaviors attempt to establish or maintain high-quality connections or social support systems required to advance their personal or life goals ( Berg et al., 2013 ; Chen et al., 2022 ). Relational crafting, therefore, aims to expand the quantity or quality of interpersonal connections by building relationships, reframing the nature of current relationships, and adapting the function of relationships ( Berg et al., 2013 ).

Task crafting refers to the behaviors designed to physically alter the type, number, scope, and nature of tasks people perform in their daily lives ( Wrzesniewski and Dutton, 2001 ). This process involves the autonomy to add or drop new tasks, alter how tasks are performed, or change how much time/energy is invested in completing various life tasks ( Berg et al., 2013 ). According to Berg et al. (2013) , task crafting enhances meaning through three active behaviors: adding additional tasks to work, emphasizing tasks that are energizing or meaningful, and re-engineering or redesigning existing tasks to make them more meaningful ( Berg et al., 2013 ).

Drawing again from the conservation of resources theory, resource crafting is a set of proactive behaviors designed to maximize or optimize one’s currently available resources to achieve important work or life goals ( Chen et al., 2022 ). These resources cut across different domains and are valued by people or are needed to achieve important life goals like financial independence, autonomy, or competence ( Bakker and Demerouti, 2017 ). Resource crafters use their abilities, strengths, and preferences to increase or optimize their structural and social resources, enhancing their fit with their environment ( Tims et al., 2016 ; Bakker and Demerouti, 2017 ). Tims et al. (2012) argued resource crafting has two main components: increasing structural and social resources. Those who resource craft aim to find a balance among available resources, environmental demands, personal abilities, needs, and goals to achieve and flourish ( Tims et al., 2016 ).

Tims and Bakker (2010) noted that people craft their life demands and challenges to experience a deeper meaning. Challenge crafting refers to the extent to which people engage in activities that challenge their current skills or capabilities to facilitate personal growth, achievement, or accomplishment ( LePine et al., 2005 ). Specifically, challenge crafting helps develop a sense of mastery over a particular life domain through engaging in essential and demanding activities ( Chen et al., 2022 ). Further, where challenge crafting is growth-focused, demands crafting seeks to eliminate obstructive or hindering life demands and avoid unnecessary resource loss ( Richter et al., 2021 ; Chen et al., 2022 ). These hindering life demands are obstacles to achieving individual goals and require substantial effort/energy to overcome ( Demerouti and Peeters, 2018 ). Although these life demands cannot be entirely avoided, demand crafters manage them more effectively by simplifying tasks or making them more efficient ( Demerouti and Peeters, 2018 ). To compensate for these hindering demands, demand crafters proactively seek ways to cope with, eliminate, or avoid the sources of these demands. Prolonged exposure to hindering demands can lead to burnout, stress, and depression ( Tims and Bakker, 2010 ; Demerouti et al., 2020 ).

Current study

The marked overlap in behaviors across different crafting strategies, alongside the conceptual limitations of extant life-crafting models ( Schippers and Ziegler, 2019 ; Chen et al., 2022 ), denote the need to reevaluate and expand our understanding of life-crafting. As such, this systematic literature review aims to broaden the theoretical conceptualization of life-crafting by identifying common elements and behaviors underlying different crafting approaches. Specifically, this study investigates the most common or overlapping crafting behaviors to offer a more holistic, inclusive, and integrative definition and theoretical model for life-crafting. Considering the prevailing literature on crafting, our study addresses a sorely need area of evaluation. Notably, the crafting literature is rather disparate; there is no comprehensive and overarching theoretical groundwork to guide the progression of the field ( De Jong et al., 2020 ). Researchers and theorists constantly develop new crafting dimensions with little consideration for whether and how such dimensions add value to the literature incrementally . For example, there are significant challenges in evaluating whether new iterations of crafting are reconfigured expressions of existing crafting concepts or tapping new behaviors and strategies not found within the literature ( Chen et al., 2022 ). In response, our study is one of the first attempts to consolidate this literature base into a meaningful, complex, and cascading crafting model to support future more scientifically framed, nuanced, and integrative research efforts. Once a grounded crafting platform is established, researchers and theorists can tackle other significant limitations (e.g., measurement issues within crafting behaviors; Chen et al., 2022 ) to solidify further and strengthen this field of study. However, developing theoretical grounding by consolidating and framing the current literature into a meaningful structure or model is of the utmost importance.

Methodology

Research approach.

An artificial intelligence (AI) assisted systematic literature review was employed to investigate the main objective of this study. AI-assisted systematic literature reviews use active learning to train a predefined machine learning model that forecasts the relevance of records based on specific inclusion/exclusion criteria ( Van de Schoot et al., 2021 ). This approach is particularly relevant when a large number of records are present. The PRISMA 2020 guidelines ( Page et al., 2021 ) steered this systematic literature review (see Appendix G for the PRISMA 2020 checklist). This review was pre-registered on PROSPERO under registration number CRD42022333930.

The decision to implement a systematic review approach was made with consideration for the study’s primary goal and significant scientific, theoretical, and practical limitations within the crafting literature. Notably, the study aimed to evaluate an increasingly complex and expansive literature base and frame results in a digestible manner, especially for busy professionals looking to institute working models of crafting in employment and other settings. Systematic reviews are one of the most transparent, rigorous, and meaningful methods of synthesizing large quantities of data and pinpointing the most relevant aspects of disparate findings across studies ( Labarca and Letelier, 2022 ). They present an overall impression of the quality, limitations, and lingering gaps within a literature base to support more holistic and integrative conclusions and implications, especially for policymakers, program developers, and healthcare providers ( Siddaway et al., 2019 ). Furthermore, they are instrumental in clarifying, paring down, extending, and developing theory ( Baumeister, 2003 ; Booth and Carroll, 2015 ). These benefits appear aligned well to address some of the more significant limitations within the crafting literature. While crafting is an exciting phenomenon, holding great promise in advancing employee wellbeing ( Demerouti et al., 2020 ), the literature lacks a centered organizational structure to support theory development/extension and bolster the links between scientific evaluation and program development. Essentially, the evaluation of crafting as a scientific concept is proliferating, and there is a great need to locate and define the core components, processes, dimensions, and behavioral expressions underlying life-crafting ( Chen et al., 2022 ). Considering the needs within the literature and benefits of systematic review, we decided to employ a rigorous, modern (AI-assisted), and transparent (pre-registered) evaluation procedure consistent with best practices for systematic reviews ( Page et al., 2021 ).

Eligibility criteria

At the study’s onset, specific inclusion and exclusion criteria were established to determine record eligibility. Records were eligible for inclusion if they: (a) explicitly focused on developing, conceptualizing, or evaluating a novel crafting approach (e.g., job crafting, leisure crafting); (b) explicitly mentioned underlying behaviors of a crafting approach (e.g., task crafting, relational crafting); (c) were published in English or Dutch; (d) appeared in peer-reviewed academic journals or scientific books; and (e) were published between 1997 and 2022.

Records were excluded if the: (a) purpose was not explicitly focused on the development, conceptualization, or evaluation of a crafting approach; (b) focus was solely on the antecedents or outcomes of a crafting approach; (c) focus was on behaviors or approaches related to identifying sources of meaning; (d) crafting approach was not positioned as engendering meaningful life/work experiences; (e) focus was on crafting as a creative activity or hobby; (f) the record was not peer-reviewed; (g) record constituted ‘gray literature’; or (h) focus was not on individual behavior.

Search strategy

This systematic literature search of various bibliometric databases took place in January–April 2022. The following bibliographic databases were used for the search: PsychInfo, LibrarySearch, Web of Science, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Scopus. Primary and secondary search terms were used to identify relevant literature. Primary terms were: “crafting,” “crafting behavior*,” “crafting strateg*,” “cognitive crafting,” “relational crafting,” “resource* crafting,” “challenge crafting,” “demands crafting,” “life-crafting,” “task crafting,” “job crafting,” “home crafting,” “family crafting,” “leisure crafting,” “temporal crafting,” “location crafting,” “academic leisure crafting,” “crafting toward strengths,” “developmental crafting,” “career crafting,” “collaborative crafting” or “team crafting,” “supervisor rated crafting” or “colleague rated crafting,” and “study crafting.” Secondary terms were: “meaning-making,” “creat* meaning,” “meaning-making strategy,” “meaning crafting,” “strength* use,” “cognitive reframing,” “sense-making,” “mindfulness-to-meaning,” and “expressive emotional coping.” The boolean operators AND/OR were used to combine search terms. These search terms resulted in 31,261 titles from the years 1997 through 2022.

Selection procedure

The selection process followed a systematic, multi-stage approach with evaluation and expert input. First, two authors executed the search, garnering 31,261 potential records. Descriptive information (e.g., author/s, title, publication title, and publication year) was extracted, and duplicates were removed.

Second, the dataset consisting of 16,479 articles was uploaded in ASReview (2022) (Automatic Systematic Reviews v.0.19), where the titles and abstracts of the articles were independently screened for inclusion using the inclusion and exclusion criteria. ASReview is an AI-assisted tool that employs machine learning to assist in screening large amounts of textual data in systematic reviews ( Van de Schoot et al., 2021 ). The Naïve Bayesian classifier was used with the default TF-IDF feature extraction approach. The initial model was trained by selecting 26 pre-identified relevant records and screening 100 randomly generated irrelevant records. The learning model was run 100 times with the same 100 irrelevant records. Plotted recall curves were generated to visualize the performance of the trained model throughout the entire simulation. Recall curves provided information about the number of publications to be screened and the number of relevant records identified ( Van de Schoot et al., 2021 ). Two authors then re-trained the active learning model’s second iteration based on the first iteration’s labeling decisions to optimize the hyperparameters per topic to receive a more optimal screening model for the convolutional neural network ( Van de Schoot et al., 2021 ). These simulations were then run and screened independently and separately by both authors. Of the 16,479 records, 80% were screened by the first and 51% of the papers by the second author to ensure that all eligible studies after screening were included. ASReview allows identifying 95% of the appropriate papers after screening 33% of the studies ( Van de Schoot et al., 2021 ). In total, 88 relevant records were extracted from the data.

Third, these 88 records were further reviewed based on the predefined inclusion/exclusion criteria, excluding 26 further records. A total of 62 articles remained for inclusion. Fourth, full-text records were extracted and evaluated for further consideration. Two authors again screened each record based on the review protocol. After discussing incongruencies, 19 records were excluded for various reasons. Fifth, we screened their reference lists for records that may potentially be relevant. Three additional records were included. After discussions between authors, a final selection of 46 records was made. Finally, the list of final records was distributed to seven experts who provided input on potentially missing records. These academics each had at least 15 years of academic experience, had published at least 10 papers/chapters on crafting, and had published at least 10 papers/chapters related to meaning or meaning-making. Twenty-six additional records were suggested, but only five met the inclusion criteria. Reference and citation searches led to the inclusion of three more articles. In total, 51 records were retained for data extraction. Figure 1 presents the PRISMA flow chart that visually represents the steps taken in the selection process.

PRISMA flow chart.

Managing search and reporting bias

Several strategies were used to reduce selection and reporting bias during the review process. First, a clearly defined evaluation taxonomy was constructed before conducting the literature review with specific inclusion/exclusion criteria. The protocol for conducting the search and managing differences was discussed and implemented. Search terms were developed alongside three information management specialists. This taxonomy was strictly followed. Second, all searches were conducted by one author and replicated by another to help ensure no records were missed ( Moher et al., 2009 ; Mohamed Shaffril et al., 2021 ). Third, two researchers screened and coded all records (titles, abstracts, full texts) independently and in parallel ( Buscemi et al., 2006 ). At each step of the review and selection process, the researchers met to discuss/debate the inclusion/exclusion of the extracted records. The reasons for disagreements were noted, and inter-rater reliability (via Cohen’s Kappa) was calculated for each step of the review process ( McHugh, 2012 ). McHugh (2012) states a kappa coefficient of 0.61 is deemed acceptable. After screening titles and abstracts in our review, Cohen’s kappa coefficient was 0.72, indicating substantial agreement between the raters. After screening the full article records, Cohen’s kappa coefficient was 1, which meant perfect agreement. Fourth, the reference lists of selected records were screened to ensure that all relevant records were included, and backward and forward searches were conducted ( Xiao and Watson, 2019 ). Fifth, the final list of included records was sent to experts to determine if any important records were missed ( Foo et al., 2021 ; Mohamed Shaffril et al., 2021 ). Sixth, quality assessments (similar to those reported in Van Zyl et al., 2023b ) were carried out on each final paper (e.g., the corresponding author’s h-index, the number of paper citations, and the journal’s impact factor). Appendix F (see Supplementary material ) shows the mean impact factor of the journals ( M  = 5.60; SD = 3.21) and the medians of the number of citations (71) and h-index of the corresponding author (23).

Data recording and analysis

Data from the final 51 articles were extracted and captured on a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet for further analysis. Descriptive (e.g., author/s, publication year, and publication type) and content-related information (e.g., research purpose [verbatim], crafting dimensions, and behaviors) about each record was captured and reported. The data was then analyzed through conventional and summative content analysis. This method aimed to find, analyze, and interpret patterns of relevant themes obtained from textual data ( Creswell, 2013 ). The qualitative data analysis followed Miles and Huberman’s (1994) best practice guidelines, unfolding six steps. First, two researchers read all records included in the study to acquire a general overview of types of crafting. Second, they created (both independently and in parallel) the initial codes based on the types of crafting behaviors that were systematically apparent as the data set was processed. Third, each of the two researchers’ codes was grouped (both independently and in parallel) into probable categories based on comparable qualities. Fourth, the researchers compared the themes to the coded extracts to create a thematic map based on the frequency of occurrence. The fifth step (involving all researchers) was a process of ongoing analyzes and constant revision aiming to describe the parts of each topic and guarantee that the overall analyzes tell a coherent story. Disagreements in the coding were discussed until they had been resolved. Finally, themes were compiled based on their frequency and were used to frame a definition of life-crafting. Together, these steps facilitate the trustworthiness of the data analysis process, and all raw process data were retained for scrutiny.

Characteristics of included records

The systematic search identified 51 records meeting the inclusion criteria, with most ( n  = 33) published in academic journals during 2018–2022. The records represented five crafting approaches: job crafting ( n  = 32); work-life balance and home crafting ( n  = 6); leisure and off-job crafting ( n  = 5); career and reemployment crafting ( n  = 4); and miscellaneous crafting ( n  = 7). In addition, other descriptive information illustrated some unique characteristics of the retained records. In terms of composition, the retained records included quantitative ( n  = 23), conceptual/theoretical ( n  = 13), qualitative ( n  = 10), and mixed-method ( n  = 5) evaluations. Of the retained empirical/qualitative records ( n  = 38), the majority were conducted in WEIRD (Westernized, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic) countries (n = 32; 84.2%). Table 1 summarizes the descriptive information.

Descriptive information of included records.

*The purpose column contains direct (verbatim) quotes from each record under evaluation. NA, Not applicable.

Crafting approaches and behaviors

Job crafting and perceived opportunity to craft.

The majority of records ( n  = 32) concerned job crafting. Appendix A shows the characteristics of the 32 job crafting records. Most records conceptualize job crafting as involving some combination of task, relational, cognitive, physical, skill, promotion-oriented, and prevention-oriented crafting behaviors. These categorized behaviors are used to optimize job resources and demands to create positive meaning or outcomes. Specific approaches like daily crafting, role-based crafting, perceived opportunity to craft, and crafting self-efficacy are also covered.

Looking at the components of job crafting, different perspectives were presented. The first perspective showed that job crafting has three main dimensions: task crafting, relational crafting, and cognitive crafting . Eight papers referred to these three dimensions (e.g., Berg et al., 2013 ; Slemp and Vella-Brodrick, 2013 ; Niessen et al., 2016 ). Task crafting refers to “altering the set of responsibilities prescribed by a formal job description by adding or dropping tasks, altering the nature of tasks, or changing how much time, energy, and attention are allocated to various tasks” ( Berg et al., 2013 , p. 2). Relational crafting refers to “exercising discretion about whom one interacts with at work” ( Slemp and Vella-Brodrick, 2013 , p. 127). Cognitive crafting “comprises re-framing how employees perceive their job and altering their cognitive representation of the job” ( Niessen et al., 2016 , p. 1289). Berg et al. (2010) used these dimensions but named them task emphasizing, job expanding, and role re-framing . Biron et al. (2023) used physical crafting as a dimension of job crafting instead of task crafting. They described physical crafting as the “active efforts to maintain work-nonwork boundaries and task allocation through managing the quantity, scope, and location of job tasks” ( Biron et al., 2023 , p. 3). Bindl et al. (2019) , p. 607 included promotion-oriented job crafting (“approach whereby the employee adds to and extends existing job aspects”) and prevention-oriented job crafting (“active changes to one’s job that will prevent negative outcomes from occurring”). Prevention-oriented job crafting does not constitute a withdrawal from work but rather proactive behavior. Bindl et al. (2019) , p. 607 furthermore added skill crafting that can occur as promotion-oriented (“gaining a wide range of skills through seeking out training opportunities or engaging in stretching assignments/projects”) or prevention-oriented (“minimizing failures by focusing on what one does best and optimizing performance in one’s area of expertise”). Lazazzara et al. (2020) , Bruning and Campion (2018) , Hu et al. (2020) , and Melo et al. (2021) used the terms approach and avoidance crafting. Approach crafting is often defined as attempts “directed toward solving problems, improving the work situation, and accepting and interpreting stressors in a positive way” ( Melo et al., 2021 , p. 1307). Avoidance crafting refers to “efforts to evading, reducing or eliminating parts of one’s work” ( Bruning and Campion, 2018 , p. 8). Furthermore, Melo et al. (2021) , Hu et al. (2020) , and Zhang and Parker (2019) described job crafting with the term behavioral crafting instead of task and relational crafting. Hu et al. (2020) described behavioral crafting as conscious efforts to change the nature of tasks and relationships at work.

Another view on job crafting is finding ways to optimize one’s job resources and manage job demands ( Tims et al., 2012 ). Thirteen records drew from this perspective and classified these behaviors as increasing structural job resources (“resources variety, opportunities for development, and autonomy”; Tims et al., 2012 , p. 176), increasing social job resources (“gaining access to instrumental and emotional support from others and fulfilling their psychological need for relatedness”; Petrou et al., 2017 , p. 132), increasing challenging demands (“attempts to engage in new activities”; Nielsen and Abildgaard, 2012 , p. 376), and decreasing hindering demands in this dimension (“efforts to reduce aspects or areas at work which drain energy”; Tims et al., 2012 , p. 175). Nielsen and Abildgaard (2012) also included decreasing social job demands (“active attempts to avoid emotionally challenging situations”; p. 376) in their job crafting dimensions. Kooij et al. (2015) classified these dimensions into accommodative crafting (“crafting activities directed toward regulating losses”; p. 156) and developmental crafting (“crafting activities that are directed toward learning new skills or growth”; p. 156). Lichtenthaler and Fischbach (2016) divided the resources and demands dimensions into promotion-focused job crafting (increasing resources and challenging demands) and prevention-focused job crafting (decreasing hindering demands). Demerouti and Peeters (2018) used the same division of the resources and demands but labeled them expansion-oriented (seeking resources and challenges) and reduction-oriented (reducing demands). Demerouti and Peeters (2018) and Roczniewska et al. (2020) added optimizing resources (“the simplification or optimization of work processes to make them more efficient”; Demerouti and Peeters, 2018 , p. 211) to this dimension. Melo et al. (2021) mentioned resources and demands in the cognitive and behavioral crafting practices within approach and avoidance crafting.

The results further showed that job crafting might include behaviors where individuals are crafting toward strengths (“the self-initiated changes that individuals make in the task boundaries of their work to make better use of their strengths”; Kooij et al., 2017 , p. 5) and crafting toward interests (sculpting and changing task boundaries at work to access and work within one’s interests; Kooij et al., 2017 ). Further, Kuijpers et al. (2020) included crafting toward development (“the initiatives that employees take to realize their potential by creating developmental opportunities for themselves”; p. 3). Kooij et al. (2020) further explored crafting as a daily activity, finding support for two behaviors: daily interests (“the self-initiated changes that individuals make in their work to make it more enjoyable”; p. 165) and the term daily work pressure (“the self-initiated changes that individuals make in their work to lower their work pressure”; p. 165) crafting .

Finally, Rofcanin et al. (2019) described relational job crafting as a form of job crafting. Relational crafting consists of expansion-oriented practices (expanding the type, number, and meaning of interactions employees have with coworkers at work) and contraction-oriented relational job crafting practices (contracting the type, number, and meaning of interactions employees have with coworkers at work). Van Wingerden and Niks (2017) described the dimension of perceived opportunity to craft (POC), which describes “employees’ perception of their opportunity to craft their job and may determine whether they will proactively craft their job” (p. 1). Wessels et al. (2019) described time-spatial job crafting with the elements of reflection (“a deliberate process of thinking about the tasks and private demands and working hours, places, and locations of work available on any particular”; p. 5), selection (“the actual choice of working hours, work locations, and workplaces, which is then likely to play a part in reaching the best time/spatial-demands fit”; p. 5), and adaption (“performing adaptive behaviors that address changing condition”; Hirschi et al., 2015 , p. 1).

Work-life balance crafting and home crafting

The characteristics of the six records about work-life balance crafting and home crafting can be found in Appendix B . Five records focused on gaining more insights into work-life balance crafting. In contrast, Demerouti et al. (2020) focused on home crafting using empirical data in a quantitative study. The records about work-life balance crafting used empirical data (qualitative, n  = 4 and both quantitative and qualitative, n  = 1). Caringal-Go et al. (2022) focused on employees with telecommuting work arrangements, Dreyer and Busch (2021) focused on co-working couples running their own small family business, and Jammaers and Williams (2021) focused on individuals with a disability. Four records explored strategies, techniques, and/or activities individuals use to shape their work-life balance. Jammaers and Williams (2021) argue that studies on work-life balance have neglected the impact of self-care needs of people with disabilities. The five records yielded their definition of work-life balance crafting, but all were based on existing definitions.

Work-life balance crafting is “proactive, goal-oriented and self-initiated activities to shape boundaries and manage WLB in physical, cognitive, and relational ways” ( Dreyer and Busch, 2021 , p. 2). Reflecting on the presented dimensions of work-life balance-and home crafting, the results showed that most of the included records shared three components: physical-, cognitive-, and relational crafting. Physical crafting describes “how work is organized, and it entails joint decisions to change and distribute demands” ( Dreyer and Busch, 2021 , p. 12). Cognitive crafting “involves defining and framing perceptions of what a job means and entails” ( Sturges, 2012 , p. 1541). Finally, relational crafting “involves strategies workers employed to manage both work and non-work relationships” ( Caringal-Go et al., 2022 , p. 123).

Further, one record included physical crafting as a dimension of work-life balance crafting . It splits this crafting type into two dimensions: temporal-and locational (physical) crafting ( Jammaers and Williams, 2021 ). The paper by Jammaers and Williams (2021) described physical temporal crafting as the orienting “around controlling the length of a working day” (p. 122). On the other hand, Physical locational crafting is described as the “strategy, locational crafting, employees change the location of their work or home, to cut down the hours needed to get to or physically be present in their standard workplace” ( Jammaers and Williams, 2021 , p. 122).

Like work-life balance crafting, home crafting was found as an additional way individuals craft the nature and function of their home lives. Demerouti et al. (2020) defined home crafting as “changes that employees make to balance their home demands and home resources with their personal abilities and needs, to experience meaning and create or restore their person-environment fit” (p. 1013). These authors distinguished between three types of home crafting behaviors: seeking home resources (strategies employed at home to increase the availability of the required resources needed to manage home demands and to achieve goals), seeking home challenges (seeking new challenging tasks or taking on more responsibilities once home tasks are completed) and reducing home demands (efforts to lessen the emotional, psychological, or physical taxing aspects of home life).

Leisure crafting and off-job crafting

The next category of crafting strategies derived from the literature relates to crafting activities in one’s leisure time. The results summarized in Appendix C show that these crafting strategies comprise leisure crafting ( n  = 4) and off-job crafting ( n  = 1). The records about leisure crafting were qualitative ( n  = 1), quantitative ( n  = 2), and mixed-method ( n  = 1) in nature. The off-job crafting paper by Kosenkranius et al. (2020) was a quantitative study, whereas Tsaur et al. (2020) developed a scale for leisure crafting. Three records proposed leisure-crafting dimensions/strategies, and Kosenkranius et al. (2020) developed and designed a framework for off-job crafting. Petrou and Bakker (2016) focused on employee leisure crafting. Berg et al. (2010) described leisure crafting pursuing unanswered callings.

Leisure crafting is defined as “the proactive pursuit of leisure activities targeted at goal setting, human connection, learning, and personal development” ( Petrou and Bakker, 2016 , p. 508). In this respect, two approaches were apparent. First, Berg et al. (2010) focused on crafting leisure in pursuit of unanswered occupational callings . This record divided leisure crafting into two dimensions: vicarious experiencing (“seeking fulfillment through others’ participation in one’s own unanswered calling”; p. 980) and hobby participation (“pursuing leisure and volunteer activities related to an unanswered calling outside of work”; p. 980).

Second, three approaches drew from the conservation of resources theory ( Petrou and Bakker, 2016 ; Petrou et al., 2017 ; Tsaur et al., 2021 ) in their conceptualization of leisure crafting. These three records indicated that leisure crafting pertains to efforts associated with increasing resources and managing demands. These authors argued that leisure crafting consists of three dimensions: increasing social resources, increasing structural resources, and increasing challenging demands. Increasing social resources is described as “gaining access to instrumental and emotional support from others and fulfilling their psychological need for relatedness” ( Petrou et al., 2017 , p. 132). Increasing structural resources is “creating enriched jobs and a motivating job environment” ( Petrou et al., 2017 , p. 132). Lastly, increasing challenging demands is the “increasing feelings of competence and mastery experiences and by creating a challenging environment that promotes growth and learning” ( Petrou et al., 2017 , pp. 132–133). Tsaur et al. (2021) added decreasing leisure barriers as an additional dimension. Decreasing leisure barriers refers to “reduce factors hindering leisure participation” ( Tsaur et al., 2021 , p. 6). Additionally, Petrou and Bakker (2016) argued that leisure crafters actively craft through three activities: Goal setting (setting personal goals and creating strategies for actively achieving such through leisure activities), building human connection (increasing social contact with others and implementing strategies to develop new human relations during leisure time) and pursuing learning and personal development opportunities (seeking growth and development opportunities via leisure activities).

Like leisure crafting, Kosenkranius et al. (2020) introduced off-job crafting as a concept that refers to employees’ proactive and self-initiated changes in their non-working lives to satisfy their psychological needs. From this perspective, off-job crafting comprises of six proactive behaviors: crafting for detachmen t (“mentally disengaging from work-related matters”), crafting for relaxation (“proactively striving for feeling physically well and for reducing effortful activities”), crafting for autonomy (“striving for a feeling of being in control over one’s actions, life, and choices”), crafting for mastery (“seeking learning opportunities and optimal challenges to experience feelings of achievement and competence”), crafting for meaning (“engaging in activities that individuals perceive as opportunities to gain something valuable in life”), and crafting for affiliation (“the desire to experience relatedness and belongingness with other people”; Kosenkranius et al., 2020 , p. 2).

Career crafting and reemployment crafting

Career crafting and reemployment crafting emerged as distinctive crafting strategies individuals employ to facilitate career progression or to gain meaningful employment. Appendix D summarizes the different perspectives relating to career- ( n  = 3) and reemployment crafting ( n  = 1). De Vos et al. (2019) provided an overview of career crafting, while Lee et al. (2021) introduced a career crafting assessment, and Hulshof et al. (2020) introduced the concept of reemployment crafting.

Career crafting is defined as “a set of proactive and congruence-seeking behaviors that (a) broadens career-relevant resources in response to the evolving nature of jobs and (b) explores career options more congruent to one’s changing needs, values, and interests” ( Lee et al., 2021 , p. 718). Lee et al. (2021) divided career crafting into three dimensions: career-level task, career-level relationship, and career-level cognition crafting . Career-level task crafting is “the practice of changing the type, scope, and number of job tasks to suit an individual’s strengths and values better” ( Lee et al., 2021 , p. 718–719), which includes expanding task boundaries (“take on extra tasks to experience new career-related responsibilities in their organization”; Lee et al., 2021 , p. 731) . Career-level relationship crafting is defined as changes in “the amount and quality of interactions with other people encountered on the job” ( Lee et al., 2021 , p. 719) and includes changing relational boundaries (“the vital role of proactive relational crafting in producing positive career outcomes”; Lee et al., 2021 , p. 731) and utilizing relational resources (“the vital role of proactive relational crafting in producing positive career outcomes”; Lee et al., 2021 , p. 731). Career-level cognition crafting “involves altering the individual’s perception of their work, such as interpreting their job as a part of fulfilling their life story instead of viewing work as a means of living” ( Lee et al., 2021 , p. 719). This form of crafting includes reflecting positive career meaning (“indicating that career crafters view their careers as a significant part of their life”; Lee et al., 2021 , p. 731).

Tims and Akkermans (2020 , p. 14) explained that proactive career behaviors “should allow individuals to achieve life and career success.” Tims and Akkermans (2020) split proactive career behaviors into proactive career reflection and construction . Proactive career reflection represents “individuals who proactively reflect on their career motivations and skills (e.g., on motivations and qualities; p. 22).” Proactive career construction reflects “individuals who proactively try to advance their careers by networking, may be more likely to achieve careers they find fulfilling [e.g., networking and setting goals]”; ( Tims and Akkermans, 2020 , p. 22).

In their approach to career crafting, De Vos et al. (2019) described career crafting as an “Individual’s proactive behaviors aimed at optimizing career outcomes through improving person-career fit” (p. 129). Individuals should actively craft their careers over time by (a) reflecting on and being mindful of their career aspirations and motivation and (b) making choices that can impact both short-term and long-term success.

Finally, reemployment crafting was introduced as a set of behaviors and strategies for the unemployed and drew from the conservation of resources theory. Reemployment crafting is described as “the proactive, self-initiated behaviors undertaken by the unemployed to shape the environmental conditions of their job search in a way that enhances person-environment (P-E) fit during the job search process” ( Hulshof et al., 2020 , p. 58). Reemployment crafting consists of three dimensions: seeking resources (the individual’s personality, social support, financial resources, and ability to structure one’s time during unemployment) , reducing hindering demands (minimizing those aspects of the job search that exceed one’s capabilities), and seeking challenging demands (creating more positively interpreted demands to feel motivated to continue one’s job search).

Miscellaneous crafting types

Crafting strategies and behaviors that could not be classified into the aforementioned categories were classified as miscellaneous crafting types. These crafting strategies represent new or emerging research fields, the characteristics of which are summarized in Appendix E . This category includes life-crafting ( n  = 2), leader role crafting ( n  = 1), study crafting ( n  = 1), needs crafting ( n  = 1), bodily crafting ( n  = 1), and crafting within and across life domains ( n  = 1). The records relating to leader role crafting, bodily crafting , and study crafting were qualitative, whereas those describing needs crafting and life-crafting employed mixed-method approaches. The final life-crafting record and the record about crafting within and across life domains were theoretical. Three records introduced new concepts, and two records provided more insights into an already-known concept. Two records developed and validated a measure for a concept, and one validated the adaption of the job demands-resources theory. De Bloom et al. (2020) proposed a model to account for past conceptualizations of crafting motives.

Bodily crafting is described as “the unofficial techniques and activities disabled employees use to work on their bodies and keep fit for both work and non-work purposes to better articulate life and work–to better grasp the embodied experience of a neglected group of workers” ( Jammaers and Williams, 2021 , p. 120). Jammaers and Williams (2021) mentioned two dimensions of bodily crafting, namely cognitive crafting (“employees redefining what WLB means to them”; p. 122) and relational crafting (“building good relationships with key people in one’s environment, both inside and outside the workplace, to establish a better balance”; p. 122).

Study crafting is described as “the proactive changes that students make in their study demands and study resources, and therefore the active influence of the student on his or her study environment” ( Körner et al., 2021 , p. 14). Study crafting consists of increasing structural and social resources and limiting study demands. Increasing structural resources are behaviors that influence the study’s design. Increasing social resources is the social aspect of one’s study and consists of social support from lecturers and social support from fellow students. Limiting study demands are concerned with the psychological, physical, social, or organizational study aspects that require effort and are associated with mental or physiological costs ( Körner et al., 2021 ).

“Life-crafting is about (1) finding out what you stand for (i.e., values and passions), (2) finding out how to make it happen (i.e., goal-attainment plans), and (3) telling someone about your plans (i.e., public commitment; Schippers and Ziegler, 2019 , p. 12).” Seven steps were designed to craft lives. These steps are (1) discovering values and passion, (2) reflecting on current and desired competencies and habits, (3) reflecting on present and future social life, (4) reflecting on a possible future career, (5) writing about the ideal future, (6) writing down specific goal attainment and “if-then” plans, and (7) making public commitments to the goals set.

Chen et al. (2022) described life-crafting as “conscious efforts individuals exert to create meaning in their lives through (a) cognitively (re-)framing how they view life, (b) by seeking social support systems to manage life challenges, and (c) to actively seeking challenges to facilitate personal growth” (p. 1). Cognitive crafting is the “individual’s ability to proactively reshape or cognitively re-frame the physical, cognitive or social features of work or life in order for it to be perceived as more meaningful” (p. 1). Seeking social support is defined as “the extent to which individuals seek out social support systems and networks to achieve personal/professional goals and aid in managing adversity” (p. 1). Seeking challenges is “the active efforts implemented by individuals to stretch their current capabilities and learn new skills/abilities to facilitate personal growth and environmental mastery” ( Chen et al., 2022 , pp. 12–13).

Crafting within and across life domains is described as a motivated process, including goal-directed initiation and engagement in crafting efforts to satisfy psychological needs ( De Bloom et al., 2020 ). It consists of approach-and avoidance-focused crafting strategies . Approach-focused strategies consist of the “expansion-oriented crafting efforts aimed at approaching or adding desirable aspects of work or nonwork identities” ( De Bloom et al., 2020 , p. 1424) and include autonomy (“the need to decide by oneself which activities to complete”), competence (“the need to effectively bring about desired effects and outcomes”), and relatedness (“the need to feel close and connected to significant others”; Bindl et al., 2019 , p. 606). Avoidance-focused crafting strategies are “ contraction-oriented crafting aimed at avoiding or reducing the negative aspects of work or nonwork roles” ( De Bloom et al., 2020 , p. 1424). Avoidance needs include detachment (a subjective experience that goes beyond the pure physical distance from one’s workplace; Sonnentag and Fritz, 2015 , p. 74). Relaxation (a process often associated with leisure activities is characterized by a state of low activation and increased positive affect; Sonnentag and Fritz, 2007 , p. 206), whereas stress reduction is the need for strategies that manage one’s reaction to stress and induce feelings of calmness and relaxation.

Needs crafting is “the proactive self-management of need-based experiences and entails both awareness of one’s personal sources of psychological need satisfaction and a tendency to act upon this awareness” ( Laporte et al., 2021 , p. 68). The three dimensions of need crafting are autonomy need crafting, competence need crafting, and relatedness need crafting . Autonomy need crafting are activities that allow for a better realization of one’s personal interests, values, and preferences. Competence need crafting consists of activities conducive to one’s skill development and emerging mastery. Lastly, relatedness need crafting is about creating genuine, reciprocal care and intimate relationships.

Finally, leader role crafting “is a conscious, purpose-driven activity aimed at influencing the development of leader roles and exploring how it is interlinked with role identities” ( Gjerde and Ladegård, 2019 , p. 45). Leader role crafting includes leader role identity, personal role definition, and subordinates’ role expectations. Role-crafting strategies consist of the steps (1) present, (2) adapt, (3) challenge, and (4) explore. Present consists of inform (inform subordinates about how they will enact the leader role) and demonstrate (show [behaviorally and symbolically] how they interpret the leader role) elements. Adapt includes comply (compliance to subordinate’s leader role expectations) and moderate behavior (alter behavior to meet subordinates’ leader role expectations) facets. Challenge is divided into persuade (sell in an attempt to convince subordinates about their own leader role conception) and oppose (oppose role expectations to fight for their own leader role conception) components. Explore consists of experiment with old ways (exploring old ways of enacting the leader role by drawing upon experience from previous roles) and experiment with new ways (copying ways of enacting the leader role from role models and improvising with new forms of enacting the leader role).

Categorization and classification of crafting approaches and behaviors

The extracted data were subjected to conventional content analysis to determine the overlap among various crafting approaches and their underlying behaviors. This involved an iterative process of classification and categorization, which is summarized in Table 2 . First, the conceptual overlap between crafting behaviors in different domain-specific crafting strategies was identified and categorized. The results showed that 223 categories of crafting could be extracted from the data. From these crafting categories, 48 elements of crafting could be identified. These elements represented general crafting behaviors that could be subjected to further categorization. Second, the elements were categorized into seven broader themes representing general ‘life-crafting strategies’: cognitive crafting, environmental crafting, relational crafting, resources-demands crafting, skill crafting, and task crafting. Third, for inclusion into our final model of life-crafting, crafting behaviors (or elements) should have been present in at least two of the three broader domain-specific contexts. To simplify the classification process, the crafting behaviors or elements were categorized into three broad domains: crafting at work (job crafting, career crafting, reemployment crafting), crafting at home (home crafting, work-life balance crafting, leisure crafting, off-job crafting), and miscellaneous crafting. For an element to be included in the Holistic Life-crafting Model, it must be prevalent in at least two of the three crafting domains. Table 2 presents the frequency of each crafting behavior in each life domain.

Content Analysis: Life Crafting Strategies, Behaviors, and Domains

Numbers represent the frequency of occurrence.

First, cognitive crafting refers to how people alter their perceptions of different areas or elements of work and life ( Berg et al., 2013 ; Chen et al., 2022 ). This crafting theme consists of several elements: altering perceptions (redefine the view of life tasks), acceptance (crafting work-life balance by accepting the nature of a task or a role), identity formation (creating a positive self-concept in non-work domains through investing in important non-work identities), reflective practices (reflect on and being mindful about aspirations and motivations), meta-cognition (thinking about the process through which employees interpret and enact roles and make decisions), and cognitive detachment (disengage mentally from work-related matters). Furthermore, cognitive crafting consists of strategic risk-taking (viewing [im]balance as a consequence of choice/responsibility), expanding perceptions (cultivating meaning by widening their understanding of their jobs’ influence or purpose), cognitive withdrawal (offloading of responsibility for incidents or critical situations), focusing perceptions (emphasize the positive qualities), and linking perceptions (make use of existing components by mentally connecting certain activities or relationships to interests, outcomes, or elements of identities that are meaningful). Only identity formation, reflective practices, cognitive detachment, strategic risk-taking, and focusing perceptions were present in two or more life domains and were retained within the final model.

Second, environmental crafting refers to individuals’ adjustments to their physical work, home, or life environments to cultivate more meaningful life experiences ( Dash and Vohra, 2020 ). The elements of environmental crafting were crafting toward development (taking the initiative to realize one’s potential by creating or seeking developmental opportunities), boundary management (managing, compartmentalizing, and controlling time to maintain work-life balance), and opportunities to craft (being conscious of or seeking opportunities to engage in crafting behavior). Only boundary management was present in two or more life domains and was retained in the final model.

Third, interests crafting refers to the behaviors exhibited to expand or engage in activities or hobbies people find interesting ( Kooij et al., 2020 ). This theme includes elements of hobby participation (engaging directly in activities to increase a sense of joy), vicarious experiencing (seeking fulfillment by following the involvement of other people), redesigning interests (organizing work/life to match interests), interests alignment (dividing tasks/activities to match interests), and adding interests (take on more tasks/activities which one enjoys). Only hobby participation was present in two or more life domains and was retained for the final model.

Fourth, relational crafting refers to the behaviors people use to create meaning by changing how, when, and with whom they interact ( Berg et al., 2013 ). Relational crafting includes the elements of relatedness crafting (effectively ensuring the development of relationships characterized by care and intimacy), avoiding social demands (reducing unwanted or draining interactions with individuals at home and work), building relationships (approaches people employ to foster positive, mutually beneficial relationships characterized by feelings of pride, love, dignity, appreciation, and self-worth); re-frame relationships (changing the nature of current relationships to serve a new or more meaningful purpose), expanding relationships (expanding relationships during free time), adapting relationships (changing the nature or function of a relationship), influencing and negotiating (persuading others to take over tasks), and managing social interactions (using relationships with friends and family to support and maintain work-life balance). Only building relationships, expanding relationships, and managing social interactions were present in two or more life domains and were retained in the final model.

Fifth, resources-demands crafting refers to the behaviors associated with optimizing life resources, managing obstructive or hindering life demands, and attempting to avoid unnecessary resource loss ( Chen et al., 2022 ). Resources-demands crafting consists of autonomy crafting (allowing for a better realization of personal interests), reducing hindering demands (reducing those aspects that exceed one’s capabilities), vitality management (taking care of one’s physical and mental health), optimizing demands (the simplification or optimization of work processes to make people more efficient), seeking structural resources (actions to increase growth-promoting resources), seeking social resources (creating social support networks or gaining supervisory feedback or coaching), increasing challenging demands (initiatives to increase challenging demands in life and at work). Only optimizing demands were absent in two or more life domains and, therefore, not included in the final model.

Sixth, skill crafting is concerned with developing a wide range of skills through seeking out training opportunities, engaging in stretching assignments/projects, minimizing failures by focusing on what one does best, and optimizing performance in one’s area of expertise ( Bindl et al., 2019 ). Skill crafting contains elements of personal growth initiatives (viewing failures as learning opportunities), using skills in different ways (seeking opportunities to use current skills in novel and creative ways), professional development initiatives (seeking out training and development opportunities), competence crafting (behaviors associated with skill development and an emerging sense of mastery), decision latitude (autonomy to make independent decisions), and skill and strengths use (seeking opportunities to use current skills, knowledge, and strengths to the fullest in life and work). Only personal growth opportunities, professional development initiatives, and skill/strengths use were present in two or more life domains and were retained in the final model.

Seventh, task crafting describes behaviors people engage in to physically alter the type, number, scope, and nature of tasks they perform at work and in life ( Wrzesniewski and Dutton, 2001 ; Chen et al., 2022 ). The elements of task crafting are work organization (reshaping systems and strategies to organize the tangible elements of life), redesigning tasks (changing the nature or function of life tasks to make them more meaningful), prioritizing tasks (prioritizing specific tasks over others to improve efficiency and task execution), task emphasizing (highlighting important tasks which are already part of a formal job description or life role); task expansion (adding tasks or projects perceived to be meaningful), task enlargement (including elements of work and related activities not originally in the formal job description), task avoidance (avoiding risky situations/cases), and task delegation (delegating tasks). Only redesigning tasks, task emphasizing, and task expansion were present in two or more life domains and were retained in the final model.

The present study aimed to advance the theoretical understanding of life-crafting by investigating shared elements or behaviors across different crafting approaches. The review identified 51 records, reflecting five crafting approaches (job crafting, work-life balance and home crafting, leisure crafting and off-job crafting, career crafting, and miscellaneous crafting strategies), comprising 48 different crafting strategies and 223 behaviors. Based on our classification criteria, 22 dimensions were included in the holistic life-crafting model. Content analysis classified these behaviors into seven broader themes representing a general ‘life-crafting’ approach: cognitive crafting, environmental crafting, interest crafting, relational crafting, resources-demands crafting, skill crafting, and task crafting (see Figure 2 ). The proposed framework comprehensively explains how individuals can actively shape their lives to promote meaningful experiences. The sections below briefly discuss the findings and their implications for future research.

The Holistic Life-Crafting Model.

The Holistic Life-Crafting Model

The first objective was to frame an integrative definition of life-crafting based on the prevailing literature. Results show that life-crafting can be defined as a holistic, continuous process of proactively creating meaning by intentionally balancing demands and resources and altering cognitive, environmental, interest, relational, skill, and task aspects to promote growth and wellbeing. Specifically, this holistic approach indicates that those individuals who actively engage in life-crafting employ seven strategies: cognitive crafting, environmental crafting, interest crafting, relational crafting, resources-demands crafting, skill crafting, and task crafting.

First , cognitive crafting refers to how individuals consciously alter the perceptions held or meaning attached to/derived from different areas of work and life. Here, the focus is not on physically changing the nature of life or life-related tasks but rather on the subjective perceptions about work or life ( Berg et al., 2013 ). It encompasses a set of actions taken to create important non-work identities, reflect upon one’s aspirations and motivations, and the practices employed to disengage from work mentally. It further consists of taking strategic risks and emphasizing the positive qualities of work. These activities assist people in seeking, constructing, and experiencing a meaningful existence by increasing their awareness of why their life matters and what they accomplish via their daily actions. When people alter how they think about their lives, it creates a sense of control and mastery, leading to experiences that are perceived to be more meaningful ( Berg et al., 2013 ; Chen et al., 2022 ). This is in line with the basic tenets of cognitive behavioral therapy, where changes in thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes lead to changes in behaviors, which, in turn, leads to changes in emotional regulation ( Thoma et al., 2015 ).

Second , environmental crafting refers to individuals’ physical changes to their work, home, or life environments to cultivate more meaningful life experiences. Specifically, it relates to individuals’ strategies to effectively manage the boundaries between various areas of their lives. Boundary management can lead to more meaningful life experiences by allowing individuals to prioritize their values and goals, establish a sense of control/autonomy over their lives, achieve a better work-life balance, and maintain meaningful relationships with others ( Kodama, 2009 ; Kossek et al., 2012 ). Given that the environment plays a vital role in both the search for and experience of meaning, it is essential to develop abilities to effectively manage the interaction between different areas of one’s life. Boundary management is a crucial aspect of environmental crafting, which includes managing, compartmentalizing, and governing time to achieve a healthy work-life balance ( Wessels et al., 2019 ). Effective boundary management allows people to prioritize their values and goals and allocate their time and energy accordingly ( Kossek et al., 2012 ). According to Kossek et al. (2012) , setting and managing clear boundaries helps people focus on more personally meaningful activities such as spending time with loved ones, engaging in activities that align with their values, or spending time with loved ones. Effective boundary management could also increase the sense of control or autonomy people experience, leading to a greater sense of self-determination and fulfillment ( Ryan and Deci, 2000 ).

Third, interest crafting refers to behaviors exhibited to expand or engage in activities/hobbies that people find interesting and meaningful. This includes proactively seeking out, creating, or engaging in enjoyable, fun activities that align with one’s interests and passions ( Kooij et al., 2020 ). When involved in meaningful activities, individuals develop new skills, knowledge, and abilities that contribute to personal and professional development ( Van Zyl et al., 2019 , 2020 ). Furthermore, when people engage in interest crafting, there are greater opportunities to enhance self-efficacy. This is because when people engage in activities that are aligned with their interests/passions, they tend to feel more confident in their abilities and more motivated to achieve other goals ( Rottinghaus et al., 2003 ). Further, Kooij et al. (2020) argued that interest crafting could foster creativity as individuals can use their unique skills and perspectives to contribute to their work/lives in new or more innovative ways. This could also lead to a sense of pride or accomplishment as people see the tangible results of their efforts and contributions to their lives ( Rottinghaus et al., 2003 ). Finally, interest crafting can help individuals recharge and re-energize, contributing to overall wellbeing and satisfaction.

Fourth , relational crafting refers to the behaviors people use to create meaning by changing how, when, and with whom they interact. It includes behaviors required to create and expand current relationships and those needed to manage personally draining relationships. Research suggests that social relationships play the most important role in creating meaningful life experiences ( Steger et al., 2014 ); thus, building and maintaining social connections are essential for mental health and wellbeing. Relational crafting also encompasses skills and abilities to navigate complex social situations, such as managing conflict and establishing boundaries to maintain better social health and wellbeing ( Keyes, 2002 ). Therefore, by investing in building positive relationships and managing challenging ones, people can create more meaningful connections with others, enhancing their overall sense of purpose and fulfillment.

Fifth, resources-demands crafting refers to the behaviors associated with optimizing life resources, managing obstructive or hindering life demands, and attempting to avoid unnecessary resource loss. The underlying elements of resources-demands crafting include reducing hindering demands, vitality management, seeking social resources, seeking challenges, pursuing structural resources, increasing challenging demands, and autonomy crafting. By actively managing one’s resources and demands, people can optimize their use of their resources, manage obstructive demands, and avoid unnecessary resource loss. Research suggests that the availability and use of resources are critical components of the experience of meaning and that resources-demands crafting can help people build and maintain the resources essential for wellbeing ( Tims et al., 2012 ). People experience less stress, conflicts, or pressure when they reduce hindering demands. In this way, people have more energy, which they can invest in other aspects of life that are perceived as meaningful. Proactive vitality management is described as adaptable behaviors that enable people to balance their physical and mental energies ( Tisu and Vîrgă, 2022 ). Improving the balance between physical and mental energies makes people feel more purposeful, leading to a more meaningful life. Increasing structural resources includes opportunities for self-development, autonomy, and resource variety ( Yen et al. 2018 ). These opportunities help people experience a purpose in life and, in turn, more meaning. Increasing social resources is strongly associated with pursuing social support, coaching, or feedback from others ( Yen et al., 2018 ). People may feel more connected, have more in common with others, and have stronger social identities due to developing and maintaining meaningful relationships. Overall, having more access to resources or more opportunities to use resources may facilitate crafting behaviors. This enhances the meaning of life and contributes to an overall sense of purpose in life. Increasing challenging demands refers to the attempts to enlarge the life scope or change the content of tasks ( Yen et al., 2018 ). People develop new skills/abilities and overcome challenges by pursuing difficult goals. Therefore, seeking challenges and increasing challenging demands may result in achievement, progress, and mastery, contributing to their sense of meaning and fulfillment in life. Autonomy crafting is described as pursuing control over one’s actions, life, and choices ( Kosenkranius et al., 2020 ). People may enjoy a higher sense of control, authenticity, and meaning by taking responsibility for their decisions and behaviors.

Sixth, skill crafting refers to developing a wide range of skills through seeking out training opportunities, stretching assignments/projects, or minimizing failures by focusing on what one does best and optimizing performance in one’s area of expertise. In essence, skill crafting ensures a closer alignment between the capabilities of the self and the demands/needs/resources of the environment. The underlying elements of skill crafting include personal growth initiatives, professional development initiatives, and skill and strength use. Skill crafting aims to develop new and optimize current skills/abilities to facilitate personal growth and development. Activities that require a more comprehensive range of skills are seen as more meaningful ( Berg et al., 2013 ). People grow more assured, capable, and self-aware when they take the time to develop their skills. These characteristics allow people to take advantage of new chances, work toward worthwhile objectives, and eventually find meaning and fulfillment in their lives. It also aims to develop skills and abilities to facilitate professional development. Persons can expand their knowledge base, develop a higher level of expertise in their industry, and perform better. In response, one’s sense of success and satisfaction increases, boosting confidence and self-esteem. Finally, it aims to facilitate active skills and strengths use to facilitate more meaningful life experiences. Active skill and strength use can improve a person’s sense of competence, self-efficacy, and autonomy, resulting in more fulfilling life experiences. A larger variety of skills and challenges makes tasks and life more meaningful ( Li et al., 2020 ).

Finally , task crafting refers to the behaviors people exhibit to physically alter the type, number, scope, and nature of their tasks at work and in life. The underlying elements of task crafting include redesigning life tasks, task emphasizing, and task expansion. Task crafting aims at restructuring tasks or elements of life tasks. It enables people to shape their lives consistent with their values, talents, and interests. It gives people the power to make their lives more personally fulfilling, giving them more meaning and purpose ( Hackman and Oldman, 1980 ). Furthermore, task crafting includes task emphasizing. People craft meaning when engaging in activities that they see as opportunities to gain something valuable ( Kosenkranius et al., 2020 ). Finally, task crafting includes expanding one’s tasks perceived to be more meaningful. Tasks that require a wider range of skills are seen as more meaningful ( Berg et al., 2013 ).

Similarities and differences to other life-crafting approaches

This holistic approach to life-crafting shares similarities with the Schippers and Ziegler (2019) and Chen et al. (2022) life-crafting approaches in that it aims to present elements required to create more meaningful life experiences and intentionally shape one’s life to align with one’s personal values, interests, needs, and goals. It broadly draws from both the cognitive re-framing and the conservation of resources perspectives on crafting, whereby the focus is on cognitively re-framing life experiences, actively seeking out the means to manage work/life demands, and/or increasing available resources. Furthermore, all three approaches require a deeper level of self-awareness and intentionality as they involve making intentional choices about how to shape experiences and environments. Finally, all three approaches include elements related to increasing and optimizing social aspects of life by highlighting the importance of building and maintaining current and future relationships as routes toward meaning. However, despite these similarities, these approaches have several key differences.

Unlike Schippers and Ziegler (2019) and Chen et al. (2022) , our model presents a holistic perspective involving crafting all aspects of life, including nurturing work and home relationships, personal growth, and leisure to create meaning. There are also some global differences among Schippers and Ziegler (2019) , Chen et al. (2022) , and this approach. All three generally conceive life-crafting as a deliberate process of sculpting and designing one’s life but with a different focus. Schippers and Ziegler (2019) emphasize the psychological components of the process, whereas Chen et al. (2022) emphasize the operationalization and assessment of life-crafting. Chen et al. (2022) developed and established validity evidence for a multidimensional life-crafting measure with three dimensions: cognitive crafting, seeking social support, and seeking challenges. The degree to which people take deliberate action to build a meaningful and fulfilling existence is gaged by this scale. In contrast, Schippers and Ziegler (2019) define life-crafting as a process of looking for meaning and purpose in one’s life and placing more emphasis on its psychological aspects. They contend that the process of ‘life-crafting’ includes ongoing investigation of one’s values, aptitudes, and interests as well as soliciting feedback from others to clarify one’s sense of direction; they stress the significance of taking the initiative to live a life that is consistent with one’s values and aspirations.

The holistic life-crafting model offers clearer insight into the underlying behaviors supporting various life-crafting strategies to synthesize material and offer more comprehensive perspectives on life-crafting. By analyzing the common components and behavioral tactics for diverse crafting strategies, this research seeks to clarify the theoretical underpinnings of life-crafting. Specifically, this paper focused on changing how one thinks (cognitive), functions (environment, resource-demands), acts (task, skill, interest), and fits in (relational) to social contexts. In contrast, Chen et al. (2022) are focused more narrowly on managing resources, and Schippers and Ziegler (2019) on setting goals (aligning values with true self). Despite these global differences, there are also more nuanced differences worth noting.

Whereas Schippers and Ziegler (2019) present life-crafting as an intervention strategy, our life-crafting approach is positioned as an ongoing process whereby an individual continuously reassesses their values, needs, and goals and adjusts their life designs, ensuring better alignment. Furthermore, our approach focuses more on global crafting behaviors and strategies rather than specific solution-orientated tasks such as goal setting, goal attainment, and goal commitment. In contrast to our holistic approach, Schippers and Ziegler (2019) focus on a seven-step process to develop a future or ‘ideal state’ and develop goals required to close the gap between ideal states and the current states. The Schippers and Ziegler (2019) approach seems less about ‘crafting’ per se and is more aligned with traditional goal-setting theory, which argues that people are motivated to achieve certain life goals by setting and pursuing mastery and performance objectives ( Latham and Yukl, 1975 ). From this perspective, an ideal state is envisioned, and a clear, actionable plan is created to facilitate the change from the current to the ideal state ( Latham and Yukl, 1975 ). In contrast, holistic life-crafting refers to proactive behaviors required to shape life experiences to align with goals, values, and interests. Furthermore, Schippers and Ziegler’s (2019) approach focuses less on personal agency and meaning and more on improving overall ‘life performance’. Their approach is positioned as a targeted and specific intervention strategy, focusing on achieving personal life outcomes. In contrast, holistic life-crafting is broad, flexible, and focuses on creating more meaningful life experiences.

Similarly, the holistic life-crafting approach also differs from the Chen et al. (2022) framework, focusing on conserving resources (i.e., managing demands/increasing resources) and facilitating growth and development. The Chen et al. (2022) framework heavily relies on the conservation of resources theory. It negates the importance of the environment and the role of tasks, skills, and interests. Furthermore, the Chen et al. (2022) approach arguably provides an oversimplified view of the importance of social relationships in meaning-making, indicating that only relational-seeking behavior is important. In contrast, the findings from this study show that relational crafting has both promotive and preventative components, helping people increase social closeness, build new relationships (and not just seek social support), re-framing the nature of current relationships, and expanding the role of relationships beyond mere functionality. Holistic life-crafting also aims to manage the impact of relationships deemed non-beneficial or ‘draining’ through initiating strategies to avoid social demands and manage social interactions. Only three particular crafting behaviors could be inferred from the questionnaire from Chen et al. (2022) : cognitive crafting, seeking social support, and seeking challenges. Our approach included 22 crafting behaviors of life-crafting. Where Chen et al. (2022) used cognitive crafting as a dimension, our holistic model of life-crafting used this type of crafting as a broader theme representing more general “life-crafting” strategies.

Implications

The holistic life-crafting model proposed in this paper offers several implications for the discipline and practical application. First, the model emphasizes the value of a comprehensive approach to life-crafting by highlighting the overlap of approaches used in different domains and their interconnectedness. Second, the model provides a practical roadmap to help develop a clear strategy for creating meaningful life experiences to guide goal-setting and decision-making. Third, the model highlights the need for a continuous process of self-reflection and assessment to adjust one’s approach over time as circumstances change. Life-crafting can have a positive impact on individuals and organizations, especially on innovation outcomes. By focusing on their personal goals and values, people may become more motivated, engaged, and productive, resulting in more creativity and innovation. Fourth, the model fosters creativity as people use their unique skills and perspectives to contribute to their work/lives in new or more innovative ways. Finally, for organizations, our concept of life-crafting can guide employers and employees in developing a more innovative and empowered culture. People are more likely to contribute fresh viewpoints and original ideas when encouraged to pursue and develop their interests and skills. This may result in a wider variety of solutions and consistent moral and work culture improvements.

Innovation and future directions

Consolidating the life-crafting literature using an AI-assisted systematic literature review significantly extends the crafting and meaning-making literature. Notably, we used stringent review and evaluation procedures to identify relevant records and evaluate the intersection of these records to promote an inclusive and delineated model (see Figure 2 ). Our model, Holistic Life-Crafting, pinpoints seven unique dimensions of life-crafting and highlights the unique behavioral expressions of each dimension. In this way, our model successfully consolidated the most relevant literature at the time of evaluation and produced a theoretically grounded framework to help researchers and theorists conceptualize how dynamic forms of crafting fit together. Moving forward, it will be important for researchers to evaluate the structure and formation of our model quantitatively. One unique way of accomplishing this goal is to construct and evaluate a multidimensional assessment tool. Specifically, researchers can design multi-tiered studies to construct and evaluate sets of items to determine the merit of our organizational model. It will be important for researchers to use new-wave psychometric procedures to verify the factor structure and stability of our model across time. To this end, it is recommended that researchers implement modern data driven or exploratory structural equation models ( Van Zyl and Ten Klooster, 2022 ; Van Zyl et al., 2023a ) in their studies. Such modeling techniques offer a more accurate representation of how related yet independent dimensions of a construct function together; it assesses how different dimensions intersect in complex models. Assessing intersection elements appears key in life-crating approaches as many dimensions are expected to have dynamic relationships ( Chen et al., 2022 ).

Limitations and recommendations

Despite efforts to conduct a thorough and comprehensive systematic literature review, a few limitations are worth noting. Although we employed various methods to ensure the inclusion of all potentially relevant texts and followed best practices for systematic reviews, some manuscripts may have been overlooked. Also, excluding gray literature may have resulted in a biased view of the crafting types, as popular psychology press books, dissertations, and theses that present alternative perspectives were not included. Future research might consider a more comprehensive literature analysis, including gray literature and non-academic texts. This may provide new insights which could expand the current model. Another potential limitation relates to the novelty of this study’s machine learning-based screening methods. The model was trained on initial predefined data, but there is currently no means to evaluate the margin of error in the model. This resulted in more time-consuming manual data checking to ensure no important records were missing. Additionally, given the magnitude of the study and the available data on different crafting types, the time frame of our approach was limited (1997–2022). Innovations and publications post-2022 were not included and should be considered in future research. Finally, the criteria for constructing the final holistic life-crafting model may pose challenges. In the current study, we decided to include elements that were present in at least two life domains. However, other elements may also be used in various life domains that science has not yet explored.

The holistic life-crafting model offers an integrative approach to support individuals in crafting meaningful life experiences by using strategies across various areas of their lives. Our results suggest considerable overlap in the behaviors and strategies people exhibit to craft meaning in different life domains, which signifies the universality of such a concept. Unlike domain-specific approaches, like job crafting or leisure crafting, holistic life-crafting highlights the importance of considering multiple dimensions of an individual’s life to pursuit purpose, meaning, and wellbeing.

Data availability statement

Author contributions.

LZ: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Software, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review, editing. NC: Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Software, Writing – original draft, Writing – review, editing. BD: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review, editing. JK: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – original draft. LV: Writing – review, editing.

Acknowledgments

We would like to extend our appreciation to the two reviewers and the editor for their expert feedback and guidance throughout the editorial review process. Their comments and suggestions significantly improved the quality of the manuscript.

Funding Statement

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The author(s) declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1271188/full#supplementary-material

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Successful and Positive Learning Through Study Crafting: A Self-Control Perspective

• First Online: 03 January 2020

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• Christian Dormann 2 &
• Christina Guthier 2  

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Using social media and other Internet-based sources could distract students from decent academic learning and lead to negative learning, and self-control is required to foster self-regulated learning. Self-control involves the trait-like capacity for self-control and the state-like level of self-control strength, which could be used for performing self-control tasks. Capacity for self-control can be increased by regularly practicing self-control similar to a muscle that needs training for strengthening. We encourage creating study environments in which self-control is reasonably demanded. In particular, we propose that students should be enabled to engage in study crafting behavior. Study crafting represents environmental self-control behavior, which involves designing one’s study environment to achieve some form of identity. This allows redirecting self-control strength into academic studies, fostering goal attainment such as finishing homework on time or graduating. We make recommendations for stimulating study crafting behavior. These involve increasing students’ autonomy setting complex study goals for increasing students’ motivation for crafting behavior.

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Dormann, C., Guthier, C. (2019). Successful and Positive Learning Through Study Crafting: A Self-Control Perspective. In: Zlatkin-Troitschanskaia, O. (eds) Frontiers and Advances in Positive Learning in the Age of InformaTiOn (PLATO). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26578-6_5

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5 Quick and Easy Biography Crafts to Try Now

Biography crafts engage kids in learning. Let’s look at five possibilities. First, to focus on character traits, try a foldable. If you’d like kids to refer to events in the person’s life, create social media posts or build biography cubes. To bring in history, use double timelines. And lastly, if you’re pinched for time, make cute little tube characters.

Ms. Sneed Explains 5 Biography Crafts

Our favorite fourth grade teacher, Ms. Sneed, sat at the back table with her student teacher. “Let’s continue planning our ELA block ,” she said. “Today, we’ll work on our biography unit .”

She pulled a thick file folder from her teaching bag. From it, she pulled out a set of typed lesson plans .

“As you can see, we’ll start the genre study with picture books. Then kids will read full-length biographies. Instead of boring book reports, I’d like them to do some crafts.”

“Fun!” Mr. Grow exclaimed.

Ms. Sneed smiled and set some sample projects in front of him. “We’ll look through these and see what interests you.”

Simple Foldable Biography Crafts

Ms. Sneed picked up the first sample. “For this project,” explained Ms. Sneed, “kids fold the paper in thirds. Then they draw the person’s face on the front.” She opened the front flap. “Inside, students write about the person.”

Social Media Post

“Maybe they’d like they’d like this one,” said Mr. Grow. He pulled out a shaded piece of paper.

“I love that one even more!” Ms. Sneed exclaimed. “The student creates a social media post – sort of like Facebook – for the person they’re studying. Notice how they create a conversation about a compelling event. Kids eat it up.”

Biography Cube

She picked up another paper. “Now check out these biography crafts. I think our class would enjoy this. When finished, each side of this biography cube would feature an event from the person’s life.” Ms. Sneed stopped and quickly folded the sample. “See? Kids simply color, fold, and tape.”

Double Timeline

Next, Ms. Sneed handed Mr. Grow a double timeline. “These aren’t really biography crafts. Instead, they’re more serious projects. Kids list events in the person’s life on one side and events in history on the other. Above all, this project shows how history affected the person. In addition, kids can clearly see how the person changed history.”

Character Tube Biography Crafts

Ms. Sneed walked over to the cabinet. She rummaged around for a while. “Here it is,” she said.

Mr. Grow could see that she held a toilet paper tube in her hand. “If we’re in a time pinch,” Ms. Sneed said, “these are great little biography crafts. Kids can usually finish these in ten or fifteen minutes. When they’re done, you have an entire set of figures to display.”

Mr. Grow studied the sample project. “I see. They just cut strips of construction paper for the head, body, and legs. Then they cut more pieces for hair and headdresses, as well as other props – like this hatchet for Tecumseh.”

Enjoy Teaching Biography

Mr. Grow sighed. “It’s hard to choose just one! I can see that biography crafts come in many shapes and sizes. No matter what, though, they helped engage kids in the study of famous people.”

“Yep, and they will add some pizzazz to our unit. Don’t worry, though. We can choose a few – and maybe even use one of them when we celebrate Martin Luther King’s birthday . Now let’s talk about the culmination of our genre study: a wax museum project .”

Mr. Grow’s eyes glowed. “Really? Great! I did that when I was in elementary school and loved it.”

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This heart condition is 3 times more common than we thought, researchers say

Atrial fibrillation, an irregular heartbeat, is three times more common than previously thought, according to a new study published on Wednesday.

Estimates from more than two decades ago had projected that atrial fibrillation (or A-fib) affects 3.3 million adults in the U.S. But researchers at the University of California, San Francisco found that A-fib affects 10.5 million adults, or nearly 5% of the adult U.S. population.

What did the study say?

The researchers at UCSF reviewed the medical records of nearly 30 million adults who received “acute or procedural care” in California from 2005 to 2019, and found that about 2 million of those patients had been diagnosed with A-fib. The number of diagnoses increased over time — from nearly 4.5% of patients between 2005 and 2009 to 6.8% of patients between 2015 and 2019. The data was then standardized to be nationally representative, giving researchers a final estimate of at least 10.5 million A-fib cases nationwide.

A-fib is one of the most common causes of stroke and can lead to increased risk of heart failure, blood clots, chronic kidney disease and dementia .

Dr. Gregory Marcus , a senior author of the study and cardiologist at UCSF Health, tells Yahoo Life that researchers suspected A-fib was more common than previously estimated — “but we were surprised by the large magnitude of the actual difference observed” in the study.

“These data also help to provide some comfort to the millions of patients contending with the disease, so they know they are not alone,” he says.

Marcus hopes the study’s findings will lead to more allocation of resources to help A-fib patients, including more funding for research and treatment. “For example, there is now strong evidence that physical activity can reduce the burden of this disease, and yet Medicare does not cover cardiac rehabilitation programs for atrial fibrillation,” he says.

What’s behind the increase in A-fib numbers?

Experts say the increase is likely due to a combination of more cases and enhanced detection of the disease.

There’s an uptick in known risk factors. “The longer people live with many chronic conditions, such as high blood pressure, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, obesity, sleep apnea and other medical problems, the more likely they are to develop A-fib,” Dr. Paul Wang , director of the Stanford Cardiac Arrhythmia Service, tells Yahoo Life. Dr. Rod Passman , director of the Center for Arrhythmia Research at Northwestern University, adds that obesity — which is also on the rise in the U.S. — is often responsible for A-fib cases in younger patients.

Detection methods are improving. Not only are medical-grade monitors picking up more instances of A-fib, but consumer wearables like Apple Watches and Fitbits are bringing more cases to clinicians’ attention. “Barely a week goes by in my office where someone doesn’t come in and say, ‘My Apple Watch told me I had atrial fibrillation and I didn’t feel anything,’” Passman tells Yahoo Life. But don’t just rely on a diagnosis from your smartwatch; Passman notes that it’s important to visit a doctor and get confirmation.

Everyone is aging. “A-fib is known to increase with age,” Wang says. “As the population ages, A-fib is expected to increase.”

How can you reduce your risk of developing A-fib?

Healthy habits can decrease your chances of an A-fib diagnosis.

Keep chronic conditions under control. Wang says that managing chronic conditions that are associated with developing A-fib may help. “For example, treating diabetes and hypertension may reduce A-fib,” he says. Dr. Frederick Ehlert , a cardiac electrophysiologist and associate professor of medicine at Columbia University, tells Yahoo Life that patients should control their blood pressure with medication, if necessary, and monitor blood glucose levels.

Make good lifestyle choices. Passman and Ehlert recommend staying in shape and maintaining a healthy weight — “physical activity is key,” Passman says — along with getting a good night’s sleep, reducing stress and staying hydrated.

Cut back on drinking and smoking. “Moderate or even eliminate substances that can trigger atrial fibrillation, especially alcohol, caffeine and nicotine,” Ehlert says. This is especially true for people who have A-fib and notice that it triggers their symptoms, he adds.

However, as Ehlert points out, “sometimes you can do everything possible and still get atrial fibrillation.”

What should you do if you have it?

While wearable tech like an Apple Watch or a Fitbit might pick up signs of A-fib, it’s formally diagnosed by a clinician using tests like an electrocardiogram (or EKG), which measures the electrical activity of the heart.

Early detection and treatment is important as it can reduce the risk of serious outcomes, such as stroke and blood clots.

“There are now many evidence-based effective treatments for the disease, such as catheter ablation , and well-tolerated medicines to help avoid the [worst] consequences,” Marcus says.

Ehlert adds that while A-fib is “rarely an immediately life-threatening condition,” if you feel your heart “racing” or experience shortness of breath or lightheadedness, it’s best to seek medical attention for help with treating those symptoms.