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The 7 Types of Academic Papers and Journal Articles

In the vast universe of journal articles, writers are tasked with creating many different kinds of papers, all with specific purposes and audiences in mind. If you're just stepping into this fascinating world, take a minute or two to familiarize yourself with the types of papers you might need to write – understanding all of these different types can turbocharge your writing journey. While academic papers could fit into an endless list of categories, it's helpful to get started with a few common types you're likely to encounter (and write!) in the academic community.

1. Original research

You know a text is original research if the report is written by the researchers who ran the study. Written by experts for other experts, original research articles usually undergo the peer review process before submission to an academic journal.

In an original article, the authors outline their research by first presenting their hypothesis and research questions . Here they describe the purpose of their study. They detail the research methods they applied, lay out the results of their research, and present the results. Original research also includes implications and interpretations of the study to give other experts in the field new information on all of the subjects. What's really interesting about original research is that, upon reading a study, future researchers will generate ideas to build on articles with their own original research and keep the advancement of knowledge acquisition going. The possibilities are endless!

Within the category of original research, you will encounter some specific kinds of research articles. Some studies can include elements of more than one type:

• Exploratory research Exploratory studies involve a kind of thought experiment and don't often include actual testing of a theory. Without the funding (and the time, technology, and commitment) to actually travel to other planets, a physicist might propose a new method to find other planets that could support life beyond Earth.
• Constructive research A person undergoing constructive research builds something that will lead to new information and knowledge and solve a real-life problem. If a computer scientist creates a new algorithm and tests it out to see what it can show us, they are demonstrating constructive research.
• Controlled experiments This type of research is usually conducted in a lab under controlled conditions. The benefit of isolating one aspect of a study is that it provides a clear result of an experiment without the need to discount your findings in the presence of other factors that could skew the outcome. For example, a medical researcher might use this type of study to determine how a virus responds to an antiviral drug in development.
• Field research An experiment in which some, but not all, aspects can be controlled is an example of field research. For example, a study on the effects of a pesticide on outdoor flowering plants involves a few outside forces that researchers might not be able to successfully manage. A researcher could compare the plants exposed to the pesticide with a plant without pesticide exposure, but they would have little control over the seed quality, sun exposure, rain amounts, or other natural factors.
• Natural study Under a natural experiment, a researcher takes a purely observational role and has little to no control over the factors involved. For example, a natural experiment could measure the effects of a free lunch program piloted in multiple schools over a period of time.
• Cohort study A cohort study offers an observational study design in which researchers follow a group of individuals over time and observe common characteristics or exposure to a specific element. The researchers then examine within that cohort of people the outcomes related to a particular factor, compared to people in a similar group without that factor. For example, a study might examine the long-term health effects of smoking and identify a group of individuals who smoke. The study would look at the development of lung cancer or other diseases within that group of smokers and compare the prevalence of disease compared to a group of non-smokers.

2. Retrospective study

A retrospective study looks back through time to observe the relationship between a characteristic or level of exposure and a health outcome that arises in individuals. This type of study uses existing records and data sources for its observations. An example of a retroactive study is one that examines the connection between the use of a medication and the prevalence of a specific side effect.

3. Case study

A research case study involves an in-depth investigation of a particular individual, group, or situation with a goal to understand the effect of complex factors. A researcher performing a case study collects a variety of data on a case, including interviews, observations, and documents, and analyzes them to identify patterns, themes, and insights that can help to understand the case in greater depth.

Research case studies are often used in fields such as psychology, sociology, and education to explore complex human behaviors and experiences. Researchers in various fields can apply this type of study to investigate the effects of a particular intervention on a specific individua or group or the factors that contribute to successful outcomes in a particular setting. For example, a case study could examine a successful company known for its innovative management practices. The researcher could conduct interviews with employees and managers, review company documents and reports, and observe the company's operations to uncover the factors that contribute to its success.

Research case studies provide a rich and detailed understanding of a particular situation, which supplies the researcher with powerful tools and insights for future research.

4. Methodology study

A methodology study focuses on evaluating and improving research methods and techniques for application to a research question or field of study. This type of study can examine the validity and reliability of a particular research instrument, such as a survey or questionnaire. In such an analysis, researchers can collect data from a sample of participants using a specific research instrument and then examine the data to assess the validity and reliability of the instrument. They could also compare the results obtained with the instrument to the results obtained using other research methods.

Methodology studies advance the research field by developing more effective methodologies and improving the quality of research conducted.

5. Opinion article

An opinion article expresses the author's personal viewpoint on a topic. Unlike a research article, an opinion article is not based on objective reporting or research but offers the author's subjective analysis without the need for evidence or peer review. Opinion articles can be found in newspapers, magazines, and online publications, often written by journalists or experts in a field who want to share their views.

An example of an opinion article is an op-ed piece in a newspaper or online publication. Op-eds are typically published on the editorial page of a newspaper or magazine and are written by individuals who are not affiliated with the publication. An op-ed article might argue in favor of or against a particular policy, offer a personal reflection on a current event, or provide commentary on a controversial issue. The author would use persuasive language and evidence to support the argument and try to convince readers to adopt the same viewpoint.

Opinion articles provide individuals with a way to share their ideas with a broader audience and to contribute to public debate and discourse.

6. Review article

A review article summarizes and synthesizes existing research. The goal is to provide a comprehensive overview and identify gaps in the current knowledge to see what further research should be done. Review articles are typically published in academic journals by researchers or experts in a field. They can take the form of narrative reviews, systematic reviews, or meta-analyses.

An example of a review article is a narrative review of the literature on the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for the treatment of anxiety disorders. The author might summarize and analyze randomized controlled trials and observational studies on the use of CBT, providing an overall assessment of the effectiveness of CBT for anxiety disorders and pointing out any yet unanswered questions about its application.

7. Short report

A short report presents the findings of a particular study or investigation. Named for its brevity, it is typically shorter in length than a full research paper or report and is intended to serve as a summary of the study's main findings.

Short reports include an introduction that provides background information on the study, a summary of the research methodology, a presentation of the key findings, and a conclusion that summarizes the main implications of the study. Short reports help researchers communicate their findings in a clear and concise manner and provide a summary of key information for different audiences.

If you're dipping your toes into academic writing or scholarly publishing, you'll find a world of different paper types, each with its own style, aim, and intended readers. It might seem like a lot to take in at first, but understanding these formats can seriously boost your ability to share your research and ideas. Plus, knowing the ins and outs of these various types means you can sift through published works more effectively, picking out the best sources for your own work. At the end of the day, this rich variety of academic papers and journal articles is what keeps the conversation lively in the scientific community, helping us all to keep learning and growing.

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Types of Research Papers: Overview

• Types of Research Questions

A research paper is simply a piece of writing that uses outside sources. There are different types of research papers with varying purposes and expectations for sourcing. While this guide explains those differences broadly, disciplines and assignments vary.

Ask your professor for clarification on the purpose,  types of appropriate research questions , and expectations of sources for your assignment.

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Types of Research – Explained with Examples

• By DiscoverPhDs
• October 2, 2020

Types of Research

Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in detail with the aim of generating new knowledge about it.

It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it allows researchers to prove or refute hypotheses based on clearly defined parameters, environments and assumptions. Due to this, it enables us to confidently contribute to knowledge as it allows research to be verified and replicated.

Knowing the types of research and what each of them focuses on will allow you to better plan your project, utilises the most appropriate methodologies and techniques and better communicate your findings to other researchers and supervisors.

Classification of Types of Research

There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study, analysed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important to note that a research project will not be limited to one type of research, but will likely use several.

According to its Purpose

Theoretical research.

Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating knowledge , regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a particular field or to answer a theoretical research question.

Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and are usually based on documentary analysis, the development of mathematical formulas and the reflection of high-level researchers.

Applied Research

Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research problem. Applied research draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and its use is very common in STEM fields such as engineering, computer science and medicine.

This type of research is subdivided into two types:

• Technological applied research : looks towards improving efficiency in a particular productive sector through the improvement of processes or machinery related to said productive processes.
• Scientific applied research : has predictive purposes. Through this type of research design, we can measure certain variables to predict behaviours useful to the goods and services sector, such as consumption patterns and viability of commercial projects.

According to your Depth of Scope

Exploratory research.

Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject that is not yet well understood or sufficiently researched. It serves to establish a frame of reference and a hypothesis from which an in-depth study can be developed that will enable conclusive results to be generated.

Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied phenomena, it relies less on theory and more on the collection of data to identify patterns that explain these phenomena.

Descriptive Research

The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the characteristics of a particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the causes that produce it.

In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care not to intervene in the observed object or phenomenon, as its behaviour may change if an external factor is involved.

Explanatory Research

Explanatory research is the most common type of research method and is responsible for establishing cause-and-effect relationships that allow generalisations to be extended to similar realities. It is closely related to descriptive research, although it provides additional information about the observed object and its interactions with the environment.

Correlational Research

The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify the relationship between two or more variables. A correlational study aims to determine whether a variable changes, how much the other elements of the observed system change.

According to the Type of Data Used

Qualitative research.

Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations.

In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations collected must be evaluated numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends to be subjective, since not all data can be fully controlled. Therefore, this type of research design is better suited to extracting meaning from an event or phenomenon (the ‘why’) than its cause (the ‘how’).

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena through quantitative data collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure them . This allows generalised conclusions to be projected over time.

According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

Experimental research.

It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of the scientific method.

Non-Experimental Research

Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their involvement to measuring the variables required for the study. Due to its observational nature, it is often used in descriptive research.

Quasi-Experimental Research

It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot be randomly selected, but are chosen from existing groups or populations . This is to ensure the collected data is relevant and that the knowledge, perspectives and opinions of the population can be incorporated into the study.

According to the Type of Inference

Deductive investigation.

In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain conclusions; conclusions are expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and considered correct if the premise is valid and the inductive method is applied correctly.

Inductive Research

In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a generalisation. It is based on the collection of specific data to develop new theories.

Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation

It is based on observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a conclusion and finally verify or reject it through experience.

According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

Longitudinal study (also referred to as diachronic research).

It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is often used in medical, psychological and social areas .

Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)

Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of research subjects at a given time.

According to The Sources of Information

Primary research.

This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand information.

Secondary research

Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from secondary sources, which are generally based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by another researcher.

According to How the Data is Obtained

Documentary (cabinet).

Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a systematic review of existing sources of information on a particular subject. This type of scientific research is commonly used when undertaking literature reviews or producing a case study.

Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the location where the observed phenomenon occurs.

From Laboratory

Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in order to isolate a dependent variable and establish its relationship with other variables through scientific methods.

Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory

Mixed research methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary) sources and primary sources through field or laboratory research.

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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

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What are the Different Types of Research Papers?

There is a diverse array of research papers that one can find in academic writing. Research papers are a rigorous combination of knowledge, thinking, analysis, research, and writing. Early career researchers and students need to know that research papers can be of fundamentally different types. Generally, they combine aspects and elements of multiple strands or frameworks of research. This depends primarily on the aim of the study, the discipline, the critical requirements of research publications and journals and the research topic or area. Specifically, research papers can be differentiated by their primary rationale, structure, and emphasis. The different types of research papers contribute to the universe of knowledge while providing invaluable insights for policy and scope for further advanced research and development. In this article, we will look at various kinds of research papers and understand their underlying principles, objectives, and purposes.  

Different types of research papers

• Argumentative Research Paper:  In an argumentative paper, the researcher is expected to present facts and findings on both sides of a given topic but make an extended and persuasive argument supporting one side  over  the other. The purpose of such research papers is to provide evidence-based arguments to support the claim or thesis statement taken up by the researcher. Emotions mustn’t inform the building up of the case. Conversely, facts and findings must be objective and logical while presenting both sides of the issue. The position taken up by the researcher must be stated clearly and in a well-defined manner. The evidence supporting the claim must be well-researched and up-to-date, and the paper presents differing views on the topic, even if these do not agree or align with the researcher’s thesis statement. 
• Analytical Research Paper:  In an analytical research paper, the researcher starts by asking a research question, followed by a collection of appropriate data from a wide range of sources. These include primary and secondary data, which the researcher needs to analyze and interpret closely. Critical and analytical thinking skills are therefore crucial to this process. Rather than presenting a summary of the data, the researcher is expected to analyze the findings and perspectives of each source material before putting forward their critical insights and concluding. Personal biases or positions mustn’t influence or creep into the process of writing an analytical research paper. 
• Experimental Research Paper:  Experimental research papers provide a detailed report on a particular research experiment undertaken by a researcher and its outcomes or findings. Based on the research experiment, the researcher explains the experimental design and procedure, shows sufficient data, presents analysis, and draws a conclusion. Such research papers are more common in fields such as biology, chemistry, and physics. Experimental research involves conducting experiments in controlled conditions to test specific hypotheses. This not only allows researchers to arrive at particular conclusions but also helps them understand causal relationships. As it lends itself to replicating the findings of the research, it enhances the validity of the research conducted. 

Some more types of research papers

In addition to the above-detailed types of research papers, there are many more types, including review papers, case study papers, comparative research papers and so on.  

• Review papers   provide a detailed overview and analysis of existing research on a particular topic. The key objective of a review paper is to provide readers with a comprehensive understanding of the latest research findings on a specific subject. 
• Case study papers  usually focus on a single or small number of cases. This is used in research when the aim is to obtain an in-depth investigation of an issue.  
• Comparative research papers  involve comparing and contrasting two or more entities or cases that help to identify and arrive at trends or relationships. The objective of relative research papers is to increase knowledge and understand issues in different contexts. 
• Survey research papers  require that a survey be conducted on a given topic by posing questions to potential respondents. Once the survey has been completed, the researcher analyzes the information and presents it as a research paper. 
• Interpretative paper s  employ the knowledge or information gained from pursuing a specific issue or research topic in a particular field. It is written around theoretical frameworks and uses data to support the thesis statement and findings.  

Research papers are an essential part of academic writing and contribute significantly to advancing our knowledge and understanding of different subjects. The researcher’s ability to conduct research, analyze data, and present their findings is crucial to producing high-quality research papers. By understanding the different types of research papers and their underlying principles, researchers can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their respective fields and provide invaluable insights for policy and further research.

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Types of Research Papers.

Research papers play a crucial role in academia, allowing scholars to explore and contribute to the existing knowledge within their respective fields. However, not all research papers are created equal. There are various types of research papers, each serving a specific purpose and requiring distinct methodologies and writing styles. In this blog post, we will provide a comprehensive overview of the different types of research papers, shedding light on their characteristics, purposes, and key elements.

1. Descriptive Research Papers:  

Descriptive research papers aim to provide a detailed account or description of a particular phenomenon, event, or subject. These papers focus on answering questions related to “what” and “how.” Descriptive research papers often employ observational methods, surveys, or interviews to collect data. They are valuable in establishing a baseline understanding of a topic or providing an overview of existing conditions.

2. Experimental Research Papers: 

Experimental research papers involve conducting controlled experiments to investigate cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Researchers manipulate independent variables, measure dependent variables, and aim to establish causal relationships. These papers typically include sections such as hypothesis formulation, methodology, data analysis, and conclusion. Experimental research papers are common in scientific disciplines.

3. Analytical Research Papers: 

Analytical research papers emphasize critical thinking and analysis. They delve deep into a specific topic or issue, critically examining existing literature, theories, or concepts. These papers often require the author to evaluate different perspectives, present arguments, and provide evidence to support their claims. Analytical research papers contribute to the development of new theories or the refinement of existing ones.

4. Review Research Papers: 

Review research papers provide a comprehensive summary and evaluation of existing literature on a specific topic. They synthesize and analyze multiple sources to identify trends, gaps, or controversies in the field. Review papers help researchers gain a broader understanding of the current state of knowledge and identify areas that require further investigation. They are often published in academic journals and serve as valuable resources for scholars and students.

5. Argumentative Research Papers: 

Argumentative research papers aim to persuade the reader by presenting a clear argument or position on a specific issue. These papers require the author to gather evidence, present logical reasoning, and counter opposing viewpoints. Argumentative research papers are prevalent in disciplines such as philosophy, social sciences, and humanities, where different perspectives and debates are common.

6. Case Study Research Papers:  

Case study research papers provide an in-depth analysis of a particular individual, group, organization, or event. They involve detailed examination and interpretation of qualitative or quantitative data, often collected through interviews, observations, or document analysis. Case studies offer insights into complex phenomena and allow researchers to explore real-life contexts and unique scenarios.

7. Argumentative Research Papers:  

8. comparative research papers:  .

Comparative research papers involve the systematic comparison of two or more entities, such as countries, cultures, policies, or systems. These papers focus on identifying similarities, differences, and patterns to gain insights into the researched subjects. Comparative research papers can be qualitative or quantitative in nature, depending on the research objectives and methodology.

9. Historical Research Papers:  

Historical research papers examine past events, people, or periods to understand their impact on the present. These papers involve extensive archival research, analysis of primary and secondary sources, and interpretation of historical data. Historical research papers contribute to the understanding of historical contexts, social changes, and the evolution of societies.

10. Theoretical or Conceptual Research Papers:  

Theoretical or conceptual research papers aim to develop or refine theories, models, or frameworks within a particular field. These papers often involve proposing new concepts, exploring relationships between existing theories, or providing theoretical explanations for observed phenomena. Theoretical research papers contribute to advancing knowledge and understanding within a specific discipline.

11. Action Research Papers: 

Action research papers focus on addressing practical problems or challenges within a specific context. They involve collaboration between researchers and practitioners to develop and implement interventions, assess their effectiveness, and reflect on the outcomes. Action research papers emphasize the application of research findings to solve real-world problems and bring about positive change.

Conclusion.

Understanding the different types of research papers is essential for researchers and students alike. Each type serves a distinct purpose, requires specific methodologies, and follows unique writing styles. Whether it’s exploring a phenomenon, conducting experiments, analyzing existing literature, or presenting arguments, researchers must select the appropriate type of research paper to effectively communicate their findings and contribute to the knowledge base of their respective fields.

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Writing your research paper

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Types of Research Papers

Published 16 October, 2023

Research papers are used to convey research findings and share knowledge. There are a number of different types of research papers, each with its own purpose, audience, and style requirements. In this blog post, we’ll explore the different types of research papers in detail so you can choose which type suits your needs best!

Students who are pursuing their higher education in different courses for graduate and postgraduate degrees have to go through the research paper writing assignments given by professors. But is very obvious that students are not going to have similar types of research papers topics in their assignments. To write this research paper expertise and awareness about the different forms of a research paper are very important for the students.

For this purpose, they can even take the help of My Research Topics Experts. Here are a few types of research papers that students mostly get in the form of assignments from their professors. Help from the My Research Topics experts could be taken for writing any type of research paper like argumentative research paper on management or critical research paper on science.

Types of research paper

A research paper is a project that requires both the creativity to come up with original ideas and analysis of existing data as well as critical thinking skills. A research paper is our own thoughts and ideas but it includes our research too in it. There are many different types of research papers, and it’s important to know which one you need. Each type has a specific preparation that needs to be done in order for the paper to be successful. Below is a list of the common types of research papers:

Argumentative/Persuasive Research Papers

Argumentative research papers are based on the principle that an argument or hypothesis is supported by the writer throughout the research paper. This could be done by developing that particular argument through examples and research on various levels. These types of research papers are mostly given to the students when they have to prove something in their research paper through multiple arguments and statements.

See Also This: Interesting Research Paper Ideas For College Students

Analytical Research Papers

A good analytical research paper should focus on answering a question and provide clearheaded analysis. Analytical papers are intended to be dispassionate discussions of topics, so the writer must refrain from emotion or opinion about their chosen topic in order for it to qualify as such.

An analytical research paper states the subject that the author will explore, usually in the form of questions, initially taking a neutral position. The main body of the paper will provide a wide range of information. Finally, the authors will state their conclusions based on the information presented throughout the paper. This type of essay hopes to provide a fully supported critical analysis without having to persuade the reader to accept any particular way of thinking.

Definition Research Papers

Definition research papers are relatively self-explanatory. The definition paper should strictly focus on facts and objective arguments instead of including any personal opinion. The purpose is to provide information without analyzing the data, so you can include all sorts of sources but leave them unanalyzed.

Critical Research Papers

As the name indicates it got something to do with the critical skills of the students who are writing assignments of critical research papers. All types of critical research papers need to be addressed in every aspect by giving importance to both its positive as well as negative sides. Criticism has been misunderstood by people for ages by taking it in a negative way only. But now the thinking spectrum of the people is getting broader and more and more space is being provided to the negative and positive aspects of the topic while analyzing something on critical grounds.

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Compare and Contrast Research Papers

Compare and contrast research papers are often based on comparing two works of a given field be that management, criminology, accounts, or literature. Students have to understand the gist of both the texts and then make out a conclusion based upon these two gists in their research papers. Compare and contrast research paper examples could also be considered by the students to write this sort of assignment. While writing compare and contrast research papers students can follow the guidelines given below for them by the expert research paper writers of My Research Topics.

• Never starts writing your thesis statement of the compare and contrast research paper without going through the complete texts.
• Make sure that you have noticed the important points of the texts on a rough draft to conclude your research paper in the end.
• Never write a compare and contrast research paper without quoting the examples from your texts that are provided to you.
• Remember that you have to analyze both the texts or topics and not one so make a balance between both the text in your compare and contrast research paper assignment.

By following these tips students can write a good compare and contrast research paper.

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Cause and Effect Research Papers

When an incidence is caused by the effect of certain other situations it is known as cause and effect situation. Similar is the case with cause and effect research papers where students have to go through a topic that is based on cause and effect. To write these types of research papers students have to be very much conscious about knowing the cause which is underlying the superficial situation.

Experimental Research Papers

In this research paper, you need to describe your experiment in detail. An experimental research paper is a scientific study that tests out certain hypotheses by conducting an experiment. These experiments involve manipulating variables and measuring their effects on something else, such as in biology to determine if one species can transmit a disease to another or not. In order for your data from these trials to be valid, you need high-quality evidence with supporting data and analysis so readers know they are reading about objective facts rather than mere opinions of experts–and those taking part!

Problem-Solution Research Papers

With the Problem-Solution Research Paper, you will find solutions to any problem. The paper starts with a description of the issue at hand and goes on from there–analyzing information before proposing reasonable conclusions in order to come up with possible resolutions that have been proven effective by research or personal experience.

This guide is a starting point for anyone who needs to write research papers. The type of paper you need will depend on the purpose and audience, but this article should help your search. If you are still not sure which type of paper would be best suited for your needs, contact us today! Myresearchtopics.com provides professional writing services that can assist with any project from custom essays to dissertations or even lab reports. Our team has decades of experience in various industries so we know how to take care of our clients’ needs – no matter what they may be! What type of research papers have you written?

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Disclaimer: The Reference papers provided by the Myresearchtopics.com serve as model and sample papers for students and are not to be submitted as it is. These papers are intended to be used for reference and research purposes only.

Apr 20, 2024

Different types of Research Papers: An in-depth guide

Research papers can induce headaches worse than any all-nighter. It's not just the topic, it's figuring out what kind of paper to write. Analytical? Argumentative? Experimental?

Let’s simplify these terms and give you the tools to confidently pick the right research paper format every time.

The Essence of Academic Research Papers

Before we get into the diverse landscape of research papers , let's unpack what makes them unique in the broader world of writing. Here are the defining characteristics that set them apart:

Investigative Focus: Research papers aim to answer specific questions or address problems through methodical investigation and analysis.

Evidence-Based: Opinions aren't enough! These papers rely heavily on credible evidence – from peer-reviewed studies to primary sources – to build convincing arguments.

Structured Format: Logic is king! Research papers generally follow specific structural conventions with clear introductions, bodies, and conclusions.

Contribution to Knowledge: The goal is not simply to summarize existing information but to offer new insights, interpretations, or advancements within a field.

Is Every Research Paper Suited for Academic Journals?

While all academic journal submissions are research papers, not all research papers are destined for publication in these prestigious outlets. Here's why:

Rigor: Academic journals uphold the highest standards. Research must be incredibly thorough, demonstrate originality, and follow impeccable methodology.

Scope and Focus: Journals have specific areas of interest. Your groundbreaking research on cat memes may not be a good fit for a medical journal!

Student Work: Many research papers, like coursework assignments, aren't intended for publication. They still demonstrate research skills but might not reach the level of innovation expected in academic journals.

Important point: Even a research paper not suitable for a journal can be incredibly valuable as a learning tool or as a springboard for future, more in-depth research.

Types of Research Papers: A Comprehensive Guide

Now that we've grasped the essence of research papers, let's explore the diverse range of formats available. Think of each like a specialized tool in your scholar's toolkit:

Analytical Research Paper : Dissects existing information to arrive at new insights or interpretations.

Example: Analyzing literary themes in a classic novel.

Argumentative Research Paper : Advocates for a particular stance or viewpoint.

Example: Debating the effectiveness of a specific economic policy.

Empirical Research Paper: Focuses on original data collection and analysis through experiments, surveys, or observations.

Example: Investigating the impact of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance.

Exploratory Research Paper: Discusses a topic where limited prior research exists, laying the groundwork for future investigation.

Example: Examining the social implications of emerging technologies.

Review Paper: Synthesizes and critically analyzes a body of literature on a specific topic, summarizing key findings and identifying gaps in knowledge.

Example: Examining the current understanding of climate change mitigation strategies.

Can One Research Paper Fit Multiple Types?

Absolutely! The boundaries between research paper types can sometimes be fluid, especially in interdisciplinary fields. Here's how this can happen:

Combined Methodologies: A paper may employ both an analysis of existing literature (analytical) and collect original dataset (empirical) for a more comprehensive understanding.

Addressing Complex Questions: Big, multi-faceted issues often demand a blend of approaches. A paper examining the environmental impact of a new policy might utilize both data analysis and argumentation strategies.

This overlap demonstrates the richness of academic discourse – when done skillfully, blending methods can strengthen a paper's arguments and reveal new insights.

Argumentative Papers: Crafting a Persuasive Argument

Imagine a courtroom – your argumentative paper is your closing argument. Here's how to structure a persuasive masterpiece:

Thesis Statement: This is your central claim, the foundation of your argument.

Example: "Despite its economic benefits, social media has a negative impact on mental health."

Supporting Arguments: Each body paragraph should present a strong point that reinforces your thesis.

Example: One supporting argument could explore the link between social media use and increased anxiety.

Evidence and Examples: Back your arguments with credible sources – studies, statistics, and expert opinions.

Example: Cite relevant research on the correlation between social media use and anxiety levels.

Counterarguments: Anticipate opposing viewpoints and address them head-on. This demonstrates a well-rounded understanding of the issue.

Example: Acknowledge the potential economic benefits of social media but explain why they don't outweigh the mental health concerns.

Conclusion: Restate your thesis in a new way and emphasize the significance of your argument.

Example: Reiterate the negative impact of social media on mental health and call for further research or awareness campaigns.

Analytical Papers: Analyzing Data and Texts

Analytical papers are like detectives investigating a scene – the "scene" being data or text. Here's how to crack the case:

Data Interpretation: Make sense of your data – whether it's from surveys, experiments, or historical records. Identify trends, patterns, and relationships.

Thesis Development: Based on your analysis, formulate a clear thesis statement that reveals a new insight or interpretation.

Example: "An analysis of historical climate data reveals a cyclical pattern of drought and flood events in this region."

Evidence Presentation: Don't just dump data on your reader! Use tables, charts, and graphs to visually represent your findings and support your interpretations.

Connecting the Dots: Analyze how your findings connect to existing scholarship on the topic. Does your analysis confirm or challenge existing theories?

Definition Papers: Explaining Complex Concepts

Sometimes, the toughest challenge is explaining something complex clearly. Here are some tips for crafting effective definition papers :

Start with Context: Briefly introduce the concept and its significance within a broader field.

Break it Down: Define the term using clear, concise language.

Examples are Key: Illustrate the concept with real-world scenarios or historical references.

Example: Defining "photosynthesis" could include an example of how plants use sunlight to create energy.

Distinguishing Features: Identify characteristics that differentiate the concept from similar terms. This avoids confusion for your reader.

Example: Explain the difference between "correlation" and "causation" when discussing scientific research.

Compare and Contrast: Highlighting Differences and Similarities

Comparing and contrasting ideas, theories, or historical events is a versatile skill applicable across many disciplines. Here's how to structure a successful compare and contrast paper :

Topic Selection: Choose topics that have enough similarities for meaningful comparison and enough differences to highlight. Example: Comparing two different economic policies.

Organization Matters: You can organize your paper in two ways:

Point-by-Point: Each body paragraph focuses on one aspect (e.g., economic impact), comparing both items on that aspect before moving on to the next point.

Block Structure: Dedicate body paragraphs to describing each item fully (one item per paragraph), and then offering a final paragraph for comparison/contrast.

Beyond the Obvious: Don't just list similarities and differences. Analyze how those variations lead to different outcomes or implications.

Concise Conclusions: Summarize key findings and emphasize the significance of the differences or similarities you’ve identified. Why does this comparison matter?

Cause and Effect: Unraveling the Causal Links

Understanding cause-and-effect relationships is crucial for making informed decisions and identifying solutions to problems. Here's how to tackle a cause-and-effect paper:

Identify the Relationship: State the supposed cause-effect relationship clearly.

Example: "Does social media use cause an increase in anxiety?"

Research is Your Weapon: Thorough research is vital! Find credible studies, statistics, and expert opinions that either support or refute the cause-effect relationship.

Avoid the Trap of Correlation: Just because two things are correlated doesn't mean one causes the other. Explore confounding factors and alternative explanations.

Evidence-Based Arguments: Build your case using strong evidence. Explain how the research findings demonstrate (or fail to demonstrate) a causal link.

Acknowledge Limitations: Discuss the potential for other causes or influencing factors. Address any limitations in the existing research.

Research and Sources: The Bedrock of Your Paper

The strength of your research paper hinges on the quality of the information you use. Rigorous research and credible sources are the building blocks of successful academic work. Let's explore strategies for finding the best sources and integrating them seamlessly into your paper.

Identifying and Evaluating Sources: Finding the Gems

The internet offers a vast ocean of information, but not all sources are equally valuable. Here's how to navigate the research waters:

Scholarly Databases: University libraries subscribe to databases with peer-reviewed academic journals, ebooks, and other credible publications – your best bet for most research papers.

Books by Established Authors: Seek books published by reputable academic presses and written by recognized scholars in your field.

Credible Websites: Government websites (.gov), educational institutions (.edu), and established professional organizations can provide valuable information. Scrutinize the "About Us" section to assess their legitimacy.

Sharpen Your Critical Thinking Skills

Just finding sources isn't enough. Learn to evaluate them critically:

Author Credentials: Who wrote the source? Are they an expert in the field?

Publication Date: Is the information current and relevant to your research question?

Purpose and Bias: What is the source's agenda? Is it objective or trying to persuade the reader in a particular direction?

Evidence and Citations: Does the source rely on credible evidence and cite its sources properly?

Is Peer Review Essential for All Types of Research Papers?

Peer review is a cornerstone of academic integrity. Here's why it matters:

Quality Control: Peer-reviewed articles undergo rigorous review by experts who scrutinize the research methods, analysis, and conclusions.

Credibility and Trust: Peer-reviewed publications demonstrate a higher level of credibility and are typically the gold standard for academic research papers.

Nuances of Peer Review:

The peer-review process can vary by field and publication type. Some journals might have a more rigorous blind review process, while others might utilize open review with editorial oversight.

Not all research papers are intended for peer-reviewed journals. Coursework assignments may involve using a variety of credible sources, including non-peer-reviewed sources when appropriate (e.g., government reports, industry publications).

Mastering Research Paper Writing: Your Journey to Publication

Writing a compelling research paper is a journey with multiple stages. Let's chart the course, from the initial spark of an idea to the final submission for potential publication.

Stage 1: Ideation and Planning: Choose a topic that sparks your interest and aligns with your field of study. Ensure it has enough depth for meaningful research.

Stage 2: In-Depth Research: Search for scholarly databases relevant to your topic. Consider peer-reviewed articles, books, government reports, and credible websites that can provide valuable information.

Stage 3: Writing and Drafting: Hook the reader with a captivating introduction – set the stage with background information, clearly outline your thesis statement, and highlight the significance of your research.

Stage 4: Revision and Editing: Re-evaluate the flow of arguments, ensure transitions are smooth, and that each paragraph supports your thesis. Fix grammar errors, typos, and ensure your citation formatting is immaculate.

Stage 5: Pre-Submission Preparation: Condense your research, findings, and significance for the abstract. Share your paper with a peer, mentor, or writing center for valuable insights and suggestions.

Do All Research Papers Require an Abstract?

Yes, research papers, especially those intended for formal dissemination (academic journals, conferences), require abstracts. Consider the abstract as the doorway to your paper. It provides:

Summary Overview: A snapshot of what the reader can expect, including the topic, methodology, key findings, and the significance of your research.

Search Optimization: Abstracts often contain keywords that help researchers find your paper during online searches.

Reader Engagement: A well-written abstract can pique a reader's interest and encourage them to delve into your full paper.

Note: Some research papers in a course setting may not require an abstract. Always verify with your professor.

Outlining Your Research Paper

The journey from a research topic to a polished paper involves several crucial stages. Let's break down the process, equipping you with the tools to write a compelling and well-structured research paper:

Before diving headfirst into writing, an effective outline acts as your roadmap. Here's why it matters:

Improved Organization: An outline helps structure your thoughts and research findings, ensuring a cohesive flow of arguments.

Identifying Gaps: The outlining process can reveal missing information or areas that need further research.

Enhanced Writing Efficiency: Having a clear roadmap saves time later, as you won't be scrambling to figure out the order of your arguments.

How to Craft an Effective Outline:

Start Broad: Begin with your thesis statement and then list the main points you'll address in each body paragraph.

Layer the Details: Under each main point, list supporting arguments, evidence sources, and potential counterarguments to address.

Refine and Adapt: Outlines are dynamic – don't be afraid to revise and adapt them as your research progresses.

Writing Your First Draft

Now you're ready to transform your outline into a full draft. Here are some tips to navigate this stage:

Conquering Writer's Block: Stare at a blank page no more! Start with any section that feels manageable – an introduction, a strong body paragraph, or even the conclusion.

Momentum Matters: Set realistic writing goals, aiming for consistent progress. Even small chunks of writing add up!

Focus on Content, Not Perfection: This is your first draft. Don't worry about perfect grammar or sentence structure – the goal is to get your ideas on paper.

Incorporating Feedback and Revisions

Fresh eyes can make a world of difference. Seeking feedback is crucial for refining your paper:

Peer Review: Swap papers with a classmate for constructive criticism on flow, clarity, and argument strength.

Professor's Guidance: Schedule meetings with your professor to discuss your progress and address any concerns.

Writing Center Support: Many universities offer writing center resources for additional feedback and editing assistance.

Revision is an iterative process:

Address Feedback: Carefully consider suggestions from peers and professors. Are there areas where your arguments need strengthening, or transitions feel clunky?

Multiple Rounds of Revision: Don't expect perfection in the first pass. Be prepared to revise multiple times, focusing on different aspects each time (structure, clarity, grammar).

Ensuring Proper Citation and Avoiding Plagiarism

Proper citation practices are essential for two key reasons:

Credibility: Citations demonstrate that your research is based on credible sources and strengthens your arguments.

Academic Integrity: It prevents plagiarism, which is the unethical practice of presenting someone else's work as your own.

Choosing a Citation Style:

There are several common citation styles, such as APA (American Psychological Association) and MLA (Modern Language Association). Choose the style required by your professor or the intended publication.

Citation Management Tools:

Many online tools (e.g., Mendeley, Zotero) can help streamline the citation process by automatically generating citations and bibliographies in the correct format.

Avoiding Plagiarism:

Paraphrase Strategically: Don't just copy and paste! Express information in your own words, but always cite the source.

Direct Quotes with Proper Attribution: For verbatim quotes, use quotation marks and include a proper in-text citation.

Originality is Key: Focus on developing your own unique arguments and analysis based on the sources you've consulted.

Preparing for Publication

Once you've crafted a polished research paper, it's time to consider sharing your work with the broader academic community. Let's explore the process of finding the right publication outlet and understanding the steps involved in the submission process.

Stage 1: Preparing for Publication

Targeting the Right Journal: Research potential publication outlets. Consider the scope of the journal, its readership, and the type of research it typically publishes. Your professor or librarian can be an excellent resource for identifying suitable publications.

Meet Submission Requirements: Meticulously follow the formatting guidelines and instructions for authors provided by the journal. This includes aspects like word count, citation style, and required sections.

Proofread with a Critical Eye: Ensure your manuscript is free of errors and professionally formatted. This demonstrates your attention to detail. Consider asking a colleague to proofread with a fresh perspective.

Stage 2: Navigating the Peer Review Process

Understanding Peer Review: Most reputable academic journals utilize a peer review process. Your paper will be anonymously evaluated by experts in your field, and you will receive feedback on your work.

Prepare for Revision: Be ready to address any concerns or requested revisions from the reviewers. This is a chance to improve your paper!

Embrace the Process: Even a rejection provides valuable insights. Use the feedback to strengthen your future research and writing endeavors.

The Role of Digital Tools in Research Paper Writing

In today's digital age, utilizing digital tools can transform the research and writing process:

Research Management: Platforms like Zotero and Mendeley streamline gathering and organizing sources, facilitating smoother integration into your paper.

Drafting and Collaboration: Tools like Google Docs enable real-time collaboration with peers or advisors, enhancing the feedback and revision process.

Citation Power: Reference management software assists in creating correct citations, reducing the potential for errors.

Submission and Post-Publication Promotion: Many journals use online submission portals, and platforms like ResearchGate help disseminate your work to a wider audience.

Are Digital Tools Necessary for Research Paper Success?

While digital tools are not strictly essential for writing successful research papers, they offer significant advantages:

Efficiency and Speed: They streamline tedious tasks like citation and information organization, freeing up time for the deeper analytical work.

Greater Accuracy: Automated reference formatting and grammar checkers help minimize errors and elevate the professionalism of your paper.

Enhanced Collaboration: Online tools make peer review and advisor assistance more fluid and convenient.

Concluding Your Research Journey

The world of research papers may have seemed daunting at first, but now you're equipped with the knowledge to navigate it confidently. Don't stop here! The world of knowledge is constantly evolving, and with it, research methods and approaches.

Keep exploring different research paper types, adapting your skills to new challenges, and honing your ability to find and synthesize information. Each paper you write is a step towards becoming a better researcher, a better thinker, and a better communicator.

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Writing a Research Paper

Types of research papers.

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Although research paper assignments may vary widely, there are essentially two basic types of research papers. These are argumentative and analytical .

Argumentative

In an argumentative research paper, a student both states the topic they will be exploring and immediately establishes the position they will argue regarding that topic in a thesis statement . This type of paper hopes to persuade its reader to adopt the view presented.

 Example : a paper that argues the merits of early exposure to reading for children would be an argumentative essay.

An analytical research paper states the topic that the writer will be exploring, usually in the form of a question, initially taking a neutral stance. The body of the paper will present multifaceted information and, ultimately, the writer will state their conclusion, based on the information that has unfolded throughout the course of the essay. This type of paper hopes to offer a well-supported critical analysis without necessarily persuading the reader to any particular way of thinking.

Example : a paper that explores the use of metaphor in one of Shakespeare's sonnets would be an example of an analytical essay.

*Please note that this LibGuide will primarily be concerning itself with argumentative or rhetorical research papers.

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• A Research Guide
• Research Paper Guide

Different Types of Research Papers

• According to the purpose
• According to the depth of scope
• According to the data type
• According to variables manipulation
• According to the type of inference
• According to the time in which it is carried out
• According to the sources of information
• According to how the data is obtained
• According to design
• Other research paper types

Types of research papers

As a way to make your journey through the research-type paper options a bit easier, let’s divide them by types of work.

According to the purpose:

• Theoretical. Theoretical research type is one of the most popular types of research paper as it has a clear focus. If you have to work with this type, your main objective is to generate all currently available. Even if it has no practical appliance (like in Engineering or design), you must use it anyway. You must collect data and make sure that your target audience understands what your research is about and what theory it follows. Most of such research papers will relate to theories and basic analytical work.
• Applied. This research type stands for something that can be approached scientifically based on practice. The aim here is to generate practical skills. It’s essential in Engineering, Healthcare, and Biology. For such types of papers, one can alternate between technological or scientific types of research, depending on your aims. A technological approach will be fitting if you wish to improve some processes. Now, the scientific research type would include prediction as you work with variables and design things.

According to the depth of scope:

• Exploratory. It is most suitable for research type papers where you have to explore a not-well-known subject. Start with making a hypothesis and developing research. It can be an investigation talking about the role of video games in the development of teenagers.
• Descriptive. This type of research is where you must describe certain characteristics or discuss specifics of some belief or an event. You may not have to research why something has caused these characteristic traits. You must describe and talk about how some things may change IF this or that takes place.
• Explanatory. It’s one of the popular research methods since one has to analyze specific methodologies and help the target audience trace the cause-and-effect relations. It is close to descriptive writing by nature. Still, you must create a research environment since your findings may have to be re-created by others.
• Correlational. This is where you identify the link between two or more variables. You must focus on determining whether certain research variables will be affected and see whether something is systematic regarding these changes (correlational research methodology).

According to the data type:

• Qualitative . It’s used to collect, evaluate, and explain information based on obtained information. It means you have to approach a linguistic-semiotic method to things as you research. You can turn to analysis, interviews, questionnaires, and personal surveys. This is where statistical data helps! You must ask yourself “why” instead of “how.”
• Quantitative. Such types of papers to write belong to one of the most challenging cases because quantitative stands for mathematical (think MATLAB) and computer-based software to check things. It also makes it possible to create a prognosis, which is why this type of research is usually met in engineering.
• Mixed. It’s also possible to use both methodologies if you can support your research type assignment with source information and personal examples. If you are dealing with Psychology or Experimental study, use surveys and aid yourself with AI-based evaluation tools.

According to variables manipulation:

• Experimental. Contrary to its title, you do not have to experiment per se. It’s about the design or replication of things you research. It means you have to re-create specific research conditions to discover what effects are caused by given variables. It’s where you primarily use case studies and sample groups.
• Non-experimental. They often call this research type an observational study. It means that you have to provide analysis in its natural environment. You do not have to intervene in the process but consider turning to descriptive writing. This research may include observation of animals in their natural habitat or the use of the noise effect in the urban environment.
• Quasi-experimental. These types of academic papers are not purely experimental, as you only work with two or three variables. Another aspect of this research is based on randomly chosen variables. It helps to decrease the bias in your study. It also helps to focus on relevant data and allows us to narrow things down.

According to the type of inference:

• Deductive. It means the research is basically fixed since one has to focus on laws and things that can or cannot be. It helps to come to certain conclusions. As you look at the research problem, you use deduction to create your considerations. If you make assumptions and develop reliable evidence, this work method suits you.
• Inductive. It’s one of the flexible methods to think about. The reason why it’s flexible is the way inductive research is generated. You conclude by observing and generalizing while different kinds of research occur. You have to collect data over a period, which makes the process less fixed.
• Hypothetical-deductive approach. You have to make a hypothesis for your research work and use deduction methods to come up with a conclusion. The major difference is that a researcher also takes time to evaluate whether things are correct.

According to the time in which it is carried out:

• Longitudinal. You might know this type of work as diachronic research. Despite the complex name, it focuses on the same issue or an event where a fixed period is taken. It has to track certain changes based on variables. It’s one of the most popular research papers in Healthcare, Nursing, Sociology, Psychology, and Education.
• Cross-sectional. Also known as synchronous research, it is the type of work that approaches cross-sectional design. Here, you have to look at some event or a process at a certain point by taking notes. Thus, research can be used both for sample groups or when working with a case study.

According to the sources of information:

• Primary. Most students are asked to use primary sources. It is exactly why we have a primary research paper method. The data must be collected directly (personal interviews, surveys, questionnaires, a field observation study, etc.) and represent first-hand information. It is perfect for papers in Psychology, Journalism, Healthcare, and subjects where accuracy is vital.
• Secondary. This research type of work is mainly developed with sources that represent secondary references. These include books in print or found online, scientific journals, peer-reviewed documents, etc. If another expert or a student reviews a study, it is related to secondary research; so will your project.

According to how the data is obtained:

• Documentary. As the name suggests, documentary research is based on the secondary references you used. It is a systematic review where you turn to secondary sources related to your subject of study. The most prominent types of research projects in this area are writing a literature review or working with a case study. It is one of the most accessible and clear types of research work.
• Field. It is quite popular research these days as students tend to collect information in the field or at the location where something takes place. Think about researching Fashion Studies where you attend the shows or exploring Environmental Science, where you must observe a phenomenon and take notes.
• Laboratory. The major difference in laboratory research type is working in a strictly-controlled environment where study notes are taken immediately. You must isolate unnecessary variables and use one or two scientific methods. Therefore, such type of research writing is called laboratory research. If your college professor asks for this assignment, consider keeping up with standards and rules.
• Survey. This is where you have to work with the primary information or the use of first-hand data you obtain yourself. It is especially helpful when you work with a group to obtain variables. With this research type, you can also come up with certain conclusions to support your hypothesis and thesis statement.

According to design:

• Fixed. When conducting a fixed research type, narrow things down and focus on temporal aspects. It means you have to discuss how often you will evaluate something, where your research will occur, a sample group, and other fixed variables. Working on fixed types of research reports, creating precise conditions, and follow strict protocols. Such research is related chiefly to lab reports or laboratory works mostly used in Healthcare and/or Law.
• Flexible. Now, the flexible research type will provide you with a process where certain things will change as you take step after step in your research. The examples may include case studies where you have to observe the changes that may take over time. Another example would relate to Anthropology or Geography, where you have to observe a group of people or deal with a cross-cultural analysis. It can also relate to grounded-theory studies, where you should develop theoretical knowledge based on analysis and your thinking.

Other research paper types:

• Argumentative. Also known as a persuasive research type paper, you have to persuade your target audience on your side and a point of view. You have to use at least one piece of evidence (references) to prove your point and support your argument. You must talk about different research opinions and show why your side is correct.
• Analytical. Analytical research papers should always pose a problem and collect relevant information. You can look at another researcher’s works and provide an analysis based on various points of view. The main types of research papers include analysis and must keep the tone analytical and remain neutral without showing your thoughts unless only to guide the reader.
• Definition. This research type requires describing the facts or arguments without using anything based on your opinion or an emotional constituent. You only have to offer information by including facts, yet let your data remain without analysis or bias.
• Action-based. This research type assignment must conduct your work based on a process or a certain action causing things. It can also lead to social processes where a person’s actions have led to something. It can be some research about social movements and/or manufacturing processes.
• Causal. It may relate to cause-and-effect papers where you must focus on the causes. This research type has to address the questions and explore the causes. It can be based on case studies related to business, education, environmental, educational issues, and more.
• Classification. If you have to classify, compare, and contrast things, this method will be helpful. Start with the standards and the rules by setting your classification type immediately. Once you know it, your research paper will go smoothly.
• Comparative. As a rule, this research will deal with comparative work where you take a methodology and compare two sample groups, two individuals, different beliefs, or situations. If you have to compare, discuss your objectives and then create two columns to determine differences and similarities.

What research paper type is most suitable for me?

It will always depend on the research paper objectives you wish to achieve. If you need clarification on the research type you must approach, consult your academic advisor or look closely at your grading rubric. If it says that you must develop an analytical study, it will require posing a specific research question or a problem. The next step would be to collect information on a topic and provide an analysis based on various points of view.

Likewise, if your grading rubric has the word “definition” mentioned, your research type paper must focus on the facts or argumentation. In this case, you should not provide your opinion or talk about what some author thinks. Only the definition of an object or belief is necessary.

As you can see, you only have to find out what your research must achieve. Set the purpose and look at the different types of research and possible methods to approach your problem . Once you know it, look at the research type papers and choose the most fitting option!

• Writing a Research Paper
• Research Paper Title
• Research Paper Sources
• Research Paper Problem Statement
• Research Paper Thesis Statement
• Hypothesis for a Research Paper
• Research Question
• Research Paper Outline
• Research Paper Summary
• Research Paper Prospectus
• Research Paper Proposal
• Research Paper Format
• Research Paper Styles
• AMA Style Research Paper
• MLA Style Research Paper
• Chicago Style Research Paper
• APA Style Research Paper
• Research Paper Structure
• Research Paper Cover Page
• Research Paper Abstract
• Research Paper Introduction
• Research Paper Body Paragraph
• Research Paper Literature Review
• Research Paper Background
• Research Paper Methods Section
• Research Paper Results Section
• Research Paper Discussion Section
• Research Paper Conclusion
• Research Paper Appendix
• Research Paper Bibliography
• APA Reference Page
• Annotated Bibliography
• Bibliography vs Works Cited vs References Page
• Research Paper Types
• What is Qualitative Research

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Guide to Scholarly Articles

• What is a Scholarly Article?
• Scholarly vs. Popular vs. Trade Articles

Types of Scholarly Articles

Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods articles, why does this matter.

• Anatomy of Scholarly Articles
• Tips for Reading Scholarly Articles

Scholarly articles come in many different formats each with their own function in the scholarly conversation. The following are a few of the major types of scholarly articles you are likely to encounter as you become a part of the conversation. Identifying the different types of scholarly articles and knowing their function will help you become a better researcher.

Original/Empirical Studies

• Note: Empirical studies can be subdivided into qualitative studies, quantitative studies, or mixed methods studies. See below for more information  
• Usefulness for research:  Empirical studies are useful because they provide current original research on a topic which may contain a hypothesis or interpretation to advance or to disprove. 

Literature Reviews

• Distinguishing characteristic:  Literature reviews survey and analyze a clearly delaminated body of scholarly literature.  
• Usefulness for research: Literature reviews are useful as a way to quickly get up to date on a particular topic of research.

Theoretical Articles

• Distinguishing characteristic:  Theoretical articles draw on existing scholarship to improve upon or offer a new theoretical perspective on a given topic.
• Usefulness for research:  Theoretical articles are useful because they provide a theoretical framework you can apply to your own research.

Methodological Articles

• Distinguishing characteristic:  Methodological articles draw on existing scholarship to improve or offer new methodologies for exploring a given topic.
• Usefulness for research:  Methodological articles are useful because they provide a methodologies you can apply to your own research.

Case Studies

• Distinguishing characteristic:  Case studies focus on individual examples or instances of a phenomenon to illustrate a research problem or a a solution to a research problem.
• Usefulness for research:  Case studies are useful because they provide information about a research problem or data for analysis.

Book Reviews

• Distinguishing characteristic:  Book reviews provide summaries and evaluations of individual books.
• Usefulness for research:  Book reviews are useful because they provide summaries and evaluations of individual books relevant to your research.

Adapted from the Publication manual of the American Psychological Association : the official guide to APA style. (Sixth edition.). (2013). American Psychological Association.

Qualitative articles  ask "why" questions where as  quantitative  articles  ask "how many/how much?" questions. These approaches are are not mutually exclusive. In fact, many articles combine the two in a  mixed-methods  approach. 

We can think of these different kinds of scholarly articles as different tools designed for different tasks. What research task do you need to accomplish? Do you need to get up to date on a give topic? Find a literature review. Do you need to find a hypothesis to test or to extend? Find an empirical study. Do you need to explore methodologies? Find a methodological article.

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Academic Writing: FAQs: Types of Academic Writing

• Getting Started
• Types of Academic Writing
• The Writing Process
• Proofreading and Revising

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Research Papers

What is a research paper?

A research paper requires you to form an opinion on a topic, research and gain expert knowledge on that topic, and then back up your own opinions and assertions with facts found through your thorough research.

Types of Research Papers   This guide discusses the different types of research papers that you might encounter in an academic setting.

How to Write a Research Paper  This article provides step-by-step guidance on how to write a research paper.

Argumentative Essays

What is an argumentative essay?

In this paper, you make an argument about a topic or subject and use evidence and analysis to prove your argument. Your main argument is also called a thesis statement .

How to Write an Argumentative Essay   This article discusses the basics of writing an argumentative paper.

Exploratory Essays

What is an exploratory essay?

An exploratory essay considers a topic or problem and explores possible solutions. This type of paper also sometimes includes background about how you have approached the topic, as well as information about your research process. Whereas other types of essays take a concrete stance on an issue and offer extensive support for that stance, the exploratory essay covers how you arrived at an idea and what research materials and methods you used to explore it.

How to Write an Exploratory Essay   This article covers the essentials of writing an exploratory essay.

Critical Analysis Essays

What is a critical analysis essay?

A critical analysis examines and evaluates someone else’s work, such as a book, an essay, or an article. It requires two steps: a careful reading of the work and thoughtful analysis of the information presented in the work.

How to Write a Critical Analysis Essay   This resource discusses the details of critical analysis essays and provides tips for writing one.

Literature Reviews

What is a literature review?

A literature review is an assessment of sources on a chosen topic of research. The  four main objectives  of a literature review are:

• Studying  the references of your research area
• Summarizing  the main arguments
• Identifying  current gaps, stances, and issues
• Finally,  presenting  all of the above in a text

How to Write a Literature Review   This guide defines literature reviews and offers strategies for constructing them.

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Different Types Of Research Papers

Table of contents

• 1 Analytical Research Papers
• 2 Argumentative or Persuasive Research Papers
• 3 Definition Research Papers
• 4 Compare and Contrast Papers
• 5 Cause and Effect Papers
• 7 Survey Research Papers
• 8 Interpretative Paper
• 9 The Main Points When Writing Research Papers

Academic time is a period of great challenges. The most difficult ones concern the production of creative, sizeable, and meaningful works. To do so, the student must find the necessary information and choose the key thoughts to develop in their text. The most responsible thing is to put all the data together logically, consistently, and concisely. Moreover, each university (college) puts forward unique formatting requirements.

First, the subject of the document subject determines the basic points. Thus, lawyers necessarily refer to the norms of laws in their work. Mathematicians operate with formulas and calculations. Philosophers are freer and rely on their own conclusions and thoughts. Depending on the types of research papers, this affects the structure, format, and narration style. Preparing a student paper seems complicated, long, and boring. However, this process can bring pleasure! In this article, we will share information about different types of research projects to help students easily create academic papers.

Analytical Research Papers

The main task of writing a paper is teaching the student how to think. Thus, the two main types of research papers ─ analytical and argumentative ─ rely on facts to process. The differences between these academic papers seem non-obvious at first. Therefore, we will consider each of them in turn. Analytical type of work work assumes the deepest possible immersion in the subject (topic). Here are the main components of analytical research papers:

• The main concept can be broken down into additional topics (categories).
• Critical thinking becomes the basis for interpreting the data obtained.
• They are a mix of information: scientific data and literature are intertwined with contemporary ones.

No wonder students frequently need academic paper assistance when preparing such texts for the first time. A specialist can quickly and accurately gather and present the necessary information according to the requirements. If you are struggling with what is an analytical research paper, we`ll give you simple advice. Consistency is what will help add readability to your paper. Keeping in mind the principle of “one paragraph / one thought” , you will not get confused by the information. This approach helps to keep the story logical while you are not as familiar with the different types of research articles. When you master working with analytics, writing college papers will become easier.

Argumentative or Persuasive Research Papers

Actually, there are multiple genres of scientific papers with mixed formats. We will now examine argumentative (persuasive), often confused with analytical texts. However, this type of research paper has notable features:

• They are based strictly on facts.
• Each statement is reasoned.
• Several sources support statements.

In contrast to the previous one, the focus is on conveying a thought and convincing the reader of it. If you are a medical student, you know biology research papers rely on survey data, statistics, and professors’ opinions. A quality medical paper excludes theories and speculations. For example, they rely on successful cases when they want to convey the effectiveness of a new drug or treatment regimen. You can read transcripts of legal proceedings: it gives a great insight into how argument structure works. For example, some parts of the sensational court hearings of actor Johnny Depp were published online. And later, they became part of the student papers of future lawyers.

The main thing to realize is that different types of research papers also have different purposes. The format should not be perceived as a limitation. Following the structure and key principles allows one to convey the key messages. For example, argumentation is especially good when conveying a controversial or unpopular idea. You are sort of practicing objections with the reader by factualizing them.

Definition Research Papers

During the studies, you may meet opposing types of academic papers. One kind may give more freedom for thoughts and manifestations. The other requires the author to be as objective as possible. This type of document, as the name implies, emphasizes informativeness. To understand the concept of such texts, note the following research paper topics . The title often already contains the main idea:

• “Fundamentals of pathogenic bacterial development”;
• “Principles of artificial intelligence”;
• “Legal aspects of relationship regulation”.

The main author’s task here is to transfer information. Usually, here comes the difficulty of choosing interesting and relevant data. That is why you can often ask yourself: who can write my research paper per all guidelines and professor’s expectations?

People who have not faced the need to prepare a text consider this task simple. First and foremost, writing a plan makes composing study papers easier. Depending on the requirements, highlight 5-7 main facts that need to be described. When you have a draft ready, adding additional information becomes less challenging.

Compare and Contrast Papers

Success is close when you understand how to use distinct types of research articles. Interestingly. students lament they lack writing skills. However, this will only be an advantage in some academic papers. One of the options worth mastering is texts based on comparison/contrast, e.g., to describe colors or texture. How do you explain the difference between green and lettuce colors?

Let’s explain this type of research papers with a simple example. You have two monitors in front of you. You can describe all the charms using beautiful epithets. But the reader will not understand: which one is better? Rely on technical characteristics: size, performance, battery, matrix. When discussing visual objects, use images: they often speak better than words.

It’s a principle that applies to scientific research work creation. Excessive emotionality of the author may indicate interest / attempted manipulation. Otherwise, the cold and dry facts create the very contrast and comparison that allow the reader to draw personally appropriate conclusions. If you are pursuing a specific thought, you need to know which comparisons are relevant to your topic.

Cause and Effect Papers

As students learns, they master different types of research texts. Often, teachers request informative and analytical materials at the beginning of the training. However, by the middle of the training, one cannot do without more complex formats of research papers. This type of work assumes a deep immersion in the subject and topic. The author must describe the causes and consequences of the events or phenomena.

The very mechanism of creating a paper differs. The author mainly collects information from the previous varieties, having a key thought. To conclude, you must first understand all the data received. And only after that, it is possible to separate the main idea. At the same time, such a process shows how types of scientific papers are created, claiming to be experts in the future. The most interesting thing is that the original theory and the author’s opinion can change dramatically. This is the value: the student enriches the knowledge and adds important research to the world library.

It is a mistake to assume that reports are dry statistics. You will likely find cautious theories in different types of scientific papers, even if the author is an experienced scientist. In medicine, for example, you don’t rely on the one-time success of a vaccine. You can only talk about the effectiveness of a treatment after years of confirmed positive research.

Reports are especially often used to present data in medicine, biology, and physics. To confirm dogmatic claims, the same experiment is performed thousands of times. Discoveries are often spontaneous and accidental. At the same time, science tries to explain and confirm that even errors are part of the fact.

In these types of research papers, it is especially important to maintain accuracy. Researchers must adhere to citation and ethical rules to ensure the validity and reproducibility of their work. Indeed, effective communication of experimental results promotes scientific knowledge and informed debate in the academic community.

Survey Research Papers

All types of academic paper have a place for data obtained by talking to people. Consequently, qualitative student work involves a combination of methods for better research. Surveys, when used properly, become an important source of obtaining information.

The key aspect is to obtain a relevant sample. For example, if your paper focuses on the difficulties of young mothers, it is unlikely to be wise to reach out to child-free men aged 50+. There are also several other important factors to consider: each respondent’s place of residence, social status, and education. Example topics could range from public opinion on social issues to consumer preferences in marketing. Reporting survey research requires transparency, statistical accuracy, and consideration of potential biases. Effective survey research contributes valuable insights into human behavior and societal trends, offering a quantitative foundation for academic inquiry and decision-making in various fields.

This is one of the types of research reports with which social work students and future political scientists are particularly likely to come into contact. In the process, students learn to see the relationship between behavioral patterns and demographic factors of different categories of people.

Interpretative Paper

An interpretative paper involves a subjective analysis of a given subject matter. Unlike purely factual or objective approaches, this type of paper delves into a topic’s deeper meanings, implications, and nuances. In simple words, it is more of the author’s freedom. The structure typically includes an introduction that outlines the context and significance of the subject, a literature review to provide background and context, a detailed analysis incorporating the writer’s interpretations, and a conclusion summarizing key insights.

Essential components of interpretative papers include a clear thesis statement, a comprehensive examination of relevant literature or sources, and a well-articulated argument supported by evidence. Example topics for interpretative papers might include the analysis of symbolism in literature, the interpretation of cultural phenomena, or examining historical events from a particular perspective. Writing such papers demands critical thinking, creativity, and the ability to present a coherent narrative that reflects the author’s insights and perspectives.

The Main Points When Writing Research Papers

All types of papers in research matters for different academic purposes. To successfully complete your assignment, remember the most important thing: you are a researcher. The best student papers are born out of their sincere interest. Focus not on the beauty or imagery of speech will come later.

Are you studying a discipline and have questions about certain topics? Take that question for research: it will motivate you to learn more information. The more literature and sources you plug in, the more thoughts you will have. This already provides unconventional conclusions, and you might be the one to voice a new perspective on familiar things. Thus, you succeed in academic learning and contribute to the development of science!

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• UConn Library
• Scientific Research and Communication
• Types of Scientific Papers

Scientific Research and Communication — Types of Scientific Papers

• Essential Resources
• The Scientific Method
• Organization of a Scientific Paper
• Peer Review & Academic Journals
• Primary and Secondary Sources
• Scientific Information Literacy
• Critical Reading Methods
• Scientific Writing Guidebooks
• Science Literature Reviews
• Searching Strategies for Science Databases
• Engineering Career Exploration
• Qualitative Research: What is it?
• Quantitative Research: What Is It?
• AI Tools for Research
• Avoiding Plagiarism

What types of articles are published in scientific journals?

Journal articles in the sciences are almost always a write-up of grant-funded laboratory or field research. Each article provides a brief overview of the research study, a description of methods used, results, and a conclusion. A small portion of science articles are 'review' articles; these are articles that summarize research studies. Journal articles are peer-reviewed. A growing number of so-called "pre-prints" are beginning to be published in science fields.

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• Anatomy of an Article
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• Insights blog

Different types of research articles

A guide for early career researchers.

In scholarly literature, there are many different kinds of articles published every year. Original research articles are often the first thing you think of when you hear the words ‘journal article’. In reality, research work often results in a whole mixture of different outputs and it’s not just the final research article that can be published.

Finding a home to publish supporting work in different formats can help you start publishing sooner, allowing you to build your publication record and research profile.

But before you do, it’s very important that you check the  instructions for authors  and the  aims and scope  of the journal(s) you’d like to submit to. These will tell you whether they accept the type of article you’re thinking of writing and what requirements they have around it.

Understanding the different kind of articles

There’s a huge variety of different types of articles – some unique to individual journals – so it’s important to explore your options carefully. While it would be impossible to cover every single article type here, below you’ll find a guide to the most common research articles and outputs you could consider submitting for publication.

Book review

Many academic journals publish book reviews, which aim to provide insight and opinion on recently published scholarly books. Writing book reviews is often a good way to begin academic writing. It can help you get your name known in your field and give you valuable experience of publishing before you write a full-length article.

If you’re keen to write a book review, a good place to start is looking for journals that publish or advertise the books they have available for review. Then it’s just a matter of putting yourself forward for one of them.

You can check whether a journal publishes book reviews by browsing previous issues or by seeing if a book review editor is listed on the editorial board. In addition, some journals publish other types of reviews, such as film, product, or exhibition reviews, so it’s worth bearing those in mind as options as well.

Get familiar with instructions for authors

Be prepared, speed up your submission, and make sure nothing is forgotten by understanding a journal’s individual requirements.

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Case report

A medical case report – also sometimes called a clinical case study – is an original short report that provides details of a single patient case.

Case reports include detailed information on the symptoms, signs, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient. They remain one of the cornerstones of medical progress and provide many new ideas in medicine.

Depending on the journal, a case report doesn’t necessarily need to describe an especially novel or unusual case as there is benefit from collecting details of many standard cases.

Take a look at  F1000Research’s guidance on case reports , to understand more about what’s required in them. And don’t forget that for all studies involving human participants, informed written consent to take part in the research must be obtained from the participants –  find out more about consent to publish.

Clinical study

In medicine, a clinical study report is a type of article that provides in-depth detail on the methods and results of a clinical trial. They’re typically similar in length and format to original research articles.

Most journals now require that you register protocols for clinical trials you’re involved with in a publicly accessible registry. A list of eligible registries can be found on the  WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) . Trials can also be registered at  clinicaltrials.gov  or the  EU Clinical Trials Register . Once registered, your trial will be assigned a clinical trial number (CTN).

Before you submit a clinical study, you’ll need to include clinical trial numbers and registration dates in the manuscript, usually in the abstract and methods sections.

Commentaries and letters to editors

Letters to editors, as well as ‘replies’ and ‘discussions’, are usually brief comments on topical issues of public and political interest (related to the research field of the journal), anecdotal material, or readers’ reactions to material published in the journal.

Commentaries are similar, though they may be slightly more in-depth, responding to articles recently published in the journal. There may be a ‘target article’ which various commentators are invited to respond to.

You’ll need to look through previous issues of any journal you’re interested in writing for and review the instructions for authors to see which types of these articles (if any) they accept.

Conference materials

Many of our medical journals  accept conference material supplements. These are open access peer-reviewed, permanent, and citable publications within the journal. Conference material supplements record research around a common thread, as presented at a workshop, congress, or conference, for the scientific record. They can include the following types of articles:

Poster extracts

Conference abstracts

Presentation extracts

Find out more about submitting conference materials.

Data notes  are a short peer-reviewed article type that concisely describe research data stored in a repository. Publishing a data note can help you to maximize the impact of your data and gain appropriate credit for your research.

Data notes promote the potential reuse of research data and include details of why and how the data were created. They do not include any analysis but they can be linked to a research article incorporating analysis of the published dataset, as well as the results and conclusions.

F1000Research  enables you to publish your data note rapidly and openly via an author-centric platform. There is also a growing range of options for publishing data notes in Taylor & Francis journals, including in  All Life  and  Big Earth Data .

Read our guide to data notes to find out more.

Letters or short reports

Letters or short reports (sometimes known as brief communications or rapid communications) are brief reports of data from original research.

Editors publish these reports where they believe the data will be interesting to many researchers and could stimulate further research in the field. There are even entire journals dedicated to publishing letters.

As they’re relatively short, the format is useful for researchers with results that are time sensitive (for example, those in highly competitive or quickly-changing disciplines). This format often has strict length limits, so some experimental details may not be published until the authors write a full original research article.

Brief reports  (previously called Research Notes) are a type of short report published by  F1000Research  – part of the Taylor & Francis Group. To find out more about the requirements for a brief report, take a look at  F1000Research’s guidance .

Method article

A method article is a medium length peer-reviewed, research-focused article type that aims to answer a specific question. It also describes an advancement or development of current methodological approaches and research procedures (akin to a research article), following the standard layout for research articles. This includes new study methods, substantive modifications to existing methods, or innovative applications of existing methods to new models or scientific questions. These should include adequate and appropriate validation to be considered, and any datasets associated with the paper must publish all experimental controls and make full datasets available.  

Posters and slides

With F1000Research, you can publish scholarly posters and slides covering basic scientific, translational, and clinical research within the life sciences and medicine. You can find out more about how to publish posters and slides  on the F1000Research website .

Registered report

A  Registered Report  consists of two different kinds of articles: a study protocol and an original research article.

This is because the review process for Registered Reports is divided into two stages. In Stage 1, reviewers assess study protocols before data is collected. In Stage 2, reviewers consider the full published study as an original research article, including results and interpretation.

Taking this approach, you can get an in-principle acceptance of your research article before you start collecting data. We’ve got  further guidance on Registered Reports here , and you can also  read F1000Research’s guidance on preparing a Registered Report .

Research article

Original research articles are the most common type of journal article. They’re detailed studies reporting new work and are classified as primary literature.

You may find them referred to as original articles, research articles, research, or even just articles, depending on the journal.

Typically, especially in STEM subjects, these articles will include Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion sections. However, you should always check the instructions for authors of your chosen journal to see whether it specifies how your article should be structured. If you’re planning to write an original research article, take a look at our guidance on  writing a journal article .

Review article

Review articles provide critical and constructive analysis of existing published literature in a field. They’re usually structured to provide a summary of existing literature, analysis, and comparison. Often, they identify specific gaps or problems and provide recommendations for future research.

Unlike original research articles, review articles are considered as secondary literature. This means that they generally don’t present new data from the author’s experimental work, but instead provide analysis or interpretation of a body of primary research on a specific topic. Secondary literature is an important part of the academic ecosystem because it can help explain new or different positions and ideas about primary research, identify gaps in research around a topic, or spot important trends that one individual research article may not.

There are 3 main types of review article

Literature review

Presents the current knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic.

Systematic review

Identifies, appraises and synthesizes all the empirical evidence that meets pre-specified eligibility criteria to answer a specific research question. Researchers conducting systematic reviews use explicit, systematic methods that are selected with a view aimed at minimizing bias, to produce more reliable findings to inform decision making.

Meta-analysis

A quantitative, formal, epidemiological study design used to systematically assess the results of previous research to derive conclusions about that body of research. Typically, but not necessarily, a meta-analysis study is based on randomized, controlled clinical trials.

Take a look at our guide to  writing a review article  for more guidance on what’s required.

Software tool articles

A  software tool article  – published by  F1000Research  – describes the rationale for the development of a new software tool and details of the code used for its construction.

The article should provide examples of suitable input data sets and include an example of the output that can be expected from the tool and how this output should be interpreted. Software tool articles submitted to F1000Research should be written in open access programming languages. Take a look at  their guidance  for more details on what’s required of a software tool article.

Further resources

Ready to write your article, but not sure where to start?

For more guidance on how to prepare and write an article for a journal you can download the  Writing your paper eBook .

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Methodology

• What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

Published on June 7, 2021 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 5, 2024 by Pritha Bhandari.

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question  using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:

• Your overall research objectives and approach
• Whether you’ll rely on primary research or secondary research
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods
• The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
• Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research objectives and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

You might have to write up a research design as a standalone assignment, or it might be part of a larger   research proposal or other project. In either case, you should carefully consider which methods are most appropriate and feasible for answering your question.

Table of contents

Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research design.

• Introduction

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities—start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

It’s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .

• How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
• Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
• Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
• Will you need ethical approval ?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

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Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types.

• Experimental and   quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships
• Descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the data.

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study—plants, animals, organizations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.

• Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalize your results to the population as a whole.

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.

For example, in an ethnography or a case study , your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalize to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.

In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question .

For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews .

Observation methods

Observational studies allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what kinds of data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected—for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

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As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are high in reliability and validity.

Operationalization

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalization means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?

If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in—for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.

Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced, while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.

For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.

If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.

Sampling procedures

As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method , you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

• How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
• What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
• How will you contact your sample—by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method , it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method , how will you avoid research bias and ensure a representative sample?

Data management

It’s also important to create a data management plan for organizing and storing your data.

Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymize and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well-organized will save time when it comes to analyzing it. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings (high replicability ).

On its own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyze the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics , you can summarize your sample data in terms of:

• The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
• The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
• The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics , you can:

• Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
• Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .

There are many other ways of analyzing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question . It defines your overall approach and determines how you will collect and analyze data.

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing credible sources . This allows you to draw valid , trustworthy conclusions.

Quantitative research designs can be divided into two main categories:

• Correlational and descriptive designs are used to investigate characteristics, averages, trends, and associations between variables.
• Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are used to test causal relationships .

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible. Common types of qualitative design include case study , ethnography , and grounded theory designs.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

• Your research questions and/or hypotheses
• Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
• The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
• Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
• Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
• Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests  or thematic analysis )

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

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In brief: what types of studies are there.

Last Update: September 8, 2016 ; Next update: 2024.

There are various types of scientific studies such as experiments and comparative analyses, observational studies, surveys, or interviews. The choice of study type will mainly depend on the research question being asked.

When making decisions, patients and doctors need reliable answers to a number of questions. Depending on the medical condition and patient's personal situation, the following questions may be asked:

• What is the cause of the condition?
• What is the natural course of the disease if left untreated?
• What will change because of the treatment?
• How many other people have the same condition?
• How do other people cope with it?

Each of these questions can best be answered by a different type of study.

In order to get reliable results, a study has to be carefully planned right from the start. One thing that is especially important to consider is which type of study is best suited to the research question. A study protocol should be written and complete documentation of the study's process should also be done. This is vital in order for other scientists to be able to reproduce and check the results afterwards.

The main types of studies are randomized controlled trials (RCTs), cohort studies, case-control studies and qualitative studies.

• Randomized controlled trials

If you want to know how effective a treatment or diagnostic test is, randomized trials provide the most reliable answers. Because the effect of the treatment is often compared with "no treatment" (or a different treatment), they can also show what happens if you opt to not have the treatment or diagnostic test.

When planning this type of study, a research question is stipulated first. This involves deciding what exactly should be tested and in what group of people. In order to be able to reliably assess how effective the treatment is, the following things also need to be determined before the study is started:

• How long the study should last
• How many participants are needed
• How the effect of the treatment should be measured

For instance, a medication used to treat menopause symptoms needs to be tested on a different group of people than a flu medicine. And a study on treatment for a stuffy nose may be much shorter than a study on a drug taken to prevent strokes .

“Randomized” means divided into groups by chance. In RCTs participants are randomly assigned to one of two or more groups. Then one group receives the new drug A, for example, while the other group receives the conventional drug B or a placebo (dummy drug). Things like the appearance and taste of the drug and the placebo should be as similar as possible. Ideally, the assignment to the various groups is done "double blinded," meaning that neither the participants nor their doctors know who is in which group.

The assignment to groups has to be random in order to make sure that only the effects of the medications are compared, and no other factors influence the results. If doctors decided themselves which patients should receive which treatment, they might – for instance – give the more promising drug to patients who have better chances of recovery. This would distort the results. Random allocation ensures that differences between the results of the two groups at the end of the study are actually due to the treatment and not something else.

Randomized controlled trials provide the best results when trying to find out if there is a cause-and-effect relationship. RCTs can answer questions such as these:

• Is the new drug A better than the standard treatment for medical condition X?
• Does regular physical activity speed up recovery after a slipped disk when compared to passive waiting?
• Cohort studies

A cohort is a group of people who are observed frequently over a period of many years – for instance, to determine how often a certain disease occurs. In a cohort study, two (or more) groups that are exposed to different things are compared with each other: For example, one group might smoke while the other doesn't. Or one group may be exposed to a hazardous substance at work, while the comparison group isn't. The researchers then observe how the health of the people in both groups develops over the course of several years, whether they become ill, and how many of them pass away. Cohort studies often include people who are healthy at the start of the study. Cohort studies can have a prospective (forward-looking) design or a retrospective (backward-looking) design. In a prospective study, the result that the researchers are interested in (such as a specific illness) has not yet occurred by the time the study starts. But the outcomes that they want to measure and other possible influential factors can be precisely defined beforehand. In a retrospective study, the result (the illness) has already occurred before the study starts, and the researchers look at the patient's history to find risk factors.

Cohort studies are especially useful if you want to find out how common a medical condition is and which factors increase the risk of developing it. They can answer questions such as:

• How does high blood pressure affect heart health?
• Does smoking increase your risk of lung cancer?

For example, one famous long-term cohort study observed a group of 40,000 British doctors, many of whom smoked. It tracked how many doctors died over the years, and what they died of. The study showed that smoking caused a lot of deaths, and that people who smoked more were more likely to get ill and die.

• Case-control studies

Case-control studies compare people who have a certain medical condition with people who do not have the medical condition, but who are otherwise as similar as possible, for example in terms of their sex and age. Then the two groups are interviewed, or their medical files are analyzed, to find anything that might be risk factors for the disease. So case-control studies are generally retrospective.

Case-control studies are one way to gain knowledge about rare diseases. They are also not as expensive or time-consuming as RCTs or cohort studies. But it is often difficult to tell which people are the most similar to each other and should therefore be compared with each other. Because the researchers usually ask about past events, they are dependent on the participants’ memories. But the people they interview might no longer remember whether they were, for instance, exposed to certain risk factors in the past.

Still, case-control studies can help to investigate the causes of a specific disease, and answer questions like these:

• Do HPV infections increase the risk of cervical cancer ?
• Is the risk of sudden infant death syndrome (“cot death”) increased by parents smoking at home?

Cohort studies and case-control studies are types of "observational studies."

• Cross-sectional studies

Many people will be familiar with this kind of study. The classic type of cross-sectional study is the survey: A representative group of people – usually a random sample – are interviewed or examined in order to find out their opinions or facts. Because this data is collected only once, cross-sectional studies are relatively quick and inexpensive. They can provide information on things like the prevalence of a particular disease (how common it is). But they can't tell us anything about the cause of a disease or what the best treatment might be.

Cross-sectional studies can answer questions such as these:

• How tall are German men and women at age 20?
• How many people have cancer screening?
• Qualitative studies

This type of study helps us understand, for instance, what it is like for people to live with a certain disease. Unlike other kinds of research, qualitative research does not rely on numbers and data. Instead, it is based on information collected by talking to people who have a particular medical condition and people close to them. Written documents and observations are used too. The information that is obtained is then analyzed and interpreted using a number of methods.

Qualitative studies can answer questions such as these:

• How do women experience a Cesarean section?
• What aspects of treatment are especially important to men who have prostate cancer ?
• How reliable are the different types of studies?

Each type of study has its advantages and disadvantages. It is always important to find out the following: Did the researchers select a study type that will actually allow them to find the answers they are looking for? You can’t use a survey to find out what is causing a particular disease, for instance.

It is really only possible to draw reliable conclusions about cause and effect by using randomized controlled trials. Other types of studies usually only allow us to establish correlations (relationships where it isn’t clear whether one thing is causing the other). For instance, data from a cohort study may show that people who eat more red meat develop bowel cancer more often than people who don't. This might suggest that eating red meat can increase your risk of getting bowel cancer. But people who eat a lot of red meat might also smoke more, drink more alcohol, or tend to be overweight. The influence of these and other possible risk factors can only be determined by comparing two equal-sized groups made up of randomly assigned participants.

That is why randomized controlled trials are usually the only suitable way to find out how effective a treatment is. Systematic reviews, which summarize multiple RCTs , are even better. In order to be good-quality, though, all studies and systematic reviews need to be designed properly and eliminate as many potential sources of error as possible.

• German Network for Evidence-based Medicine. Glossar: Qualitative Forschung.  Berlin: DNEbM; 2011. 
• Greenhalgh T. Einführung in die Evidence-based Medicine: kritische Beurteilung klinischer Studien als Basis einer rationalen Medizin. Bern: Huber; 2003. 
• Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG, Germany). General methods . Version 5.0. Cologne: IQWiG; 2017.
• Klug SJ, Bender R, Blettner M, Lange S. Wichtige epidemiologische Studientypen. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 2007; 132:e45-e47. [ PubMed : 17530597 ]
• Schäfer T. Kritische Bewertung von Studien zur Ätiologie. In: Kunz R, Ollenschläger G, Raspe H, Jonitz G, Donner-Banzhoff N (eds.). Lehrbuch evidenzbasierte Medizin in Klinik und Praxis. Cologne: Deutscher Ärzte-Verlag; 2007.

IQWiG health information is written with the aim of helping people understand the advantages and disadvantages of the main treatment options and health care services.

Because IQWiG is a German institute, some of the information provided here is specific to the German health care system. The suitability of any of the described options in an individual case can be determined by talking to a doctor. informedhealth.org can provide support for talks with doctors and other medical professionals, but cannot replace them. We do not offer individual consultations.

Our information is based on the results of good-quality studies. It is written by a team of health care professionals, scientists and editors, and reviewed by external experts. You can find a detailed description of how our health information is produced and updated in our methods.

• Cite this Page InformedHealth.org [Internet]. Cologne, Germany: Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG); 2006-. In brief: What types of studies are there? [Updated 2016 Sep 8].

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Knowledge grows step-by-step despite the exponential growth of papers, finds study

Scientific knowledge is growing at a linear rate despite an exponential increase in publications. That’s according to a study by physicists in China and the US, who say their finding points to a decline in overall scientific productivity. The study therefore contradicts the notion that productivity and knowledge grow hand in hand – but adds weight to the view that the rate of scientific discovery may be slowing or that “information fatigue” and the vast number of papers can drown out new discoveries .

Defining knowledge is complex, but it can be thought of as a network of interconnected beliefs and information. To measure it, the authors previously created a knowledge quantification index (KQI). This tool uses various scientific impact metrics to examine the network structures created by publications and their citations and quantifies how well publications reduce the uncertainty of the network, and thus knowledge.

The researchers claim the tool’s effectiveness has been validated through multiple approaches, including analysing the impact of work by Nobel laureates.

In the latest study, published on arXiv , the team analysed 213 million scientific papers, published between 1800 and 2020, as well as 7.6 million patents filed between 1976 and 2020. Using the data, they built annual snapshots of citation networks, which they then scrutinised with the KQI to observe changes in knowledge over time.

The researchers – based at Shanghai Jiao Tong University in Shanghai, the University of Minnesota in the US and the Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research in Beijing –found that while the number of publications has been increasing exponentially, knowledge has not.

Instead, their KQI suggests that knowledge has been growing in a linear fashion. Different scientific disciplines do display varying rates of knowledge growth, but they all have the same linear growth pattern. Patent growth was found to be much slower than publication growth but also shows the linear growth in the KQI.

‘Hidden’ citations conceal the true impact of scientific research

According to the authors, the analysis indicates “no significant change in the rate of human knowledge acquisition”, suggesting that our understanding of the world has been progressing at a steady pace.

If scientific productivity is defined as the number of papers required to grow knowledge, this signals a significant decline in productivity, the authors claim.

The analysis also revealed inflection points associated with new discoveries, major breakthroughs and other important developments, with knowledge growing at different linear rates before and after.

Such inflection points create the illusion of exponential knowledge growth due to the sudden alteration in growth rates, which may, according to the study authors, have led previous studies to conclude that knowledge is growing exponentially.

Research focus

“Research has shown that the disruptiveness of individual publications – a rough indicator of knowledge growth – has been declining over recent decades,” says Xiangyi Meng , a physicist at Northwestern University in the US, who works in network science but was not involved in the research. “This suggests that the rate of knowledge growth must be slower than the exponential rise in the number of publications.”

Meng adds, however, that the linear growth finding is “surprising” and “somewhat pessimistic” – and that further analysis is needed to confirm if knowledge growth is indeed linear or whether it “more likely, follows a near-linear polynomial pattern, considering that human civilization is accelerating on a much larger scale”.

Due to the significant variation in the quality of scientific publications, Meng says that article growth may “not be a reliable denominator for measuring scientific efficiency”. Instead, he suggests that analysing research funding and how it is allocated and evolves over time might be a better focus.

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