research paper on gig economy in india

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A Compilation of Research on the Gig Economy

Over the past year, researchers at CIS have been studying gig economies and gig workers in India. Their work has involved consultative discussions with domestic workers, food delivery workers, taxi drivers, trade union leaders, and government representatives to document the state of gig work in India, and highlight the concerns of gig workers. The imposition of a severe lockdown in India in response to the outbreak of COVID-19 has left gig workers in precarious positions. Without the privilege of social distancing, these workers are having to contend with a drastic reduction in income, while also placing themselves at heightened health risks.

On gig economy during the COVID-19 pandemic

Supported by Feminist Internet Research Network led by the Association for Progressive Communications (APC) and funded by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC)

Along with Tandem Research, we spoke to leaders of four unions that represent gig workers across the country about the risks and vulnerabilities that they are having to contend with in the face of the COVID-19 crisis. Zothan Mawii (Tandem Research), Ambika Tandon , and Aayush Rathi share key reflections in this essay published on The Wire. ( link ).

Based on the discussion, a charter of recommendations was prepared with contributions from participants, and was shared with public and private stakeholders. ( link )

On domestic workers in the platform economy 

We discussed our ongoing research on the platformisation of domestic work in India with domestic workers, union members, and representatives from the Karnataka Labour Department in November 2019. Tasneem Mewa documented the rich discussion from this consultation. ( link )

CIS worked with members of the Domestic Workers Rights Union to conduct field research on the lives and challenges of domestic workers in the platform economy. The following essays published on GenderIT capture their experiences of doing this research:

Parijatha G.P. writes about a “gated society management app,” MyGate, and the experiences of surveillance of migrant workers in Bengaluru. ( link ) 

Radha Keerthna writes about the similarity in the conditions of domestic workers in the traditional and platform economy, particularly the precarity and invisibility of labour. ( link )

Sumathi , a union leader, reflects on and her experience as an activist-researcher interacting with domestic gig workers through the course of our study. ( link )

Zeenathunissa shares the difficulty of speaking to domestic workers in the gig economy, especially when workers undergo constant surveillance by employers and companies. ( link )

On economic, algorithmic, and affective vulnerabilities of gig workers

Supported by Azim Premji University

CIS commissioned a set of four field studies of platform workers delivering food and driving taxis for platform companies in Mumbai and New Delhi. The researchers involved wrote a series of essays that were published by Platypus blog of CASTAC:

Anushree Gupta explores women’s presence as workers as well as passengers/customers in the ride hailing platform economy in Mumbai and related concerns of safety and risk mitigation. ( link )

Sarah Zia highlights how algorithmic management of work and revenue targets of gig workers impact their everyday lives and plans for the future. ( link )

Kinship networks are a critical source of safety and security for workers in the gig economy. Simiran Lalvani writes about the network among transportation workers in Mumbai, also reflecting on implications for those who are excluded. ( link )

Noopur Raval and Rajendra Jadhav describe the unregulated and exploitative temporal structures of gig work, and how work-time of gig workers get configured by customer-facing promises of platform companies. ( link )

The four researchers, led by Noopur Raval (co-PI for the project, held a roundtable discussion to reflect on methods, challenges, inter-subjectivities and possible future directions for research on the gig economy and its workers. ( link )

• 19 May, 2020
• Gender , Digital Labour , Covid19 , Research , Platform-Work , RAW Research , research , Researchers at Work , Digital Domestic Work

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The Centre for Internet and Society (CIS) is a non-profit organisation that undertakes interdisciplinary research on internet and digital technologies from policy and academic perspectives. The areas of focus include digital accessibility for persons with disabilities, access to knowledge, intellectual property rights, openness (including open data, free and open source software, open standards, open access, open educational resources, and open video), internet governance, telecommunication reform, digital privacy, and cyber-security. The research at CIS seeks to understand the reconfiguration of social processes and structures through the internet and digital media technologies, and vice versa.

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Unlocking the Potential of the Gig Economy in India

Rajah Augustinraj Vikash Jain Seema Bansal

The ‘gig’ economy has grown significantly in the past decade with the advent of technology platforms like Ola, Uber, Swiggy, Dunzo, UrbanCompany among others. With the emergence of technology-enabled gig work platforms, over 200 million people are considered part of the gig workforce globally. This form of ‘gig’ work is not a new concept to India and has always existed in our large informal economy. This report published in collaboration with Michael & Susan Dell Foundation (MSDF), provides a detailed look at the gig economy’s potential and sheds light on its dynamics, pain points, and opportunities for action. Based on extensive primary interviews, field research and expert inputs, the report summarizes that the gig economy has the potential to serve up to 90 million jobs (roughly 30% of India’s non-farm workforce), add up to 1.25% to India’s GDP in the long-run, and create millions of new jobs across all sectors of India’s economy. It also identified 8 distinct segments of gig workers, each with different job-drivers and priorities that must be catered-to for platforms and businesses to take full advantage of the gig economy’s potential. The report also outlines a roadmap to unlocking India’s gig economy at-scale and explores in-depth the roles that entrepreneurs, investors, non-governmental organizations, and policymakers must play to create an ecosystem that is vibrant, flexible, and inclusive of all workers. Read the Full Report → Read the Executive Summary → View the launch video →

ISSN 2581-5369

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Navigating the Challenges of the Gig Economy: A Legal Analysis of Protection to Gig Workers in India and Overseas

• Aditi Mishra and Suyog Ghosh Dasttidar
• Show Author Details

Aditi Mishra

Assistant Manager - Legal at Tata Steel Limited, India

Suyog Ghosh Dasttidar

Legal Officer at KisanKraft Limited, India

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The focus of this research paper is the legal position of gig workers in India. As the gig economy continues to grow in the country, gig workers have emerged as a significant segment of the Indian workforce. However, they often face legal and regulatory challenges related to taxation, insurance, and labor laws, which can affect their earnings, job security, and social protection. The research analyzes the existing legal framework for gig workers in India and identifies the gaps and challenges that need to be addressed. It highlights that the current labor laws in India do not adequately address the needs and rights of gig workers, who are classified as independent contractors rather than employees. This classification denies them access to benefits and protections that are available to traditional employees, such as minimum wages, social security, and health insurance. The research also notes that gig workers in India operate in a largely unregulated environment, which leaves them vulnerable to exploitation and abuse by clients and platform operators. There is a need for a comprehensive legal framework that recognizes the unique characteristics and needs of gig work and ensures that gig workers are protected under the law. The research highlights some of the recent legal developments in India, such as the proposed social security code and the recognition of gig workers under the new labor codes. These developments aim to provide better social protection and labor rights for gig workers, but the implementation and effectiveness of these measures remain to be seen. The research concludes by emphasizing the importance of establishing a legal framework that addresses the specific needs and challenges of gig workers in India, to ensure that they can work in a safe, fair, and sustainable environment.

• Labour laws
• Gig workers
• New labour codes in India

Research Paper

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International Journal of Law Management and Humanities, Volume 6, Issue 1, Page 2183 - 2194

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This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution -NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits remixing, adapting, and building upon the work for non-commercial use, provided the original work is properly cited.

Copyright © IJLMH 2021

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https://doij.org/10.10000/IJLMH.114301

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Understanding the gig economy in the age of AI

This article is authored by Madhav Krishna, founder and CEO, Vahan Inc.

The recent report by Ipsos Research Private Limited has revealed that a staggering 88% of gig workers rely on gig economy platforms as their primary source of income. There is now a new generation of gig workers who are no longer looking for seasonal jobs or part-time jobs to supplement their income. They are hardworking individuals who have created new ways of living and working and are self-employed entrepreneurs. The gig economy's flexibility has slowly entered almost all industries, with employers and gig workers recognising the opportunity for mutual advantage.

The Indian economy is projected to grow at 7.5% in 2024, according to the World Bank. India is currently slated to be the third largest economy in the world by 2027, behind the United States (US) and China. The growing economy will bring increased needs and demands of people. This, in turn, will generate more employment opportunities for both skilled and unskilled blue-collar workers all over the country--especially among gig workers. This trend is already visible in the last decade. While the share of gig workers employed in the transportation sector has fallen slightly, the share of gig workers employed in the construction sector has steadily increased from 1.2% to 3.06%.

The construction industry is already the second largest generator of employment in the country. As per the Skilled Employment in Construction Sector in India report by Knight Frank, the total number of jobs in India's construction sector is expected to reach 100 million by 2030 from 70.6 million currently, with a significant percentage of them being gig workers. This population growth, increasing urbanisation, and advancement of technology will open up new challenges and opportunities for employers and gig workers. The growing opportunity is true for gig workers across all industries. As cities expand, so will the needs of people, leading to a cascading positive effect on the mobility, e-commerce, and retail industries as well. Currently, almost 40% of gig workers are employed in retail trade, approximately 20% in the transportation and storage industry, and approximately another 10% in manufacturing. There are tentatively at least seven million gig workers in the country, with the number growing daily.

These blue-collar gig workers are key stakeholders in the growth of the Indian economy in the next few decades. To ensure the goals of a vibrant, economically thriving Bharat, it is not enough to just recruit more gig workers and connect them with better opportunities. There is an added need and responsibility on recruitment platforms that connect gig workers to employees to also help them continuously upskill themselves.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is set to transform how recruitment and skill training in India work. The country currently has over 820 million internet users, with many more from rural areas fast gaining digital access. In this day and age, we have AI-powered platforms, which can also be accessed through WhatsApp and social media accounts, helping with job searches. These platforms not only save costs for companies but also match gig workers with the right roles and provide tutorials to help them improve their skills. This is especially beneficial for internal economic migrants of India, who travel vast distances, seeking better opportunities in cities. AI, in this case, allows them to choose jobs that fit their skills and preferences. Ultimately, this technology makes the job search more efficient and satisfying for everyone involved.

Imagine a rural labourer coming to the big city, where he is expected to learn how to run a complicated machine to earn his livelihood. How would migrant labour find a job which fits their requirement or upskill themselves to use a new machine to earn more? Alone they would be lost and unable to take on the challenges. This is where AI comes in. It is the combination of this hard-working human and the wide store of knowledge with the AI platform that helps our gig workers independently overcome challenges--whether through skilling or language.

In the last decade, the central government has launched several schemes, including Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana, Jan Shikshan Sansthan, National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme, and Craftsmen Training Scheme, to upskill and reskill blue-collar workers. However, these training programmes, while very important, are often either limited by logistics and geographical constraints or lack of industry insights. This is where market players can ideally step in to reduce the information asymmetry and help both employers and gig workers find more suitable opportunities at a reduced transaction cost.

AI is poised to revolutionise every sector in India. From agriculture to manufacturing, AI can optimise processes, improve yields, and streamline production. However, for India to thrive, this workforce needs to be upskilled. AI-powered training programmes can bridge skill gaps, improve efficiency, and enhance safety standards. While a part of it has already begun with drone deliveries and last-mile delivery optimisation, the processes have yet to reach all sectors and all parts of India for us to become a truly developed nation.

The age of generative AI is upon us. Both the blue-collar workers in India and the employment aggregators who hire gig workers can gain themselves and, in turn, benefit society as a whole by depending on it. The scope and nature of the entire gig economy have not only changed in front of our eyes but are also continuously evolving. There is a broader need to understand and accept that gig work is no longer part-time or jugaad work but a full-time and dignified way of earning an honest livelihood.

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Impact of Retail CBDC on Digital Payments, and Bank Deposits: Evidence from India

Interest in central bank digital currencies (CBDCs) has been burgeoning with 134 countries now exploring its implementation. In December 2022, India started its CBDC pilot program to continue its transition towards a digitized payments economy. This paper presents the first empirical analysis utilizing detailed transaction data to explore the dynamics between CBDCs and existing digital payment methods, as well as the implications of increased CBDC usage on traditional bank deposits. Our findings reveal that policies which increase transaction costs for current digital payment methods catalyze a substitution effect, bolstering CBDC adoption. Furthermore, an uptick in CBDC usage is associated with a notable decline in bank, cash, and savings deposits, suggesting potential paths to bank disintermediation. This study contributes critical insights into the evolving competition between digital currencies and established financial infrastructures, highlighting the transformative potential of CBDCs on the broader economy.

The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

MARC RIS BibTeΧ

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Many drivers for Uber, Lyft, and DoorDash are earning well below minimum wage, even with tips, a new paper finds

• Many gig drivers earn less than local minimum wage after expenses, UC Berkeley finds.
• Researchers analyzed data from 1,088 drivers in major metro areas using the Gridwise app.
• Drivers face high expenses and lack employee benefits, leading some states to advocate for reform.

Many Americans looking to make at least their local minimum wage might be unable to count on gig driving as their primary income source.

In an analysis of 52,370 trips by 1,088 drivers in the Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco Bay, and Seattle metros in January 2022, researchers at the UC Berkeley Labor Center and the Center for Wage and Employment Dynamics found drivers across six ride-hailing and delivery platforms often earned less than the local minimum wage, including with tips, after expenses like gas .

The researchers used data from the rideshare and delivery assistance app Gridwise to examine drivers who worked 10 or more hours. To be sure, many drivers on these platforms work just a few hours a week, and the researchers' results may not apply to those drivers. Nearly half of the drivers drove for multiple apps, and 42% of non-DoorDash drivers worked 32 hours or more a week.

In some cases, drivers earned less than half of the local minimum wage in net employee-equivalent pay, which adjusts drivers' net pay over the entire time they're driving or looking for gigs for factors like employer payroll taxes and employee benefits. Delivery drivers in the metro areas studied outside California relied almost solely on tips and earned just 40 cents net per hour adjusted when excluding gratuities.

"Pay for gig drivers rarely exceeds the employee-equivalent local minimum wage," the authors wrote. "Most non-casual drivers would be better off if they were classified as employees, rather than as independent contractors."

Delivery drivers overall made at or above minimum wage in median gross hourly earnings with tips — $21.10 in California and $18.94 outside California — and passenger drivers made above minimum wage in all metro areas before tips — $21.61 in California and $25.41 outside California. These gross wages skyrocket when looking at engaged time, or time spent picking up and dropping off passengers or food rather than looking for the next job.

Still, expenses eat up much of these gross earnings. For delivery drivers, expenses total $7.44 per shift hour in California and $7.60 outside. For passenger drivers, it's $14.03 and $11.68, respectively.

Business Insider reached out to the six companies analyzed in the paper.

In a statement, a DoorDash spokesperson said, "As the authors make clear, this study is based on an incomplete and unrepresentative sample of app-based workers in these five cities. If they had bothered to include Dashers in their study, they would have learned that California Dashers, for example, earned around $36 per hour while on deliveries in 2023 on average, a 41% increase from 2020 before Prop 22 was enacted."

DoorDash further noted in the statement that the study omitted 654 DoorDash drivers from its net earnings analysis on the basis that the data doesn't include distances and shift times.

A Lyft spokesperson noted, "Earlier this year, Lyft announced a new commitment where drivers will always make at least 70% of rider fares each week after external fees. In Q1 of this year, the median U.S. Lyft driver earned $31.10 including tips and bonuses per hour of engaged time. After taking into account estimated expenses such as gas and maintenance, that's around $24.25 per engaged hour. Improving the driver experience is essential to our purpose and we are constantly listening to driver feedback."

An Uber spokesperson said that nationally, drivers earn "more than $30 an hour while working on the app."

" Research, using data from actual driver earnings, shows that California drivers earned, on average, $34.46 per active hour including tips — which is a 26 percent increase compared to pre-Prop 22 data," said a spokesperson for the Protect App-Based Drivers + Services coalition, based in California.

The other three companies did not directly reply to the request for comment before publication.

Related stories

To be sure, in February, an Uber representative told BI that "the vast majority of drivers are satisfied" and that "as of last quarter, drivers in the US were making about $33 per utilized hour " before expenses. In February, Lyft said its median US driver who used a personal vehicle earned about $30 per engaged hour before driving expenses — and $23 an hour once some driving expenses were accounted for.

The challenges of gig work

Across Uber, Lyft, Uber Eats, DoorDash, Grubhub, and Instacart, drivers almost universally had net hourly earnings well under the local minimum wage in the five studied metros — $15 in Boston, $15 in Chicago, $16.90 in Los Angeles, $18.07 in San Francisco, and $19.97 in Seattle.

Since drivers are classified as independent contractors, they don't need to be paid minimum wage in most cities or for their time and expenses between rides. The authors note these companies often engage in "algorithmic wage discrimination."

"These conditions allow the companies to take shares of passenger fares (commissions) that are higher than the levels in more competitive platform industries and to pay their workers less than what they would receive if there was more competition among the companies," the authors wrote.

Drivers pay out of pocket for expenses incurred when they're waiting for their next ride and are not paid by the app. About half of miles driven per shift and a third of shift time is spent during those waiting periods for delivery drivers. About a third of miles and 28% of shift time are spent between gigs for passenger drivers.

As part of Proposition 22, a law passed in 2020, California drivers are promised earnings of at least 120% of the local minimum wage, excluding tips. When minimum pay mandates aren't met, gig companies must pay adjustments. Though drivers under Proposition 22 don't get overtime or paid sick leave, they get paid 35 cents per mile while picking up or dropping off passengers. Drivers who work frequently also must be reimbursed for part of their healthcare premium expenses if enrolled in the state's health benefit exchange.

The report found that even with the adjustments, excluding tips, San Francisco and LA passenger drivers made less than those in the other three metro areas, though they earned $3 more factoring in tips. While two-thirds of DoorDash drivers and just under half of Uber Eats drivers had their incomes adjusted, just 5% of Uber drivers did.

Efforts to reform gig driving

This month, the California Supreme Court will hear a case concerning whether Proposition 22 is unconstitutional.

Meanwhile, in 2023, Seattle passed a law mandating that drivers must be paid at least $0.64 a minute, plus $1.50 per mile and at least $5.62 per trip. New York City also has a minimum compensation standard for gig drivers.

The authors note that when drivers have only a handful of driving gig options, companies can pay lower wages, and they can often get away with it since many workers are immigrants with few other employment opportunities.

The UC Berkeley study isn't the first to try to document the earnings of gig drivers.

For example, a study commissioned by the state of Minnesota and released on March 8 found that in 2022, drivers in the Twin Cities metro area earned $13.63 an hour after expenses, below Minneapolis's minimum wage of $15.57 an hour. Uber and Lyft took issue with the study's calculation of driving expenses. Uber and Lyft have threatened to pull out of Minnesota over the city's new pay plan for gig drivers.

A study published earlier this year of over 500,000 US gig drivers from Gridwise found that the average Uber driver made $25 an hour before expenses, including tips and bonuses. The average Lyft, Uber Eats, and DoorDash driver had hourly earnings of $24, $18, and $14, respectively.

Using Gridwise data, Big Lake Data estimated net earnings in Massachusetts to be $12.82 an hour in 2023 including tips, with expenses totaling about half of gross earnings. This month, Massachusetts sued Uber and Lyft in an attempt to classify drivers as employees.

Over the past year, several gig drivers have told BI that their gigs are less profitable than they used to be. For example, Uber and Lyft drivers have said the ride-hailing giants are taking a larger cut of rider fares. These frustrations have led to driver protests and calls for higher guaranteed pay .

While some drivers are unsatisfied with their pay, many Americans have turned to gig work in recent years as a source of income. The share of Bank of America customers receiving income from ride-hailing roughly tripled from less than 0.4% in March 2020 to about 1.2% as of March, exceeding pre-pandemic levels, according to a Bank of America Institute report published in late April.

Are you a gig driver who is struggling to make ends meet? Reach out to these reporters at [email protected] or [email protected].

Watch: Driverless taxi torched by mob in San Francisco

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