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An Introduction to Qualitative Research

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Qualitative research — when you first heard the term, your initial thought might have been, ‘What do qualitative researchers actually do?’ It may come as a surprise to you that you are already familiar with many of their activities, and you actually do them yourself — every day — as you watch and listen to what happens around you, and ask questions about what you have seen and heard.

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What is “Qualitative” in Qualitative Research? Why the Answer Does not Matter but the Question is Important

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Robert A. Croker ( Associate Professor in the Faculty of Policy Studies )

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Croker, R.A. (2009). An Introduction to Qualitative Research. In: Heigham, J., Croker, R.A. (eds) Qualitative Research in Applied Linguistics. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230239517_1

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Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on September 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on March 27, 2023.

The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your topic and get the reader interested
• Provide background or summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Detail your specific research problem and problem statement
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The introduction looks slightly different depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument by engaging with a variety of sources.

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Table of contents

Step 1: introduce your topic, step 2: describe the background, step 3: establish your research problem, step 4: specify your objective(s), step 5: map out your paper, research paper introduction examples, frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.

The first job of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening hook.

The hook is a striking opening sentence that clearly conveys the relevance of your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a strong statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will get the reader wondering about your topic.

For example, the following could be an effective hook for an argumentative paper about the environmental impact of cattle farming:

A more empirical paper investigating the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues in adolescent girls might use the following hook:

Don’t feel that your hook necessarily has to be deeply impressive or creative. Clarity and relevance are still more important than catchiness. The key thing is to guide the reader into your topic and situate your ideas.

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This part of the introduction differs depending on what approach your paper is taking.

In a more argumentative paper, you’ll explore some general background here. In a more empirical paper, this is the place to review previous research and establish how yours fits in.

Argumentative paper: Background information

After you’ve caught your reader’s attention, specify a bit more, providing context and narrowing down your topic.

Provide only the most relevant background information. The introduction isn’t the place to get too in-depth; if more background is essential to your paper, it can appear in the body .

Empirical paper: Describing previous research

For a paper describing original research, you’ll instead provide an overview of the most relevant research that has already been conducted. This is a sort of miniature literature review —a sketch of the current state of research into your topic, boiled down to a few sentences.

This should be informed by genuine engagement with the literature. Your search can be less extensive than in a full literature review, but a clear sense of the relevant research is crucial to inform your own work.

Begin by establishing the kinds of research that have been done, and end with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to respond to.

The next step is to clarify how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses.

Argumentative paper: Emphasize importance

In an argumentative research paper, you can simply state the problem you intend to discuss, and what is original or important about your argument.

Empirical paper: Relate to the literature

In an empirical research paper, try to lead into the problem on the basis of your discussion of the literature. Think in terms of these questions:

• What research gap is your work intended to fill?
• What limitations in previous work does it address?
• What contribution to knowledge does it make?

You can make the connection between your problem and the existing research using phrases like the following.

Now you’ll get into the specifics of what you intend to find out or express in your research paper.

The way you frame your research objectives varies. An argumentative paper presents a thesis statement, while an empirical paper generally poses a research question (sometimes with a hypothesis as to the answer).

Argumentative paper: Thesis statement

The thesis statement expresses the position that the rest of the paper will present evidence and arguments for. It can be presented in one or two sentences, and should state your position clearly and directly, without providing specific arguments for it at this point.

Empirical paper: Research question and hypothesis

The research question is the question you want to answer in an empirical research paper.

Present your research question clearly and directly, with a minimum of discussion at this point. The rest of the paper will be taken up with discussing and investigating this question; here you just need to express it.

A research question can be framed either directly or indirectly.

• This study set out to answer the following question: What effects does daily use of Instagram have on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls?
• We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls.

If your research involved testing hypotheses , these should be stated along with your research question. They are usually presented in the past tense, since the hypothesis will already have been tested by the time you are writing up your paper.

For example, the following hypothesis might respond to the research question above:

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The final part of the introduction is often dedicated to a brief overview of the rest of the paper.

In a paper structured using the standard scientific “introduction, methods, results, discussion” format, this isn’t always necessary. But if your paper is structured in a less predictable way, it’s important to describe the shape of it for the reader.

If included, the overview should be concise, direct, and written in the present tense.

• This paper will first discuss several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then will go on to …
• This paper first discusses several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then goes on to …

Full examples of research paper introductions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

• Argumentative paper
• Empirical paper

Are cows responsible for climate change? A recent study (RIVM, 2019) shows that cattle farmers account for two thirds of agricultural nitrogen emissions in the Netherlands. These emissions result from nitrogen in manure, which can degrade into ammonia and enter the atmosphere. The study’s calculations show that agriculture is the main source of nitrogen pollution, accounting for 46% of the country’s total emissions. By comparison, road traffic and households are responsible for 6.1% each, the industrial sector for 1%. While efforts are being made to mitigate these emissions, policymakers are reluctant to reckon with the scale of the problem. The approach presented here is a radical one, but commensurate with the issue. This paper argues that the Dutch government must stimulate and subsidize livestock farmers, especially cattle farmers, to transition to sustainable vegetable farming. It first establishes the inadequacy of current mitigation measures, then discusses the various advantages of the results proposed, and finally addresses potential objections to the plan on economic grounds.

The rise of social media has been accompanied by a sharp increase in the prevalence of body image issues among women and girls. This correlation has received significant academic attention: Various empirical studies have been conducted into Facebook usage among adolescent girls (Tiggermann & Slater, 2013; Meier & Gray, 2014). These studies have consistently found that the visual and interactive aspects of the platform have the greatest influence on body image issues. Despite this, highly visual social media (HVSM) such as Instagram have yet to be robustly researched. This paper sets out to address this research gap. We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls. It was hypothesized that daily Instagram use would be associated with an increase in body image concerns and a decrease in self-esteem ratings.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

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• Library of Congress
• Research Guides

The Nekcsei Lipócz Bible

Introduction.

• The 1949 Study about the Bible
• English-Language Preface to the 1988 Study
• Publisher's English-Language Foreword to the 1988 Study
• Using the Library of Congress
• European Reading Room
• Using the Rare Book and Special Collections Reading Room

European Studies : Ask a Librarian

Have a question? Need assistance? Use our online form to ask a librarian for help.

Rare Books & Special Collections : Ask a Librarian

Author: Zsuzsa Daczó: Reference Librarian, Latin American, Caribbean and European Division

Note: This guide is adapted from an earlier version that was prepared by Kenneth Nyirady in 2016.

Created:  April 29, 2024

Last Updated:  April 29, 2024

The Library of Congress has more than 1,500 special editions of the Bible in more than 150 languages in its Rare Book collections . The Gutenberg Bible , on display in the library's Great Hall, is the most famous item in this collection as it was the first time a book was printed with individual pieces of metal type instead of carving wood blocks for each page, or writing and illustrating each page by hand. The Gutenberg Bible looks remarkable, but its great importance is due to starting the era of mass producing books.

Many other special bibles can also be found in the Library. One of the rare and remarkable items in our collections is the Giant Bible of Mainz , and another one is the beautifully illustrated and illuminated manuscript, known as the Nekcsei-Lipócz Bible . Created in the Kingdom of Hungary in the early 14th century, the nearly 750 vellum leaves (close to 1,500 pages) were later bound into two volumes. According to one of the illustrations in it (the image to the right), it was commissioned as a gift for a church by Demeter Nekcsei, chief lord treasurer of Hungary, who died in 1338. 

These two volumes are among the most remarkable items in the collections of the Library of Congress. It is a complete Bible with vividly colored and beautiful illustrations, and with illuminations using gold paint to make the pages shimmer. The whole work remains remarkably well preserved 700 years after its creation.

The mystery of its whereabouts for the first 500 years of its existence also makes it interesting. The first document that we have about its existence is from the 19th century, when an English collector bought it. We know how much he paid for it, but not from whom he acquired it. The Library of Congress bought it from this collector's estate at the end of the 19th century. It was clear when the Library received it that it was a richly illustrated copy in two volumes (it was bound in England in the 19th century), but it was unknown when it was made or in which workshop . In the early 20th century when art historians were able to compare works by traveling to see different collections, they sent each other black and white photographs, and published articles about their findings, and so they were able to link it to a place and time. Once it was determined that it was made in Hungary, a historian was able to identify the coat of arms in the image which depicts the benefactor and his wife who donated it. According to the drawing they built a church too, and this Bible was most likely made for that church. Unfortunately, we do not know which church the image refers to.

The original can be viewed in the Rare Book and Special Collections Reading Room , the digitized volumes are available online on the library's website:

If you wish to learn about the style of the illustrations, the style of the written text, or would like to have descriptions for the illustrated pages, there are two books to turn to, one of which is now available online. If you wish to explore what is known about this book's history, and how was it discovered in the 1940s, where was it made and who commissioned it, there is information about that too in the two books mentioned, and in studies listed below on this page. We included in this guide brief descriptive and historical overviews of the Bible that are taken from two publications either published or co-published by the Library of Congress. They are:

• The Nekcsei-Lipócz Bible. A Fourteenth Century Manuscript from Hungary in the Library of Congress, Ms. Pre-Accession 1. A Study by Meta Harrsen. Washington: Library of Congress, 1949. This is available online.
• A Nekcsei-Biblia legszebb lapjai . (The Most Beautiful Pages of the Nekcsei Bible). Budapest: Helikon / Washington: Library of Congress, 1988. Contains 108 p. of facsims. with Hungarian explanatory text on parallel pages. The accompanying booklet entitled The Nekcsei Bible includes the introduction in English, translation of the publisher's foreword, and of the explanatory text entitled Tanulmányok a Nekcsei-Bibliáról which consists of studies by Dercsényi Dezső, Wehli Tünde, and Levárdy Ferenc.

More information is available about the Nekcsei Lipócz Bible in this blog post . In addition, there is a Hungarian language study External  about the remarkable life of Demeter (sometimes referred to as Dömötör) Nekcsei of Lipócz written in 1890, before this Bible was linked to him. (If you do not read Hungarian but have access to the ADT External database, then you have easy access to an English translation of the study, as that database provides an option to have all the texts translated). We scanned the article and provide the PDF version of it below:

Other Library of Congress Guides on Bibles and on Hungarian Resources

In addition to this guide on the Nekcsei Lipócz Bible, we have produced other detailed guides on Hungarian resources, and guides to the Library's Bible collection.

The Bible Collection: A Resource Guide from the Rare Book and Special Collections Division

This guide provides contextual information and resources for patrons interested in the Bible Collection, created in 1938 in the Rare Book and Special Collections Division.

The Gutenberg Bible at the Library of Congress : A Resource Guide

Printed in Mainz, Germany in 1454/1455 by Johannes Gutenberg and Johannes Fust, the Gutenberg Bible is the first large-format typographic bible produced in Europe. This guide provides digital and printed resources from the Library of Congress Collections.

The Giant Bible of Mainz : A Resource Guide

Created between April 4, 1452 and July 9, 1453, the Giant Bible of Mainz is one of the world's most important illuminated manuscripts. This guide provides general information as well as related digital and print resources at the Library of Congress.

American Folklife Center Collections: Hungary

This guide provides access to ethnographic resources documenting Hungarian expressive culture in Hungary and the United States in the collections of the American Folklife Center, Library of Congress.

Franz Liszt: A Guide to Resources at the Library of Congress

One of the most popular and influential composers of the 19th century, Franz Liszt and his music are well represented in the Music Division's print, manuscript, and digital collections.

Hungarian Newspapers at the Library of Congress

This guide to Hungarian newspapers at the Library of Congress includes titles published within Hungary, regardless of language, as well as in Hungarian published abroad. it provides information about print, microfilm, and digitized issues.

Guide to Law Online: Hungary

This guide, prepared by the Law Library of Congress, includes links to free online resources regarding the country of Hungary, focusing on its constitution; executive, legislative and judicial branches; legal guides; and general sources.

Hungary: Address and Telephone Directories

Telephone and address directories are used by genealogists and historians to identify people and businesses from a particular place and era. This guide lists uncataloged directories from Hungary in the Library of Congress collection.

Cold War Military Archives from Hungary, Poland, and Romania

This guide provides indexes to the Library of Congress microfilm collections of formerly classified records from the military archives of Hungary, Poland and Romania. Also includes papers from the conference "Cold War Archives in the Decade of Openness"

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• Last Updated: Jul 3, 2024 11:51 AM
• URL: https://guides.loc.gov/nekcsei-lipocz-bible

BIOL 101: The Cell: Writing Lab Reports

• Getting Started
• Finding Articles
• Finding Books
• Citation Searching
• Evaluating your sources
• Citing Your Sources

Writing Lab Reports

Here are some tips for writing lab reports! While lab reports are similar in structure and content to research articles published in scientific journals, they have a different purpose and audience, which will shape how you write them. The purpose of your lab report is to share the importance, analysis, and scope of your research. Your audience is your professor, instructor, or peers. While you probably won't be submitting your report to a journal for peer-review, it is still a good idea to adhere to the conventions and guidelines specified by your instructor, because writing these reports is really good practice for any science writing you may go on to do in your career!

Argumentation in Science

"The research report is more than a narrative; it is a careful argument. The authors of a research report find themselves in the position of building a case for their research, not simply recounting actions and observation" 

Penrose, A. M., & Katz, S. B. (2001). Writing in the sciences : exploring conventions of scientific discourse / Ann M. Penrose, Steven B. Katz . Pearson Custom Pub. Pp. 33

Writing Style

Avoid first person -  It is best to use a passive, third person voice when describing your experiment and results.

• For example - "The sample was analyzed. The results were positive."

Tenses - 

• Present tense: Use to describe accepted scientific information.
• Past tense: Use when discussing your research and findings.
• Future: Use when discussing how your research applies to future scientific endeavors.

Species -  All species should be referred to in their full Latin name, in italics

• For example -  Escerichia coli   or shortened to  E. coli
• Engage readers with the major concepts and ideas from your work in the order they are presented in the paper. Avoid analysis or lengthy descriptions.
• Write this section last, after you have already written the other sections. This will make it easier to summarize your findings.
• Keep it concise relatively brief. 

Introduction

•  Describe the scientific context and importance of the research area. How does this context connect to the purpose of your research?
• Then illuminate relevant primary literature and key concepts integral to understanding the research. Make sure to cite every piece of information and idea you include, following this  libguide .
• Explain the significance of your research, what are you hoping to add to the scholarly conversation?
• Introduce your hypothesis.
• In a logical order, present the materials and procedures used in the experiment.
• Someone with sufficient background knowledge should know how to reproduce the experiment by reading this section.
• In this class, your lab manual provides sufficient information for this section, but be aware that in other courses, you may need to take extra time to clearly and efficiently describe your methods.
• Considered the "heart" of the report!
• Stay away from more nuanced interpretation, instead sticking to statistical trends and summaries.
• You should connect observations about your results to the central argument of the report, without interpreting.
• All figures should be clearly labeled (Figure # or Table #).
• Refer reader to a specific figure or table as you explain your results. 
• Remember to stick to the past tense.
• What do your results mean? Interpret your results in the context of the concepts, literature, and purpose discussed in the introduction.
• Each conclusion you draw in this section should be backed up by evidence from your experiment.
• End with a summary of your findings and the bigger picture. Why does this research matter? What are the limitations of this study, and what would future follow-up studies look like to further add to this research?
• You can use the present tense in this section.
• List your references in alphabetical order using APA formatting.

Writing Resources

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• Last Updated: Aug 29, 2024 1:13 PM
• URL: https://libguides.williams.edu/biol101