definition of visual representation tok

ToK Essay #5 May 23: Visual Representations

• October 26, 2022
• Student Support , ToK Essay

The video guide to ToK Essay #5 May 23: Visual Representations has been posted on YouTube today (and is linked below). This essay was a real challenge for me to summarise in a short video. When I wrote the Essay Guide Notes (linked) I found it to be a very wide ranging subject, and the notes ran to over 6,300 words !

Visual Representations.

The focus on visual representations seems fairly straightforward, they’re tangible things such as maps and graphs. However, the knowledge links are a little more obscure in this essay than in the others. The essay question specifies that we look at visual representation in terms of the communication of knowledge. This lends itself to the purpose, and maybe, context of knowledge. I also played around with ideas such as the simplification of knowledge (harking back to a PT a few years ago), but this seemed to be a potential diversion.

There’s such a wide range of visual representations that students can look at, in some ways it’s a possible diversionary danger. It’s important that students stay focussed on whether those representations are ‘helpful’ in communication. I have tried to think of ‘helpful’ in terms of the purpose and context of knowledge.

The Knower & Knowledge.

The focus on visual representations in the communication of knowledge seems to link well with the core theme of The Knower & Knowledge, and that’s mainly where I ended up. It gives us good links to the ToK Concepts of Interpretation, Explanation and Evidence. The (re)introduction of The Knower into the ToK course gives students a lot more scope in their ToK Essays to go beyond the production of knowledge that they were largely constrained to in the last syllabus.

You can find the video guide for  Essay #1 linked here .

You can find the video guide for  Essay #2 linked here.

You can find the video guide for  Essay #3 linked here.

If you want more detailed notes on the Knowledge Questions and arguments raised in the video then please check out the  detailed notes available here.

If you want help with your ToK Essay or Exhibition then please check out the  Student Support page linked here .

You can always contact me at [email protected],

stay Tok-tastic !, Daniel

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12 key TOK concepts

TOK Home > TOK resources > 12 key TOK concepts

The key concepts are 12 ideas of particular significance that provide us with an effective way of scaffolding thoughts about the course and its relationship with the real world, and help us integrate TOK with the rest of the DP.

Faculty member can explore the key concepts via a set of padlets, which also indicates how each concept links to the AOKs and themes. We update the padlets every month by adding new media sources and unpacking suggestions.

What are the 12 key concepts?

The 12 key concepts are ones that have been identified as having a particular significant relationship to knowledge. Understanding, exploring, and using these concepts will help students to understand the way knowledge is produced and used, within all the different elements of the TOK course – the core and optional themes, and the areas of knowledge.

Students should refer to them as much as possible in the two assessment tasks. We’ve identified related exhibition prompts (IAPs) for each key concept, and indicated how they connect. Finally, they are also very useful to us when integrating TOK with the rest of the DP, and below you’ll find links to help non-TOK teachers use these concepts in their own classrooms.

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Access the KC padlet for evidence padlet below. To gain access to the other key concept padlets, become a faculty member of theoryofknowledge.net, or upgrade your present membership  here . 

Download our free key concept banner

Follow this link to download 12 free key concept banners. Each one is presented alongside a brilliant quote to provide a quick overview of its meaning, and prompt debate.

Faculty members have access to two further designs, as well as access to the full resource, and all our other materials.

Applying the 12 key concepts to the DP subjects

Follow the links below to take you to our integration tool. This resource includes an exploration padlet for each DP subject, which mentions how the 12 key concepts appear in real-world situations. Please share these padlets with your DP faculty!

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Our online and in-person workshops offer the usual support for students writing the essay and exhibition, and TOK departments designing great courses.

But our training sessions go much further than this: by focusing on authentic critical thinking , they demonstrate how to help learners confront, rather than confirm, their biases and assumptions, and exit their echo chambers. This makes them accessible and relevant for all teachers, whatever their subject or programme. Read more here .

Visual Representations: 2023 TOK Essay Title 5 TOK Talk

Today I enjoyed tea and Talked some TOK with Kevin Hoye (IB English Literature and TOK Teacher) about 2023 TOK Essay Title 5: Are visual representations always helpful in the communication of knowledge? Discuss with reference to the human sciences and mathematics. We talked a lot about different ways into understanding this question.. Links to several examples discussed can be found on www.TOKTalk.org Thank you to the random street Shanghai musician, once again for the music bringing us in and out of this track. Guest: Kevin Hoye

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Visual Representation

What is visual representation.

Visual Representation refers to the principles by which markings on a surface are made and interpreted. Designers use representations like typography and illustrations to communicate information, emotions and concepts. Color, imagery, typography and layout are crucial in this communication.

Alan Blackwell, cognition scientist and professor, gives a brief introduction to visual representation:

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We can see visual representation throughout human history, from cave drawings to data visualization :

Art uses visual representation to express emotions and abstract ideas.

Financial forecasting graphs condense data and research into a more straightforward format.

Icons on user interfaces (UI) represent different actions users can take.

The color of a notification indicates its nature and meaning.

Van Gogh's "The Starry Night" uses visuals to evoke deep emotions, representing an abstract, dreamy night sky. It exemplifies how art can communicate complex feelings and ideas.

© Public domain

Importance of Visual Representation in Design

Designers use visual representation for internal and external use throughout the design process . For example:

Storyboards are illustrations that outline users’ actions and where they perform them.

Sitemaps are diagrams that show the hierarchy and navigation structure of a website.

Wireframes are sketches that bring together elements of a user interface's structure.

Usability reports use graphs and charts to communicate data gathered from usability testing.

User interfaces visually represent information contained in applications and computerized devices.

This usability report is straightforward to understand. Yet, the data behind the visualizations could come from thousands of answered surveys.

© Interaction Design Foundation, CC BY-SA 4.0

Visual representation simplifies complex ideas and data and makes them easy to understand. Without these visual aids, designers would struggle to communicate their ideas, findings and products . For example, it would be easier to create a mockup of an e-commerce website interface than to describe it with words.

Visual representation simplifies the communication of designs. Without mockups, it would be difficult for developers to reproduce designs using words alone.

Types of Visual Representation

Below are some of the most common forms of visual representation designers use.

Text and Typography

Text represents language and ideas through written characters and symbols. Readers visually perceive and interpret these characters. Typography turns text into a visual form, influencing its perception and interpretation.

We have developed the conventions of typography over centuries , for example, in documents, newspapers and magazines. These conventions include:

Text arranged on a grid brings clarity and structure. Gridded text makes complex information easier to navigate and understand. Tables, columns and other formats help organize content logically and enhance readability.

Contrasting text sizes create a visual hierarchy and draw attention to critical areas. For example, headings use larger text while body copy uses smaller text. This contrast helps readers distinguish between primary and secondary information.

Adequate spacing and paragraphing improve the readability and appearance of the text. These conventions prevent the content from appearing cluttered. Spacing and paragraphing make it easier for the eye to follow and for the brain to process the information.

Balanced image-to-text ratios create engaging layouts. Images break the monotony of text, provide visual relief and illustrate or emphasize points made in the text. A well-planned ratio ensures neither text nor images overwhelm each other. Effective ratios make designs more effective and appealing.

Designers use these conventions because people are familiar with them and better understand text presented in this manner.

This table of funerals from the plague in London in 1665 uses typographic conventions still used today. For example, the author arranged the information in a table and used contrasting text styling to highlight information in the header.

Illustrations and Drawings

Designers use illustrations and drawings independently or alongside text. An example of illustration used to communicate information is the assembly instructions created by furniture retailer IKEA. If IKEA used text instead of illustrations in their instructions, people would find it harder to assemble the furniture.

IKEA assembly instructions use illustrations to inform customers how to build their furniture. The only text used is numeric to denote step and part numbers. IKEA communicates this information visually to: 1. Enable simple communication, 2. Ensure their instructions are easy to follow, regardless of the customer’s language.

© IKEA, Fair use

Illustrations and drawings can often convey the core message of a visual representation more effectively than a photograph. They focus on the core message , while a photograph might distract a viewer with additional details (such as who this person is, where they are from, etc.)

For example, in IKEA’s case, photographing a person building a piece of furniture might be complicated. Further, photographs may not be easy to understand in a black-and-white print, leading to higher printing costs. To be useful, the pictures would also need to be larger and would occupy more space on a printed manual, further adding to the costs.

But imagine a girl winking—this is something we can easily photograph. 

Ivan Sutherland, creator of the first graphical user interface, used his computer program Sketchpad to draw a winking girl. While not realistic, Sutherland's representation effectively portrays a winking girl. The drawing's abstract, generic elements contrast with the distinct winking eye. The graphical conventions of lines and shapes represent the eyes and mouth. The simplicity of the drawing does not draw attention away from the winking.

A photo might distract from the focused message compared to Sutherland's representation. In the photo, the other aspects of the image (i.e., the particular person) distract the viewer from this message.

© Ivan Sutherland, CC BY-SA 3.0 and Amina Filkins, Pexels License

Information and Data Visualization

Designers and other stakeholders use data and information visualization across many industries.

Data visualization uses charts and graphs to show raw data in a graphic form. Information visualization goes further, including more context and complex data sets. Information visualization often uses interactive elements to share a deeper understanding.

For example, most computerized devices have a battery level indicator. This is a type of data visualization. IV takes this further by allowing you to click on the battery indicator for further insights. These insights may include the apps that use the most battery and the last time you charged your device.

macOS displays a battery icon in the menu bar that visualizes your device’s battery level. This is an example of data visualization. Meanwhile, macOS’s settings tell you battery level over time, screen-on-usage and when you last charged your device. These insights are actionable; users may notice their battery drains at a specific time. This is an example of information visualization.

© Low Battery by Jemis Mali, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0, and Apple, Fair use

Information visualization is not exclusive to numeric data. It encompasses representations like diagrams and maps. For example, Google Maps collates various types of data and information into one interface:

Data Representation: Google Maps transforms complex geographical data into an easily understandable and navigable visual map.

Interactivity: Users can interactively customize views that show traffic, satellite imagery and more in real-time.

Layered Information: Google Maps layers multiple data types (e.g., traffic, weather) over geographical maps for comprehensive visualization.

User-Centered Design : The interface is intuitive and user-friendly, with symbols and colors for straightforward data interpretation.

The volume of data contained in one screenshot of Google Maps is massive. However, this information is presented clearly to the user. Google Maps highlights different terrains with colors and local places and businesses with icons and colors. The panel on the left lists the selected location’s profile, which includes an image, rating and contact information.

© Google, Fair use

Symbolic Correspondence

Symbolic correspondence uses universally recognized symbols and signs to convey specific meanings . This method employs widely recognized visual cues for immediate understanding. Symbolic correspondence removes the need for textual explanation.

For instance, a magnifying glass icon in UI design signifies the search function. Similarly, in environmental design, symbols for restrooms, parking and amenities guide visitors effectively.

The Interaction Design Foundation (IxDF) website uses the universal magnifying glass symbol to signify the search function. Similarly, the play icon draws attention to a link to watch a video.

How Designers Create Visual Representations

Visual language.

Designers use elements like color , shape and texture to create a communicative visual experience. Designers use these 8 principles:

Size – Larger elements tend to capture users' attention readily.

Color – Users are typically drawn to bright colors over muted shades.

Contrast – Colors with stark contrasts catch the eye more effectively.

Alignment – Unaligned elements are more noticeable than those aligned ones.

Repetition – Similar styles repeated imply a relationship in content.

Proximity – Elements placed near each other appear to be connected.

Whitespace – Elements surrounded by ample space attract the eye.

Texture and Style – Users often notice richer textures before flat designs.

The 8 visual design principles.

In web design , visual hierarchy uses color and repetition to direct the user's attention. Color choice is crucial as it creates contrast between different elements. Repetition helps to organize the design—it uses recurring elements to establish consistency and familiarity.

In this video, Alan Dix, Professor and Expert in Human-Computer Interaction, explains how visual alignment affects how we read and absorb information:

Correspondence Techniques

Designers use correspondence techniques to align visual elements with their conceptual meanings. These techniques include color coding, spatial arrangement and specific imagery. In information visualization, different colors can represent various data sets. This correspondence aids users in quickly identifying trends and relationships .

Color coding enables the stakeholder to see the relationship and trend between the two pie charts easily.

In user interface design, correspondence techniques link elements with meaning. An example is color-coding notifications to state their nature. For instance, red for warnings and green for confirmation. These techniques are informative and intuitive and enhance the user experience.

The IxDF website uses blue for call-to-actions (CTAs) and red for warnings. These colors inform the user of the nature of the action of buttons and other interactive elements.

Perception and Interpretation

If visual language is how designers create representations, then visual perception and interpretation are how users receive those representations. Consider a painting—the viewer’s eyes take in colors, shapes and lines, and the brain perceives these visual elements as a painting.

In this video, Alan Dix explains how the interplay of sensation, perception and culture is crucial to understanding visual experiences in design:

Copyright holder: Michael Murphy _ Appearance time: 07:19 - 07:37 _ Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C67JuZnBBDc

Visual perception principles are essential for creating compelling, engaging visual representations. For example, Gestalt principles explain how we perceive visual information. These rules describe how we group similar items, spot patterns and simplify complex images. Designers apply Gestalt principles to arrange content on websites and other interfaces. This application creates visually appealing and easily understood designs.

In this video, design expert and teacher Mia Cinelli discusses the significance of Gestalt principles in visual design . She introduces fundamental principles, like figure/ground relationships, similarity and proximity.

Interpretation

Everyone's experiences, culture and physical abilities dictate how they interpret visual representations. For this reason, designers carefully consider how users interpret their visual representations. They employ user research and testing to ensure their designs are attractive and functional.

Leonardo da Vinci's "Mona Lisa", is one of the most famous paintings in the world. The piece is renowned for its subject's enigmatic expression. Some interpret her smile as content and serene, while others see it as sad or mischievous. Not everyone interprets this visual representation in the same way.

Color is an excellent example of how one person, compared to another, may interpret a visual element. Take the color red:

In Chinese culture, red symbolizes luck, while in some parts of Africa, it can mean death or illness.

A personal experience may mean a user has a negative or positive connotation with red.

People with protanopia and deuteranopia color blindness cannot distinguish between red and green.

In this video, Joann and Arielle Eckstut, leading color consultants and authors, explain how many factors influence how we perceive and interpret color:

Learn More about Visual Representation

Read Alan Blackwell’s chapter on visual representation from The Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction.

Learn about the F-Shaped Pattern For Reading Web Content from Jakob Nielsen.

Read Smashing Magazine’s article, Visual Design Language: The Building Blocks Of Design .

Take the IxDF’s course, Perception and Memory in HCI and UX .

Questions related to Visual Representation

Some highly cited research on visual representation and related topics includes:

Roland, P. E., & Gulyás, B. (1994). Visual imagery and visual representation. Trends in Neurosciences, 17(7), 281-287. Roland and Gulyás' study explores how the brain creates visual imagination. They look at whether imagining things like objects and scenes uses the same parts of the brain as seeing them does. Their research shows the brain uses certain areas specifically for imagination. These areas are different from the areas used for seeing. This research is essential for understanding how our brain works with vision.

Lurie, N. H., & Mason, C. H. (2007). Visual Representation: Implications for Decision Making. Journal of Marketing, 71(1), 160-177.

This article looks at how visualization tools help in understanding complicated marketing data. It discusses how these tools affect decision-making in marketing. The article gives a detailed method to assess the impact of visuals on the study and combination of vast quantities of marketing data. It explores the benefits and possible biases visuals can bring to marketing choices. These factors make the article an essential resource for researchers and marketing experts. The article suggests using visual tools and detailed analysis together for the best results.

Lohse, G. L., Biolsi, K., Walker, N., & Rueter, H. H. (1994, December). A classification of visual representations. Communications of the ACM, 37(12), 36+.

This publication looks at how visuals help communicate and make information easier to understand. It divides these visuals into six types: graphs, tables, maps, diagrams, networks and icons. The article also looks at different ways these visuals share information effectively.

​​If you’d like to cite content from the IxDF website , click the ‘cite this article’ button near the top of your screen.

Some recommended books on visual representation and related topics include:

Chaplin, E. (1994). Sociology and Visual Representation (1st ed.) . Routledge.

Chaplin's book describes how visual art analysis has changed from ancient times to today. It shows how photography, post-modernism and feminism have changed how we see art. The book combines words and images in its analysis and looks into real-life social sciences studies.

Mitchell, W. J. T. (1994). Picture Theory. The University of Chicago Press.

Mitchell's book explores the important role and meaning of pictures in the late twentieth century. It discusses the change from focusing on language to focusing on images in cultural studies. The book deeply examines the interaction between images and text in different cultural forms like literature, art and media. This detailed study of how we see and read visual representations has become an essential reference for scholars and professionals.

Koffka, K. (1935). Principles of Gestalt Psychology. Harcourt, Brace & World.

"Principles of Gestalt Psychology" by Koffka, released in 1935, is a critical book in its field. It's known as a foundational work in Gestalt psychology, laying out the basic ideas of the theory and how they apply to how we see and think. Koffka's thorough study of Gestalt psychology's principles has profoundly influenced how we understand human perception. This book has been a significant reference in later research and writings.

A visual representation, like an infographic or chart, uses visual elements to show information or data. These types of visuals make complicated information easier to understand and more user-friendly.

Designers harness visual representations in design and communication. Infographics and charts, for instance, distill data for easier audience comprehension and retention.

For an introduction to designing basic information visualizations, take our course, Information Visualization .

Text is a crucial design and communication element, transforming language visually. Designers use font style, size, color and layout to convey emotions and messages effectively.

Designers utilize text for both literal communication and aesthetic enhancement. Their typography choices significantly impact design aesthetics, user experience and readability.

Designers should always consider text's visual impact in their designs. This consideration includes font choice, placement, color and interaction with other design elements.

In this video, design expert and teacher Mia Cinelli teaches how Gestalt principles apply to typography:

Designers use visual elements in projects to convey information, ideas, and messages. Designers use images, colors, shapes and typography for impactful designs.

In UI/UX design, visual representation is vital. Icons, buttons and colors provide contrast for intuitive, user-friendly website and app interfaces.

Graphic design leverages visual representation to create attention-grabbing marketing materials. Careful color, imagery and layout choices create an emotional connection.

Product design relies on visual representation for prototyping and idea presentation. Designers and stakeholders use visual representations to envision functional, aesthetically pleasing products.

Our brains process visuals 60,000 times faster than text. This fact highlights the crucial role of visual representation in design.

Our course, Visual Design: The Ultimate Guide , teaches you how to use visual design elements and principles in your work effectively.

Visual representation, crucial in UX, facilitates interaction, comprehension and emotion. It combines elements like images and typography for better interfaces.

Effective visuals guide users, highlight features and improve navigation. Icons and color schemes communicate functions and set interaction tones.

UX design research shows visual elements significantly impact emotions. 90% of brain-transmitted information is visual.

To create functional, accessible visuals, designers use color contrast and consistent iconography. These elements improve readability and inclusivity.

An excellent example of visual representation in UX is Apple's iOS interface. iOS combines a clean, minimalist design with intuitive navigation. As a result, the operating system is both visually appealing and user-friendly.

Michal Malewicz, Creative Director and CEO at Hype4, explains why visual skills are important in design:

Learn more about UI design from Michal in our Master Class, Beyond Interfaces: The UI Design Skills You Need to Know .

The fundamental principles of effective visual representation are:

Clarity : Designers convey messages clearly, avoiding clutter.

Simplicity : Embrace simple designs for ease and recall.

Emphasis : Designers highlight key elements distinctively.

Balance : Balance ensures design stability and structure.

Alignment : Designers enhance coherence through alignment.

Contrast : Use contrast for dynamic, distinct designs.

Repetition : Repeating elements unify and guide designs.

Designers practice these principles in their projects. They also analyze successful designs and seek feedback to improve their skills.

Read our topic description of Gestalt principles to learn more about creating effective visual designs. The Gestalt principles explain how humans group elements, recognize patterns and simplify object perception.

Color theory is vital in design, helping designers craft visually appealing and compelling works. Designers understand color interactions, psychological impacts and symbolism. These elements help designers enhance communication and guide attention.

Designers use complementary , analogous and triadic colors for contrast, harmony and balance. Understanding color temperature also plays a crucial role in design perception.

Color symbolism is crucial, as different colors can represent specific emotions and messages. For instance, blue can symbolize trust and calmness, while red can indicate energy and urgency.

Cultural variations significantly influence color perception and symbolism. Designers consider these differences to ensure their designs resonate with diverse audiences.

For actionable insights, designers should:

Experiment with color schemes for effective messaging. 

Assess colors' psychological impact on the audience. 

Use color contrast to highlight critical elements. 

Ensure color choices are accessible to all.

In this video, Joann and Arielle Eckstut, leading color consultants and authors, give their six tips for choosing color:

Learn more about color from Joann and Arielle in our Master Class, How To Use Color Theory To Enhance Your Designs .

Typography and font choice are crucial in design, impacting readability and mood. Designers utilize them for effective communication and expression.

Designers' perception of information varies with font type. Serif fonts can imply formality, while sans-serifs can give a more modern look.

Typography choices by designers influence readability and user experience. Well-spaced, distinct fonts enhance readability, whereas decorative fonts may hinder it.

Designers use typography to evoke emotions and set a design's tone. Choices in font size, style and color affect the emotional impact and message clarity.

Designers use typography to direct attention, create hierarchy and establish rhythm. These benefits help with brand recognition and consistency across mediums.

Read our article to learn how web fonts are critical to the online user experience .

Designers create a balance between simplicity and complexity in their work. They focus on the main messages and highlight important parts. Designers use the principles of visual hierarchy, like size, color and spacing. They also use empty space to make their designs clear and understandable.

The Gestalt law of Prägnanz suggests people naturally simplify complex images. This principle aids in making even intricate information accessible and engaging.

Through iteration and feedback, designers refine visuals. They remove extraneous elements and highlight vital information. Testing with the target audience ensures the design resonates and is comprehensible.

Michal Malewicz explains how to master hierarchy in UI design using the Gestalt rule of proximity:

Answer a Short Quiz to Earn a Gift

Why do designers use visual representation?

• To guarantee only a specific audience can understand the information
• To replace the need for any form of written communication
• To simplify complex information and make it understandable

Which type of visual representation helps to compare data?

• Article images
• Line charts
• Text paragraphs

What is the main purpose of visual hierarchy in design?

• To decorate the design with more colors
• To guide the viewer’s attention to the most important elements first
• To provide complex text for high-level readers

How does color impact visual representation?

• It has no impact on the design at all.
• It helps to distinguish different elements and set the mood.
• It makes the design less engaging for a serious mood.

Why is consistency important in visual representation?

• It limits creativity, but allows variation in design.
• It makes sure the visual elements are cohesive and easy to understand.
• It makes the design unpredictable yet interesting.

Better luck next time!

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Literature on Visual Representation

Here’s the entire UX literature on Visual Representation by the Interaction Design Foundation, collated in one place:

Learn more about Visual Representation

Take a deep dive into Visual Representation with our course Perception and Memory in HCI and UX .

How does all of this fit with interaction design and user experience? The simple answer is that most of our understanding of human experience comes from our own experiences and just being ourselves. That might extend to people like us, but it gives us no real grasp of the whole range of human experience and abilities. By considering more closely how humans perceive and interact with our world, we can gain real insights into what designs will work for a broader audience: those younger or older than us, more or less capable, more or less skilled and so on.

“You can design for all the people some of the time, and some of the people all the time, but you cannot design for all the people all the time.“ – William Hudson (with apologies to Abraham Lincoln)

While “design for all of the people all of the time” is an impossible goal, understanding how the human machine operates is essential to getting ever closer. And of course, building solutions for people with a wide range of abilities, including those with accessibility issues, involves knowing how and why some human faculties fail. As our course tutor, Professor Alan Dix, points out, this is not only a moral duty but, in most countries, also a legal obligation.

Portfolio Project

In the “ Build Your Portfolio: Perception and Memory Project ”, you’ll find a series of practical exercises that will give you first-hand experience in applying what we’ll cover. If you want to complete these optional exercises, you’ll create a series of case studies for your portfolio which you can show your future employer or freelance customers.

This in-depth, video-based course is created with the amazing Alan Dix , the co-author of the internationally best-selling textbook  Human-Computer Interaction and a superstar in the field of Human-Computer Interaction . Alan is currently a professor and Director of the Computational Foundry at Swansea University.

Gain an Industry-Recognized UX Course Certificate

Use your industry-recognized Course Certificate on your resume , CV , LinkedIn profile or your website.

All open-source articles on Visual Representation

Data visualization for human perception.

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Aesthetic Computing

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• 5 years ago

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TOK RESOURCE.ORG

 areas of knowledge: the arts.

Kibbutz Contemporary Dance Company from Israel, performing: If At All.

The Arts include a range of disciplines including visual arts, theatre, dance, music, film and literature. The ways in which meaning is encoded, evoked and played out in these various forms of representation do not always overlap and may have no exact counterpart elsewhere. The arts, from the sublime to the mediocre (and even the banal) can provide insight and provoke questions about what it means to be human. Art can be made for its own sake, or created with a functionality in mind like catalyzing social change, conveying overt political or religious messages, and even self-referentially pushing the boundaries of art itself.

Takashi Murakami (2012) The 500 Arhats (detail). Acrylic on canvas mounted on board. Mori Art Museum, Tokyo. The entire painting is 100 meters long!

Takashi Murakami is represented by the Kaikai Kiki Gallery.

CLASS ACTIVITIES

Non-linguistic forms of representation: Shostakovich 8th string quartet Experiencing the music Evoked emotions in the visual arts Gallery of powerful emotions and appetites Picasso’s lie and Coleridge's willing suspension of disbelief Picasso's Tête de taureau Willing suspension of disbelief Imagination (with constraints) and living in the subjunctive Artistic imagination Imagination in a tight straitjacket Are imagining and remembering almost the same? Do we live in the subjunctive? Rembrandt self portraits A recognized central case of greatness in traditional  art Duchamp's Fountain and Cage's 4'33'' Provocative artworks stack The value of art Artworks key and auction value Astonishing high art brain imaging Glass Brain and Self Reflected

KNOWLEDGE QUESTIONS

The new Theory of Knowledge Guide (2020) provides 385 Knowledge Questions for student exploration. Here are my personal favorites from the Arts section.

Is artistic knowledge something that cannot be expressed in any other way?

Does art enlarge what it is possible for us to think and know?

PERSPECTIVE

Can a work of art have meaning of which the artist themselves is unaware?

How does knowing more about the social, cultural or historical context of a work of art have an impact on our knowledge of the work itself?

Should your judgments about art be given the same weight as those of an expert?

METHODS AND TOOLS

Can some knowledge in the arts only be gained through experience? How does the medium used change the way that knowledge is produced, shared or understood?

How important is the study of literature in our individual ethical development?

Is the production and enjoyment of art subject to ethical constraints?

Can we separate the moral character of the artist from the value of the Artwork?

CONNECTING TO THE CORE THEME

What moral responsibilities do we have regarding art that has been created or published by other people?

“No one who has not seen the Sistine Chapel can have a clear idea of what a human being can achieve… The master's inner security and strength, his greatness is beyond all description…” Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1786) In Goldscheider, L (1975) Michelangelo: Paintings, Sculptures, Architecture: Complete Edition . Phaidon

Visual Representation

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Graphical representation

The concept of “representation” captures the signs that stand in for and take the place of something else [ 5 ]. Visual representation, in particular, refers to the special case when these signs are visual (as opposed to textual, mathematical, etc.). On the other hand, there is no limit on what may be (visually) represented, which may range from abstract concepts to concrete objects in the real world or data items.

In addition to the above, however, the term “representation” is often overloaded and used to imply the actual process of connecting the two worlds of the original items and of their representatives. Typically, the context determines quite clearly which of the two meanings is intended in each case, hence, the term is used for both without further explanation.

Underneath any visual representation lies a mapping between the set of items that are being represented and the set of visual elements that are used to represent them, i.e., to...

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Recommended Reading

Card S.K., Mackinlay J.D., and Shneiderman B. Information visualization. In Readings in Information Visualization: Using Vision to Think, 1999, pp. 1–34.

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Card S.K., Mackinlay J.D., and Shneiderman B. Readings in Information Visualization: Using Vision to Think. Morgan Kaufman, Los Altos, CA, 1999.

Foley J.D., van Dam A., Feiner S.K., and Hughes J.F. Computer Graphics: Principles and Practice. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1990.

Haber E.M., Ioannidis Y., and Livny M. Foundations of visual metaphors for schema display. J. Intell. Inf. Syst., 3(3/4):263–298, 1994.

Article   Google Scholar  

Mitchell W. Representation. In Critical Terms for Literary Study,Lentricchia F and McLaughlin T. (eds.), 2nd edn., Chicago, IL. University of Chicago Press, 1995.

Tufte E.R. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Graphics Press, Cheshire, CO, 1983.

Tufte E.R. Envisioning Information. Graphics Press, Cheshire, CO, 1990.

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Ioannidis, Y. (2009). Visual Representation. In: LIU, L., ÖZSU, M.T. (eds) Encyclopedia of Database Systems. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-39940-9_449

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TOK: The 12 concepts

• Course Components
• Theory of Knowldege

You may not have noticed but TOK has changed it's framework... The main difference is that the new TOK curriculum is focused on "big ideas " through 12 concepts that that are transdisciplinary in nature and help us to understand why we are learning the content.

This page looks at these 12 concepts on which the TOK course is built. Some of the concepts link more directly to visual arts than others, but helping students to see how these concepts are relevant in art will help to support the transfer of their understandings and make TOK a more relevant and integrated part of their DP learning. For those concepts most relevant to our subject I have included links to activities and resources to explore in greater depth. Thanks to John Crane, author of the Psychology site, for the outline and the inspiration! 

Certainty           Culture            Evidence     Explanation          Interpretation    Justification

Objectivity        perspective      power          responsibility      truth                  values, how do these 12 concepts relate to art .

Unlike other areas of knowledge, certainty is certainly not what artists explore, but rather the opposite, uncertainty! I read somewhere that scientists are seeking answers, whereas artists are seeking more questions.

Related content -Viewer Exhibition Response  

TOK is interested in how culture affects our knowledge of the world around us. The sociocultural approach is one of the lenses through which we can analyze art works- so in this sense, we have a great link here to TOK. Cultural Significance (C) is one of the criterion for the Comparative Study and an integral part of the visual arts syllabus.

You will find many relevant pages and activities in the Culture and Context section, such as

Your Cultural Influences

Cultural and Geographic Focus  

Defining Culture  

The Role of Culture  

Artists Looking at Culture  

Cultural Assumptions  

Interpretive Frameworks  

Evidence is an important part of any kind of research, perhaps not the most relevant to art, but students do need to use research and find evidence to support their analysis in the CS and to investigate artists in the PP, and both require empirical evidence, documentation and citation.

Related content:

Research and Practice  

Referencing and Citing Sources  

Secondary Sources  

Explanation

Art tends to infer rather than explain, we are not looking for explanations but rather to be invited into an unknown territory, otherwise why make art? Documentary photography bears witness, journalism explains,, but art? Explanation however can be our attempt to understand why an art work is made in a certain way, how it is made, and what it communicates. Students offer a sort of explanation ( more of a justification-see below ) of their exhibition in the Curatorial Rationale

related pages:????

Critiques  

Feedback  

Interpretation

The way we interpret art and meaning is essential to our understanding of art. Interpretation is highly subjective in the arts.

Interpretation is influenced by culture- Cultural Assumptions  

Interpretation is influenced by knowledge- Art and Knowledge

Interpretation is influenced by the value we assign to art- Art and Values  

Interpretation is even influenced by how we title our work- Titling Work  

Try this fun activity for looking at how we view and understand art from different  Interpretive Frameworks

The resource   4 Ways of Looking at Art is useful for guided looking

Justification

Art making involves complex decision making, in the choice of materials, of subject matter, of scale, you name it, everything is a decision that impacts the art that evolves from it. Curatorial practice is decision making, where and how to display work, how meaning is impacted, and all of these considerations must be justified by the student in their final exhibition, giving reasons for their choices and decisions in their Curatorial Rationale  

Objectivity

Does objectivity in art exist? Is there not fundamentally a personal response? There are of course certain guidelines the examiner must follow when assessing work. Technical skill, for example, is supposedly an objective quality that we can quantify and agree upon....hmmm.

Under objectivity we might also explore our personal biases, our preferences, our aesthetic inclinations, and how this influences our response to a given art work.

Who decides what is good art? - Art and Values  

Try this look and respond slideshow Intuitive Response

Perspective

Perspective is related to objectivity, or rather, the opposite of it, and of course to interpretation and from what viewpoint we approach an art work.

We can consider point of view in visual art in a literal way: every composition has a viewpoint, creating the illusion of space requires understanding of linear perspective, and we can explore Perspective and Drawing Aides to achieve this.

We can also consider perspective as a cultural lens through which we view art and make art.

Your Cultural Influences  

Historical Context  

In TOK the idea of power is how knowledge can be power.   We can think about this concept in terms of how art can challenge society to change and develop in positive ways, for example Art that Challenges and Confronts , but also how Art and Money get mixed up and the power that is assigned to Celebrity Artists  

Responsibility

 What are the ethical responsibilities of artists? This is a tricky one, with very different parameters for students (see Ethical Expression  ) and those professional artists who seem to have no concern for ethics, or maybe wish to challenge us. 

Responsibility is a rich topic to explore in visual arts, try these questions:

• What moral responsibilities does the artist have or not have? Are they different from any other knower?

• To what extent does the artist have a moral obligation to avoid or confront issues that might shock or be contrary to most people?

• Do you think controversy is important for an artwork to have a strong impact? Why do artists often rely on the shock factor?

• What do we expect from art? Truth? Seduction? Provocation? Beauty

Relevant pages

Art and Values  

Art that Challenges and Confronts  

Veiled Content  

The function and purpose of art is not necessarily to tell the truth, although art may address truths about human nature in a way other disciplines cannot. Aristotle wrote that poetry is more true than history because it presents universal truths whereas history gives only particular truths and that poetry shows how a person might behave (or think, or feel).

Truth (even truth to human nature) is not a prerequisite in works of art, entire genres of art, such as music, and much visual art exist without it. Thus, the view that the purpose or function of art is to provide truth does not hold; perhaps the person who wants absolute truths had better turn to science or philosophy rather than to the arts. [1]

“We all know that Art is not truth. Art is a lie that makes us realize truth at least the truth that is given us to understand. The artist must know the manner whereby to convince others of the truthfulness of his lies.”- Pablo Picasso

Curiosity Cabinets  

How do we assign value to art?

What are the standards for judging whether art is good or bad?

Do we need education or knowledge in order to enjoy a work of art?

Is an art form legitimate if it can be enjoyed only by those trained in its appreciation?

Can a critical assessment of an art form be made by someone with no relevant education or cultural familiarity?

Does art need to be justified outside of its' own cultural context?

Do we apply these same rules (or exceptions to the rules) to science?

Art has power to change how people think, does this mean it should be controlled? Isn't art the ultimate freedom of expression? Should art serve a higher cause, a greater good or should it just be an expression of the individual?

Try the quiz in Interpretive Frameworks  

Explore Vasari's Five Criteria and come up with your own

• ^ https://www.britannica.om/topic/philosophy-of-art/Art-as-a-means-to-truth-or-knowledge

TOK ESSAY AND PRESENTATION OVERVIEW

There are only two IB assessments in TOK: the externally assessed essay and the internally assessed presentation. They are both focused on the in-depth investigation of Knowledge Questions. In practice though they are very different.

N ote: This writeup is aimed at students in the last cohort of the soon to be phased out older TOK curriculum (last assessment November 2021). Check the “NEW TOK CURRICULUM (FIRST ASSESSMENT 2022) for relevant information on the new curriculum.

The TOK essay

• Externally assessed (marked by the IB, not your TOK teacher).
• Students write one essay that is based on one of the six Prescribed Titles for the cohort.
• Maximum of 1600 words.
• Students must fill in and submit the TK/PPF form along with the essay. The form is not marked.

The TOK Presentation

• Internally assessed (marked by the teacher with marks moderated by the IB).
• One presentation is submitted to the IB per student.
• Can be done individually, in pairs, or in a group of three. All students in a group must receive the same score (see page 57 of the TOK Subject Guide).
• The presentation is about ten minutes for each student (i.e two students working together get 20 minutes in total).
• Students must fill in and submit the Presentation planning document (TK/PPD) .
• Teacher add their mark and comments to the TK/PPD form before it is submitted to the IB. This document is extremely important because the IB moderates the presentation marks based on this document.
• Some schools in each session may be required by the IB to record and submit presentations but this is fairly rare (see page 58 of the TOK Subject Guide). Schools may decide to record the presentations for their own internal purposes such as standardization.

Privacy Overview

Initial Thoughts

Perspectives & resources, what is high-quality mathematics instruction and why is it important.

• Page 1: The Importance of High-Quality Mathematics Instruction
• Page 2: A Standards-Based Mathematics Curriculum
• Page 3: Evidence-Based Mathematics Practices

What evidence-based mathematics practices can teachers employ?

• Page 4: Explicit, Systematic Instruction

Page 5: Visual Representations

• Page 6: Schema Instruction
• Page 7: Metacognitive Strategies
• Page 8: Effective Classroom Practices
• Page 9: References & Additional Resources
• Page 10: Credits

Research Shows

• Students who use accurate visual representations are six times more likely to correctly solve mathematics problems than are students who do not use them. However, students who use inaccurate visual representations are less likely to correctly solve mathematics problems than those who do not use visual representations at all. (Boonen, van Wesel, Jolles, & van der Schoot, 2014)
• Students with a learning disability (LD) often do not create accurate visual representations or use them strategically to solve problems. Teaching students to systematically use a visual representation to solve word problems has led to substantial improvements in math achievement for students with learning disabilities. (van Garderen, Scheuermann, & Jackson, 2012; van Garderen, Scheuermann, & Poch, 2014)
• Students who use visual representations to solve word problems are more likely to solve the problems accurately. This was equally true for students who had LD, were low-achieving, or were average-achieving. (Krawec, 2014)

Visual representations are flexible; they can be used across grade levels and types of math problems. They can be used by teachers to teach mathematics facts and by students to learn mathematics content. Visual representations can take a number of forms. Click on the links below to view some of the visual representations most commonly used by teachers and students.

How does this practice align?

High-leverage practice (hlp).

• HLP15 : Provide scaffolded supports

CCSSM: Standards for Mathematical Practice

• MP1 : Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.

Number Lines

Definition : A straight line that shows the order of and the relation between numbers.

Common Uses : addition, subtraction, counting

Strip Diagrams

Definition : A bar divided into rectangles that accurately represent quantities noted in the problem.

Common Uses : addition, fractions, proportions, ratios

Definition : Simple drawings of concrete or real items (e.g., marbles, trucks).

Common Uses : counting, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division

Graphs/Charts

Definition : Drawings that depict information using lines, shapes, and colors.

Common Uses : comparing numbers, statistics, ratios, algebra

Graphic Organizers

Definition : Visual that assists students in remembering and organizing information, as well as depicting the relationships between ideas (e.g., word webs, tables, Venn diagrams).

Common Uses : algebra, geometry

Before they can solve problems, however, students must first know what type of visual representation to create and use for a given mathematics problem. Some students—specifically, high-achieving students, gifted students—do this automatically, whereas others need to be explicitly taught how. This is especially the case for students who struggle with mathematics and those with mathematics learning disabilities. Without explicit, systematic instruction on how to create and use visual representations, these students often create visual representations that are disorganized or contain incorrect or partial information. Consider the examples below.

Elementary Example

Mrs. Aldridge ask her first-grade students to add 2 + 4 by drawing dots.

Notice that Talia gets the correct answer. However, because Colby draws his dots in haphazard fashion, he fails to count all of them and consequently arrives at the wrong solution.

High School Example

Mr. Huang asks his students to solve the following word problem:

The flagpole needs to be replaced. The school would like to replace it with the same size pole. When Juan stands 11 feet from the base of the pole, the angle of elevation from Juan’s feet to the top of the pole is 70 degrees. How tall is the pole?

Compare the drawings below created by Brody and Zoe to represent this problem. Notice that Brody drew an accurate representation and applied the correct strategy. In contrast, Zoe drew a picture with partially correct information. The 11 is in the correct place, but the 70° is not. As a result of her inaccurate representation, Zoe is unable to move forward and solve the problem. However, given an accurate representation developed by someone else, Zoe is more likely to solve the problem correctly.

Manipulatives

Some students will not be able to grasp mathematics skills and concepts using only the types of visual representations noted in the table above. Very young children and students who struggle with mathematics often require different types of visual representations known as manipulatives. These concrete, hands-on materials and objects—for example, an abacus or coins—help students to represent the mathematical idea they are trying to learn or the problem they are attempting to solve. Manipulatives can help students develop a conceptual understanding of mathematical topics. (For the purpose of this module, the term concrete objects refers to manipulatives and the term visual representations refers to schematic diagrams.)

It is important that the teacher make explicit the connection between the concrete object and the abstract concept being taught. The goal is for the student to eventually understand the concepts and procedures without the use of manipulatives. For secondary students who struggle with mathematics, teachers should show the abstract along with the concrete or visual representation and explicitly make the connection between them.

A move from concrete objects or visual representations to using abstract equations can be difficult for some students. One strategy teachers can use to help students systematically transition among concrete objects, visual representations, and abstract equations is the Concrete-Representational-Abstract (CRA) framework.

If you would like to learn more about this framework, click here.

Concrete-Representational-Abstract Framework

• Concrete —Students interact and manipulate three-dimensional objects, for example algebra tiles or other algebra manipulatives with representations of variables and units.
• Representational — Students use two-dimensional drawings to represent problems. These pictures may be presented to them by the teacher, or through the curriculum used in the class, or students may draw their own representation of the problem.
• Abstract — Students solve problems with numbers, symbols, and words without any concrete or representational assistance.

CRA is effective across all age levels and can assist students in learning concepts, procedures, and applications. When implementing each component, teachers should use explicit, systematic instruction and continually monitor student work to assess their understanding, asking them questions about their thinking and providing clarification as needed. Concrete and representational activities must reflect the actual process of solving the problem so that students are able to generalize the process to solve an abstract equation. The illustration below highlights each of these components.

For Your Information

One promising practice for moving secondary students with mathematics difficulties or disabilities from the use of manipulatives and visual representations to the abstract equation quickly is the CRA-I strategy . In this modified version of CRA, the teacher simultaneously presents the content using concrete objects, visual representations of the concrete objects, and the abstract equation. Studies have shown that this framework is effective for teaching algebra to this population of students (Strickland & Maccini, 2012; Strickland & Maccini, 2013; Strickland, 2017).

Kim Paulsen discusses the benefits of manipulatives and a number of things to keep in mind when using them (time: 2:35).

Kim Paulsen, EdD Associate Professor, Special Education Vanderbilt University

View Transcript

Transcript: Kim Paulsen, EdD

Manipulatives are a great way of helping kids understand conceptually. The use of manipulatives really helps students see that conceptually, and it clicks a little more with them. Some of the things, though, that we need to remember when we’re using manipulatives is that it is important to give students a little bit of free time when you’re using a new manipulative so that they can just explore with them. We need to have specific rules for how to use manipulatives, that they aren’t toys, that they really are learning materials, and how students pick them up, how they put them away, the right time to use them, and making sure that they’re not distracters while we’re actually doing the presentation part of the lesson. One of the important things is that we don’t want students to memorize the algorithm or the procedures while they’re using the manipulatives. It really is just to help them understand conceptually. That doesn’t mean that kids are automatically going to understand conceptually or be able to make that bridge between using the concrete manipulatives into them being able to solve the problems. For some kids, it is difficult to use the manipulatives. That’s not how they learn, and so we don’t want to force kids to have to use manipulatives if it’s not something that is helpful for them. So we have to remember that manipulatives are one way to think about teaching math.

I think part of the reason that some teachers don’t use them is because it takes a lot of time, it takes a lot of organization, and they also feel that students get too reliant on using manipulatives. One way to think about using manipulatives is that you do it a couple of lessons when you’re teaching a new concept, and then take those away so that students are able to do just the computation part of it. It is true we can’t walk around life with manipulatives in our hands. And I think one of the other reasons that a lot of schools or teachers don’t use manipulatives is because they’re very expensive. And so it’s very helpful if all of the teachers in the school can pool resources and have a manipulative room where teachers can go check out manipulatives so that it’s not so expensive. Teachers have to know how to use them, and that takes a lot of practice.

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What is Visual Representation

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Theory of Knowledge Resource Space: TOK Essay Planning

• Core Knowledge and the Knower
• Natural Sciences
• Knowledge and Technology
• Knowledge and Language
• Knowledge and Indigenous Societies
• Knowledge and Religion
• Knowledge and Politics
• Human Sciences
• Mathematics
• TOK Essay Planning
• TOK Essay Writing
• MLA Citations
• TOK Exhibition

2022 Titles

1. Is replicability necessary in the production of knowledge? Discuss with reference to  two areas of knowledge.

2. For artists and natural scientists, which is more important: what can be explained or what cannot be explained? Discuss with reference to  the arts and the natural sciences.

3. Does it matter if our acquisition of knowledge happens in “bubbles” where some information and voices are excluded? Discuss with reference to  two areas of knowledge.

4. Do you agree that it is “astonishing that so little knowledge can give us so much power” (Bertrand Russell)? Discuss with reference to the  natural sciences and one other area  of knowledge.

5. Are visual representations always helpful in the communication of knowledge? Discuss with reference to the  human sciences and mathematics.

6. To what extent is the knowledge we produce determined by the methodologies we use? Discuss with reference to  history and one other area of knowledge.

Unpacking the prescribed Titles

General Resources for Examples/Ideas

The world’s leading publisher of research-based news and analysis, but easy to read.

PBS show that examines the connections between pop culture, technology and art.

Every TED-Ed Animation represents a creative collaboration between experts. Such experts may include educators, designers, animators, screenwriters, directors, science writers, historians, journalists and editors.

Similar to TED talks, but shorter. Usually more focused on a specific idea.

We ask the big questions and find the freshest, most original answers, provided by leading thinkers on science, philosophy, society and the arts

We expose people to information and ideas from all sides of the political spectrum so they can better understand the world

Excellent, thoughtful and nuanced. It's like TOK every day. Use the Search box and the drop down menu to search by subject.

counter arguments

Subsidiary Knowledge

Typical TOK Essay Mistakes

Psychology Vs TOK

Conclusions

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