case study strategic approach

• SUGGESTED TOPICS
• The Magazine
• Newsletters
• Managing Yourself
• Managing Teams
• Work-life Balance
• The Big Idea
• Data & Visuals
• Reading Lists
• Case Selections
• HBR Learning
• Topic Feeds
• Account Settings
• Email Preferences

What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. and Distinguished Service University Professor. He served as the 10th dean of Harvard Business School, from 2010 to 2020.

Partner Center

The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

Whatever field you're in, ATLAS.ti puts your data to work for you

Download a free trial of ATLAS.ti to turn your data into insights.

Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

Ready to jumpstart your research with ATLAS.ti?

Conceptualize your research project with our intuitive data analysis interface. Download a free trial today.

Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

Ready to analyze your data with ATLAS.ti?

See how our intuitive software can draw key insights from your data with a free trial today.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Methodology
• Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible. 

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, January 30). Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved 3 June 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/case-studies/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, correlational research | guide, design & examples, a quick guide to experimental design | 5 steps & examples, descriptive research design | definition, methods & examples.

• Open access
• Published: 27 June 2011

The case study approach

• Sarah Crowe 1 ,
• Kathrin Cresswell 2 ,
• Ann Robertson 2 ,
• Guro Huby 3 ,
• Anthony Avery 1 &
• Aziz Sheikh 2  

BMC Medical Research Methodology volume  11 , Article number:  100 ( 2011 ) Cite this article

783k Accesses

1048 Citations

37 Altmetric

Metrics details

The case study approach allows in-depth, multi-faceted explorations of complex issues in their real-life settings. The value of the case study approach is well recognised in the fields of business, law and policy, but somewhat less so in health services research. Based on our experiences of conducting several health-related case studies, we reflect on the different types of case study design, the specific research questions this approach can help answer, the data sources that tend to be used, and the particular advantages and disadvantages of employing this methodological approach. The paper concludes with key pointers to aid those designing and appraising proposals for conducting case study research, and a checklist to help readers assess the quality of case study reports.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The case study approach is particularly useful to employ when there is a need to obtain an in-depth appreciation of an issue, event or phenomenon of interest, in its natural real-life context. Our aim in writing this piece is to provide insights into when to consider employing this approach and an overview of key methodological considerations in relation to the design, planning, analysis, interpretation and reporting of case studies.

The illustrative 'grand round', 'case report' and 'case series' have a long tradition in clinical practice and research. Presenting detailed critiques, typically of one or more patients, aims to provide insights into aspects of the clinical case and, in doing so, illustrate broader lessons that may be learnt. In research, the conceptually-related case study approach can be used, for example, to describe in detail a patient's episode of care, explore professional attitudes to and experiences of a new policy initiative or service development or more generally to 'investigate contemporary phenomena within its real-life context' [ 1 ]. Based on our experiences of conducting a range of case studies, we reflect on when to consider using this approach, discuss the key steps involved and illustrate, with examples, some of the practical challenges of attaining an in-depth understanding of a 'case' as an integrated whole. In keeping with previously published work, we acknowledge the importance of theory to underpin the design, selection, conduct and interpretation of case studies[ 2 ]. In so doing, we make passing reference to the different epistemological approaches used in case study research by key theoreticians and methodologists in this field of enquiry.

This paper is structured around the following main questions: What is a case study? What are case studies used for? How are case studies conducted? What are the potential pitfalls and how can these be avoided? We draw in particular on four of our own recently published examples of case studies (see Tables 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 ) and those of others to illustrate our discussion[ 3 – 7 ].

What is a case study?

A case study is a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context. It is an established research design that is used extensively in a wide variety of disciplines, particularly in the social sciences. A case study can be defined in a variety of ways (Table 5 ), the central tenet being the need to explore an event or phenomenon in depth and in its natural context. It is for this reason sometimes referred to as a "naturalistic" design; this is in contrast to an "experimental" design (such as a randomised controlled trial) in which the investigator seeks to exert control over and manipulate the variable(s) of interest.

Stake's work has been particularly influential in defining the case study approach to scientific enquiry. He has helpfully characterised three main types of case study: intrinsic , instrumental and collective [ 8 ]. An intrinsic case study is typically undertaken to learn about a unique phenomenon. The researcher should define the uniqueness of the phenomenon, which distinguishes it from all others. In contrast, the instrumental case study uses a particular case (some of which may be better than others) to gain a broader appreciation of an issue or phenomenon. The collective case study involves studying multiple cases simultaneously or sequentially in an attempt to generate a still broader appreciation of a particular issue.

These are however not necessarily mutually exclusive categories. In the first of our examples (Table 1 ), we undertook an intrinsic case study to investigate the issue of recruitment of minority ethnic people into the specific context of asthma research studies, but it developed into a instrumental case study through seeking to understand the issue of recruitment of these marginalised populations more generally, generating a number of the findings that are potentially transferable to other disease contexts[ 3 ]. In contrast, the other three examples (see Tables 2 , 3 and 4 ) employed collective case study designs to study the introduction of workforce reconfiguration in primary care, the implementation of electronic health records into hospitals, and to understand the ways in which healthcare students learn about patient safety considerations[ 4 – 6 ]. Although our study focusing on the introduction of General Practitioners with Specialist Interests (Table 2 ) was explicitly collective in design (four contrasting primary care organisations were studied), is was also instrumental in that this particular professional group was studied as an exemplar of the more general phenomenon of workforce redesign[ 4 ].

What are case studies used for?

According to Yin, case studies can be used to explain, describe or explore events or phenomena in the everyday contexts in which they occur[ 1 ]. These can, for example, help to understand and explain causal links and pathways resulting from a new policy initiative or service development (see Tables 2 and 3 , for example)[ 1 ]. In contrast to experimental designs, which seek to test a specific hypothesis through deliberately manipulating the environment (like, for example, in a randomised controlled trial giving a new drug to randomly selected individuals and then comparing outcomes with controls),[ 9 ] the case study approach lends itself well to capturing information on more explanatory ' how ', 'what' and ' why ' questions, such as ' how is the intervention being implemented and received on the ground?'. The case study approach can offer additional insights into what gaps exist in its delivery or why one implementation strategy might be chosen over another. This in turn can help develop or refine theory, as shown in our study of the teaching of patient safety in undergraduate curricula (Table 4 )[ 6 , 10 ]. Key questions to consider when selecting the most appropriate study design are whether it is desirable or indeed possible to undertake a formal experimental investigation in which individuals and/or organisations are allocated to an intervention or control arm? Or whether the wish is to obtain a more naturalistic understanding of an issue? The former is ideally studied using a controlled experimental design, whereas the latter is more appropriately studied using a case study design.

Case studies may be approached in different ways depending on the epistemological standpoint of the researcher, that is, whether they take a critical (questioning one's own and others' assumptions), interpretivist (trying to understand individual and shared social meanings) or positivist approach (orientating towards the criteria of natural sciences, such as focusing on generalisability considerations) (Table 6 ). Whilst such a schema can be conceptually helpful, it may be appropriate to draw on more than one approach in any case study, particularly in the context of conducting health services research. Doolin has, for example, noted that in the context of undertaking interpretative case studies, researchers can usefully draw on a critical, reflective perspective which seeks to take into account the wider social and political environment that has shaped the case[ 11 ].

How are case studies conducted?

Here, we focus on the main stages of research activity when planning and undertaking a case study; the crucial stages are: defining the case; selecting the case(s); collecting and analysing the data; interpreting data; and reporting the findings.

Defining the case

Carefully formulated research question(s), informed by the existing literature and a prior appreciation of the theoretical issues and setting(s), are all important in appropriately and succinctly defining the case[ 8 , 12 ]. Crucially, each case should have a pre-defined boundary which clarifies the nature and time period covered by the case study (i.e. its scope, beginning and end), the relevant social group, organisation or geographical area of interest to the investigator, the types of evidence to be collected, and the priorities for data collection and analysis (see Table 7 )[ 1 ]. A theory driven approach to defining the case may help generate knowledge that is potentially transferable to a range of clinical contexts and behaviours; using theory is also likely to result in a more informed appreciation of, for example, how and why interventions have succeeded or failed[ 13 ].

For example, in our evaluation of the introduction of electronic health records in English hospitals (Table 3 ), we defined our cases as the NHS Trusts that were receiving the new technology[ 5 ]. Our focus was on how the technology was being implemented. However, if the primary research interest had been on the social and organisational dimensions of implementation, we might have defined our case differently as a grouping of healthcare professionals (e.g. doctors and/or nurses). The precise beginning and end of the case may however prove difficult to define. Pursuing this same example, when does the process of implementation and adoption of an electronic health record system really begin or end? Such judgements will inevitably be influenced by a range of factors, including the research question, theory of interest, the scope and richness of the gathered data and the resources available to the research team.

Selecting the case(s)

The decision on how to select the case(s) to study is a very important one that merits some reflection. In an intrinsic case study, the case is selected on its own merits[ 8 ]. The case is selected not because it is representative of other cases, but because of its uniqueness, which is of genuine interest to the researchers. This was, for example, the case in our study of the recruitment of minority ethnic participants into asthma research (Table 1 ) as our earlier work had demonstrated the marginalisation of minority ethnic people with asthma, despite evidence of disproportionate asthma morbidity[ 14 , 15 ]. In another example of an intrinsic case study, Hellstrom et al.[ 16 ] studied an elderly married couple living with dementia to explore how dementia had impacted on their understanding of home, their everyday life and their relationships.

For an instrumental case study, selecting a "typical" case can work well[ 8 ]. In contrast to the intrinsic case study, the particular case which is chosen is of less importance than selecting a case that allows the researcher to investigate an issue or phenomenon. For example, in order to gain an understanding of doctors' responses to health policy initiatives, Som undertook an instrumental case study interviewing clinicians who had a range of responsibilities for clinical governance in one NHS acute hospital trust[ 17 ]. Sampling a "deviant" or "atypical" case may however prove even more informative, potentially enabling the researcher to identify causal processes, generate hypotheses and develop theory.

In collective or multiple case studies, a number of cases are carefully selected. This offers the advantage of allowing comparisons to be made across several cases and/or replication. Choosing a "typical" case may enable the findings to be generalised to theory (i.e. analytical generalisation) or to test theory by replicating the findings in a second or even a third case (i.e. replication logic)[ 1 ]. Yin suggests two or three literal replications (i.e. predicting similar results) if the theory is straightforward and five or more if the theory is more subtle. However, critics might argue that selecting 'cases' in this way is insufficiently reflexive and ill-suited to the complexities of contemporary healthcare organisations.

The selected case study site(s) should allow the research team access to the group of individuals, the organisation, the processes or whatever else constitutes the chosen unit of analysis for the study. Access is therefore a central consideration; the researcher needs to come to know the case study site(s) well and to work cooperatively with them. Selected cases need to be not only interesting but also hospitable to the inquiry [ 8 ] if they are to be informative and answer the research question(s). Case study sites may also be pre-selected for the researcher, with decisions being influenced by key stakeholders. For example, our selection of case study sites in the evaluation of the implementation and adoption of electronic health record systems (see Table 3 ) was heavily influenced by NHS Connecting for Health, the government agency that was responsible for overseeing the National Programme for Information Technology (NPfIT)[ 5 ]. This prominent stakeholder had already selected the NHS sites (through a competitive bidding process) to be early adopters of the electronic health record systems and had negotiated contracts that detailed the deployment timelines.

It is also important to consider in advance the likely burden and risks associated with participation for those who (or the site(s) which) comprise the case study. Of particular importance is the obligation for the researcher to think through the ethical implications of the study (e.g. the risk of inadvertently breaching anonymity or confidentiality) and to ensure that potential participants/participating sites are provided with sufficient information to make an informed choice about joining the study. The outcome of providing this information might be that the emotive burden associated with participation, or the organisational disruption associated with supporting the fieldwork, is considered so high that the individuals or sites decide against participation.

In our example of evaluating implementations of electronic health record systems, given the restricted number of early adopter sites available to us, we sought purposively to select a diverse range of implementation cases among those that were available[ 5 ]. We chose a mixture of teaching, non-teaching and Foundation Trust hospitals, and examples of each of the three electronic health record systems procured centrally by the NPfIT. At one recruited site, it quickly became apparent that access was problematic because of competing demands on that organisation. Recognising the importance of full access and co-operative working for generating rich data, the research team decided not to pursue work at that site and instead to focus on other recruited sites.

Collecting the data

In order to develop a thorough understanding of the case, the case study approach usually involves the collection of multiple sources of evidence, using a range of quantitative (e.g. questionnaires, audits and analysis of routinely collected healthcare data) and more commonly qualitative techniques (e.g. interviews, focus groups and observations). The use of multiple sources of data (data triangulation) has been advocated as a way of increasing the internal validity of a study (i.e. the extent to which the method is appropriate to answer the research question)[ 8 , 18 – 21 ]. An underlying assumption is that data collected in different ways should lead to similar conclusions, and approaching the same issue from different angles can help develop a holistic picture of the phenomenon (Table 2 )[ 4 ].

Brazier and colleagues used a mixed-methods case study approach to investigate the impact of a cancer care programme[ 22 ]. Here, quantitative measures were collected with questionnaires before, and five months after, the start of the intervention which did not yield any statistically significant results. Qualitative interviews with patients however helped provide an insight into potentially beneficial process-related aspects of the programme, such as greater, perceived patient involvement in care. The authors reported how this case study approach provided a number of contextual factors likely to influence the effectiveness of the intervention and which were not likely to have been obtained from quantitative methods alone.

In collective or multiple case studies, data collection needs to be flexible enough to allow a detailed description of each individual case to be developed (e.g. the nature of different cancer care programmes), before considering the emerging similarities and differences in cross-case comparisons (e.g. to explore why one programme is more effective than another). It is important that data sources from different cases are, where possible, broadly comparable for this purpose even though they may vary in nature and depth.

Analysing, interpreting and reporting case studies

Making sense and offering a coherent interpretation of the typically disparate sources of data (whether qualitative alone or together with quantitative) is far from straightforward. Repeated reviewing and sorting of the voluminous and detail-rich data are integral to the process of analysis. In collective case studies, it is helpful to analyse data relating to the individual component cases first, before making comparisons across cases. Attention needs to be paid to variations within each case and, where relevant, the relationship between different causes, effects and outcomes[ 23 ]. Data will need to be organised and coded to allow the key issues, both derived from the literature and emerging from the dataset, to be easily retrieved at a later stage. An initial coding frame can help capture these issues and can be applied systematically to the whole dataset with the aid of a qualitative data analysis software package.

The Framework approach is a practical approach, comprising of five stages (familiarisation; identifying a thematic framework; indexing; charting; mapping and interpretation) , to managing and analysing large datasets particularly if time is limited, as was the case in our study of recruitment of South Asians into asthma research (Table 1 )[ 3 , 24 ]. Theoretical frameworks may also play an important role in integrating different sources of data and examining emerging themes. For example, we drew on a socio-technical framework to help explain the connections between different elements - technology; people; and the organisational settings within which they worked - in our study of the introduction of electronic health record systems (Table 3 )[ 5 ]. Our study of patient safety in undergraduate curricula drew on an evaluation-based approach to design and analysis, which emphasised the importance of the academic, organisational and practice contexts through which students learn (Table 4 )[ 6 ].

Case study findings can have implications both for theory development and theory testing. They may establish, strengthen or weaken historical explanations of a case and, in certain circumstances, allow theoretical (as opposed to statistical) generalisation beyond the particular cases studied[ 12 ]. These theoretical lenses should not, however, constitute a strait-jacket and the cases should not be "forced to fit" the particular theoretical framework that is being employed.

When reporting findings, it is important to provide the reader with enough contextual information to understand the processes that were followed and how the conclusions were reached. In a collective case study, researchers may choose to present the findings from individual cases separately before amalgamating across cases. Care must be taken to ensure the anonymity of both case sites and individual participants (if agreed in advance) by allocating appropriate codes or withholding descriptors. In the example given in Table 3 , we decided against providing detailed information on the NHS sites and individual participants in order to avoid the risk of inadvertent disclosure of identities[ 5 , 25 ].

What are the potential pitfalls and how can these be avoided?

The case study approach is, as with all research, not without its limitations. When investigating the formal and informal ways undergraduate students learn about patient safety (Table 4 ), for example, we rapidly accumulated a large quantity of data. The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted on the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources. This highlights a more general point of the importance of avoiding the temptation to collect as much data as possible; adequate time also needs to be set aside for data analysis and interpretation of what are often highly complex datasets.

Case study research has sometimes been criticised for lacking scientific rigour and providing little basis for generalisation (i.e. producing findings that may be transferable to other settings)[ 1 ]. There are several ways to address these concerns, including: the use of theoretical sampling (i.e. drawing on a particular conceptual framework); respondent validation (i.e. participants checking emerging findings and the researcher's interpretation, and providing an opinion as to whether they feel these are accurate); and transparency throughout the research process (see Table 8 )[ 8 , 18 – 21 , 23 , 26 ]. Transparency can be achieved by describing in detail the steps involved in case selection, data collection, the reasons for the particular methods chosen, and the researcher's background and level of involvement (i.e. being explicit about how the researcher has influenced data collection and interpretation). Seeking potential, alternative explanations, and being explicit about how interpretations and conclusions were reached, help readers to judge the trustworthiness of the case study report. Stake provides a critique checklist for a case study report (Table 9 )[ 8 ].

Conclusions

The case study approach allows, amongst other things, critical events, interventions, policy developments and programme-based service reforms to be studied in detail in a real-life context. It should therefore be considered when an experimental design is either inappropriate to answer the research questions posed or impossible to undertake. Considering the frequency with which implementations of innovations are now taking place in healthcare settings and how well the case study approach lends itself to in-depth, complex health service research, we believe this approach should be more widely considered by researchers. Though inherently challenging, the research case study can, if carefully conceptualised and thoughtfully undertaken and reported, yield powerful insights into many important aspects of health and healthcare delivery.

Yin RK: Case study research, design and method. 2009, London: Sage Publications Ltd., 4

Google Scholar  

Keen J, Packwood T: Qualitative research; case study evaluation. BMJ. 1995, 311: 444-446.

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Sheikh A, Halani L, Bhopal R, Netuveli G, Partridge M, Car J, et al: Facilitating the Recruitment of Minority Ethnic People into Research: Qualitative Case Study of South Asians and Asthma. PLoS Med. 2009, 6 (10): 1-11.

Article   Google Scholar  

Pinnock H, Huby G, Powell A, Kielmann T, Price D, Williams S, et al: The process of planning, development and implementation of a General Practitioner with a Special Interest service in Primary Care Organisations in England and Wales: a comparative prospective case study. Report for the National Co-ordinating Centre for NHS Service Delivery and Organisation R&D (NCCSDO). 2008, [ http://www.sdo.nihr.ac.uk/files/project/99-final-report.pdf ]

Robertson A, Cresswell K, Takian A, Petrakaki D, Crowe S, Cornford T, et al: Prospective evaluation of the implementation and adoption of NHS Connecting for Health's national electronic health record in secondary care in England: interim findings. BMJ. 2010, 41: c4564-

Pearson P, Steven A, Howe A, Sheikh A, Ashcroft D, Smith P, the Patient Safety Education Study Group: Learning about patient safety: organisational context and culture in the education of healthcare professionals. J Health Serv Res Policy. 2010, 15: 4-10. 10.1258/jhsrp.2009.009052.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

van Harten WH, Casparie TF, Fisscher OA: The evaluation of the introduction of a quality management system: a process-oriented case study in a large rehabilitation hospital. Health Policy. 2002, 60 (1): 17-37. 10.1016/S0168-8510(01)00187-7.

Stake RE: The art of case study research. 1995, London: Sage Publications Ltd.

Sheikh A, Smeeth L, Ashcroft R: Randomised controlled trials in primary care: scope and application. Br J Gen Pract. 2002, 52 (482): 746-51.

PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

King G, Keohane R, Verba S: Designing Social Inquiry. 1996, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Doolin B: Information technology as disciplinary technology: being critical in interpretative research on information systems. Journal of Information Technology. 1998, 13: 301-311. 10.1057/jit.1998.8.

George AL, Bennett A: Case studies and theory development in the social sciences. 2005, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press

Eccles M, the Improved Clinical Effectiveness through Behavioural Research Group (ICEBeRG): Designing theoretically-informed implementation interventions. Implementation Science. 2006, 1: 1-8. 10.1186/1748-5908-1-1.

Article   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Netuveli G, Hurwitz B, Levy M, Fletcher M, Barnes G, Durham SR, Sheikh A: Ethnic variations in UK asthma frequency, morbidity, and health-service use: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2005, 365 (9456): 312-7.

Sheikh A, Panesar SS, Lasserson T, Netuveli G: Recruitment of ethnic minorities to asthma studies. Thorax. 2004, 59 (7): 634-

CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Hellström I, Nolan M, Lundh U: 'We do things together': A case study of 'couplehood' in dementia. Dementia. 2005, 4: 7-22. 10.1177/1471301205049188.

Som CV: Nothing seems to have changed, nothing seems to be changing and perhaps nothing will change in the NHS: doctors' response to clinical governance. International Journal of Public Sector Management. 2005, 18: 463-477. 10.1108/09513550510608903.

Lincoln Y, Guba E: Naturalistic inquiry. 1985, Newbury Park: Sage Publications

Barbour RS: Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research: a case of the tail wagging the dog?. BMJ. 2001, 322: 1115-1117. 10.1136/bmj.322.7294.1115.

Mays N, Pope C: Qualitative research in health care: Assessing quality in qualitative research. BMJ. 2000, 320: 50-52. 10.1136/bmj.320.7226.50.

Mason J: Qualitative researching. 2002, London: Sage

Brazier A, Cooke K, Moravan V: Using Mixed Methods for Evaluating an Integrative Approach to Cancer Care: A Case Study. Integr Cancer Ther. 2008, 7: 5-17. 10.1177/1534735407313395.

Miles MB, Huberman M: Qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook. 1994, CA: Sage Publications Inc., 2

Pope C, Ziebland S, Mays N: Analysing qualitative data. Qualitative research in health care. BMJ. 2000, 320: 114-116. 10.1136/bmj.320.7227.114.

Cresswell KM, Worth A, Sheikh A: Actor-Network Theory and its role in understanding the implementation of information technology developments in healthcare. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak. 2010, 10 (1): 67-10.1186/1472-6947-10-67.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Malterud K: Qualitative research: standards, challenges, and guidelines. Lancet. 2001, 358: 483-488. 10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05627-6.

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Yin R: Case study research: design and methods. 1994, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing, 2

Yin R: Enhancing the quality of case studies in health services research. Health Serv Res. 1999, 34: 1209-1224.

Green J, Thorogood N: Qualitative methods for health research. 2009, Los Angeles: Sage, 2

Howcroft D, Trauth E: Handbook of Critical Information Systems Research, Theory and Application. 2005, Cheltenham, UK: Northampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar

Book   Google Scholar  

Blakie N: Approaches to Social Enquiry. 1993, Cambridge: Polity Press

Doolin B: Power and resistance in the implementation of a medical management information system. Info Systems J. 2004, 14: 343-362. 10.1111/j.1365-2575.2004.00176.x.

Bloomfield BP, Best A: Management consultants: systems development, power and the translation of problems. Sociological Review. 1992, 40: 533-560.

Shanks G, Parr A: Positivist, single case study research in information systems: A critical analysis. Proceedings of the European Conference on Information Systems. 2003, Naples

Pre-publication history

The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2288/11/100/prepub

Download references

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the participants and colleagues who contributed to the individual case studies that we have drawn on. This work received no direct funding, but it has been informed by projects funded by Asthma UK, the NHS Service Delivery Organisation, NHS Connecting for Health Evaluation Programme, and Patient Safety Research Portfolio. We would also like to thank the expert reviewers for their insightful and constructive feedback. Our thanks are also due to Dr. Allison Worth who commented on an earlier draft of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Division of Primary Care, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

Sarah Crowe & Anthony Avery

Centre for Population Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Kathrin Cresswell, Ann Robertson & Aziz Sheikh

School of Health in Social Science, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sarah Crowe .

Additional information

Competing interests.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

AS conceived this article. SC, KC and AR wrote this paper with GH, AA and AS all commenting on various drafts. SC and AS are guarantors.

Rights and permissions

This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Crowe, S., Cresswell, K., Robertson, A. et al. The case study approach. BMC Med Res Methodol 11 , 100 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Download citation

Received : 29 November 2010

Accepted : 27 June 2011

Published : 27 June 2011

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Case Study Approach
• Electronic Health Record System
• Case Study Design
• Case Study Site
• Case Study Report

BMC Medical Research Methodology

ISSN: 1471-2288

• General enquiries: [email protected]

Case Studies in Strategic Management

How Executive Input Enables Students’ Development

• © 2019
• Gunther Friedl 0 ,
• Andreas Biagosch 1

TUM School of Management, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany

You can also search for this editor in PubMed   Google Scholar

• Merges theoretical knowledge, strategic thinking and specific analysis with practical business decisions
• Presents a new approach to case studies applied at the TUM School of Management
• Includes two case studies that won the international case writing competition at EFMD

Part of the book series: Management for Professionals (MANAGPROF)

8342 Accesses

1 Citations

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this book

• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Other ways to access

Licence this eBook for your library

Institutional subscriptions

Table of contents (4 chapters)

Front matter, case: the renewed case seminar.

• Andreas Biagosch

Supporting Companies and Participating Managers in Case Study Presentations

Case: unu gmbh: sharing is caring—a suitable business model for e-scooter in germany.

• Franziska Beck, Michael Krauß, Frieder Weidenbach

Case: UBS—Acquisition of Commerzbank AG as a Possible Growth Strategy

• Fahrudin Abazi, Philipp Deisler, Michael Eisenlauer

Back Matter

• Case Method
• Executive Education
• Business School
• Commerzbank AG

About this book

Editors and affiliations.

Gunther Friedl, Andreas Biagosch

About the editors

Andreas Biagosch worked for McKinsey & Company for more than 30 years. He is now member of several supervisory boards of large family firms and lectures at the Technical University of Munich.

Gunther Friedl is a Professor of Management Accounting at the Technical University of Munich and Dean of its Business School TUM School of Management.

Strategic Plan Examples: Case Studies and Free Strategic Planning Template

By Anthony Taylor - May 29, 2023

As you prepare for your strategic planning process, it's important to explore relevant strategic plan examples for inspiration.

In today's competitive business landscape, a well-defined strategic plan holds immense significance. Whether you're a private company, municipal government, or nonprofit entity, strategic planning is essential for achieving goals and gaining a competitive edge. By understanding the strategic planning process, you can gain valuable insights to develop an effective growth roadmap for your organization.

In this blog, we will delve into real-life examples of strategic plans that have proven successful. These examples encompass a wide range of organizations, from Credit Unions that have implemented SME Strategy's Aligned Strategy process to the Largest Bank in Israel. By examining these cases, we can gain a deeper understanding of strategic planning and extract relevant insights that can be applied to your organization.

• Strategic Plan Example (Global Financial Services Firm)
• Strategic Plan Example (Joint Strategic Plan)
• Strategic Plan Example: (Government Agency)
• Strategic Plan Example (Multinational Corporation)
• Strategic Plan Example: (Public Company)
• Strategic Plan Example (Non Profit)
• Strategic Plan Example: (Small Nonprofit)
• Strategic Plan example: (Municipal Government)
• Strategic Plan Example: (Environmental Start-up)  

When analyzing strategic plan examples, it is crucial to recognize that a strategic plan goes beyond being a mere document. It should encapsulate your organization's mission and vision comprehensively while also being actionable. Your strategic plan needs to be tailored to your organization's specific circumstances, including factors such as size, industry, budget, and personnel. Simply replicating someone else's plan will not suffice.

Have you ever invested significant time and resources into creating a plan, only to witness its failure during execution? We believe that a successful strategic plan extends beyond being a static document. It necessitates meticulous follow-through, execution, documentation, and continuous learning. It serves as the foundation upon which your future plans are built.

It is important to note that a company's success is not solely determined by the plan itself, but rather by how effectively it is executed. Our intention is to highlight the diverse roles that a company's mission, vision, and values play across different organizations, whether they are large corporations or smaller nonprofits.

Strategic plans can vary in terms of their review cycles, which can range from annual evaluations to multi-year periods. There is no one-size-fits-all example of a strategic plan, as each organization possesses unique needs and circumstances that must be taken into account.

Strategic planning is an essential process for organizations of all sizes and types. It assists in setting a clear direction, defining goals, and effectively allocating resources. To gain an understanding of how strategic plans are crafted, we will explore a range of examples, including those from private companies, nonprofit organizations, and government entities.

Throughout this exploration, we will highlight various frameworks and systems employed by profit-driven and nonprofit organizations alike, providing valuable insights to help you determine the most suitable approach for your own organization.

Watch: Examples of Strategic Plans from Real-Life Organizations 

Strategic Plan Example  - The Bank Hapoalim Vision:  To be a leading global financial services firm, with its core in Israel, focused on its clients and working to enhance their financial freedom.

Bank Hapoalim, one of Israel's largest banks with 8,383 branches across 5 different countries as of 2022, has recently provided insights into its latest strategic plan. The plan highlights four distinct strategic priorities:

• Continued leadership in corporate banking and capital markets
• Adaptation of the retail banking operating model
• Resource optimization and greater productivity
• Differentiating and influential innovation

Check out their strategic plan here: Strategic Plan (2022-2026)

We talked to Tagil Green, the Chief Strategy Officer at Bank Hapoalim, where we delved into various aspects of their strategic planning process. We discussed the bank's strategic planning timeline, the collaborative work they engaged in with McKinsey, and the crucial steps taken to secure buy-in and ensure successful implementation of the strategy throughout the organization. In our conversation, Tagil Green emphasized the understanding that there is no universal template for strategic plans. While many companies typically allocate one, two, or three days for strategic planning meetings during an offsite, Bank Hapoalim recognized the significance of their size and complexity. As a result, their strategic plan took a comprehensive year-long effort to develop. How did a Large Global Organization like Bank Hapoalim decide on what strategic planning timeline to follow?

"How long do you want to plan? Some said, let's think a decade ahead. Some said it's irrelevant. Let's talk about two years ahead. And we kind of negotiated into the like, five years ahead for five years and said, Okay, that's good enough, because some of the complexity and the range depends on the field that you work for. So for banking in Israel, four or five years ahead, is good enough. "  Tagil Green, Chief Strategy Officer, Bank Hapoalim 

Another important aspect you need to consider when doing strategic planning is stakeholder engagement, We asked Tagil her thoughts and how they conducted stakeholder engagement with a large employee base.

Listen to the Full Conversation with Tagil:

Strategic Planning and Execution: Insights from the Chief Strategy Officer of Israel's Leading Bank

Strategic Plan Example: Region 16 and DEED (Joint Strategic Plan)

Mission Statement: We engage state, regional, tribal, school, and community partners to improve the quality and equity of education for each student by providing evidence-based services and supports.

In this strategic plan example, we'll explore how Region 16 and DEED, two government-operated Educational Centers with hundreds of employees, aligned their strategic plans using SME Strategy's approach . Despite facing the challenges brought on by the pandemic, these organizations sought to find common ground and ensure alignment on their mission, vision, and values, regardless of their circumstances.

Both teams adopted the Aligned Strategy method, which involved a three day onsite strategic planning session facilitated by a strategic planning facilitator . Together, they developed a comprehensive 29-page strategic plan outlining three distinct strategic priorities, each with its own objectives and strategic goals. Through critical conversations, they crafted a clear three year vision, defined their core customer group as part of their mission, refined their organizational values and behaviors, and prioritized their areas of focus.

After their offsite facilitation, they aligned around three key areas of focus:

• Effective Communication, both internally and externally.
• Streamlining Processes to enhance efficiency.
• Developing Effective Relationships and Partnerships for mutual success.

By accomplishing their goals within these strategic priorities, the teams from Region 16 and DEED aim to make progress towards their envisioned future.

To read the full review of the aligned strategy process click here

Download Now Starting your strategic planning process soon? Get our free Strategic Planning Template

Strategic Plan Example: (Government Agency) - The City of Duluth Workforce Development Board

What they do:

The Duluth Workforce Development Board identifies and aligns workforce development strategies to meet the needs of Duluth area employers and job seekers through comprehensive and coordinated systems.

An engaged and diverse workforce, where all individuals, regardless of background, have or are on a path to meaningful employment and a family sustaining wage, and all employers are able to fill jobs in demand.

The City of Duluth provides an insightful example of a strategic plan focused on regional coordination to address workforce needs in various industry sectors and occupations. With multiple stakeholders involved, engaging and aligning them becomes crucial. This comprehensive plan, spanning 82 pages, tackles strategic priorities and initiatives at both the state and local levels.

What sets this plan apart is its thorough outline of the implementation process. It covers everything from high-level strategies to specific meetings between different boards and organizations. Emphasizing communication, coordination, and connectivity, the plan ensures the complete execution of its objectives. It promotes regular monthly partner meetings, committee gatherings, and collaboration among diverse groups. The plan also emphasizes the importance of proper documentation and accountability throughout the entire process.

By providing a clear roadmap, the City of Duluth's strategic plan effectively addresses workforce needs while fostering effective stakeholder engagement . It serves as a valuable example of how a comprehensive plan can guide actions, facilitate communication, and ensure accountability for successful implementation.

Read this strategic plan example here: Strategic Plan (2021-2024)

Strategic Plan Example: McDonald's (Multinational Corporation)

McDonald's provides a great strategic plan example specifically designed for private companies. Their "Velocity Growth Plan" covers a span of three years from 2017 to 2020, offering a high-level strategic direction. While the plan doesn't delve into specific implementation details, it focuses on delivering an overview that appeals to investors and aligns the staff. The plan underscores McDonald's commitment to long-term growth and addressing important environmental and societal challenges. It also highlights the CEO's leadership in revitalizing the company and the active oversight provided by the Board of Directors.

The Board of Directors plays a crucial role in actively overseeing McDonald's strategy. They engage in discussions about the Velocity Growth Plan during board meetings, hold annual strategy sessions, and maintain continuous monitoring of the company's operations in response to the ever-changing business landscape.

The McDonald's strategic plan revolved around three core pillars:

• Retention: Strengthening and expanding areas of strength, such as breakfast and family occasions.
• Regain: Focusing on food quality, convenience, and value to win back lost customers.
• Convert: Emphasizing coffee and other snack offerings to attract casual customers.

These pillars guide McDonald's through three initiatives, driving growth and maximizing benefits for customers in the shortest time possible.

Read the strategic plan example of Mcdonlald's Velocity growth plan (2017-2020)

Strategic Plan Example: Nike (Public Company)

Nike's mission statement is “ to bring inspiration and innovation to every athlete in the world .”  

Nike, as a publicly traded company, has developed a robust global growth strategy outlined in its strategic plan. Spanning a five-year period from 2021 to 2025, this plan encompasses 29 strategic targets that reflect Nike's strong commitment to People, Planet, and Pay. Each priority is meticulously defined, accompanied by tangible actions and measurable metrics. This meticulous approach ensures transparency and alignment across the organization.

The strategic plan of Nike establishes clear objectives, including the promotion of pay equity, a focus on education and professional development, and the fostering of business diversity and inclusion. By prioritizing these areas, Nike aims to provide guidance and support to its diverse workforce, fostering an environment that values and empowers its employees.

Read Nike's strategic plan here

Related Content: Strategic Planning Process (What is it?)

The Cost of Developing a Strategic Plan (3 Tiers)

Strategic Plan Example (Non Profit) - Alternatives Federal Credit Union

Mission: To help build and protect wealth for people with diverse identities who have been historically marginalized by the financial industry, especially those with low wealth or identifying as Black, Indigenous, or people of color.

AFCU partnered with SME Strategy in 2021 to develop a three year strategic plan. As a non-profit organization, AFCU recognized the importance of strategic planning to align its team and operational components. The focus was on key elements such as Vision, Mission, Values, Priorities, Goals, and Actions, as well as effective communication, clear responsibilities, and progress tracking.

In line with the Aligned Strategy approach, AFCU developed three strategic priorities to unite its team and drive progress towards their vision for 2024. Alongside strategic planning, AFCU has implemented a comprehensive strategy implementation plan to ensure the effective execution of their strategies.

Here's an overview of AFCU's 2024 Team Vision and strategic priorities: Aligned Team Vision 2024:

To fulfill our mission, enhance efficiency, and establish sustainable community development approaches, our efforts will revolve around the following priorities: Strategic Priorities:

Improving internal communication: Enhancing communication channels and practices within AFCU to foster collaboration and information sharing among team members.

Improving organizational performance: Implementing strategies to enhance AFCU's overall performance, including processes, systems, and resource utilization.

Creating standard operating procedures: Developing standardized procedures and protocols to streamline operations, increase efficiency, and ensure consistency across AFCU's activities.

By focusing on these strategic priorities, AFCU aims to strengthen its capacity to effectively achieve its mission and bring about lasting change in its community. Watch the AFCU case study below:

Watch the Full Strategic Plan Example Case Study with the VP and Chief Strategy Officer of AFCU

Strategic Plan Example: (Small Nonprofit) - The Hunger Project 

Mission: To end hunger and poverty by pioneering sustainable, grassroots, women-centered strategies and advocating for their widespread adoption in countries throughout the world.

The Hunger Project, a small nonprofit organization based in the Netherlands, offers a prime example of a concise and effective three-year strategic plan. This plan encompasses the organization's vision, mission, theory of change, and strategic priorities. Emphasizing simplicity and clarity, The Hunger Project's plan outlines crucial actions and measurements required to achieve its goals. Spanning 16 pages, this comprehensive document enables stakeholders to grasp the organization's direction and intended impact. It centers around three overarching strategic goals, each accompanied by its own set of objectives and indicators: deepening impact, mainstreaming impact, and scaling up operations.

Read their strategic plan here  

Strategic Plan example: (Municipal Government)- New York City Economic Development Plan 

The New York City Economic Development Plan is a comprehensive 5-year strategic plan tailored for a municipal government. Spanning 68 pages, this plan underwent an extensive planning process with input from multiple stakeholders. 

This plan focuses on the unique challenges and opportunities present in the region. Through a SWOT analysis, this plan highlights the organization's problems, the city's strengths, and the opportunities and threats it has identified. These include New York's diverse population, significant wealth disparities, and high demand for public infrastructure and services.

The strategic plan was designed to provide a holistic overview that encompasses the interests of a diverse and large group of business, labor, and community leaders. It aimed to identify the shared values that united its five boroughs and define how local objectives align with the interests of greater New York State. The result was a unified vision for the future of New York City, accompanied by a clear set of actions required to achieve shared goals.

Because of its diverse stakeholder list including; council members, local government officials, and elected representatives, with significant input from the public, their strategic plan took 4 months to develop. 

Read it's 5 year strategic plan example here

Strategic Plan Example: Silicon Valley Clean Energy

Silicon Valley Clean Energy provides a strategic plan that prioritizes visual appeal and simplicity. Despite being in its second year of operation, this strategic plan example effectively conveys the organization's mission and values to its Board of Directors. The company also conducts thorough analyses of the electric utility industry and anticipates major challenges in the coming years. Additionally, it highlights various social initiatives aimed at promoting community, environmental, and economic benefits that align with customer expectations.

"This plan recognizes the goals we intend to accomplish and highlights strategies and tactics we will employ to achieve these goals. The purpose of this plan is to ensure transparency in our operations and to provide a clear direction to staff about which strategies and tactics we will employ to achieve our goals. It is a living document that can guide our work with clarity and yet has the flexibility to respond to changing environments as we embark on this journey." Girish Balachandran CEO, Silicon Valley Clean Energy

This strategic plan example offers flexibility in terms of timeline. It lays out strategic initiatives for both a three-year and five-year period, extending all the way to 2030. The plan places emphasis on specific steps and targets to be accomplished between 2021 and 2025, followed by goals for the subsequent period of 2025 to 2030. While this plan doesn't go into exhaustive detail about implementation steps, meeting schedules, or monitoring mechanisms, it effectively communicates the organization's priorities and desired long term outcomes. Read its strategic plan example here

By studying these strategic plan examples, you can create a strategic plan that aligns with your organization's goals, communicates effectively, and guides decision-making and resource allocation. Strategic planning approaches differ among various types of organizations.

Private Companies: Private companies like McDonald's and Nike approach strategic planning differently from public companies due to competitive market dynamics. McDonald's provides a high-level overview of its strategic plan in its investor overview.

Nonprofit Organizations: Nonprofit organizations, like The Hunger Project, develop strategic plans tailored to their unique missions and stakeholders. The Hunger Project's plan presents a simple yet effective structure with a clear vision, mission, theory of change, strategic priorities, and action items with measurable outcomes.

Government Entities: Government entities, such as the New York City Development Board, often produce longer, comprehensive strategic plans to guide regional or state development. These plans include implementation plans, stakeholder engagement, performance measures, and priority projects.

When creating a strategic plan for your organization, consider the following key points:

Strategic Priorities: Define clear strategic priorities that are easy to communicate and understand.

Stakeholder Engagement: Ensure your plan addresses the needs and interests of your stakeholders.

Measurements: Include relevant measurements and KPIs, primarily for internal use, to track, monitor and report your progress effectively.

Conciseness vs. Thoroughness: Adapt the level of detail in your plan based on the size of your organization and the number of stakeholders involved.

By learning from these examples, you can see that developing a strategic plan should be a process that fits your organization, effectively communicates your goals, and provides guidance for decision-making and resource allocation. Remember that strategic planning is an ongoing process that requires regular review and adjustment to stay relevant and effective.

Need assistance in maximizing the impact of your strategic planning? Learn how our facilitators can lead you through a proven process, ensuring effectiveness, maintaining focus, and fostering team alignment.

Our readers' favourite posts

Subscribe to our bi-weekly newsletter: leaders digest, quick links.

• Podcast (Spotify)
• Speaker & Media
• Alignment Book
• Privacy Policy

Free Resources

• Strategic planning session agenda (Sample)
• Strategic plan template
• How to create a strategic plan (Start here)
• Weekly Strategy Tips
• Non profit program

Products and Services

• Strategic Planning Facilitator
• Strategy Implementation Consulting
• Strategic Planning Course
• 1-855-895-5446

Copyright © 2011-2023 SME Strategy Consulting | Strategic Planning Facilitator + Strategy Implementation Consulting. All rights reserved.

Get full access to Case Studies in Strategic Management and 60K+ other titles, with a free 10-day trial of O'Reilly.

There are also live events, courses curated by job role, and more.

Case Studies in Strategic Management

Read it now on the O’Reilly learning platform with a 10-day free trial.

O’Reilly members get unlimited access to books, live events, courses curated by job role, and more from O’Reilly and nearly 200 top publishers.

Book description

Through handpicked cases from a variety of areas and business houses, this book illustrates how strategic management can be used to achieve better operational performance and strengthen their services by aligning business goals with performance measures.

Table of contents

• Copyright (1/2)
• Copyright (2/2)
• ONLINE WEB RESOURCES
• ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
• BSC PERSPECTIVES
• BSC APPROACH TO BUSINESS VALUE DELIVERY
• FRAMEWORK FOR DESIGNING MIS
• FURTHER READINGS
• INTRODUCTION
• RMRB INTERNATIONAL’S DIVISIONS
• SECTORS RESEARCHED BY RMRB
• SERVICES OFFERED BY RMRB
• SYNDICATED OFFERS
• PARENT COMPANY
• KANTAR GROUP
• RMRB INTERNATIONAL’S DIVISION: SRRI
• INFORMATION SECURITY
• DERIVATION OF OPERATIONAL STRATEGY
• DESIGN OF MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS)
• MIS FOR THE RESEARCH DEPARTMENT
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• COMPANY PROFILE
• HOLDING STRUCTURE
• BUSINESS DIVISIONS
• INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
• BUSINESS STRATEGY
• UNDERSTANDING THE TERM MERGER AND ACQUISITION (M&A)
• M&AS: A BUSINESS STRATEGY
• SOME ISSUES IN M&As
• MANAGING THE CHANGE DURING INTEGRATION
• STAGES IN M&A INTEGRATION
• BUSINESS PROCESS
• MAJOR STAKEHOLDERS
• MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS) FOR INTEGRATION
• OBJECTIVES OF A MIS
• PRE-INTEGRATION STRATEGIC INFORMATION SYSTEM
• STRATEGIC INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR PROCESS INTEGRATION
• ARCHITECTURE FOR STRATEGIC INFORMATION FLOW
• BALANCED SCORECARD FOR M&A
• BUSINESS LOGIC
• MEASUREMENT OF KEY PARAMETERS
• A SAMPLE MIS REPORT
• BUSINESS BENEFITS OF MIS
• ECONOMIC BENEFIT PROJECTION
• BIBLIOGRAPHY
• INTRODUCTION TO TATA CHEMICALS
• GROWTH WITH RESPONSIBILITY
• ENRICHING LIFE
• FERTLIZER SECTOR OF TCL
• INDIAN AGRICULTURE AT A GLANCE
• TATA FERTILIZER
• STATERGIES ADOPTED FOR FERTILIZER BUSINESS
• INFORMATION FLOW FOR MARKETING OF FERTILIZERS BY TATA CHEMICALS
• COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR TECHNOLOGY INVESTMENT
• COMPETITION ANALYSIS
• SWOT ANALYSIS
• HISTORY OF MONSANTO
• ORGANOGRAM OF MONSANTO
• STAKEHOLDERS OF MONSANTO—A BRIEF REVIEW
• STRENGTHS, WEAKNESSES, OPPORTUNITIES AND THREATS (SWOT) ANALYSIS
• ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING (ERP) TAKES ROOT
• FUNCTIONAL INTEGRATION
• INFORMATION SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
• MONSANTO’s BUSINESS STRATEGY
• OPERATIONAL STRATEGY
• DEVELOPING R&D METRICS USING THE BALANCED SCORECARD APPROACH
• STRATEGY TREE
• THE BENEFITS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM (IS) ENABLED MANAGEMENT TRANSFORMATION
• FUNCTIONAL BENEFITS OF FUNCTIONAL INTEGRATION
• COST–BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF FUNCTIONAL INTEGRATION
• EVALUATION OF TANGIBLES
• MODEL FOR EVALUATION OF INTANGIBLES
• SAMPLE ITEMS FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION SURVEY
• CBA (TANGIBLES AND INTANGIBLES)
• RECOMMENDATIONS
• WHAT IS EVA?
• EVA COMPUTATION
• INTRODUCTION TO DCM SHRIRAM CONSOLIDATED LIMITED (DSCL)
• HISTORICAL MILESTONES
• DSCL'S BOARD OF DIRECTORS
• CORPORATE VISION OF DSCL
• MISSION STATEMENT OF DSCL
• DSCL AGRIBUSINESS
• STAKEHOLDERS OF DSCL AND THEIR OBJECTIVES
• BUSINESS OBJECTIVES OF DSCL
• BALANCED SCORECARD AND THE DERIVATION OF OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
• ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• PERIODICITY AND ROLE OF THE ACTIVITIES DESIGNED IN THE INFORMATION SYSTEM
• SAMPLE STATUS REPORT
• INTRODUCTION TO AGRIBUSINESS AND MICROFINANCE
• COMPANY PROFILE OF HDFC
• BUSINESS SEGMENTS OF HDFC
• MISSION AND STRATEGY OF HDFC
• ORGANIZATIONAL HIERARCHY OF HDFC
• AGRIBUSINESS AND MICROFINANCE BUSINESS
• KISAN GOLD CARD (KGC)
• IT AND MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS) IN HDFC BANK
• BUSINESS SOLUTIONS
• INTEGRATED INFORMATION SYSTEM
• TEMPLATE OF BALANCE SCORECARD
• RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND THE FUTURE
• INSURANCE: AN INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
• ICICI LOMBARD: COMPANY OVERVIEW
• OBJECTIVES OF STAKEHOLDERS
• SERVICES OFFERED BY ICICI LOMBARD
• CHANNELS USED TO TAP CUSTOMERS
• ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
• CORPORATE STRATEGY OF ICICI LOMBARD
• BALANCED SCORECARD
• BENEFITS OF MIS
• INDIAN LIFE INSURANCE INDUSTRY
• RELIANCE LIFE INSURANCE (RLI)
• VISION, MISSION AND GOALS
• STAKEHOLDERS AND THEIR OBJECTIVES
• STAGE OF THE ORGANIZATION
• PRODUCTS OFFERED BY RLI
• ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FACED BY RLI
• OPERATIONS STRATEGY OF RLI
• STEPS INVOLVED IN THE PREPARATION OF A BALANCED SCORECARD
• USE OF INFORMATION SYSTEM IN INSURANCE INDUSTRY
• FUNCTIONAL AREAS
• SOFTWARE TOOLS USED IN RLI
• REDRESS PERCENTAGE
• PERCENTAGE CONTRIBUTION OF NEW OFFERINGS
• PERCENTAGE OF ACTIVE ADVISORS
• AVERAGE NUMBER OF PRODUCTS SOLD PER ADVISOR
• FREQUENCY OF NUMBER OF CALLS LOGGED
• AVERAGE TURNAROUND TIME (TAT)
• SAMPLE MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS) REPORT
• COST–BENEFIT ANALYSIS
• VISION OF A FIRM
• VISION OF PANTALOONS
• MISSION STATEMENT OF A FIRM
• MISSION STATEMENT OF PANTALOONS
• CORE VALUES AND BELIEFS OF PANTALOONS
• STAKEHOLDERS OF PANTALOONS AND THEIR OBJECTIVES
• BUSINESS MODEL FOR PANTALOONS
• BUSINESS OBJECTIVES OF PANTALOONS
• STEPS TO IMPLEMENT THE BALANCED SCORECARD TO DRIVE PERFORMANCE
• DERIVATION OF OBJECTIVES USING BALANCED SCORECARD FOR PANTALOONS
• MIS TOOLS USED IN PANTALOONS
• DISCUSSIONS AND FINDINGS
• RPG: BACKGROUND
• CURRENT SITUATION
• COMPANY OVERVIEW
• VISION OF THE COMPANY
• MISSION OF THE COMPANY
• VALUES OF THE COMPANY
• OBJECTIVES OF RPG
• CORPORATE STRATEGY
• IT STRATEGY
• CALCULATING THE ROI
• MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS) IMPLEMENTATION
• INDUSTRY ANALYSIS
• ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
• STRATEGY OF TATA SKY
• PARAMETERS FOR BENCHMARKING
• DISTRIBUTION NETWORK
• FACTORS AFFECTING THE IT STRATEGY OF TATA SKY
• IT STRATEGY FOR TATA SKY
• ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF CHIEF INFORMATION OFFICER (CIO)
• ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE
• IMPLEMENTATION
• IMPLEMENTATION APPROACH
• BUSINESS INTELLIGENCE
• ARCHITECHTURE
• A COMPONENT-BASED ARCHITECHTURE
• BUSINESS ANALYTICS
• RISK MANAGEMENT
• TECHNOLOGY IN THE INDIAN BANKING INDUSTRY
• ICICI BANK COMPANY OVERVIEW
• CORPORATE STRATEGY OF ICICI BANK DERIVED FROM SWOT ANALYSIS
• STAKEHOLDERS OF ICICI BANK
• CORPORATE STRATEGY TO ADDRESS STAKEHOLDER PERSPECTIVES
• ROLE OF CHIEF INFORMATION OFFICER (CIO)
• IMPLEMENTATION OF MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS)
• PROPOSED BI SYSTEMS FOR ICICI
• BI TOOLS USED IN ICICI BANK
• BUSINESS INFORMATION STRATEGY (BIS)
• RISK MANAGEMENT AND IT SECURITY
• RISK ASSESMENT AND SECURITY SYSTEMS USED BY ICICI
• TECHNOLOGY AND SYSTEMS THAT ARE SECURED AT ICICI
• BUSINESS CONTINUITY PLAN (BCP) AND DISASTER RECOVERY IN ICICI
• RISK MANAGEMENT SOLUTION ARCHITECTURE
• HARDWARE AND NETWORK AT ICICI
• IT-ENABLED SERVICES
• CURRENT SYSTEMS IN PLACE
• WAY FORWARD

Product information

• Title: Case Studies in Strategic Management
• Author(s): Sanjay Mohapatra
• Release date: June 2011
• Publisher(s): Pearson India
• ISBN: 9788131759844

You might also like

Case studies in strategic planning.

by Hakan Butuner

Case Studies in Strategic Planning shows you how to do systematic strategic planning in real-life cases, …

Case Studies on Marketing Management

by Ramendra Singh

Case Studies in Marketing Management presents case studies that are carefully mapped to the Indian market …

Strategic Business Management

by Gary Cokins

Presenting core theories alongside practical applications, this publication will help students understand how to effectively move …

Case Studies in Management, 1st Edition by Pearson

by J.A. Kulkarni

A collage of case studies for prospective managers that emphasizes on problem solving, decision-making and effective …

Don’t leave empty-handed

Get Mark Richards’s Software Architecture Patterns ebook to better understand how to design components—and how they should interact.

It’s yours, free.

Check it out now on O’Reilly

Dive in for free with a 10-day trial of the O’Reilly learning platform—then explore all the other resources our members count on to build skills and solve problems every day.

Internationalisation Strategy and Management Accounting and Control Systems: A Network Approach

Article sidebar, main article content.

Internationalisation has become crucial to economic development, especially for companies that are more technological and scientific. These companies arouse curiosity, as they quickly begin their internationalisation process (IP), adopting the Born Global model shortly after its creation. It has also been noted that, when they seek to benefit from mutual flexibility, the opportunity to use technical and economic knowledge, and even the collective assumption of costs and risks, it is common for them to resort to the internationalisation model based on Network Theory. Considering that internationalisation is part of the company’s growth strategy, and that this may require an adjustment of the information structure, namely the Management Accounting and Control System (MACS), it becomes relevant to understand how IP affects MACS. In this way, our study aims to respond to how MACS adjusts to Born Global internationalisation model (BGIM) and Network Model of Internationalisation (NMI) for a successful internationalisation strategy? In this study, we evaluate how MACS is adjusted in order to become a tool capable of collecting and processing the set of useful information necessary for the implementation of the internationalisation strategy. We conducted a single case study in a Portuguese health-sector company. Our results show that MACS needs to be adjusted to facilitate the implementation of IP.

Article Details

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

Agbejule, A. (2006). How task uncertainty and diagnostic use of MAS determine the relationship between interactive use of MAS and organizational performance. Paper presented at the AAA 2007 Management Accounting Section (MAS) Meeting, July. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.920644

Ahlstrom, D., & Ding, Z. (2014). Entrepreneurship in China: An overview. International Small Business Journal, 32(6), 610–618. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242613517913

Ahrens, T., & Chapman C. S. (2004). Accounting for flexibility and efficiency: A field study of management control systems in a restaurant chain. Contemporary Accounting Research, 21(2), 271–301.

Aldibiki, A., & El Ebrashi, R. (2023). The role of networks and capabilities in the internationalization of SMEs in North Africa: The case of Egyptian SMEs. Thunderbird International Business Review, 65(6), 581–597. https://doi.org/10.1002/tie.22347

Al-Tabbaa, O., & Zahoor, N. (2023). Alliance management capability and SMEs’ international expansion: The role of innovation pathways. Journal of Business Research, 171(2024), 114384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.114384

Andersson, S., & Sundermeier, J. (2019). Firms’ use of organizational, personal, and intermediary networks to gain access to resources for internationalization. Thunderbird International Business Review, 61, 609–621. https://doi.org/10.1002/tie.22043

Anthony, R., & Govindarajan, V. (2007). Management control systems. Chicago: Mc-Graw-Hill/IRWIN.

Araujo, P., Sánchez, J. M., Vélez, M., & Álvarez-Dardet, C. (2011). Sistemas de control para la gestión de los canales de exportación independientes: Un análisis exploratorio sobre su diseño y uso [Control systems to manage independent export channels: An exploratory analysis about their design and use]. Revista de Contabilidad – Spanish Accounting Review, 14(2), 115–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1138-4891(11)70030-9

Asiaei, K., Jusoh, R., & Bontis, N. (2018). Intellectual capital and performance measurement systems in Iran. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 19, 294–320. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIC-11-2016-0125

Axelsson, B., & Easton, G. (Eds.) (1992). Industrial networks: A new view of reality. Routledge.

Bachmann, R. (1999). Trust, power, and control in trans-organizational relations. Working Paper 129/1999, ESRC Centre for Business Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge.

Barbosa, R., Azevedo, A., & Boaventura, J. (2016). Redes de Negócios: Um estudo sobre os pilares teóricos e níveis de análise nas publicações internacionais [Business Networks: A study on the theoretical pillars and levels of analysis in international publications]. Paper presented at XIX SIMPOI Simpósio de Administração da

Produção Logística e Operações Internacionais [Symposium on Administration of Logistics Production and International Operations], São Paulo, Brazil.

Bedford, D., & Sandelin, M. (2015). Investigating management control configurations using qualitative comparative analysis: An overview and guidelines for application. Journal Management Control, 26, 5–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00187-015-0204-3

Bell, J. (1995). The internationalization of small computer software firms: A further challenge to “stage” theories. European Journal of Marketing, 29(8), 60–75. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090560410548951

Bell, J., Mcnaughton, R., Young, S., & Crick, D. (2003). Towards an integrative model of small firm internationalisation. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 1(4), 339–362. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025629424041

Belso-Martínez J. A. (2006). Why are some Spanish manufacturing firms internationalizing rapidly? The role of business and institutional international networks. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 18(3), 207–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985620600565409

Bhimani A., Langfield-Smith, K. (2007). Structure, formality and the importance of financial and non-financial information in strategy development and implementation. Management Accounting Research, 18(1), 3–31.

Biernacki, P., & Waldorf, D. (1981) Snowball sampling-problems and techniques of chain referral sampling. Sociological Methods and Research, 10(2), 141–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/004912418101000205

Bisbe, J., & Malagueño, R. (2015). How control systems influence product innovation processes: Examining the role of entrepreneurial orientation. Accounting and Business Research, 45(3), 356–386. https://doi.org/10.1080/00014788.2015.1009870

Bisbe, J., & Malagueño, R. (2012). Using strategic performance measurement systems for strategy formulation: Does it work in dynamic environments? Management Accounting Research, 23, 296– 311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2012.05.002

Bisbe, J., & Otley, D. (2004). The effects of the interactive use of management control systems on product innovation. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 29(8), 709–737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aos.2003.10.010

Biswas, S. S. N., & Akroyd, C. (2022). Management control systems and the strategic management of innovation. Qualitative Research in Accounting and Management, 19(5), 513–539. https://doi.org/10.1108/QRAM-04-2021-0083

Bolivar L. M., Casanueva C., & Abancéns C. I. (2023). International alliance networks, expansion modes and coopetition. Multinational Business Review, 31(2), 197–219. https://doi.org/10.1108/MBR-06-2022-0091

Bonaccorsi, A. (1992). On the relationship between firm size and export intensity. Journal of International Business Studies, 23(4), 605–636. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490280

Bouwens, J., & Abernethy, M. A. (2000). The consequences of customization on management accounting system design. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 25(3), 221–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0361-3682(99)00043-4

Braunerhjelm, P., & Halldin, T. (2019). Born Globals: Presence, performance and prospects. International Business Review, 28(1), 60–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2018.07.004

Burns, J., Ezzamel, M., & Scapens, R. W. (2003). The challenge of management accounting change: Behavioural and cultural aspects of change management. Elsevier. Retrieved 4 December 2020 from http://library.dundee.ac.uk/

F/?func=direct&local_base=DUN01&doc_number=000101563

Burns, J., Quinn, M., Warren, L., & Oliveira, J. (2013). Management accounting. McGraw-Hill Education,

Carr, C., Kolehmainen K., & Mitchell, F. (2010). Strategic investment decision making practices: A contextual approach. Management Accounting Research, 21, 167–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2010.03.004

Chandler, A. (1962). Strategy and structure: Chapters in the history of the industrial enterprise. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Chandra, Y., & Wilkinson, I. F. (2017). Firm internationalization from a network-centric complex-systems perspective. Journal of World Business, 52(5), 691–701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2017.06.001

Chenhall, R. (2003). Management control systems design within its organizational context: Findings from contingency-based research and directions for the future. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 28(2–3), 127–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0361-3682(01)00027-7

Chenhall, R. (2005). Integrative strategic performance measurement systems, strategic alignment of manufacturing, learning and strategic outcomes: An exploratory study. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 30(5), 395–422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aos.2004.08.001

Chenhall, R. (2007). Theorizing contingencies in management control systems research. In C. S. Chapman, A. G. Hopwood, & M. D. Shields (Eds.), Handbook of management accounting research (vol 1, pp. 163–205). Oxford: Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1751-3243(06)01006-6

Chenhall, R. H., & Morris, D. (1986). The impact of structure, environment, and interdependence on the perceived usefulness of management accounting systems. The Accounting Review, 61(1), 16–35.

Chetty, S., & Campbell-Hunt, C. (2004). A strategic approach to internationalization: A traditional versus a ‘’born-global’’ approach”. Journal of International Marketing, 12, 57–81. https://doi.org/10.1509/jimk.12.1.57.25651

Chia, Y. M. (1995). Decentralization, management accounting system (MAS) information characteristics and their interaction effects on managerial performance: A Singapore study. Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, 22(6), 811–830. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5957.1995.tb00390.x

Ciravegna, L., Majano, S. B., & Zhan, G. (2014). The inception of internationalization of small and medium enterprises: The role of activeness and networks. Journal of Business Research 67(6), 1081–1089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.06.002

Clarinha, B., Cunha, D., Sá, F., & Moreira, A. C. (2023). Internationalization strategies: Circumventing the liability of newness – a case study of irregular internationalization paths. In A. J. De Moraes (Ed.), Strategic management and international business policies for maintaining competitive advantage (pp. 12–33). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-6845-6.ch002

Coller, G., Frigoto, M. L., & Costa, E. (2018). Management control system and strategy: The transforming role of implementation. Journal of Applied Accounting Research, 19(1), 141–160. https://doi.org/10.1108/JAAR-01-2016-0002

Connell, J. (2013). Contemporary medical tourism: Conceptualisation, culture, and commodification. Tourism Management, 34, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.05.009

Coviello, N. (2006). The network dynamics of international new ventures. Journal of International Business Studies, 37(5), 713-731.

Coviello, N., & Munro H. (1997). Network relationships and the internationalisation process of small software firms. International Business Review, 6(4), 361–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-5931(97)00010-3

Cumming, D., Filatotchev, I., Knill, A., Reeb, D. M. & Senbet, L. (2017). Law, finance, and the international mobility of corporate governance. Journal of International Business Studies, 48, 123–147. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41267-016-0063-7

Dana, L, & Dumez, H. (2015). Qualitative research revisited: Epistemology of a comprehensive approach. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 26(2), 154–170.

Davila, A., Derchi, G-B, Oyon, D., & Schnegg, M. (2023). External complexity and the design of management control systems: A case study. Management Accounting Research [in press, corrected proof]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2023.100875

Davila, A., & Ditillo, A. (2017). Management control systems for creative teams: Managing stylistic creativity in fashion companies. Journal of Management Accounting Research, 29, 27–47. https://doi.org/10.2308/jmar-51806

Davila, A., & Foster, G. (2007). Management control systems in early-stage startup companies. The Accounting Review, 82(4),907–937. https://doi.org/10.2308/accr.2007.82.4.907

DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review 48(2), 147–160. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101

Dzikowski, P. (2018). A bibliometric analysis of born global firms. Journal of Business Research, 85, 281–294.

Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management Review, 14(4), 532–550. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1989.4308385

Florez, R., Ramon, J. M., Velez, M., Alvarez-Dardet, C., Araujo, P., & Sanchez, J. M. (2012). The role of management control systems on inter-organisational efficiency: An analysis of export performance. Studies in Managerial and Financial Accounting, 25, 195–222. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479-3512(2012)0000025011

Freeman, S., & Cavusgil, S. T. (2007). Toward a typology of commitment states among managers of born global firms: A study of accelerated internationalization. Journal of International Marketing, 15(4), 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1509/jimk.15.4.1

Frigotto, L. M., Coller, G., & Collin P. (2013). The strategy and management control systems relationship as emerging dynamic process. Journal of Management & Governance, 17(3), 631–656. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10997-011-9198-x

Gabrielsson, M., & Kirpalani, V. (2004). Born Globals: How to reach new business space rapidly. International Business Review, 13(5), 555–571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2004.03.005

Gomez-Conde, J., Malagueño, R., Lopez-Valeiras, E., Rosa, F., & Lunkes, R. (2020). The effect of management control systems in managing the unknown: Does the market appreciate the breadth of vision? SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3675688

Gomez-Conde, J., & Lopez-Valeiras, E. (2018). The dual role of management accounting and control systems in exports: Drivers and payoffs. Spanish Journal of Finance and Accounting, 47(3), 307–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/02102412.2017.1346914

Gomez-Conde, J., Lopez-Valeiras E., Ripoll-Feliú,V. M., & Gonzalez-Sanches, M. B. (2013). El efecto mediador y moderador de la internacionalizacion en la relacion entre los sistemas de control de géstion y el compromiso com la innovación [The mediator and moderator effects of internationalization on the relationship between management control systems and commitment to innovation]. Revista de Contabilidad, 16(1), 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1138-4891(13)70006-2

Gulati, R., Nohira, N., & Zaheer, A. (2000). Strategic networks. Strategic Management Journal, 21, 203–215. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(200003)21:3 <203::AID-SMJ102>3.0.CO;2-K

Hadley, R. D., & Wilson, H. I. M. (2003). The network model of internationalization and experiential knowledge. International Business Review, 12, 697–717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2003.01.001

Hallén, L., Johanson J., & Seyed-Mohamed, N. (1991). Interfirm adaptations in business relationships. Journal of Marketing, 55(2), 29–37. https://doi.org/10.2307/1252235

Henderson, A. D., & Graebner, M. E. (2020). Entering a golden age of sustained superiority: Entrepreneurial creation or discovery. Organization Science, 31, 1432–1451. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2020.1357

Henri, J. (2006). Management control systems and strategy: A resource-based perspective. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 31(6), 529–558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aos.2005.07.001

Hertz, S. (1996). The dynamics of international strategic alliances. International Studies of Management and Organizations, 26(2), 104–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/00208825.1996.11656683

Igor K., & Cipriano, F. (2012). Rapid internationalization of traditional SMEs: Between gradualist models and born globals. International Business Review, 21(4), 694–707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2011.08.002

Ismail, T. (2013). Formatting strategy and management control system: Evidence from Indonesia. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 4(1), 196–205. Retrieved 4 December 2020 from https://ijbssnet.com/journals/Vol_4_No_1_January_2013/22.pdf

Johanson, J., & Mattsson, L-G. (1988). Internationalisation in industrial systems: A network approach. In N. Hood, & J-E. Vahlne (Eds.), Strategies in global competition (pp. 287–314). New York: Croom Helm Publisher.

Johanson, J., & Vahlne, J-E. (2009). The Uppsala internationalization process model revisited: From liability of foreignness to liability of outsidership. Journal of International Business Studies, 40, 1411–1431. https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2009.24

Kaufmann, F. (1994). Internationalisation via Co-operation: Strategies for SME. International Small Business Journal, 13(2), 27–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242695132002

Knight, G. (1997). Emerging paradigm for international marketing: The born global firm [doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University].

Knight, G., & Cavusgil, S. (1996). The Born Globals firm: A challenge to traditional internationalization theory. Advances in International Marketing, 8, 11–26.

Knight, G., & Cavusgil, S. (2004). Innovation, organizational capabilities, and the born global firm. Journal of International Business Studies, 35(2), 124–141. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400071

Kontinen, T. &, Ojala, A. (2010). The internationalization of family businesses: A review of extant research. Journal of Family Business Strategy, 1, 97–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfbs.2010.04.001

Kronen, J. (1995). IT-enabled cooperations: A resource-based approach. Paper presented at the European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS), Institute for Information Management, University of St. Gallen.

Kruis, A. M., Speklé, R. F., & Widener, S. K. (2016). The levers of control framework: An exploratory analysis of balance. Management Accounting Research, 32, 27–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2015.12.002

Kuivalainen, O., Saarenketo, S., & Puumalainen, K. (2012). Start-up patterns of internationalisation: A framework and its application in the context of knowledge intensive SMEs. European Management Journal, 30(4), 72–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2012.01.001

Kyriakou, M., & Tsogas, M. (2022). International expansion alternatives: A modeling approach. In J. Allen, B. Jochims, & S. Wu. (Eds.). Celebrating the past and future of marketing and discovery with social impact. AMSAC-WC 2021. Developments in Marketing Science: Proceedings of the Academy of Marketing Science. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95346-1_103

Langfield-Smith, K. (2007). A review of quantitative research in management control systems and strategy. In C. S. Chapman, A. G. Hopwood, & M. D. Shields (Eds.). Handbook of management accounting research (pp. 753–783). Oxford: Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1751-3243(06)02012-8

Leppäaho T., Chetty S., & Dimitratos, P. (2018). Network embeddedness in the internationalization of biotechnology entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 30(5–6), 562–584. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2017.1408697

Lin, Y.-H., Chen, C.-J., & Lin, B.-W. (2017). The influence of strategic control and operational control on new venture performance. Management Decision, 55(5), 1042–1064. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-07-2015-0324

Lueg, R., & Borisov, B. G. (2014). Archival or perceived measures of environmental uncertainty? Conceptualization and new empirical evidence. European Management Journal, 32, 658–671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2013.11.004

Major, M., Pinto, J., & Vicente, C. (2010). Estudo da Mudança nas Práticas de Controlo de Gestão em Portugal [Study of the change in management control practices in Portugal.]. Portuguese Journal of Accounting and Management, Revista Cientifica da Ordem dos Técnicos Oficiais de Contas, 10(1), 9–42. Retrieved 4 December 2020 from https://repositorio.iscte-iul.pt/bitstream/10071/14207/1/Estudo%20da%20Mudan%C3%A7a%20nas%20Pr%C3%A1ticas%20de%20Controlo%20de%20Gest%C3%A3o%20em%20Portugal.pdf

Malmi, T., & Brown, D. (2008). Management control systems as a package: Opportunities, challenges and research directions. Management Accounting Research, 19(14), 287–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2008.09.003

McAuley, A. (2010). Looking back, going forward: Reflecting on research into the SME internationalisation process. Journal of Research in Marketing Entrepreneurship, 12(1), 21–41. https://doi.org/10.1108/14715201011060858

Moen, O., & Servais, P. (2002). Born global or gradual global? Examining the export behavior of small and medium-sized enterprises. Journal of International Marketing, 10(3), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.3846/16111699.2014.994558

Moores, K., & Yuen, S. (2001). Management accounting systems and organizational configuration: A lifecycle perspective. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 26(4-5), 351–389.

Naranjo-Gil, D. (2016). Role of management control systems in crafting realized strategies. Journal of Business Economics and Management, 17(6), 865–881. https://doi.org/10.3846/16111699.2014.994558

Naranjo-Gil, D., & Hartmann, F. (2006). How top management teams use management accounting systems to implement strategy. Journal of Management Accounting Research, 18(1), 21–53.

Novas, J., Alves, M., & Sousa, A. (2017). The role of management accounting systems in the development of intellectual capital. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 18(2), 286–315. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIC-08-2016-0079

Novas, J., Sousa, A., & Alves, M. (2012). On the relations between management accounting systems and intellectual capital. Evidence for Portuguese companies. CEFAGE-UE Working Papers 2012_13, University of Evora, CEFAGE-UE, Portugal.

Oviatt, B., & McDougall, P. (1994). Toward a theory of international new ventures. Journal of International Business Studies, 25(1), 45–64. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490193

Oviatt, B., & McDougall, P. (1997). Challenges for internationalization process theory: The case of international new ventures. Management International Review, 37, 85–99. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40228434

Oviatt, B., & McDougall, P. (2005). Toward a theory of international new ventures. Journal of International Business Studies, 36, 29–41. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400128

Persinger, E., Civi, E., & Vostina, S. (2007). The born global entrepreneur. Emerging Economies. International Business and Economics Research Journal, 6(13), 73–82. https://doi.org/10.19030/iber.v6i3.3355

Pinto J. C., & Rua O. L. (2023). Incubators’ practices influence in the born global startup’s internationalization process. Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, 9, 100134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joitmc.2023.100134

Puck, J., & Filatotchev, I. (2020). Finance and the multinational company: Building bridges between finance and global strategy research. Global Strategy Journal, 10(4), 655–675. https://doi.org/10.1002/gsj.1330

Rahman, M. M., & Islam, M. E. (2023). The impact of green accounting on environmental performance: Mediating effects of energy efficiency. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(26), 69431–69452. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27356-9

Rasmussen, E., & Madsen, T. (2002). The Born Global concept. In Proceedings of the 28th EIBA Annual Conference. Athens, Greece: European International Business Academy.

Ratajczak-Mrozek, M. (2017). The network theory of companies’ internationalization: The importance of relationships for international expansion. In M. Ratajczak-Mrozek (Ed.), Network embeddedness: Examining the effect on business performance and internationalization (pp. 153–189). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56511-8

Rennie, M. (1993). Global competitiveness: Born global. McKinsey Quarterly, 4, 45–52.

Reuber, A., & Fischer, E., (1997). The influence of the management team’s international experience on the international behaviors of SMEs. Journal of International Business Studies, 28(4), 807–825. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490120

Rialp, A., Rialp, J., & Knight, G. (2005). The phenomenon of early internationalizing firms: What do we know after a decade (1993–2003) of scientific inquiry? International Business Review, 14(2), 147–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2004.04.006

Rialp-Criado, A., Rialp-Criado, J., & Knight, G. (2002). The phenomenon of international new ventures, global start-ups, and born-globals: what do we know after a decade (1993–2002) of exhaustive scientific inquiry? Proceedings of the EIBA Annual Conference.

Ribau, C., Moreira, A., & Raposo, M. (2018). SME internationalization research: Mapping the state of the art. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 35, 280–303. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.1419

Roberts, J. (1990). Strategy and accounting in a U.K. conglomerate. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 15(1/2), 107–125.

Roque, A., Alves, M., & Raposo, M. (2018). Control systems and strategy: A literature review. Journal of Management and Marketing Review, 3(4),213–222. https://doi.org/10.35609/jmmr.2018.3.4(6)

Roque, A., Alves, M., & Raposo, M. (2019a). Internationalization strategies revisited: Main models and approaches. IBIMA Business Review, 2019, 681383. https://doi.org/10.5171/2019.681383

Roque, A., Alves, M., & Raposo, M. (2019b). The use of management accounting and control systems in the internationalization strategy: A process approach. IBIMA Business Review, 2019, 437064. https://doi.org/10.5171/2019.437064

Roque, A., Alves, M., Raposo, M. (2020). Control de gestión en las empresas bornglobal: Un estudio de caso [Management control in born-global companies: A case study]. Estudios Gerenciales, 36(154), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.18046/j.estger.2020.154.3499

Roque, A., & Alves, M. (2023). The impact of COVID-19 on the internationalization performance of family businesses: Evidence from Portugal. Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 16, 511. https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm16120511

Roseira, C., & Brito, C. (2007). Network knowledge and interaction. Paper presented at the 23rd Industrial Marketing and Purchasing Group (IMP) Conference, Manchester, UK.

Schotter, A. P., Buchel, O., & Vashchilko, T. (2018). Interactive visualization for research contextualization in international business. Journal of World Business, 53(3), 356–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2017.01.006

Seifriz, M., Gondim, S., & Pereira, M. (2014). Internationalization and networks in small and medium-sized enterprises: The role of ethnic ties. Revista Brasileira de Gestão de Negócios, 16(50), 5–24. https://doi.org/10.7819/rbgn.v16i50.1417

Sharma, D. (1993). Introduction: Industrial networks in marketing. In S. Cavusgil, & D. Sharma (Eds.), Advances in International Marketing (pp. 1–9), Greenwich: JAI Press.

Sharma D., & Blomstermo, A. (2013). The internationalization process of Born Globals: A network view. International Business Review 12, 739–753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2003.05.002

Sharma, D., & Johanson, J. (1987). Technical consultancy in internationalisation. International Marketing Review, 4, 20–29. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb008339

Simons, R. (1990). The role of management control systems in creating competitive advantage: New perspectives. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 15(1–2), 127–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-3682(90)90018-P

Simons, R. (1991). Strategic orientation and top management attention to control systems. Strategic Management Journal, 12(1), 49–62. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250120105

Silvi, R. (2012). Knowledge management: A strategic cost management perspective. Economia Aziendale Online, 1, 1-26.

Skaerbaek, P., & Tryggestad, K. (2010). The role of accounting devices in performing corporate strategy. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 35, 108–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aos.2009.01.003

Smith, K. G., Carroll, S. J., & Ashford, S. J. (1995). Intra and inter organizational cooperation: Toward a research agenda. Academy of Management Journal, 38(1), 7–23. https://doi.org/10.5465/256726

Tessier, S., & Otley, D. (2012). A conceptual development of Simons’ Levers of Control framework. Management Accounting Research, 23(3), 171–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2012.04.003

Turner, L. (2012). Beyond “medical tourism”: Canadian companies marketing medical travel. Globalization and Health, 8, 8–16. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-8603-8-16

Vaivio, J. (2004). Mobilizing local knowledge with “provocative” non-financial measures. European Accounting Review, 13(1), 39–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/0963818032000102971

Vélez, M. L., Sánchez, J. S., Ramón, J. M., Flórez, R., Araújo, P., & Álvarez-Dardet, C. (2014). Interorganisational control systems’ contribution to export capabilities development. Spanish Journal of Finance and Accounting, 43(3), 316–353. https://doi.org/10.1080/02102412.2014.942970

Vélez, M. L., Sánchez, J., Florez, R., & Álvarez-Dardet, C. (2015). How control system information characteristics affect exporter-intermediary relationship quality. International Business Review, 24, 812–824. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2015.02.008

Welch, D. E., & Welch, L. S. (1996). The internationalization process and networks: A strategic management perspective. Journal of International Marketing, 4(3), 11–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069031X9600400303

Wright, L. (2020). Annals of history: Crossroads. A scholar of the plague thinks that pandemics wreak havoc-and open minds. The New Yorker, 20, 18–23.

Yin, R. (1993). Applications of case study research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publishing.

Yin, R. (2005). Estudo de Caso: Planejamento e Métodos. Porto Alegre: Bookman.

Zahra, S. A. (2005). A theory of international new ventures: A decade of research. Journal of International Business Studies, 36(1), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400118

Zahra, S. A. (2021). International entrepreneurship in the post Covid world. Journal of World Business, 56(1), 101143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2020.101143

Zain, M., & Ng, S. (2006). The impacts of network relationships on SMEs’ internationalization process. Thunderbird International Business Review, 48(2), 183–205. https://doi.org/10.1002/tie.20092

Zarei, B., Nasseri, H., & Tajeddin, M. (2011). Best practice network business model for internationalization of small and medium enterprises. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 9, 299–315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10843-011-0080-3

To read this content please select one of the options below:

Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, transport collaboration network among competitors to improve supply chain antifragility.

European Journal of Innovation Management

ISSN : 1460-1060

Article publication date: 4 June 2024

Disruptions are appearing more frequently and having an ever greater impact on supply chains (SC), affecting the vulnerability and sustainability of organisations. Our study proposes an innovative approach to address contemporary challenges by introducing coopetition as a strategic capability. The aim of this study is to enable companies to adapt and thrive by applying a tool that measures and monitors different logistical scenarios to improve performance and antifragility.

Design/methodology/approach

With the aim of jointly planning transport activities of two competing companies, we present a linear programming model that promotes synergies which enhance resource utilisation. To demonstrate the validity of the model, a case study is conducted to measure, monitor and evaluate the results obtained after collaborating on SC activities.

Current tools to support logistics planning are not effective because they hamper information exchange, cost allocation and performance measurements. Our innovative model optimises collaborative networks (CNs) and monitors economic, environmental and social improvements. The case study shows the reduction of logistics costs (13%), carbon footprint (37%) and the improvement of social antifragility when agility and flexibility emerge.

Originality/value

CNs have become an effective means of enhancing resilience, but there are no empirical contributions to demonstrate how to achieve this. We provide a real case with computational experiments that provide empirical evidence of the effectiveness of the model, which measures, optimises and evaluates SC performance in coopetitive environments. This approach is a guide to researchers and practitioners when creating simulations to reduce risks and facilitate decision-making.

• Collaborative network
• Process innovation
• Supply chain management
• Antifragility
• Linear programming

Acknowledgements

This research has been partially funded through the fed, managed by the Galicia-Norte de Portugal EGTC, co-financed with FEDER funds through POCTEP INTERREG VA.

Vazquez-Noguerol, M. , Comesaña-Benavides, J.A. , Prado-Prado, J.C. and Amorim, P. (2024), "Transport collaboration network among competitors to improve supply chain antifragility", European Journal of Innovation Management , Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJIM-12-2023-1094

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2024, Emerald Publishing Limited

Related articles

We’re listening — tell us what you think, something didn’t work….

Report bugs here

All feedback is valuable

Please share your general feedback

Join us on our journey

Platform update page.

Visit emeraldpublishing.com/platformupdate to discover the latest news and updates

Questions & More Information

Answers to the most commonly asked questions here

A FRAMEWORK FOR ACHIEVING THE FOUR STUDENT WELLNESS OUTCOMES USING COLLECTIVE SYSTEM DESIGN

In response to the evolving demands of todays competition, there is a growing expectation for enhanced services to industry and academic enterprises. This thesis explores the application of System Engineering methodologies as a strategic approach to securing success with both industrial and academic enterprises. Industry faces issues with the absence of a positive tone, inefficiencies and delays in delivery, and customer satisfaction. Meanwhile, academia faces several challenges including lack of communication between departments, how to allocate institutional resources to simplify student experience, reduce complexity in students college experience, and lack of students motivation. These issues for students lead to poor academic performance, financial struggles, and possibly mental health problems. There is a recognized need for a systematic approach to ensure student success at universities. A fundamental approach emerges in the form of Collective System Design (CSD) to find ways to address the above- mentioned challenges. Collective System Design is explored for ad- dressing the challenges faced by academic organizations and industrial processes. Collective System Design aims to improve the long-term viability of an enterprise by fostering sustainability and success. This thesis further investigates the Collective System Design Language, offering a communication tool for design and an approach to assess effectiveness before implementation. This thesis highlights two case studies: Shuttleworth (manufacturing industry) and the Purdue University Fort Wayne Student Success Standard Process Lifecycle. The impact of solving these problems can be measured through several key indicators: Shuttleworth (Manufacturing Industry). • Reduction in Lead Time • In on-time Delivery • Enhanced Customer Satisfaction and improvement in product quality. Purdue University Fort Wayne. • Improvement in Student Experience and Quality of Life. • Achievement of Student Wellness Functional Requirements and improvements in student retention and four and five year graduation rates. Achievement of Student Success Functional Requirements and improvements in student retention and four and five year graduation rates. There are three main objectives of this thesis: (1) Apply and contrast the application of Collective System Design principles across a manufacturing industrial client and a service enterprise, namely higher education (2) Offer a systematic approach for manufacturing to improve on-time delivery, enhance customer satisfaction, create positive tone by using the principles of Collective System Design, and (3) For academia, develop a System Design Decomposition to define the functions of the university to foster student wellness according to four viewpoints: academic, financial, career, and living wellness. The objective is to incorporate the development of a System Design Decomposition that provides methodology to ensure that student wellness outcomes consider the four viewpoints of wellness (Academic, Financial, Career, and Living). The Student Success Standard Process Lifecycle defines standard processes in all process steps that will facilitate the desired student experience and four wellness outcomes. The lifecycle consists of Student Success States where the lifecycle begins from S0 (learning about university) to S7 (Supportive alumni) and defines standard process steps in each state. Each standard process step seeks to achieve the Functional Requirements from the four wellness viewpoints (academic, financial, career, and living) in Student Success Standard Process Lifecycle. The Collective System Design Decomposition methodology will serve as a structured approach to defining desired student wellness outcomes within a Rapid Design Process, which takes place in the first session focusing on defining outcomes. By leveraging this framework of four wellness viewpoints, the thesis aims to address issues with defining the outcomes for academic, financial, career, and living wellness viewpoints. Each wellness viewpoint has specific Functional Requirements (outcomes) that need to be defined and achieved by Student Success Standard Process Lifecycle and Rapid Design Process, to ultimately enhance student success and well-being at Purdue Fort Wayne University.

Degree Type

• Master of Science
• Electrical and Computer Engineering

Campus location

Advisor/supervisor/committee chair, additional committee member 2, additional committee member 3, usage metrics.

• Systems engineering

• Alzheimer's disease & dementia
• Arthritis & Rheumatism
• Attention deficit disorders
• Autism spectrum disorders
• Biomedical technology
• Diseases, Conditions, Syndromes
• Endocrinology & Metabolism
• Gastroenterology
• Gerontology & Geriatrics
• Health informatics
• Inflammatory disorders
• Medical economics
• Medical research
• Medications
• Neuroscience
• Obstetrics & gynaecology
• Oncology & Cancer
• Ophthalmology
• Overweight & Obesity
• Parkinson's & Movement disorders
• Psychology & Psychiatry
• Radiology & Imaging
• Sleep disorders
• Sports medicine & Kinesiology
• Vaccination
• Breast cancer
• Cardiovascular disease
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
• Colon cancer
• Coronary artery disease
• Heart attack
• Heart disease
• High blood pressure
• Kidney disease
• Lung cancer
• Multiple sclerosis
• Myocardial infarction
• Ovarian cancer
• Post traumatic stress disorder
• Rheumatoid arthritis
• Schizophrenia
• Skin cancer
• Type 2 diabetes
• Full List »

share this!

June 3, 2024

This article has been reviewed according to Science X's editorial process and policies . Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility:

fact-checked

peer-reviewed publication

trusted source

Two-pronged attack strategy boosts immunotherapy in preclinical studies

by Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research

A novel immunotherapy approach developed by Ludwig Cancer Research scientists employs a two-pronged attack against solid tumors to boost the immune system's ability to target and eliminate cancer cells.

The research focuses on an immunotherapy called adoptive cell transfer (ACT), which involves extracting T cells from a patient, enhancing their ability to fight cancer, expanding them in culture and reinfusing them into the patient's body.

"While T cell therapies have shown tremendous success in treating certain blood cancers, solid tumors present a more complex challenge due to immune-suppressive mechanisms at play in the tumor microenvironment," said Ludwig Lausanne's Melita Irving, who led the study. "T cells alone may not be sufficient, which is why we're exploring ways to boost their effectiveness by integrating other immune-enhancing strategies."

In the study, detailed in the Journal of Clinical Investigation , Irving and her team modified T cells to secrete CV1, a high-affinity version of the human signal regulatory protein alpha (SiRPα).

SiRPα normally interacts with CD47, a protein found on the surface of healthy cells that transmits a "don't eat me" signal to prevent macrophages from gobbling them up. However, many cancer cells exploit this system by overexpressing CD47 to avoid being eaten, or "phagocytized."

"The innate immune system, especially macrophages—which can consume tumor cells—is crucial to our immune defenses against cancer," Irving explained. (T cells belong to a separate arm of the immune system known as the adaptive immune system.)

The previously developed CV1 decoy utilized by Irving's team binds CD47 with high affinity, effectively silencing the "don't eat me" signal. This, it was expected, would make the cancer cells more recognizable and susceptible to macrophage attack while they were simultaneously being targeted by the engineered T cells, which had also been co-engineered to express an affinity-optimized T cell receptor (TCR).

However, the team encountered an unexpected problem. The CV1 their T cells were engineered to secrete included an Fc tail, which is ordinarily found at the tail end of an antibody molecule and doubles as a tag that draws macrophage attack. Since that tag now coated the T cells secreting the engineered CV1, it invited a full-on macrophage assault on the therapeutic T cells, leading to their depletion in treated mice.

To correct this, Evangelos Stefanidis, first author of the study and a recent Ph.D. graduate from Irving's group, modified the T cells to express CV1 alone, without the Fc tail. This prevented the engineered T cells from being targeted by human macrophages.

Moreover, combining these CV1-producing T cells with cancer-targeting antibodies such as avelumab and cetuximab further improved the ability of macrophages to consume tumor cells. This was because these antibodies—which target the immune-suppressing PD-L1 molecule and the growth-promoting epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), respectively—possess active Fc tails that engage macrophages to attack the tumor cells specifically. The team also observed that treating mice with these antibodies favorably altered the tumor microenvironment to support immune attack.

"By removing the Fc tail, we could spare the T cells from human macrophages, and by combining the co-engineered T cells with clinical antibodies comprising an active Fc tail, we specifically augmented phagocytosis of the tumor cells by macrophages ," Irving explained.

The findings could also help explain why clinical trials of the antibody drug magrolimab have faced significant challenges, including poor patient responses and infections. Like the CV1 decoy, magrolimab blocks the CD47 "don't eat me" signal on tumor cells to encourage their destruction by the immune system. But if—like the CV1 decoys with Fc tails—its blocking action is not targeted exclusively to cancer cells , it could provoke the destruction of healthy tissues.

"It is possible that magrolimab is also targeting immune cells, including T cells, for phagocytosis," Irving said. "Our combination treatment strategy helps direct phagocytosis specifically against tumor cells while sparing our engineered T cells. Our findings also highlight the complexities of cancer treatment and the importance of a nuanced approach to immunotherapy."

Explore further

Feedback to editors

The importance of a disturbed lipid metabolism in Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease

8 minutes ago

False belief in MMR vaccine-autism link endures as measles threat persists, finds survey

22 minutes ago

Pollutants and climate change contribute to millions of deaths from cardiovascular disease each year, warn scientists

Chromatin openness sheds new light on prostate cancer plasticity

AI-driven tool can detect Lewy body dementia via changes in vocal emotional expression

2 hours ago

Scientists develop AI tool to predict how cancer patients will respond to immunotherapy

Neoadjuvant immunotherapy for early stage melanoma shows positive results

Targeting leukemia's survival route: A novel approach to overcoming leukemia recurrence

Study finds timing of brain waves shapes the words we hear

4 hours ago

Study finds semaglutide associated with reduction in incidence and recurrence of alcohol-use disorder

Related stories.

Discovery of an antibody that stimulates the immune system to eliminate cancer cells

Nov 16, 2023

Researchers synthesize chimeric peptide that elicits antitumor activity for cancer immunotherapy

Jun 30, 2023

Using mice with humanized immune systems to test cancer immunotherapies

Dec 14, 2023

Breaking through the tumor's protective shield

Oct 12, 2021

Researchers discover new therapeutic target for non-small cell lung cancer

Apr 18, 2024

Engineered white blood cells can eliminate cancer, shows study

Jun 12, 2023

Recommended for you

New drug shows promise in easing chronic pain, study finds

Researchers create 'chameleon' compound that targets drug-resistant brain cancers

Let us know if there is a problem with our content.

Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).

Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request

Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.

Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

E-mail the story

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Medical Xpress in any form.

Newsletter sign up

Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy

Donate and enjoy an ad-free experience

We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.

E-mail newsletter

Donald Trump Stopped Legal Team Pursuing 'Winning' Strategy: Attorney

D onald Trump would have a better chance of being cleared in his hush money trial if he had allowed his lawyers to pursue better lines of defense, according to a legal expert.

Former federal prosecutor Renato Mariotti suggested on CNN that the former president would not permit his legal team to pursue a "winning" strategy in his falsifying business records case, which may have harmed his hopes of the jury returning a not guilty verdict.

Instead, Trump's lawyers focused on attacking star witnesses like Trump's former lawyer Michael Cohen and adult film star Stormy Daniels , or denying other factors of the case such as the alleged affair between the Republican and Daniels.

Mariotti made the remarks ahead of closing arguments taking place at the hush money trial in New York on Tuesday. Trump has pleaded not guilty to 34 felony counts of falsifying business records in relation to $130,000 Cohen paid to Daniels so she would keep claims of her alleged sexual encounter with Trump a secret ahead of the 2016 Election. The money was listed in Trump's company records as Cohen's "legal fees," which prosecutors say was part of an unlawful attempt to influence the outcome of the 2016 presidential race. Trump also denies an affair with Daniels.

"Realistically this was a case that could have been winnable by the defense if they pursued a different strategy, if they focused on the areas where Michael Cohen was not as corroborated," Mariotti said.

"The defense really haven't had a focused presentation. They haven't tried to focus the jury on the issues...they've really been all over the place, scorched earth, attacking not just Michael Cohen but Stormy Daniels , contesting everything. The fact of an encounter in a hotel room, the fact of the hush money payments and so on."

Mariotto added that he believes the defense will continue this "scorched earth attack" approach in their closing arguments.

"And if that's the case, I do think there's going to be a conviction here," he said. "Really, there needs to be an entirely different approach and I'm not sure that Donald Trump is willing to let his defense attorneys pursue a strategy that has a chance of winning in this case."

Trump's legal team has been contacted for comment via email.

Elsewhere, Norm Eisen, who served as a special counsel to the House Judiciary Committee during the former president's first impeachment, suggested that the falsifying business records case is "winnable" for the prosecution, but it is still not a "slam dunk."

Eisen told CNN that Trump and his lawyers will be hoping for a hung jury —where jurors cannot agree on a verdict after deliberations—to avoid a historic conviction of the former president.

"I think the odds of conviction are somewhere upwards of 80 percent," Eisen said. "The defense, in part because of this scattershot approach, is not really gunning for an acquittal. That's out of reach here.

"What they're hoping for is one angry juror, that there's one juror who either feels sympathy for Trump or just for whatever reason does not follow the evidence and the law," Eisen added. "The holdout, that's what they're trying for, just one."

After closing arguments at the New York on Tuesday Judge Juan Merchan, who is overseeing the proceedings, is expected to then provide jury instructions —which are handed down to ensure jurors understand the charges and laws connected to the case—before sending the jury to deliberate.

Experts have suggested the context of these instructions could be crucial as to whether Trump becomes the first current or former U.S. president in history to be convicted of a crime.

Start your unlimited Newsweek trial

Your company may already be a member. View our member list to find out, or create a new account .

Forgot Password?

Content Library

You can search our content library for case studies, research, industry insights, and more.

You can search our website for events, press releases, blog posts, and more.

A Call: Principal Media Case Studies

By Bill Duggan     May 31, 2024    

T he Association of National Advertisers (ANA) recently released a study (" The Acceleration of Principal Media ") revealing that when it comes to buying media, ad agencies are increasingly acting as principals rather than agents. That means they actually acquire the media — therefore becoming the owner, or "principal," of that media — and resell the media to their clients.

The study is intended to increase awareness and help educate marketers — the background, benefits, challenges, and guidelines — so they can make an informed decision about the role of principal media for them. It features four case studies highlighting how marketers have leveraged principal media. We welcome additional case studies. Those in the paper are from companies in these industries — financial services, alcoholic beverages, CPG, and pharma.

• A financial services company. "Principal media can have a beneficial role in the overall mix to get high efficiencies on commodity media, especially when faced with unexpected savings requirements. We've successfully used it, mainly with linear TV, to help achieve marketing's contribution to enterprise-wide efficiency goals, as well as to maintain optimal weight in response to ad hoc budget reductions. It's a relatively turnkey lever for savings of 10 to 15 percent on pockets of standardized, "spots and dots," non-biddable media. You just need to do your homework and have the appropriate controls in place. That includes an agency contract stipulating it's used only on an opt-in, case-by-case basis with prior written approval every time by a designated executive, as well as full post-buy deliverables. Principal media has perfectly valid applications for advertisers that manage it tightly, and I know several client-side media stewards that wouldn't want it removed as one of the arrows in their quiver."
• A marketer of alcoholic beverages. This company uses some television in its media plan, acquired via the traditional upfront. But it is not a major TV buyer. Given the need to support a new product, more television was required. The scatter market was tight at the time, so that inventory would carry a CPM premium. The agency suggested principal media as a solution.
• A CPG. The product portfolio for Company X is heavily dependent on a commodity whose price has increased significantly in the past two years. Price increases for the company's core product have already been implemented, but margins continue to be squeezed. Company X is cutting back on overall advertising spending and is now using principal media for the first time in recent memory, given the cost savings. The agency guaranteed cost savings of approximately 15 percent. Company X is viewing this situation opportunistically. If principal media is able to meet the performance KPIs of its traditional, agent-based media buys, it could become a bigger part of the company's overall spending going forward.
• A pharmaceutical company. This company uses principal media specifically for a division that has been challenged with declining sales and therefore also declining marketing budgets. Those declining budgets have meant that no funds are available for much-needed research support that could help optimize media investments. This company turned to principal media as a solution. The use of principal media has resulted in cost savings of approximately 15 percent, which has been reinvested in research focused on media effectiveness and marketing mix modeling. About 10 percent of the budget has been placed via principal media. For all principal media deals, the client requires that the agency provide a detailed cost/benefit analysis to support the recommendation, which includes an option without principal media. The marketer maintains that the principal media must be auditable for quality/performance and placement — including IVT, viewability, brand safety, and adherence to inclusion/exclusion lists. The client understands that costs cannot be audited but insists that quality/performance and placement are indeed auditable. Overall, principal media has been a good solution, given this company's situation.

These are good case studies — and we would like more. Consider this a call to the industry to provide additional case studies, which ANA would then feature on our website here — www.ana.net/principalmedia (where the white paper also lives). Those could be with or without specific attribution to the agency and client.

Email them to [email protected] .

The views and opinions expressed are solely those of the contributor and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the ANA or imply endorsement from the ANA.

Bill Duggan