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Lesotho Large-Scale Water Transfer Scheme Case Study

AQA GCSE Geography > Resource Management > Lesotho Large-Scale Water Transfer Scheme Case Study

Lesotho Large-scale Water Transfer Scheme Case Study

Lesotho is a landlocked country within the interior of South Africa, in southern Africa. It is distinguished by its mountainous topography and status as the only nation to be entirely above 1,000 meters in elevation. Its capital and largest city is Maseru. Lesotho is also known as the “Kingdom in the Sky” due to its high altitude—it has the highest lowest point of any country in the world. The country has a constitutional monarchy and gained independence from Britain in 1966.

The country experiences high poverty levels and struggles to feed its growing population. Most farms are subsistence, and productivity is low. It is economically dependent on South Africa.

Lesotho is a low-income country (LIC) and several problems limit the country’s development :

• The country faces frequent dry spells, leading to droughts and food shortages. This can cause famine.
• Lesotho’s government and politics are still developing, which impacts the economy’s growth. Lesotho is one of the worst countries in the world for wealth inequality. Some profit from diamond mining , whereas others remain unemployed and impoverished.

To address these inequalities, the government decided in 2004 to trade surplus water with neighbouring South Africa to improve its economy and development.

What is the Lesotho Highland Water Project?

The Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP) is a large-scale water transfer scheme where water is diverted from the highlands of Lesotho to South Africa’s Free State and the greater Johannesburg area, which desperately needs water. This is mainly due to these regions’ rapidly growing population and industrial demands.

The project includes the construction of dams, reservoirs, and tunnels designed to capture the headwaters of the Senqu/Orange River in Lesotho and transfer it to South Africa.

A Map of the Lesotho Highland Water Project

On completion, 40 per cent of the water from the Segu (Orange) River in Lesotho will be transferred to the River Vaal in South Africa. The scheme is expected to take 30 years to complete.

The main features of the scheme include:

• The Katse and Mohale Dams (completed in 1998 and 2002) store water transferred through a tunnel to the Mohale Reservoir .
• Water is then transported to South Africa through a 32km tunnel, enabling hydroelectric power to be produced at the Muela plant.
• The 165m high Polihali Dam will hold 2.2 billion m3 of water and connect to the Katse Dam by a 38km transfer tunnel.
• The Tsoelike Dam will be built at the confluence of the Tsolike and Senqu Rivers and will store up to 2223 million m3.
• The Ntoahae Dam and pumping station will be built 40km downstream from the Tsoelike Dam on the Senqu River.

When complete, 200km of tunnels will transfer 2000 million m3 of water to South Africa annually.

Why is the Lethoso Highland Water Project needed?:

• South Africa’s Demand: South Africa has an ever-increasing demand for water due to urbanisation , economic growth, and a relatively dry climate.
• Economic Benefits for Lesotho: Lesotho sees this as an opportunity to generate revenue by selling water, which can be used for the country’s development.
• Environmental Conservation : The project provides a clean and sustainable source of water for South Africa

The Katse Dam

Advantages for Lesotho:

• Economic Development: The project generates significant revenue for Lesotho, boosting its economy. It will provide 75% of its GDP. The income helps develop and improve standards of living.
• Energy production: The scheme will provide Lesotho with all its HEP requirements.
• Job Creation: It has created thousands of jobs for the local population during construction.
• Infrastructure Development: The project has led to the development of infrastructure such as roads and communication networks with access roads built to the construction sites.
• Improved Water Supply: Some areas of Lesotho benefit from improved water supply systems due to the project. Water supply will reach 90% of the population of the capital, Maseru.
• Improved Sanitation: Sanitation coverage will increase from 15% to 20%.

Advantages for South Africa:

• Water Security : It provides a critical water source for South Africa’s industrial heartland.
• Safe Water: Provides safe water for the 10% of the population without access to a safe supply.
• Economic Growth: Water is essential for sustaining economic activity in the Gauteng Province.
• Drought Mitigation: It helps mitigate the effects of periodic droughts in the region. It provides water to an area with an uneven rainfall pattern and regular droughts.
• Ecosystem Improvement: Freshwater reduces the acidity of the Vaal River Reservoir. Water pollution from industry, sewage, and gold mines destroyed the local ecosystem. The influx of fresh water is restoring the balance.

Disadvantages for Lesotho:

• Displacement: Communities have been displaced by the construction of the reservoirs. The construction of the first two dams meant 30000 people had to move from their land. The construction of the Polihali Dam will displace 17 villages and reduce agricultural land for 71 villages.
• Environmental Impact : There has been an impact on local ecosystems, including the destruction of a unique wetland, due to the control of regular flooding downstream of the dams.
• Corruption: Corruption has prevented money and investment from reaching those affected by the construction.
• Dependency: An over-reliance on revenues from water sales to South Africa may make Lesotho economically vulnerable.

Disadvantages for South Africa:

• Cost: The water cost is significant and must be borne by the South African government and, ultimately, the consumers. Costs are likely to reach US$4 billion.
• Leakages: 40% of water is lost due to leaks.
• Inequality: The increased water tariffs for the scheme are too high for the poorest people.
• Political Dependence: There is a reliance on Lesotho for a critical resource, which could lead to political challenges.
• Potential for Conflict: As water becomes an increasingly scarce resource, the potential for conflict over water rights could arise.

The LHWP is an example of a transboundary water resource management project with complex implications for both nations. It’s a balancing act between meeting the water needs of a growing population and economy in South Africa and managing the socio-economic and environmental impacts on Lesotho.

Despite the project not being complete, the Lesotho government has agreed to develop a second transfer scheme with Botswana. This could lead to an increase in Lesotho’s economic and political power in the future.

Geographic Overview

Lesotho, known as the “Kingdom in the Sky,” is a mountainous, landlocked country entirely above 1,000 meters, encircled by South Africa.

Economic Context

Lesotho is economically dependent on its neighbour, with subsistence farming prevalent, but faces high poverty and food supply challenges.

Lesotho Highlands Water Project

A massive water transfer initiative, the LHWP diverts water from Lesotho to South Africa’s Free State and Johannesburg, catering to their growing demand.

Infrastructure Developments

The project includes the construction of major dams like Katse and Mohale, a hydroelectric power plant at Muela, and extensive tunnel systems for water transfer.

Benefits to Lesotho

Significant revenue boost contributing to 75% of GDP, energy self-sufficiency, job creation, infrastructure improvements, and enhanced water and sanitation access.

Benefits to South Africa

Ensures water security, supports economic activities in key provinces, mitigates drought effects, and improves local ecosystems with freshwater influx.

Challenges and Costs

It involves community displacement and environmental changes in Lesotho, while South Africa faces high costs, water leakages, and potential political dependency issues.

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Challenges to Sustainable Safe Drinking Water: A Case Study of Water Quality and Use across Seasons in Rural Communities in Limpopo Province, South Africa

Joshua n. edokpayi.

1 Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of Venda, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa; [email protected]

2 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA; ude.qud@drelhak (D.M.K.); moc.liamg@320hlc (C.L.H.); ude.ainigriv@sm4rfc (C.R.); ude.ainigriv@e9saj (J.A.S.)

Elizabeth T. Rogawski

3 Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; ude.ainigriv@m5rte

4 Division of Infectious Diseases & International Health, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; ude.ainigriv.ccm.liamcsh@v8dr

David M. Kahler

5 Center for Environmental Research and Education, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA 15282, USA

Courtney L. Hill

Catherine reynolds.

6 School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA

Emanuel Nyathi

7 Department of Animal Science, University of Venda, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa; [email protected]

James A. Smith

John o. odiyo, amidou samie.

8 Department of Microbiology, University of Venda, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa; [email protected] (A.S.); [email protected] (P.B.)

Pascal Bessong

Rebecca dillingham.

Author Contributions: Conceived and designed the experiments: J.N.E., E.T.R., D.M.K., C.L.H. Performed the experiments: J.N.E., E.T.R., D.M.K., C.L.H., C.R., E.N. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: P.B., E.N., A.S., R.D., J.A.S., J.O.O. Analyzed the data: J.N.E., E.T.R., D.M.K., C.L.H. Wrote the paper: J.N.E., E.T.R., D.M.K., C.L.H. Participated in the editing of the manuscript: J.N.E., E.T.R., D.M.K., C.L.H., P.B., A.S., R.D., J.A.S., J.O.O., E.N., C.R.

Associated Data

Table S2: Membrane-filtration results for E. Coli and total coliforms of water sources,

Table S3: Anion concentrations (mg/L) of water sources,

Table S4: Major metal concentrations (mg/L) of water sources,

Table S5: Trace metal concentrations μg/L) of water sources.

Consumption of microbial-contaminated water can result in diarrheal illnesses and enteropathy with the heaviest impact upon children below the age of five. We aimed to provide a comprehensive analysis of water quality in a low-resource setting in Limpopo province, South Africa. Surveys were conducted in 405 households in rural communities of Limpopo province to determine their water-use practices, perceptions of water quality, and household water-treatment methods. Drinking water samples were tested from households for microbiological contamination. Water from potential natural sources were tested for physicochemical and microbiological quality in the dry and wet seasons. Most households had their primary water source piped into their yard or used an intermittent public tap. Approximately one third of caregivers perceived that they could get sick from drinking water. All natural water sources tested positive for fecal contamination at some point during each season. The treated municipal supply never tested positive for fecal contamination; however, the treated system does not reach all residents in the valley; furthermore, frequent shutdowns of the treatment systems and intermittent distribution make the treated water unreliable. The increased water quantity in the wet season correlates with increased treated water from municipal taps and a decrease in the average contaminant levels in household water. This research suggests that wet season increases in water quantity result in more treated water in the region and that is reflected in residents’ water-use practices.

1. Introduction

Clean and safe drinking water is vital for human health and can reduce the burden of common illnesses, such as diarrheal disease, especially in young children. Unfortunately, in 2010, it was estimated that 1.8 billion people globally drank water that was not safe [ 1 ]. This scenario is most common in developing countries, and the problem is exacerbated in rural areas [ 1 ]. Significant amounts of time are spent by adults and school children upon water abstraction from various sources [ 2 , 3 ]. It is estimated that, in developing countries, women (64%) and girls (8%) spend billions of hours a year collecting water [ 1 ]. The erratic supply of safe drinking and domestic water often affects good hygiene practices. In most developing countries of the world, inadequate supplies of drinking water can contribute to the underage death of children in the region [ 4 – 10 ].

Storage of collected water from rivers, springs, community stand-pipes, and boreholes is a common practice in communities that lack potable water supplies piped into their homes. Even when water is piped into the home, it is often not available on a continuous basis, and water storage is still necessary. Water is stored in various containers which include jerry cans, buckets, drums, basins and local pots [ 11 – 13 ]. It has been reported that when collection of water from sources of high quality is possible, contamination during transport, handling and storage and poor hygienic practices often results and can cause poor health outcomes [ 11 , 13 – 15 ].

South Africa is a semi-arid country that has limited water resources, and the provision of adequate water-supply systems remains a great challenge. In some of the major cities, access to clean and safe drinking water is comparable to what is found in other developed cities, but this is not the case in some cities, towns and most villages where there is constant erratic supply of potable water, and in some cases, there is no water supply system [ 16 ]. Although access to clean and safe drinking water is stipulated as a constitutional right for all South Africans in the country’s constitution [ 17 , 18 ], sustainable access to a potable water supply by millions of South Africans is lacking.

Residents of communities with inadequate water supply are left with no alternative other than to find local sources of drinking water for themselves. Rural areas are the most affected, and residents resort to the collection of water from wells, ponds, springs, lakes, rivers and rainwater harvesting to meet their domestic water needs [ 19 – 24 ]. Water from such sources is often consumed without any form of treatment [ 12 , 19 , 21 ]. However, these alternative sources of drinking water are often vulnerable to point and non-point sources of pollution and are contaminated frequently by fecal matter [ 5 , 19 , 25 ]. A report by the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research clearly showed that almost 2.11 million people in South Africa lack access to any safe water infrastructure. The consumption of water from such unimproved sources without treatment constitutes a major public health risk [ 26 ].

Consumption of contaminated drinking water is a cause of diarrheal disease, a leading cause of child mortality in developing countries with about 700,000 deaths of children under the age of 5 reported in 2011 [ 10 , 27 ]. In South Africa, diarrhea is one of the leading causes of death among young children, and this problem is worst in children infected with HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus).

The health risks associated with the consumption of unsafe drinking water are not only related to infectious diseases but also to other environmental components such as fluoride, arsenic, lead, cadmium, nitrates and mercury. Excessive consumption of these substances from contaminated drinking water can lead to cancer, dental and skeletal fluorosis, acute nausea, memory lapses, renal failure, anemia, stunted growth, fetal abnormalities and skin rashes [ 16 , 28 ]. Groundwater contamination with high arsenic concentrations have been reported in Bangladesh, and high fluoride concentrations have been reported in the drinking water from various provinces in South Africa [ 28 – 34 ].

Temporary seasonal variations have been reported to influence the levels of contaminants in various water sources differently. The key environmental drivers across the wet and dry seasons include: volume of water, flow, frequency of rainfall events, storm run-off, evaporation and point sources of pollution [ 35 , 36 ]. An increase in storm-water run-off within a river catchment may increase the level of contaminants due to land-use activities. Increased water volume could lead to a decrease in the concentration of contaminants due to the dilution effect. A low incidence of rainfall and high evaporation can cause a contaminant to concentrate in water. Very few water-quality parameters such as turbidity are expected to be higher in the wet season. Other parameters can vary depending on the key environmental drivers. There is paucity of data on the effect of change across seasons on water-use practices among household in rural areas of developing countries.

The geographic area for this study is located 35 km north of Thohoyandou, in Limpopo Province, South Africa. The area is primarily agricultural, such that water contamination by nitrates is a potential concern. In addition, mining operations in the area may contaminate water sources with heavy metals.

The significance of this study lies in the broad characterization of water-quality parameters that could affect human health, which is not restricted to microbiological analysis. In a rural community, the primary concern of drinking water is the microbiological quality of the water and chemical constituents are often considered not as problematic. This study was designed to evaluate a broad spectrum of water-quality constituents of natural water sources and household drinking water used by residents of rural communities in Limpopo Province. We also aimed to determine how water sources and collection practices change between dry and wet seasons within a one-year sampling period.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. study design.

A baseline census of 10 villages in the Thulamela Municipality of Limpopo Province was completed to identify all households in which there was at least one healthy child under 3 years of age in the household, the child’s caregiver was at least 16 years of age, and the household did not have a permanent, engineered water-treatment system. 415 households that met these eligibility criteria were enrolled for the purposes of a water-treatment intervention trial. The baseline assessment of water-quality and use practices is reported here. Caregivers of the child under 3 years of age were given a questionnaire concerning demographics, socioeconomic status, water-use practices, sanitation and hygiene practices, and perceptions of water quality and health. In addition, a sample of drinking water was taken from a random selection of 25% of the total enrolled households in the dry (June–August 2016) and wet seasons (January–February 2017). The participant population was sorted by community, as a surrogate for water supply, and one-third from each community was randomly selected by a random number generated within Microsoft Excel (Seattle, WA, USA), which was sampled. The protocol used was approved by the Research Ethics Committee at the University of Venda (SMNS/15/MBY/27/0502) and the Institutional Review Board for Health Sciences Research at the University of Virginia (IRB-HSR #18662). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants and consent documentation was made available in English and Tshivenda. The majority of the baseline surveys were conducted in the dry season (approximately April to October). Six-months later, follow-on surveys were conducted at the height of the wet season (approximately November to March; however, the height of the season in 2016–17 was January to March).

2.2. Regional Description of the Study Area

The communities are located in a valley in the Vhembe District of Limpopo Province, South Africa ( Figure 1 ). The valley surrounds the Mutale River in the Soutpansberg Mountains and is located around 22°47′34′′ S and 30°27′01′′ E, in a tropical environment that exhibits a unimodal dry/wet seasonality ( Figure 2 ). In recent years, the area has received annual precipitation between 400 mm and 1100 mm; more importantly, the timing of the precipitation is highly variable ( Figure 2 ). Specifically, in 2010, the annual precipitation was about 750 mm; however, the majority of the precipitation came in March while, traditionally, the wet season begins earlier, in September or October. The year 2011 had the highest precipitation in the six-year period and had the majority of the rainfall in November. The years 2012 and 2015 began with a typical precipitation pattern; however, the rainfall did not continue as it did in 2013 and 2014. Annual temperature of the area also varies, with the highest temperature always recorded in the wet season ( Figure 3 ). There has been much variability of temperature in past years; however, this is beyond the scope of this study. The abbreviations used in Figure 1 and other figures, including the supplementary data and the type of the various water sources used in this study, are shown in Table 1 .

Map of the study area. The communities are all located within the Mutale River watershed. The rivers are indicated in blue, villages outlined in purple, environmental samples in blue squares, tributaries in green circles (which have intermittent flow), watershed boundary in orange. This heavily agricultural area has cultivated areas along both sides of thee Mutale River for the vast majority of the region; the area is shown with green outlines. There are two identified brick-processing areas shown in brown rectangles. Unfortunately, some sites are so close that the markers overlap (as with CR and IR). The location of the community supplies (CA, CB, and CC) are not shown to protect the privacy of those villages. See supplemental information for Google Earth files.

Precipitation trends in the study area. ( a ) Annual precipitation by hydrologic year. Data quality are presented on a scale of zero to unity where the quantity shown represents the proportion of missing or unreliable data in a year; ( b ) Cumulative precipitation for the last five complete years; ( c ) Average monthly precipitation calculated for years with greater than 90% reliable data (bottom right). All data are presented by the standard Southern hemisphere hydrologic year from July to June numbered with the ending year. Data are from the Nwanedzi Natural Reserve at the Luphephe Dam (17 km from the study area) and fire available through the Republic of South Africa, Department of Water and Sanitation, Hydrologic Services ( http://www.dwa.gov.za/Hydrology/ ).

The mean monthly temperature in the region recorded at Punda Milia. ( a ) Mean monthly temperature based on the means from 1962–1984; ( b ) Mean monthly temperature record. Data are available from the National Oceanic and Aviation Administration (U.S.), National Climatic Data Center, Climate Data Online service ( https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdo-web/ ).

Abbreviations, water sources and type.

Agriculture occupies tine greatest land cover in the valley. Mogt households are engaged in some level of farming. Crops cultivated include maize and vegetables, and tree fruits include mangos and citrus fruits. Livestock is prevalent in the area with chickens, goats, and cattle. Smaller animals typically remain closer to households and larger animals graze throughout the region without boundaries. There are several brick-making facilities in the valley that include excavation, brick-forming and drying.

2.3. Water Sources

Drinking water in the study communities is available from a number of municipal and natural sources. The primary source of drinking water for seven of the villages is treated, municipal water. Two of the villages have community-level boreholes, storage tanks, and distribution tanks. An additional village has a borehole as well; however, residents report that, since its installation, the system has never supplied water.

The water for the treatment facility is drawn from behind a weir in the Mutale River and pumped to a retention basin. The water then undergoes standard treatment that includes pH adjustment, flocculation, settling, filtration, and chlorine disinfection. Water is then pumped to two elevated tanks that supply several adjacent regions, including the study area. Specifically, Branch 1 supplies Tshandama, Pile, Mutodani, Tshapasha and Tshibvumo; Branch 2 supplies an intermediary tank that in turn serves Matshavhawe, Muledane and Thongwe. Households can pay for a metered yard connection for the water used; these yard connections can be connected to household plumbing at the household’s discretion. The treated municipal water service is intermittent. Service in Tshandama and Pile was observed to be constant during the wet season and for only about two to three days per week during the dry season. Service in the remaining communities is two to four days per week during the wet season and about two days per week during the dry season. Furthermore, for the past two years, major repairs in the dry season caused the treated municipal water to cease completely. Households typically stored water for the periods when the treated municipal water was off; however, when the municipal water was unavailable for longer periods or not on the anticipated schedule, households obtained water from natural sources. The community-level boreholes provided water almost constantly but were subject to failure and delays in repairs.

Aside from the municipal sources, many residents of three villages have access to a community installed and operated distribution system that delivers water from the adjacent ephemeral rivers throughout the community (CA, CB, and CC). These systems are constructed with 50 mm to 70 mm (5 to 7 × 10 −2 m) high-density polyethylene pipes. Even these community-level schemes provide water on a schedule and sometimes require repair. Another common source of water for the community is springs. These shallow groundwater sources are common in the valley; however, there are communities that do not have a nearby spring. Some springs have had a pipe placed at the outlet to keep the spring open and facilitate filling containers. Researchers did not observe any constructions around the springs to properly isolate them from further contamination, and they are, therefore, not improved water sources. Pit latrines are common in every household throughout the region. Source (TS) is located near these communities while other springs (OS, LS) are located in agricultural areas. Boreholes provide deep groundwater supplies but require a pump. Such systems provide water as long as there is power for the pump and the well is deep enough to withstand seasonal variations. The two clinics in the study area surveyed each relied on a borehole for their water supply. Some residents also collected water directly from the river. The Mutale River is a perennial river; however, the ephemeral rivers, the Tshiombedi, Madade, Pfaleni, and Tshala Rivers, do not flow in the dry season all the way to the floor of the valley. The Tshala River has a diversion to a lined irrigation canal that always carries water, but there is very little flow that remains in the natural channel.

2.4. Water Sampling

The team of community health workers (CHW) that had previously conducted the MAL-ED (Malnutrition and Enteric Diseases) study in the same region [ 37 ] were recruited to assist with the data collection for this study; specifically, the regional description and water sources. These CHWs have an intimate knowledge of the communities as they are residents and have conducted health research in the area. The CHWs provided information on the location and condition of the various water sources in the study communities.

Water sources were tested during two intensive study periods: one in the dry season (June–August, 2016) and the other in the wet season (January–February, 2017). Water sources for investigation were selected based on identification from resident community health workers. Single samples were taken from all 28 identified drinking water sources in the 10 villages and three days of repeated samples were taken from six sources, which represented a range of sources (e.g., surface, borehole, shallow ground, pond, and municipal treated) in the dry season. Single samples of 17 of the original sources and three days of repeated samples were taken from five sources in the wet season, six months later. Some sources were not resampled because the routes to the sources were flooded, and these sources were likely infrequently used during the wet season due to blocked pathways. The wet and dry season measurements gave two different scenarios for water-use behaviors and allowed the researchers to measure representative water-quality parameters.

2.5. Measurement of Physicochemical Parameters

Physicochemical parameters of source water samples were measured in the field by a YSI Professional Plus meter (YSI Inc., Yellow Springs, OH, USA) for pH, dissolved oxygen and conductivity. The probes and meter was calibrated according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Turbidity was measured in the field with an Orbeco-Hellige portable turbidimeter (Orbeco Hellige, Sarasota, FL, USA) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency method 180.1) [ 38 ]. The turbidimeter was calibrated according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Measured levels were compared to the South African water-quality standards in the regulations [ 39 ], pursuant to the Water Services Act of 1997.

2.6. Microbiological Water-Quality Analysis

Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) and total coliform bacteria were measured in both source and household water samples by membrane filtration according to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency method 10,029 [ 40 ]. Sample cups of the manifold were immersed in a hot-water bath at 100 °C for 15 min. Reverse osmosis water was flushed through the apparatus to cool the sample cups. Paper filter disks of 47 mm (4.7 × 10 −2 m) diameter and 0.45 μm (4.5 × 10 −7 m) pore size (EMD Millipore, Billerica, MA, USA) were removed from their sterile, individual packages and transferred to the surface of the manifold with forceps with an aseptic technique. Blank tests were run with reverse osmosis dilution water. Two dilutions were tested: full-strength (100 mL sample) and 10 −2 (1 mL sample with 99 mL of sterile dilution water) were passed through the filters; this provides a range of zero to 30,000 CFU/100 mL (colony forming units) for both E. coli and total coliforms. The filter paper was placed in a sterile petri dish with absorbent pad with 2 mL (2 × 10 −6 m 3 ) of selective growth media solution (m-ColiBlue24, EMD Millipore, Billerica, MA, USA). The samples were incubated at 35 °C (308.15 K) for 23–25 h. Colonies were counted on the full-strength sample. If colonies exceeded 300 (the maximum valid count), the dilution count was used. In all tests, the dilution value was expected to be within 10 −2 of the full-strength value and the sample was discarded otherwise.

The distribution of the household bacteria levels was evaluated by the (chi square) χ 2 goodness-of-fit test for various subsets of the data. Subsets of the data were then compared by an unpaired Student’s t-test for statistical significance; specifically, wet versus dry season levels as well as any other subsets that could demonstrate differences within the data.

2.7. Major Metals Analysis

A Thermo ICap 6200 Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometer (ICP-AES, Chemetix Pty Ltd., Johannesburg, South Africa) was used to analyze the major metals in the various samples. The National Institute of Standards and Technology traceable standards (NIST, Gaithersburg, MD, USA) purchased from Inorganic Ventures (INORGANIC VENTURES 300 Technology Drive Christiansburg, Christiansburg, VA, USA) were used to calibrate the instrument for the quantification of selected metals. A NIST-traceable quality control standard from De Bruyn Spectroscopic Solutions, Bryanston, South Africa, were analyzed to verify the accuracy of the calibration before sample analysis, as well as throughout the analysis to monitor drift.

2.8. Trace Metals Analysis

Trace elements were analyzed in source water samples using an Agilent 7900 Quadrupole inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) (Chemetix Pty Ltd., Johannesburg, South Africa). Samples were introduced via a 0.4 mL/min (7 × 10 −9 m 3 s −1 ) micro-mist nebulizer into a Peltier-cooled spray chamber at a temperature of 2 °C (275.15 K), with a carrier gas flow of 1.05 L/min (1.75 × 10 −5 m 3 s −1 ). The elements V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se were analyzed under He-collision mode to remove polyatomic interferences. NIST-traceable standards was used to calibrate the instrument. A NIST-traceable quality control standard of a separate supplier to the main calibration standards was analyzed to verify the accuracy of the calibration before sample analysis.

2.9. Anion Analysis

The anions were analyzed in source-water samples as stated in Edokpayi et al. [ 41 ]. Briefly, an Ion Chromatograph (Metrohm, Johannesburg, South Africa) was used to analyze the concentrations of fluoride, bromide, nitrates, chloride and sulfate. Calibration standards in the range of 1–20 mg/L were prepared from 100 mg/L stock solution containing all the test elements. Prior to analysis, the samples were filtered with a 0.45 μm (4.5 × 10 −7 m) syringe filter. Eluent for the sample run was prepared from sodium bicarbonate and sodium carbonate. A 50 mmol/L sulphuric acid with a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min (8 × 10 −9 m 3 s −1 ) was used as suppressant.

3.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Enrolled Households

We included 405 enrolled households who completed the baseline questionnaire. The majority of caregivers were the mothers (n = 342, 84.4%, median age = 27 years) or grandmothers (n = 51, 12.6%, median age = 50 years) of a young child in the household. Almost all the caregivers had completed at least secondary school education (n = 371, 91.6%). Median monthly income for the entire household was USD$106 (interquartile range (IQR): 71–156). Access to improved sanitation was high. 373 (n = 92.1%) households used an improved pit latrine, and only 19 (n = 4.7%) reported open defecation. However, few households (n = 35,8.6%) reported having a designated place to wash hands near their toilet, and only 29% (n = 119) reported always using soap when washing hands.

Most households had their primary water source ( Table 2 ) piped into their or their neighbor’s yard (dry: n = 226, 62.3%; wet: n = 241, 67.5%) or used a public tap (dry: n = 69, 19.0%; wet: n = 74, 20.7%). A minority (dry: n = 40, 11.0%; wet: n = 19, 5.3%) collected their water directly from rivers, lined canals, or springs. Water was collected by adult women in most households, and it was reported to take a median of 10 min (IQR, both seasons: 5–30) to go to their water source, collect water, and come back in one trip. Three quarters (n = 270, 74.4%) reported that their water source was not continually available in the dry season and two-thirds (n = 234, 65.5%) in the wet season. Almost half (48.9%) reported interruptions in availability that lasted at least 7 days in the dry season and 32.8% in the wet season. Households stored water during interruptions and/or collected water from alternative sources (dry: n = 133, 36.6%; wet: n = 115, 32.2%), which were surface water or shallow groundwater sources (e.g., rivers, lined canals, or springs).

Primary drinking-water sources reported among 363 and 357 households in the study area in the dry and wet seasons, respectively.

Household water was most frequently stored in jerry cans or plastic buckets (n = 363, 89.7%), while 25 households stored water in large drums or plastic tanks (6.2%). Most households reported that their drinking water containers were covered (n = 329, 81.2%), but most used a cup with a handle (n = 281, 69.4%) or their hands (n = 93, 23.0%) for water collection ( Table 3 ). Only 13.3% (n = 54) households reported treating their water, mainly by boiling (n = 22), chlorine (n = 15), or letting the water stand and settle (n = 11).

Mode of water collection from storage containers.

Approximately one-third of caregivers (n = 114, 28.2%) perceived that one can get sick from drinking water (n = 114, 28.2%), and cited diarrhea, schistosomiasis, cholera, fever, vomiting, ear infections, malnutrition, rash, flu and malaria as specific illnesses associated with water. Despite these perceptions, the majority were satisfied with their current water source (n = 297, 73.3%). Those who were unsatisfied cited reasons of insufficient quantity (n = 75), shared water supply (n = 65), uncleanliness (n = 73), cloudiness (n = 47), and bad odor or taste (n = 38).

3.2. Physicochemical and Microbiological Characteristics of the Water Sources

pH and conductivity values ranged between 5.5–7.3 and 24–405 μS/cm in the wet season and 5.8–8.7 and 8–402 μS/cm in the dry season ( Table S1 ). Both pH and conductivity levels were within the recommended limits of the World Health Organization (WHO) for drinking water. The microbiological results and turbidity of the sources tested are presented in Figures ​ Figures4 4 and ​ and5, 5 , and Table S2 , respectively. Microbiological data show contamination with E. coli , a fecal coliform that is potentially pathogenic, and other coliform bacteria.

Membrane filtration results for ( a ) E. coli and ( b ) other coliforms. Data are presented for wet and dry seasons. The four ephemeral rivers (*) have no dry season data because they had no flow; all other sources have the results reported, some of which are zero or near-zero. South African National Standard (SANS 241:1-2015) set the limit of 0 CFU/100 mL for E. coli and 10 CFU/100 mL for total coliforms (CFU/10 −4 m 3 ). Ephemeral rivers that do not flow all the way into the valley are indicated (*) in the dry season.

Turbidity of the water sources in the study area. Two to three measurements were taken during an intensive study period from 13 January 2017 to 4 February 2017 in the wet season and three to four measurements from 5 June 2016 to 15 July 2016 in the dry season. The median measurement of the values is reported here. Ephemeral rivers that do not flow all the way into the valley are indicated (*) in the dry season.

Municipal treated water never showed any detectable colony-forming units (CFU) in a 100 mL sample for E. coli , which is within the Soufh African regulation [ 39 ]. In the wet season, other coliform bacteriaweae detected in the treated wtter (a median valueof 10 CFU/100 mL wac recorded).

Household sample of stored water ( Figure 6 ) show that bacterial contamination levels ranged from no detectable colonies lo the maximum detection level of our protocol of 30,000 CFU/100 mL. There is a trend that total colitorm levels ere lower (during the wet season than the dry season. In the wet season, some communities within the sturdy area had access to constant municipal treated water as monitored by researcher verification of public tap-watcr availebJlity. Othet communities had intermittent access to municipal treated water. Of these honseholds, those that had constant access to treated water at or near their household did have less total coliform in their stored water than those with intermittent services ( Figure 7 ). This neglects the communities that are outside of the municipal treated-water servic e area.

Box-and-whisker plot of total coliform measurements of stored, untreated water in study households in the wet (n = 95) and dry (n = 103) seasons. The box-and-whisker plot indicates the mean (diamond), first, second, and third quartiles (box), and minimum and maximum (whiskers).

Box-and-whisker plot of total coliform measurements of stored water in the wet season in study households in communities that had verified continuous access to municipal treated water versus verified intermittent access.

The total coliform from households in communities with verified continuous treated water had a log-normal distribution (verified by 99%, α = 1 significance level, χ 2 goodness-of-fit test) and were statistically significantly lower (α =1 significance level) than those from households in communities with verified intermittent treated water. Unfortunately, due to the low number of samples from intermittent households, a χ 2 goodness-of-fit test was not meaningful.

3.3. Anion Concentrations

Major anions investigated in the various water sources fell within the recommended guideline values from the WHO [ 42 ]. Fluoride concentrations ranged from below the detection limit (bdl) to 0.82 mg/L in the dry season and to 1.48 mg/L ( Table S3 ) in the wet season. Fluoride levels fell below the threshold limit for fluoride in drinking water from the WHO (1.5 mg/L). Nitrates were also observed within the limit of drinking water, between bdl–17.48 mg/L and bdl–9.72 mg/L in the dry and wet seasons, respectively. Chloride, sulfate and phosphate levels were also present in moderate levels in the various water sources; however, a relatively high concentration of chloride of 462.9 mg/L was determined in the Mutale River in the wet season.

3.4. Trace and Major Elements Composition

Major metals in the various water sources in both seasons complied with the recommended limits of SANS and WHO in drinking water [ 39 , 42 ]. Sodium concentrations in the range of 3.14–41.03 mg/L and 3.02–15.34 mg/L were measured in the wet and the dry seasons, respectively ( Table S4 ). Low values of potassium were measured. Calcium levels ranged between 0.66–33.91 mg/L and 0.53–27.39 mg/L, in the wet and dry seasons, respectively. Low levels of magnesium were also found. Most of the water sources can be classified as soft water owing to the low levels of calcium and magnesium. Aluminium (Al) concentration ranged between 39.18–438 μg/L ( Figure 8 ). Two of the water sources which are community-based water supply systems recorded high levels of Al which exceeded the aesthetic permissible levels of drinking water; others fell within this limit. Similarly, the levels of iron (Fe) varied between 37.30–1354 mg/L and 35.21–1262 mg/L in the wet and the dry seasons, respectively ( Figure 9 ). Some of the sources showed high Fe concentration which exceeded the aesthetic permissible limit of WHO in drinking water [ 42 ]. Two community-based water systems had higher levels of Fe in the wet season as well as the major river in the region (Mutale River) for which high Fe levels were observed in both seasons. One of the clinic boreholes also recorded high levels of Fe above the permissible aesthetic value of (300 mg/L) in both seasons. Temporary seasonal variation was significant only in the levels of Fe and Al. In the wet season, their levels were generally higher than in the dry season. Some other trace metals of concern like Pb, Hg, As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Cu, Mn, Sr were all present at low levels that were below their recommended limits in drinking water for both seasons ( Table S5 ).

Aluminum, measured by an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS), concentration for natural sources in the study area in the wet and dry seasons. The SANS 241 standard is shown (an operational standard is intended for treated water). Sources marked with * are intermittent sources and had no dry-season sample. Other sources have measured concentrations; although they may be too low to plot.

Iron, measured by an ICP-MS, concentration for natural sources in the study area in the wet and dry seasons. The SANS 241 standard is shown. Sources marked with * are intermittent sources and had no dry-season sample. Other sources have measured concentrations; although they may be too low to plot.

4. Discussion

This study provides a comprehensive description of water quality and drinking-water use across seasons in a low-resource community in rural South Africa, including a variety of water sources, ranging from the municipal tap to natural sources and a combination of both when the municipal tap was intermittently available.

Water sources in the study area, aside from the municipal tap, were highly contaminated with E. coli in both the wet and dry seasons; that is, E. coli was above the South African standard (acute health) of 0 CFU/100 mL. It is particularly important to note that E. coli was detected in the boreholes used for water at the local clinics, implying inadequate access to potable water for potentially immunocompromised patients. While the municipal treated water met the E. coli detection limit, the municipal tap did not always fall within the standards of turbidity (≤1 NTU operational and ≤5 NTU aesthetic) and total coliform (≤10 CFU/100 mL) [ 39 ]. These are not direct health risks; however, both measurements can be used to judge the efficacy of the treatment process and suggest that treatment may not have removed other pathogens that were not directly tested, such as protozoan parasites.

While the microbiological contamination of the drinking-water sources was not acceptable, the chemical constituents fell within the South African guidelines [ 39 ]. Calcium, sodium, magnesium and potassium were present in low levels and their concentrations complied with regulatory standards of SANS [ 39 ] and WHO [ 42 ]. Some metals (cadmium, mercury, arsenic and lead) known to be carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic, causing various acute and chronic diseases to humans even at trace levels in drinking water, were investigated and found to be present in very low concentrations that could be of no health risk to the consumers of the various water resources in the region. However, some other metals, such as Al and Fe, were higher in some of the water sources; yet these were still well below the health guidelines for the respective constituent (recommended health levels from SANS and WHO are given as Al < 0.9 mg/L, Fe < 2 mg/L). At these levels, they do not present a health risk but could impart color and significant taste to the water thereby affecting its aesthetic value. Water sources from the community water-supply systems and one of the clinic boreholes recorded higher levels of Al and Fe. The other metals evaluated (copper, zinc, nickel, chromium, Se and Mn) were present in low levels that complied with their recommended limits in drinking water [ 39 , 42 ].

Fluoridation of drinking water is a common practice for oral health in many countries [ 43 ]. The required level of fluoride to reduce incidences of dental caries is in the range of 0.6–0.8 mg/L; however, levels above 1.5 mg/L are associated with dental and skeletal fluorosis [ 43 – 45 ]. The likelihood of fluorosis as a result of high concentration of fluoride is low in these communities, but there could be a high incidence of dental caries since fluoride levels below 0.6 mg/L were measured and some of the water sources did not have fluoride concentrations detectable by the instrument. The National Children’s Health Survey conducted in South Africa showed that 60.3% of children in the age group of 6 years have dental caries. Approximately a third (31.3%) of children aged 4–5 years in Limpopo province have reported cases of dental caries [ 44 , 45 ].

Chloride levels in the water sources do not cause any significant risk to the users except imparting taste to the water for some of the sources that recorded chloride levels above 300 mg/L. Although the study area is characterized by farming activities, the nitrate concentrations measured do not present any health risks. Therefore, the occurrence of methemoglobinemia or blue-baby syndrome as a result of high nitrate levels is unlikely. Other anions were present in moderate levels that would also not constitute any health risks. The levels of all the anions determined in the various sources were lower than the recommended guidelines of WHO [ 42 ].

The microbiological analysis of environmental water sources revealed several trends. Without exception in these samples, bacterial levels in the wet season were higher than in the dry season. This may be caused by greater runoff or infiltration, which carries bacteria from contaminated sources to these water bodies. The upward trend in bacteria in the municipal treated water is not explained by an increase in runoff, but may be due to higher turbidity of the intake for the municipal treated water in the wet season. The treatment facility workers reported to the researchers that they were unable to monitor the quality of the treated water due to instrument failure during the wet season surveillance period.

Water stored in the household showed that the mean total coliform in the wet season was lower than that in the dry season. This trend is opposite to what was observed in the source, or environmental samples. This difference may be explained by the greater availability of treated water in the wet season versus the dry season for approximately 40% of the sampled households ( Figure 7 ). In addition, it is possible that families try to save water during the dry season and do not reject residual water, while the rainy season allows easier washing of the container and for it to be filled with fresh water more regularly.

In the wet season, two communities had consistently treated water available from household connections (usually a tap somewhere in a fence-in yard) or public taps. While the municipal treated water was of lower quality in the wet season than the dry season, the quality was significantly better than most environmental sources.

Another potential explanation is that residents stored their water within their households for a shorter time, which is supported by the use data that showed interruptions in supply were more common and for longer duration in the dry season. The quality of the water stored in households with continuous supply versus intermittent supply also suggests that water availability may play a role in household water quality. This is consistent with research that demonstrates that intermittent water supply introduces contamination into the distribution system in comparison with continuous supply [ 46 ]. Intermittent supply of water may also result in greater quantity and duration of storage at household level, which could increase the likelihood of contamination.

While it has been shown that the quality of water used for drinking in these villages does not meet South African standards, this problem is confounded by evidence from surveys indicating that residents believe they have high-quality water and, therefore, do not use any form of treatment. In the rare case that they do, it is by letting the water stand and settle or by boiling. In addition, even if treated water is collected, there is a risk of recontamination during storage and again when using a cup held by a hand to retrieve water from storage devices, which was common in surveyed homes. In addition, there was little to no detectable residual chlorine in the municipal tap water to prevent recontamination. A previous study performed in an adjacent community showed higher household treatment levels; however, this may have been due to intervention studies in that community (the community in question was excluded from this study because of previous interventions) [ 47 ]. The study also concurred that boiling was the most common method employed.

Given that most of the water from the various sources in this community is contaminated and not treated, there is a high risk of enteric disease in the community. Lack of access to adequate water and sanitation cause exposure to pathogens through water, excreta, toxins, and water-collection and storage pathways, resulting in immense health impacts on communities [ 48 ]. A large burden of death and disability due to lack of access to clean water and sanitation is specifically associated with diarrheal diseases, intestinal helminths, schistosomiasis and trachoma [ 49 ]. While it was found in this study that the study area has a high prevalence of improved sanitation, the likelihood of poor water quality due to intermittent supply and lack of treatment poses a risk of the adverse health effects described. In a previous longitudinal cohort study of children in these villages, most children were exclusively breastfed for only a month or less, and 50% of children had at least one enteropathogen detected in a non-diarrheal stool by three months of age [ 50 ]. Furthermore, the burden of diarrhea was 0.66 episodes per child-year in the first 2 years of life, and stunting prevalence (length-for-age z-score less than −2) in the cohort increased from 12.4% at birth to 35.7% at 24 months [ 50 ]. It is likely that contaminated water contributed to the observed pathogen burden and stunting prevalence in these communities. In summary, microbiological contamination of the drinking water is high in the study area, and risk from other chemical constituents is low. Therefore, engineered solutions should focus more on improving the microbiological quality of the drinking water.

The intermittent supply in municipal tap water, inadequate water quality from alternative sources, and the risk of recontamination during storage suggest a need for a low-cost, point-of-use water-treatment solution to be used at the household level in these communities. Access to clean drinking water will contribute to improving the health of young children who are at highest risk of the morbidity and mortality associated with waterborne diseases. Such an intervention may go beyond the prevention of diarrhea by impacting long-term outcomes such as environmental enteropathy, poor growth and cognitive impairment, which have been associated with long-term exposure to enteropathogens [ 51 ]. This is supported by a recent finding that access to improved water and sanitation was associated with improvements on a receptive vocabulary test at 1, 5 and 8 years of age among Peruvian, Ethiopian, Vietnamese and Indian children [ 52 ]. The implementation of point-of-use water treatment devices would ensure that water is safe to drink before consumption in the homes of these villages, improving child health and development.

5. Conclusions

This study was comprehensive in the assessment of all aspects of water quality and corresponding water-use practices in rural areas of Limpopo Province. The results obtained indicate that microbiological water quality is more likely to have adverse effect on the consumers of natural water without adequate treatment, as E. coli was determined in all the natural water sources. Local needs assessments are critical to understanding local variability in water quality and developing appropriate interventions. Interventions to ensure clean and safe drinking water in rural areas of Limpopo province should, first and foremost, consider microbiological contamination as a priority. Risk-assessment studies of the impact of water quality on human health is, therefore, recommended.

Supplementary Material

Tables s1 through s5.

Table S1: Physical characteristics of water sources. Two to three measurements were taken during an intensive study period from 13 January 2017 to 4 February 2017 in the wet season, and three to four measurements from 5 June 2016 to 15 July 2016 in the dry season. The median measurement of the values is reported here. Sites with missing samples, such as ephemeral rivers that do not flow all the way into the valley in the dry season, are indicated (*). Sites with missing data due to instrument failure are indicated (#). Values that were below the detection limit are indicated (bdl). South African regulation (SANS 241:1-2015) and the World Health Organization Recommended Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality (Fourth Edition) are listed; parameters not listed are indicated (nl),

Acknowledgments:

This project was funded by the Fogarty International Center (FIC) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) (Award Number D43 TW009359), National Science Foundation (NSF) (Award Number CBET-1438619), the Center for Global Health at the University of Virginia (CGH), and the University of Virginia’s Jefferson Public Fellows (JPC) program. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not represent the official views of the funders. The authors also acknowledge the tireless work of the community field workers who undertook interventions and collected all of the survey data. The authors also acknowledge A. Gaylord, N. Khuliso, S. Mammburu, K. McCain and E. Stinger, who performed much of the water-quality analysis and T. Singh, who supported the laboratory analysis for inorganic materials.

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at www.mdpi.com/s1 ,

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Addressing water scarcity: A case study on aquifer storage and recovery projects

Water scarcity and groundwater depletion are areas of growing concern in the United States and around the world, and both are being exacerbated by climate change. Prolonged droughts are having a significant impact on agriculture, industry, and households across the U.S. These water shortages stress the growing need to improve effective water management strategies while also balancing the financial and environmental costs associated with different water management solutions.

ASR is a method that stores excess surface water in underground aquifers. The water is then recovered during times of drought or increased demand, providing a means of long-term natural water storage.

One innovative approach to address water scarcity concerns is through the implementation of aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) projects, which is a subset of managed aquifer recharge (MAR) projects. ASR is a method that stores excess surface water in underground aquifers. The water is then recovered during times of drought or increased demand, providing a means of long-term natural water storage. Compared with surface reservoirs, underground aquifers also prevent water loss through evaporation, provide greater protection from pollution or contamination sources, store larger volumes of water, and have fewer environmental impacts. The cost of an ASR program is typically considerably lower than constructing a large surface reservoir. Since stored water undergoes natural filtration while underground, it presents the added benefit of improving water quality.

ASR projects have been successfully deployed in several states and countries, bolstering water supply resilience by creating a buffer against drought-induced shortages. These projects demonstrate the potential of a sustainable groundwater management method to mitigate water shortages while also replenishing depleted groundwater.

What is involved with ASR projects?

ASR involves moving excess water during wet or snowy periods, or water that is available through underutilized water rights, underground for storage in local aquifers for later recovery. Depending on factors such as location, scale, and available resources, an ASR project scope typically includes the following elements:

Feasibility assessment: The suitability of the chosen aquifer is assessed based on factors like geologic and hydrogeologic characteristics, water quality, and legal, environmental, and regulatory considerations.

Source water supply: A source of excess water, often from surface water bodies like rivers, excess spring flow, snowmelt or precipitation runoff, underutilized water rights, imported water, or wastewater treatment plant effluent, is identified.

Infiltration/injection and recovery wells: There are two methods for moving water into an aquifer: infiltration or injection. Infiltration directs water to constructed basins or natural features, such as dry stream beds, that are known to be connected to the target aquifer. The injection method transfers water directly into the target aquifer via injection wells. Water stored in an aquifer can then be recovered in a future time of need via a dedicated recovery well or by pumping an injection well.

Water quality and treatment: Depending on the quality of the source water, the water may need to undergo treatment to meet water quality standards before injection or infiltration. Water chemistry also needs to be assessed on the source water to avoid adverse chemical reactions with the aquifer water or the aquifer material (i.e., sediments or rocks).

Monitoring and control systems: Monitoring and control systems are necessary to track water quality, pressure, and flow rates within the aquifer. These systems help make sure that stored water remains viable and can be safely recovered.

Regulatory approvals: To comply with environmental and water quality regulations, ASR projects require permits and regulatory approvals from local, state, and/or federal authorities.

Infrastructure: To transport, inject, and recover water, additional infrastructure may be needed. This might include pipelines, wells, pumps, and treatment facilities.

Testing and pilot programs: Before full-scale implementation, pilot programs are often conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the ASR system and make necessary adjustments. Pilot programs also typically include chemical analyses of water and aquifer materials.

Community and stakeholder engagement: Engaging with local communities and stakeholders helps to address concerns and gain community support.

Operations and maintenance: Ongoing maintenance and monitoring are essential for the long-term success and sustainability of the project. This may include monitoring aquifer water levels, water quality, and infiltration or injection rates. These rates can change over time, requiring periodic cleaning of infiltration basins or redevelopment of wells to maintain infiltration or injection rates at an acceptable level.

Emergency response and contingency planning: Planning for unexpected water quality issues or system failures is critical to mitigate risks associated with ASR projects.

Since 2019, Barr has been working with the city of Provo, Utah, on an ASR project to help meet its anticipated increase in water demand due to the city’s growth. To better illustrate the steps involved in an ASR project, we’ve highlighted some of the key aspects below, using our work with Provo as a case study.

ASR case study: City of Provo, Utah

Asr feasibility study and site screening.

Over the last decade, the city of Provo, Utah, has experienced rapid growth that is projected to continue over the next few decades. This rapid growth has resulted in increased water demand. To date, Provo’s water supply has come from mountain springs and groundwater pumped from the aquifer underlying the city. However, the pumping has resulted in the aquifer being over-appropriated, meaning more water has been pumped from the aquifer than added to it via natural recharge. The over-appropriation from increasing water demands and the impacts of climate change have led to declining aquifer groundwater levels over the last 40 years.

In 2019, Barr began working with Provo to perform an extensive ASR study. Together with the city and its water-rights attorney, we identified surface-water sources and infiltration and injection sites that were appropriate and consistent with the city’s 40-year water-supply plan.

For the initial screening of sites for ASR suitability, Barr developed a methodology to rank sites based on injection and infiltration potential and suitability. As part of our initial screening, we evaluated existing city wells for injection potential and made a preliminary estimate of infiltration capacity in an ephemeral mountain stream (i.e., a stream that carries water seasonally, or less often, so it is dry for extended periods). To help us rank sites for suitability and to better understand the nature of the geologic materials underlying the city of Provo, we leveraged data from the 2019 snowmelt event, conducted geophysical surveys at several sites, and made use of publicly available information from wells. As a result of our ranking methodology, five sites—three infiltration and two injection—were identified for pilot testing.

Pilot testing, modeling, and permitting

To help evaluate pilot testing at the sites, we installed monitoring well networks and collected data on infiltration or injection capacity. We also performed mineralogical analysis on unconsolidated geologic materials in the aquifer underlying the sites. Finally, Barr assessed geochemical interactions between the infiltrated/injected source water and the target aquifer at each site.  

Barr completed pilot testing at two infiltration sites and two injection sites in 2022. Subsequently, we applied for and obtained the necessary permits for full-scale ASR systems at these sites. Aquifer recharge via infiltration under the permits began at the first site in January 2023. The state has approved the designs for infrastructure improvements needed to support the full-scale infiltration/injection projects. Provo has awarded construction projects to contractors to build the infrastructure improvements. Recently, aquifer recharge at the second infiltration site was initiated.  

Stakeholder engagement and funding sources

To help stakeholders visualize how the ASR projects will work, Barr developed easy-to-understand graphics, maps, figures, and videos.

Multiple factors can impact the cost of an ASR project, including source water treatment requirements, siting considerations, target aquifer groundwater quality, recharge method, and new infrastructure needs. To help cover the costs, there are several state (programs vary) and federal grant and loan programs that can be leveraged.

Provo’s water source sustainability program includes construction of a new surface water treatment plant to reduce reliance only on groundwater and to treat surface water for use in infiltration and injection at identified ASR sites. The city’s drinking water system infrastructure will be used to transport water to one of the infiltration sites and the two injection well sites. Barr helped obtain over $80 million in state and federal grants and over $35 million in loan funds to help the city plan, permit, design, and construct the final ASR projects and the water treatment plant.

Future of ASR and water sustainability

An ASR project can serve as a valuable tool in tackling the challenges related to water supply. These projects help build long-lasting and resilient water systems to effectively address concerns with water availability, quality, and ecological sustainability. Beyond mitigating water shortages, MAR projects can also be implemented to serve as an effective barrier against contaminant plumes, prevent saltwater intrusion, and protect against ground subsidence caused by over pumping of groundwater.

For over half a century, Barr has helped clients monitor and improve water quality, understand, and protect groundwater and surface-water resources, and treat, store, and distribute the water their communities and facilities need, including ASR/MAR projects. Interested in exploring whether an ASR project can help you with your water demand challenges? Contact our team to learn more.

About the authors

Brian LeMon , vice president and senior civil engineer, has nearly four decades of experience with water supply, storage, treatment, and distribution; pumping system design; ASR/MAR; flood risk management; and wastewater collection and treatment. In addition, his areas of expertise include well planning and design; water-supply planning and system analysis; source-water protection planning; and water-system planning. He has served as principal, project manager, and/or engineer for planning, design, and rehabilitation of more than 100 water-supply wells. More than two million people drink water from systems for which Brian has provided engineering services.

John Greer , senior hydrogeologist, has nearly four decades of experience and has been involved in all aspects of geologic and hydrogeologic evaluations. John has expertise in aquifer testing; ASR/MAR; environmental site investigations; and groundwater modeling for regional contaminant-transport studies, remedial investigations and feasibility studies, evaluations of remedial systems design, wellhead protection, and water-supply assessments.

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Water for all

Solving the water crisis, case study: south africa.

South Africa is a perfect nation to which to apply Mission 2017′s solutions. We will be using South Africa as an example of how the various solutions presented throughout this site can be combined and implemented in real world scenarios.

Figure 1: Population distribution by province [13]

Gauteng, located at the heart of South Africa, is the smallest and most populous province in the country. With just a 1.5 percent of the land area, it houses a fourth of the country’s population. Due to its high growth rate and dense population, local government agencies predict that for cities like Johannesburg and Pretoria, water will run out within the next five years [1]. The water crisis is not just a problem for its most cosmopolitan area; in fact, the entire country’s demand for water is expected to outstrip supply by 2025 [1]. Looking at these problems, Mission 2017 is considering global water solutions that for South Africa will maximize efficient water modifications of practices in agriculture, energy production, and water infrastructure design.

Agriculture

Water conservation in South African agriculture depends on the development of mutually beneficial international partnerships and information networks. Over half of South Africa’s water usage is for irrigation [1]. When both commercial and subsistence farming are considered, much of this water also goes to irrigate large tracts of land purchased by foreign countries who use South Africa’s water to grow crops that are then exported.

To minimize this trend Mission 2017 recommends that groups of landowners partner with foreign investors in exchange for investment in infrastructure. In Zambia, for example, 120 smallholders entered into a partnership in which they gave up 80 percent of their land to the company and split the remaining into individual lots between themselves. After 25 years, per their agreement, the farmers will receive their land back but, in the meantime, the investors have built irrigation systems that will remain viable for 40 years or more [2]. Potential dangers of the partnerships include poor farming practices, stewardship, a corrupt system or not completing promises in the contract. Mission 2017 identifies that the best partnerships are when the public’s opinion is taken into major consideration and when there is reliable governmental oversight.

To promote efficient water use, information regarding market prices and water saving techniques should be made available to these farmers with smallholdings.  For example, in 1997, the Kenya Agricultural Commodity Exchange used a website, radio station and text messaging program to share market information between private companies, with “results show[ing] a statistically significant difference between member and nonmember of ICT (Information Communicative Technologies)-based projects with regards to share of sales, income, and transaction costs” [3]. Instead of sharing information about market prices, Mission 2017 suggests to share information about technological innovations for water conservation. It would serve as a water usage self-regulatory network as well. As seen in Figure 2, sharing information would be no problem. Currently, more Africans own cellphones than have access to water and the number continues to increase. South Africa is ranked number five in the world for mobile data usage and text messaging is the most preferred method of communication [4]. It is recommended to form a similar company funded by South Africa’s government that would design an app for phones. This application would keep farmers up to date with ways to cut back on water usage but could be a place where farmers input data so that it can be analyzed for future studies. The more information entering the database, the more can be learned from it and help to motivate future water conservation projects and movements.

Figure 2: Technology usage (by millions) in South Africa [14]

Local Solutions

We suggest a number of changes that can be implemented at the individual farm/small community level.

For immediate results, efforts should include fertilizer regulation and field modification. Promoting public health and conservation through educational programs should be a priority as well. Fertilizer overuse can pose a health hazard as it can leak into groundwater and cause eutrification of water bodies. Mission 2017 suggests that small groups of researchers be deployed to communities in South Africa to familiarize citizens about groundwater contamination from agricultural practices. This way the community can take ownership of protecting their drinking water with regulations with respect to fertilizer use. We suggest a period of about five years for study, establishment of protocols and regulations, and establishment of best fertilizers for both agriculture but also human heath.

Leveling of fields allows farmers to reduce water use by eliminating irregular elevation; instead of flooding the area at all times, there could be surge flooding over certain time intervals. For example, watering at night would be ideal since less water would be lost from evaporation due to the sun.

Farmers could also capture and reuse runoff water, as well as line irrigation canals that deliver water to the fields. By installing bricks, concrete or plastic lining, water efficiency can increase up to 35 percent [5]. Mission 2017 proposes to deploy teams to talk to local officials in rural communities and discuss water-loss use issues. Once local communities are made aware of the large loss of water due to lack of canal lining, engineers, government officials and citizens would be encouraged to join forces and coordinate details of implementation. A significant amount of lined canal can be installed relatively quickly, for example, a 2000 meters canal can be lined in seven days but a small, which could take  seven days but a small team to line [6]. The government could offer jobs for canal lining emplacement or any other type of water infrastructure to encourage people to complete the project. Funding would also be derived from the World Bank or Public-Private Partnerships. In this scenario, the success of future projects will be ensured because this plan was implemented by and for South Africans who also developed the policies and installed the infrastructure. The same plan can be applied to installing purification stations that capture and filter runoffs in order to protect the people from the harmful effects of fertilizers.

Figure 3: Concrete Canal for Agriculture [15]

Energy from Biofuels

Figure 4: Primary Energy Supply Distribution [16]

South Africa is heavily dependent on foreign suppliers for fuel and is thus subject to price fluctuations [7]. This, and the desire to reduce emissions, has led South Africa to enact legislation requiring petroleum manufacturers to produce fuels composed of ten percent of bioethanol and five percent biodiesel [8]. Although this plan is conservative compared to the international trend, the impact on water use is not clear and therefore a cause for concern [9].

Water availability is the limiting factor for the selection of biofuel feedstocks in the country [8]. The South African Water Research Commission evaluated the growth of different feedstocks in different areas – and found that, for example, Sweet Sorghum would not necessarily be the most water-efficient choice although it is typically a water-efficient biofuel [9]. Mission 2017 recommends that South Africa evaluate the water, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide foot prints for all biofuel projects and choose feedstocks that consider trade-offs. We must get maximum fuel yield using the least amount of water and emitting the smallest volumes of green house gases. Once these studies are completed for each region, the process can be scaled up. Mission 2017 also recommends that South Africa investigate using biomass waste to provide some of their bioenergy, and recommends to further consider the use of wastewater to supplement or supply the water demands of any biofuels they choose .

Where to get water

Mission 2017 believes the most viable sources of water for densely populated areas like Gauteng, are aquifers recharged by rain and runoff as well as ancient water that filled aquifers thousands of years earlier when climate was different. If groundwater is available, wise use is an excellent way to supplement water supplies. It is far cheaper to produce groundwater than to build large dams for example, unconfined aquifers are especially beneficial in areas with seasonal rains that recharge the aquifers. However, extraction without an eye towards management and recharge is unsustainable. Artificial recharge is the best method to replenish unconfined aquifers. Runoff from rainstorms is collected in basins and tanks and allowed to percolate back into the aquifer. This enhances natural recharge; Mission 2017 estimates that it would cost $200-500 million to install a large artificial recharge system that could be finished by 2020 [11]. Funds would be sought from mining companies and industry, local and national governmental agencies as well as the World Bank.

Figure 5: Artificial Recharge Process [17]

South Africa should also increase recycling of water from both ground and surface water sources. By filtering sediment and treating the water to eliminate bacteria, sewage water and industrial water can be recycled and reused for agricultural purposes. Currently, Israel recycles four times more water than any other country and is increasing relying on desalination as a water source and can thereby serve as a potential model for the implementation of similar plans in South Africa [12].

South Africa needs to accept the water crisis and should be poised to implement changes in order to systems more water-efficient. Mission 2017 proposes recommendations  to agricultural practices, energy processes, and water availability. Some of these solutions can be implemented in the next few years such as canal lining, while others will take longer to set up. Nonetheless, South Africa should take these solutions into consideration as it works to prevent a decreasing water supply.

1. “Water Situation in South Africa.” Water Wise . Rand Water, n.d. Web. 27 Nov. 2013. http://www.waterwise.co.za/site/water/environment/situation.html

2. Allan, T., Keulertz, M., Sojamo, S., & Warner, J. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of Land and Water Grabs in Africa (214-215). New York, NY: Routledge.

3. Blessing M. Maumbe/ Charalampos Z. Patrikakis. (2013). E-Agriculture and Rural Development: Global Innovations and Future Prospects. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/mitlibraries/docDetail.action?docID=10618036

4. Newswire. (2011, September 30). Mobile Phones Dominate in South Africa. Retrieved November 27, 2013, from http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/newswire/2011/mobile-phones-dominate-in-south-africa.html

5. Annex I: Irrigation efficiencies. (n.d.).Annex I: Irrigation efficiencies. Retrieved November 27, 2013, from http://www.fao.org/docrep/t7202e/t7202e08

6. Lining of District Irrigation Canals . (n.d.).TWDB Report 362 . Retrieved November 27, 2013, from http://www.twdb.state.tx.us/conservation/B

7. Landu, L. (2012, September 26). Potential for the Production and Use of Biodiesel in the South African Mining Industry. National Science and Technology Forum. Retrieved November 26, 2013, from http://www.nstf.org.za/ShowProperty?nodePath=/NSTF%20Repository/NSTF/files/ScienceCouncils/2012/Potential.pdf

8. Wenberg, E. (2013, October 23). South Africa Looks to Develop Domestic Biofuels Production. Global Agricultural Information Network. Retrieved November 26, 2013, from http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/South%20Africa%20Looks%20to%20Develop%20Domestic%20Biofuels%20Production_Pretoria_South%20Africa%20-%20Republic%20of_10-23-2013.pdf

9. Jewitt, G., Wen, H., Kunz, R., & Rooyen, A. V. (2009, November.). Scoping Study on Water Use of Crops/Trees for Biofuels in South Africa . South African Water Research Commission. Retrieved November 26, 2013, from http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Research%20Reports/1772-1-09%20Agricltural%20Water%20Management.pdf

10. The dams article

11. KwaZulu-Natal. Independent Online , 6 Mar. 2011. Web. 1 Dec. 2013. http://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/kwazulu-natal/water-shortages-loom-for-durban-1.1036749#.Upv4g40jjZ6

12. Reuters. Thomson Reuters, 14 Nov. 2009. Web. 1 Dec. 2013. http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/11/14/us-climate-israel-idUSTRE6AD1CG20101114

13. Riccardo Pravettoni, UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2011. South Africa Population Distribution. Web. Retrieved 2 Dec. 2013. http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/south-africa-population-distribution_dbae

14. Jan Hutton, 30 Sept. 2011. Mobile Phones Dominate in South Africa. Web. Retrieved 2 Dec.  2013. http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/newswire/2011/mobile-phones-dominate-in-south-africa.html

15. Robert Burns, 24 May 2012. What is the Best Irrigation Canal Liner? Web. Retrieved 2 Dec. 2013. http://baen.tamu.edu/2012/05/whats-the-best-irrigation-canal-liner/

16. U.S. Energy Information Administration, 17 Jan. 2013. South Africa. Web. Retrieved 2 Dec. 2013. http://www.eia.gov/countries/cab.cfm?fips=SF

17. National Groundwater Association, 2013. Groundwater Use. Retrieved 2 Dec. 2013. http://www.ngwa.org/Fundamentals/hydrology/Pages/Principles-of-induced-infiltration-and-artificial-recharge.aspx

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• Open access
• Published: 05 November 2020

Dam and reservoir removal projects: a mix of social-ecological trends and cost-cutting attitudes

• Michal Habel 1 ,
• Karl Mechkin 2   na1 ,
• Krescencja Podgorska 3   na1 ,
• Marius Saunes 4 ,
• Zygmunt Babiński 1   na1 ,
• Sergey Chalov 5   na1 ,
• Damian Absalon 6   na1 ,
• Zbigniew Podgórski 1 &
• Krystian Obolewski 7  

Scientific Reports volume  10 , Article number:  19210 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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The removal of dams and reservoirs may seem to be an unforeseen and sometimes controversial step in water management. The removal of barriers may be different for each country or region, as each differs greatly in terms of politics, economy and social and cultural awareness. This paper addresses the complex problem of removing dams on rivers and their connected reservoirs. We demonstrate the scales of the changes, including their major ecological, economic, and social impacts. Arguments and approaches to this problem vary across states and regions, depending on the political system, economy and culture, as confirmed by the qualitative and quantitative intensities of the dam removal process and its global geographical variation. The results indicate that the removal of dams on rivers and their connected reservoirs applies predominantly to smaller structures (< 2.5 m). The existing examples provide an important conclusion that dams and reservoirs should be considered with regard to the interrelations between people and the environment. Decisions to deconstruct hydraulic engineering structures (or, likewise, to construct them) have to be applied with scrutiny. Furthermore, all decision-making processes have to be consistent and unified and thus developed to improve the lack of strategies currently implemented across world.

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Introduction.

In a recent publication, Wohl 1 argued that “ Throughout human history, people have settled disproportionally along rivers, relying on them for water supply, transport, fertile agricultural soils, waste disposal, and food from riparian and aquatic organisms .” In addition, she highlights not only the vital role that rivers play in society but also the anthropogenic and negative impacts on rivers’ ecosystems in the last century, which has resulted in an increased risk to human health and wellbeing 2 .

As societies have developed, technology has developed to control rivers to maximize resource extraction (e.g., Erickson 3 ). This complex relation between humans and rivers is a result of a deeply rooted dependency on rivers, which consequently leads to the transformation of natural river landscapes to more anthropogenic landscapes with altered river valleys that characterize the Anthropocene 4 .

Currently, it is difficult to identify river systems that are not to some degree regulated partially (single dams) or completely (cascades) by reservoirs retaining water 5 . Some polar rivers remain in near-pristine condition. According to the Global Reservoir and Dam (GRanD) a database, the highest numbers of reservoirs and dams in the world are in the US, followed by Russia, India, and China. The number of dams and reservoirs with areas exceeding 0.01 ha has been estimated at approximately 16.7 million 5 , with this number constantly increasing. Between 2011 and 2019, 172 new dams were constructed. Only 37% of rivers longer than 1000 kms continue free-flowing for the entirety of their length, and 23% flow unhindered to the ocean 6 . Generally, more than 50% of the large rivers in the world have lost their hydromorphological and ecological continuity 7 . This number will dramatically increase to 93% when considering future planned constructions 8 . The total number of dams in Europe has been estimated at 0.6–1.8 million 9 , approximately 230,000 dams in 13 European countries 10 . In 2018, there were 91,468 dams higher than 7.5 m in the US b .

The new green approaches have led to a new era of dam maintenance and dam removal. Currently, more dams are being removed in North America and Western Europe than are being built 11 , 12 . The economically and socially implied purpose of dams has developed into a challenging question regarding the elimination of existing dams 13 , 14 , 15 . Ding et al. 16 emphasized the difficulty in establishing a reasoning for the removal of dams for each country, as each country differs significantly in terms of politics, economy, and culture. The “common sense” approach has been shifting towards restoring the state of rivers and water systems, but the progress in population growth and increased urbanization has led to a demand for more food, electricity, irrigation and other services provided by rivers.

Therefore, the purpose of this article is to provide an overview of dam and reservoir removal projects, including a summary of the national/regional implications and constraints, and present various case studies of dam and reservoir removal projects. The main objective is to identify the main stakeholders involved in the debate, their arguments, and attitudes towards dam and reservoir removal projects. It is also important to discuss in detail the regionalized attitudes towards this issue, comparing Europe and the US. A general indication of the differences between these two regions is crucial for establishing a mix of social-ecological trends and fiscal attitudes.

As the political, economic, and cultural diversity across countries varies dramatically, it was imperative for the authors of this study to provide a broad understanding and explain the rationale behind different and sometimes contrasting approaches to dam removal. It is also important to distinguish the differences between so-called small/low barriers with a single function and large "dams" with multiple functions.

Results and discussion

Review of experiences with the elimination of dams in the us and europe.

Sudden growth in the construction of small dams began in the nineteenth century in the US. However, not all structures are controlled and registered. Based on the data from the report of the USGS Dam Removal Information Portal (DRIP) c covering the 1912–2013 period and from American Rivers d,e covering the 2013–2019 period, we carried out our own analysis of the removed structure height. In the years 1968–2019, a total of 1654 dams were dismantled, 1250 of them have define height, approximately 86% of which are in fact low barriers (up to 7.5 m high)—43.0% are dams up to 2.5 m high, 42.7% are 2.5–7.5 m high, 10.9% are 7.5–15 m high and less than 1.0% are higher than 15 m (see also Fig.  1 ). Six of the dams removed exceeded 30 m (Table 1 ). Furthermore, 28% of all removed dams were used to produce electric energy, 22% for recreation, 14% for freshwater supply, 13% for mining, 7% for mills and sawmills, and 16% for miscellaneous purposes.

The height of dams removed on rivers in the US and in Europe covering the period between 1968 and 2019 c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j .

The intensified removal of dams on these rivers began in the 1980s (Fig.  2 ). Simultaneously, other reports present dam removal through different lenses 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 . The comparison of the analysis of the time course data of 1072 removed dams in the US shows that the demolition of small dams (< 7.5 m) is consistently increasing trend (Fig.  2 ). If past trends continue, by 2050, the US can expect between 4000 and 36,000 total removals, including 2000–10,000 removals of dams (> 7.5 m—as they are registered) b . The data in these databases c,d,e indicate that 28% of the recently dismantled dams were created before 1900, 50% were built between 1900 and 1940, and 22% were built after 1940. The oldest objects dismantled in 2015 were built in 1750. Only 30% of the dam removal records in American River’s database have at least one reason listed for the dam removal. Of those there are many different reasons provided, including safety, liability, and restoration. Therefore, it is impossible to assume with certainty which cause is the dominant one.

Trends of dams removed on the rivers in the US ( A ) and in Europe ( B ) c,d,e,f, 22 . Data for Europe exclude Sweden, Russia, Wales, and Scotland.

Due to underinvestment, mostly by private owners, dams are often at risk during floods in adjacent waters. In the 1980s, the National Inventory of Dams (NID) b investigated the technical condition of 8800 dams (tests did not apply to barriers lower than 7.5 m), most of which were in private ownership. One-third of these structures were considered unsafe.

The dismantling of two large dams (32 m and 64 m in height) between 2011 and 2014 on the Elwha River in the peripheral areas of the border between the US and Canada was recently declared the most important dam removal project in the US 20 , 23 . Since the 1980s, dam removal has become an issue among the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe and environmental organizations. In 1992, Congress passed the Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries Restoration Act 24 listing the fish populations impacted by two dams 25 and The US Congress decided to allow the federal government to purchase the privately owned dams from a pulp and paper mill company, and a study on the potential impacts of their removal was initiated 20 , 24 , 26 , 27 . Similar issues occurred with a middle-sized concrete dam of the arch type, called San Clemente on the Carmel River in California, subsequently leading to its removal in 2015 (Table 1 ). In 2008, its capacity was only 86,000 m 3 , which constituted 5% of its original volume 15 .

The loss of original volume was observed in reservoirs more than 40 years old in the US, whose cost of restoration would amount to approximately 90% of the price of new objects. Consequently, at the beginning of the 1960s, decisions were made to eliminate some of the medium-sized and large dams 21 .

One of the reasons for the removal of small dams is a concern for public safety 28 . In particular, these low barriers pose a serious threat to river users. Tens of thousands of these dams were built in the US after 1800 to enable the operation of mills, sawmills, and to collect potable and industrial water 29 . From 2000 to 2015, the Association of State Dam Safety Officials (ASDSO) k documented 241 fatalities and 98 injuries in 282 incidents related to individuals crossing small dams of the low-head-dam type (data for 42 states).

European countries lack a uniform system of inventory and monitoring of river dams’ status, and data access is therefore handled within each individual state. Based on the data from the current report of the DRE f and other collected data from governmental institutions h,i,j,l,m,n,o,p,r,s , our own analysis was carried out in terms of the removed dam’s height and the trend in the time of the removals, as well as the intensity of removals. In the years 1996–2019, a total of 342 objects were dismantled, approximately 95% of which are so-called low barriers—similar to the US—54.7% are dams up to 2.5 m high, 40.6% are 2.5–7.5 m high, 2.3% are objects 7.5–15 m high, and 2.0% are higher than 15 m (Fig.  1 ). Only one removed dam exceeded 30 m; the demolition of the dam on the Sélune River in France began in 2019 (Table 2 ). The intensified removal of dams on European rivers began in approximately 2006th (Fig.  2 ) and continued for less than 10 years, with regards to low structures (< 7.5 m). For larger dams, the trend remains at a similar level continuously (Fig.  2 ).

The data collected by the DRE and used in this study usually include the location of each removed dam but information about its height or the date of removal is often unavailable (e.g., in Sweden, Finland, and the UK).

The mass implementation of low artificial river barrier removal is associated with the start of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) (2006/118/EC), which was implemented in 2006 10 , 30 , 31 . The WFD has significantly reinforced the drivers for restoration, thus encouraging the improvement of the ecological status of water bodies. To comply with WFD requirements, the Spanish Ministry of Environmental Affairs (MAPAMA) m developed a National Strategy for River Restoration in 2006, including some of the projects described in this document 32 . The French Ministry of Environment and the Swedish government supported various river restoration projects—for the first time in the EU. The WFD's pioneering water resource management projects, which took place between 2009 and 2015, aimed to increase the importance of a progressive integrative restoration suit 30 .

For the UK, the national database is divided between four independent jurisdictions (Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and England) with individual agencies operating within these four jurisdictions. Data for Northern Ireland were not available for this study. In Scotland, the body responsible for maintaining reservoirs is the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA). Scotland reservoirs are regulated under the Reservoirs Act 33 . Before the act’s enactment, local councils were responsible for collecting data on and maintaining reservoirs and dams. Based on the data from the SEPA covering the 2011–2020 period, four reservoirs were designated discontinued sites: two in 2017, one in 2018, and one in 2019. The height of the dams ranges from 1.2 to 3.0 m. The cubic capacity at the top water level ranges from 40,000 to 95,000,000 m 3 . The oldest dams were constructed in 1863, and the newest dams were constructed in the 1970s (Appendix, Table A1 ).

Natural Resource Wales (NRW) is the institution that collects and maintains data on all reservoirs designed or capable of holding more than 25,000 m 3 of water above the natural level of any part of the land adjoining them defined as “large raised reservoirs” under the Reservoirs Act 34 . Two types of reservoirs are maintained within the register: impounding (dammed) or non-impounding (pumped/unimpeded). The analysed data indicate that the first dams were decommissioned in 1986 and the most recent in 2017. The oldest dam was constructed in 1830, and the newest dam was constructed in 1977. The reservoirs’ capacity ranges from 32,000 to 2,000,000 m 3 . The dam height varies from the smallest dams of approximately 2.0 m to the tallest measured at 20.0 m (Appendix, Table A2 ). The Llaeron 20-m high dam, built in the mid-1860s, was decommissioned in 2019 for safety reasons following the closure of the nearby quarry, emptying the reservoir and leaving the dam structure intact for cultural heritage purposes. Furthermore, the same approach was utilized in the removal of the Ratcoed dam and reservoir (8 m high).

The data available for England, provided by the Environment Agency (EA) h , include only reservoirs with volumes exceeding 25,000 m 3 . Consequently, in certain cases, the implemented actions entail only reducing the amount of retained water to below 25,000 m 3 , thus avoiding the need to comply with regulations on completely dismantling any dams connected to the reservoir, the reduction of barriers, or the reservoir itself. This system of registry therefore does not refer to the height of the dams. According to the acquired data, 251 reservoirs have been reduced since 1984. The oldest of these reservoirs was commissioned in 1758, while the newest was commissioned in 2014. The average age of a reservoir at the time of removing it from the register exceeded 95 years, ranging from 0 to 232 years (Appendix, Table A3 ).

Safety is considered the main reason for dam removal or decommissioning in the UK due to the dam locations in densely populated areas 35 . Other common factors include ecosystem recovery and channel restoration. Additionally, ecosystem services are considered highly important when reasoning over the process of decommissioning/removing dams in the UK 36 .

According to the data for Sweden, received from the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI) i and accessed in 2013, out of 5,280 dams recorded in the register, 557 were dismantled or demolished (Appendix 1, Table A4 ), of which 190 had available data on their height. Out of the 190 with defined heights, only 2 exceeded a value of 7.5 m (10 and 8 m, respectively), which amounts to 1% of the dams in total. Thirteen dams fell within the range of 5–7.5 m, which constitutes less than 7%. Almost half (49%) of the dismantled dams were 2.5–4.9 m high. The remaining 82 dams (43%) did not exceed 2.5 m. As analysed 37 , 38 , the most dams dismantled or considered for dismantling in Sweden are low dams. In this case, safety, law and policy, economy, and ecology are considered major reasons for dam removal.

Swedish findings share similarities with neighbouring Norway, which has 4,758 registered dams in the official database at the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE) j . Among them, 61 dams have been decommissioned, removed, or modernized as of 2019 (Appendix, Table A5 ). The dam size varies in length—from approximately 3–743 m—and height—from approximately 1–25 m. These larger dams (> 5 m) have been decommissioned through a process of sinking or modernized by raising them, such as Inntakskanal Kykelsrud (14.0 m), Store Vargevatn (10.5 m), Stolsvatn (17.0 m), Høgefoss (8.5 m), Embretsfoss (12.5 m), Namsvatn Hoveddam (20.0 m), Skjerkevatn (15.4 m), and Møsvatn (25.0 m) (see Appendix, Table A4 ). The reasoning for the decommissioning or removal process is available for approximately one-third of the cases registered for dam decommissioning or removal 40 . Several considerations are made as the dams are removed, i.e. effects on biodiversity, the public’s use of structures, hydrology, and the cultural heritage associated with the structures. However, whether this is for the purpose of environmental consideration or for securing better public use of the area is not stated clearly in most cases 40 ,j .

The French Ministry of Environment has been working to keep a complete inventory of dams on French rivers. The most recent update in 2017 shows that there are over approx. 90,000 obstacles (all types), and approx. 70,000 of them are dams with weirs. The removal of three dams in the Loire tributaries in 1996–1998 was the first major dam removal operation in France 41 . Saint-Étienne-du-Vigan (12.0 m high), Maisons-Rouges (3.8 m) and Kernansquillec (14.0 m) were demolished and shared common features: poor technical condition, advanced age of the structures, and positive prognosis for rebuilding fish migration.

Poland has 32,972 registered dams in the official database of the State Water Holding Polish Waters (PGW Wody Polskie) n . The OTKZ is the institution that collects and maintains data on all large and large dams. However, the OTKZ o database does not contain any data on demolished reservoirs or dams. Three dams suffered from construction difficulties but were rebuilt. The 10 m high Wilkówka dam with a capacity of 26,200 m 3 (Table 2 ) is being prepared for demolition in 2020. This dam was damaged by a small spring flood in 2019 due to problems with constructional defect. There are several decommissioned dams awaiting an action plan (see Appendix, Table A6 ).

Russia offers a special case of dam removal. Here, during the transition period from the USSR to the Russian Federation and change from state ownership of all hydrotechnical objects to private ownership, many dams lost their status and were thus left unregistered by the authorities. Therefore, the absence of ownership is the main problem with existing dam maintenance, leading to a specific type of dam classification: abandoned (meaning not belonging to an owner). The situation led to a lack of controlled maintenance of such dams and a loss of safety standards. Since the Water Code of the Russian Federation p was adopted, the problem is currently addressed either by registering the ownership rights of the dams or by removing the dams. Additionally, a federal act q formulated the main approaches to abandoned dam removal. All the existing abandoned dams are low dams (< 10 m height) with a capacity of approximately 1–3 million m 3 . No larger dams, to our knowledge, were ever removed within Russia. A recent overview of these approaches has been published t . According to official statistics by the Federal Service for Environmental, Technological and Nuclear Oversight of Russia (FSETNOR), there were 6,816 abandoned low dams in Russia in 2008, and between 2010–2014, 319 to 945 dams were removed annually (Appendix 1, A7 ).

The social-economic issues of dismantling dams: case studies and examples

It is important to emphasize that dam removal projects should consider the interests of different stakeholders.

For 1,100 dams removed before 2016 in the US, only 130 of these removals had any ecological or geomorphic assessments, and less than half of those included before-removal and after-removal studies 43 . As emphasized by Duda et al. 24 , although many dams have been removed in the US, studies assessing ecosystem changes in the physical, biological, and chemical properties of rivers and their final impact on the potential for restoration are limited. After numerous experiences with small dam removal projects in France, new analytical methods were recommended to help understand and interpret this controversy through the use of two complementary approache 44 . The first approach is a geo-historical approach. The second method is based on political ecology. It is based on the assumption, to better understand and interpret the controversy related to the demolition of dams, these two complementary approaches are necessary. It is also important to create optional scenarios by considering short- and long-term effects and presenting the possible course of events both in the case of leaving the dam intact as well as in the case of its removal. Comprehensive plans may present local communities with possibilities related to new forms of development for areas formerly occupied by reservoirs, which may effectively and successfully provide greater social and economic benefits 45 , 46 . Examples of projects involving the dismantling of dams on rivers in the US, Sweden, Finland, Netherlands and France show the significance of societal participation in the decision-making process (Fig.  3 ), although projects become more suited to the general public’s needs 4 .

The course of the formal discussion on the removal of dams in various regions of Europe and in the US: objects of discussion, main causes, participants, and participant involvement.

Research conducted in the Netherlands discerned three types of approaches to projects involving the restoration of water systems: commitment, the appeal of nature, and the rurality of the landscape. The communities representing the commitment and rurality types more noticeably express concerns and opposition against restoration projects or renaturalization 47 . In the US, in New England, local communities make a commitment to the heritage of dams, similar to the European cases 4 , while in the Native American territories, for example, the river Klamath at the border of California and Oregon, there is a more visible difference between indigenous peoples, economically and culturally dependent and spiritually connected to a largely untransformed environment, and settlers pursuing contemporary agriculture 48 . In this case, the decision regarding the demolition of four dams resulted from a consensus found among over twenty groups of stakeholders. In New England, excluding the indigenous peoples, local communities exhibited a considerable commitment to a transformed landscape, often perceived by the general public as natural as well as cultural heritage, in which dams largely shaped an understanding of history and the economy of the region. This phenomenon is reflected, for instance, in the use of dams as symbols in city heraldry 4 . However, the New England region has a number of indigenous people and federally recognized Indian Tribes. One of them has been involved in a significant dam removal project (on the Penobscot River in 2012–2013) 49 .The situation unfolding in the state of Wisconsin was similar to that in New England 50 . Eighty objects with an average height of 4.3 m have been dismantled since 1960. All the dams considered for dismantling no longer served their economic functions, and the costs of their repairs were considerably higher than the costs of demolition 51 . Regardless, there was considerable public opposition to this project. The residents expressed their doubts, such as the value of adjacent real estate after removing the reservoir, proprietary issues from the uncovered land, the loss of recreational functions, or the appearance of the land, fearing the creation of an unappealing wetland 50 . However, as stated by Wyrick et al. 52 , whose research was performed in New Jersey, residents living close to dams considered for dismantling often had high expectations in terms of the biophysical changes to watercourses, as well as an increase in the value of properties and the recreational potential. Another example is the research referring to the social perception of the Mactaquac Dam in New Brunswick (Canada) 53 . The First Nation Tribe called for the removal of the dam. The end result was that it did not happen. Residents desire to keep the structure in place, even after discontinuing energy production.

There are also examples of resistance to demolition, i.e., in France and Sweden. According to the European River Network organization (ERN) s , an example of this phenomenon is the Poutès dam on the Allier River in France. The 20-year fight for the removal of the dam ended at the end of 2011. A compromise was made; the dam will be maintained but will be lowered and extensively modified. Additionally, the Blois dam of the Loire, commissioned in 1970 and immobilized in 2005, awaits a decision about its future.

Furthermore, removing barriers on rivers has financial implications. For example, the estimated cost of repairing the small Gray Reservoir dam (New York; Black River) was 1.5 million (USD), and its removal in 2002 cost 0.3 million (USD) 54 . The French National River Restoration Centre 55 has contributed to the removal of Saint-Étienne-du-Vigan, Maisons-Rouges and Kernansquillec, where the total cost was estimated at 5.3 million (EUR). The removal of the Saint-Étienne-du-Vigan dam caused a neighbouring city to lose significant financial resources. Taxes collected from the dam represented 7.5% of the city’s tax revenues. For the same reasons, in 2007, the 6.1-m Fotou dam was demolished on the Baume River, a tributary of the Loire. The cost of demolition was around € 0.2 million 56 . According to estimates, the total cost of removing dams in the US by 2050 will be between 50.5 million (USD) and 25.1 billion (USD) (mean 10.5 billion (USD), median 416.5 million (USD)), but the removal of large dams would be 10–30 times cheaper than sustaining the repair and maintenance of these dams 54 .

The environmental effects of dismantling dams

The presence of a dam creates at least two different systems with different abiotic and biotic conditions upstream and downstream of the infrastructure 57 . Conceptual models 57 have depicted key physical and biological links driving ecological responses to remove dams 58 . Decision-makers have to consider a number of technical and environmental concerns, such as the magnitude and rate of erosion of the material accumulated in reservoirs, transport of suspension and accumulation of debris downstream of the dam, the impact of a drop in the water table on water management and infrastructure upstream of the dam and possible expansions of invasive and alien species 59 . Furthermore, the demolishing process itself constitutes a great risk to the environment, depending on the type of procedures and materials (e.g., type of fuels, explosives, etc.) used in the demolition process 45 . Nitrogen flux and eutrophication in coastal watersheds can have a possible negative environmental impact especially for small estuaries 60 . In the case of ichthyofauna and benthos, the removal of the dam led to a major transformation of fish communities. At the same time, due to the activation of debris accumulated in the reservoir, a temporary deterioration of the living conditions of species inhabiting river segments downstream of the dismantled dam should be considered 61 . Long-term research performed in Denmark indicates a considerable increase in the population of sea trout, both upstream and downstream of the removed dam, regardless of minor changes in the quality of the habitat. In most cases, removing the barrier on the river has an impact on how quickly it can be colonized by fish communities 43 . Examples show that recolonization by migratory fish was observed in the first year after dismantling the structures 20 , 61 . Noble fish species appeared, such as sea trout, salmon, and cyprinids endemic species 14 . However, research has proven that the removal of two barriers on the Wolf River (Wisconsin, US) did not result in a substantial increase in fish movement or the immediate colonization of newly accessible habitat 62 . In Sweden, dam removal reduced some macroinvertebrate taxa at the downstream site and found a reduction of taxonomic richness and that same dam removal effects persisted or even increased over time 63 . Three reaches of the Olentangy River (Ohio, US) noticed an initial drop in macroinvertebrates between ~9 and ~15 months after dam removal, and all variables consistently increased thereafter 64 .

For example, in the Great Lakes region (US), artificial barriers such as dams can limit the dispersal of exotic species, and here, removing dams could harm native fish 65 . In this context, a holistic approach was suggested (not just a barrier decommissioning) between flow regulation and an active eradication of exotic fish in Arizona streams (US) for the successful conservation of native species 66 .

The recovery in terms of longitudinal connectivity allows new dam permeability along the fluvial system in terms of species movements and dispersion 67 . Especially interesting in this context is the case studies in Spain, i.e. performed along the Segura basin (SE Spain) 31 and in Northern Spain (Enobieta dam, Navarra), a promising experiment studying the effects of emptying a reservoir completely on the aquatic communities and water quality before the planned dismantling has recently been completed 68 .

The case of restoring the abiotic environment seems, in general, particularly challenging, with contrasting experiences worldwide. In most cases, analysis of dams dismantled so far indicated that there was a quick initiation of the erosion process of the reservoir's sediments 23 . Depending on the structure of accumulated sediments, the dam dismantling options and the spatially diverse reactions of the environment, the river system was rapidly restored each time. However, each case should be investigated separately due to the geographic context, the nature of the river, and the development of nearby land 43 . Mechanical removal of sediments has the smallest impact on the downstream ecosystem, but it is the most expensive option. On the other hand, the spontaneous erosion/removal of reservoir sediments by a restored fluvial system has a negative environmental impact downstream of the removed structure, but it is the least expensive option 23 . A properly selected option for the removal of hydrotechnical objects (partial removal, slow, fast) limits the influence (manner) of the eroded sediments on the contamination of the environment downstream 23 , 69 . For example, to retain polluted sediment in the reservoir, not complete demolition of the Enobieta dam (Spain) 68 . Concerning the removal of materials, different behaviours have been described. In some cases, quick removal has been observed, such as in the Grangeville and Lewiston dams on the Idaho Clearwater River (US), where the bottom material was removed from the reservoir trough within a week e . Otherwise, a very slow sediment emptying can also be observed, e.g., after dismantling the Newaygo Dam—Muskegon River (Michigan, US), the emptying of the debris may last 50–80 years 70 . In some cases, where sediment in the reservoir is coarse-grained and minimal, and downstream areas are resistant to erosion, there is little channel morphology responses. This effect was achieved after the removal of two dams on the Penobscot River in Maine in the US (Great Works and Veazie dams—6 and 10 m high) 71 . Although in general, there are some negative ecological effects of the demolition of dams, it has been observed that these impacts on river ecosystems are tendentially short-lived.

An example is the Elwha River, where, as presented by Duda et al. 20 , "restoration has seen both early successes and setbacks, with the ultimate outcomes and lessons to unfolding in the coming decades". During the first five years after the dams were removed, 65% of the sediment (approximately 15.5–19.3 million tonnes) was released 22 and transported down the river 69 . The time period of negative impacts from sedimentation in the Elwha due to dam removal appears to have passed 23 .

Decision-making processes: highlighting the differences between Europe and the US

In our assessment, we show that there are noticeable differences in social and economic trends in the US and Europe in the removal of barriers on rivers and reservoirs. These differences become even more noticeable when larger water objects are removed. Low barriers have been removed both in US and Europe due to a long time of low economic benefits. Besides, their removal can be achieved at a low cost while providing significant environmental benefits 58 . Nevertheless, removal projects in different countries occur in different time scales. The trend of removal in the US was steadily increasing over time, whereas in Europe the increase from 2 to a maximum of 45 removed barriers annually happened in 2006–2014 (Fig.  2 ) due to economic and political guidelines from the European Commission 30 . There is a noticeable correlation between the implementation of the provisions of the Water Framework Directive and the launch of EU structural funds from the 2007–2013 perspective and the number of dams removed.

The provisions of the EU WFD indicated, inter alia, that by 2015, it was necessary to achieve a good water status. In addition, the two geographic regions differ in terms of dam ownership. In the US, most of the large dams are privately owned (according to NID, NABD and American Rivers) and are "ageing", and the trend in the number of structures dismantled is steadily increasing (Fig.  2 ). In Europe, it is mostly national governments that control dams and reservoirs or share the facility in public–private partnerships. In Europe, in the case of the EU member states, the maintenance of the hydroelectric structure took an approach to be achieved "at all costs". Investments in the water sector are subsidized with cheap loans by the European Commission and European Investment Bank (EIB) 72 . In Europe, reservoirs have been present since the medieval cultural landscape 73 ; in the US, the history of documenting reservoirs began in the first half of the nineteenth century 17 . In the US, for example, in indigenous territory, artificial reservoirs are not historical objects; hence, the participation of stakeholders (indigenous peoples) in the discussion of dam removal is prevalent 4 , 20 . A different example on the American continent is New England, where a more European approach to dam and reservoir maintenance is represented 4 .

Based on the literature review, we revised arguments for and against in the public debate on the demolition of dams and the removal of reservoirs in Europe and the US (Table 3 ). In both the US and European countries, the most common criteria for removal is in the case of small and large dams are the loss of their original function and the loss of utility (functional purpose). There are arguments for the reconstruction of the fish migration path and poor technical condition, which may result in potential future failure. This is especially the case when considering complex facilities in urban areas, where security issues are considered the main reason for the removal or dismantling of dams 36 . In countries undergoing continuous economic transformation, problems arise with abandoned post-industrial water facilities. This problem affects Russia to a large extent, where removal of the abandoned "wrecks" of communism began in 2006. In the case of European countries, the strong economic dependence on existing large dams is apparent. Often, demolition is considered an unnecessary cost; instead, a new dam is built directly below or above, as in the case of Norwegian dams (e.g., Kykelsrud, Store Vargevatn, Namsvatn Hoveddam, Skjerkevatn) and German dams (e.g., Herbringhauser). In the US, there are examples of the removal of over a hundred barriers on rivers in New England 4 , eighty in Wisconsin 50 , and planned to remove four large dams on the Klamath River, on the border of Oregon and California 48 ; one of the decisive criteria for removal was the high cost of modernization (Table 3 ). In both the US and Europe, indigenous peoples support the removal of barriers on rivers. In the case of the projects to dismantle the dams on the Elwha and Klamath rivers, Native Americans participated from the beginning of the process, raising the argument for recovering the lands, the possibility of salmon fishing and the importance of culture and beliefs 29 , 48 . In Northern Europe, Sweden's and Norwegian's indigenous Sámi people, in turn, have insisted on the economic benefit of removing the dams in the form of regaining valuable pasture lands and the possibility of removing barriers to the seasonal migration of reindeer 74 . The main arguments against dam removal are the loss of cultural heritage, the sentimental and emotional attachment to the dam and reservoir, concerns about pollution and landscape deterioration, the fear of river disappearance and the emergence of unattractive wetlands, and the associated decline in land value. Concerns about the deterioration of the quality of the environment are justified, example of high pollutant concentrations below of the decommissioned the Enobieta dam 68 . Research in New England indicates the need for a better estimate of pollutant release following demolition 60 . Only where projects have undergone thorough scientific research does criticism dissipate from the discussion, e.g., the project on the Elwha River or the Tikkurila dam in Finland. In the case of the Elwha River, one approach was to collect as many basic studies as possible prior to removal 20 . The process before the removal of the Tikkurila dam was certainly shorter than that on the Elwha River, but the similarity of actions undertaken is clear 75 . Other arguments against dam removal include the high costs of river demolition and restoration or opposition to the monopolization of the river's functions as a migration route for selected fish species at the expense of the utility functions of storage reservoirs. In particular, the argument that the river should serve the wider community and not only selected fish species was raised during projects on the Selune River 76 and the Allier River in France (European River Network report) s and during projects in Sweden 37 , 38 . Experience from New England shows that in some cases, it is worthwhile to undertake alternatives to dam removal that can maintain the reservoir while improving fish flow and safety 60 . For example, a compromise was reached with the Poutes dam on the River Allier in France, where instead of being removed, the dam was modernized. We have demonstrated the course of the decision-making process in Fig.  3 . We found the main reasons for the formal discussion to be the devaluation of functions, cost-cutting attitude, technical conditions, and ecological issues. The rank of the function depends on whether a large dam with a multifunctional reservoir or a low barrier is to be removed for stream metabolism improvement and stream ecosystem productivity. The main stakeholders participating throughout the process and their attitudes are as follows: (1) administration (national-regional-local level), politicians, scientific experts and businesspeople, who represent neutral/mixed attitudes, especially businesspeople and politicians, depending on their location; (2) environmental organizations and indigenous peoples, who are consistently concerned with removing barriers from rivers; and (3) local communities, usually those in the vicinity of dams and reservoirs, which are opposed to their removal (Fig.  3 ). A clear division in the regions into characteristic groups of countries representing the attitudes of their stakeholders is noticeable. The US is the only region in which all stakeholders participate in the process. However, it cannot be said that this is an optimal option for removing dams. It was highlighted by Fox et al. 4 , Germaine and Lespez 76 that the involvement of too many stakeholders extends the process, and conflicts growing over time often shift decision-making towards public administration and political actors.

Predominantly, public administration has considerable decision-making power in all the countries and regions considered in this study, mainly due to its control of the legal and financial instruments to carry out the relevant projects. An interesting example of this occurs in Central and Eastern European countries, including Poland. Despite integration with the European Union in 2005, the number of stakeholders in the decision-making process surrounding dam removals remains limited, and the entire responsibility for the decision lies with the public administration. Therefore, it can be concluded that the decision-making mechanisms and the level of ecological awareness have changed only slightly even though 30 years have passed since the political transformation in Poland. The analysis of the attitudes of stakeholders in individual countries in Europe also shows that there is no uniform implementation of the procedures in water management and protection of the aquatic environment developed in the EU, and the pattern of the decision-making process in removing dams involving wider stakeholder participation, such as that in the US, has yet to be achieved. An important element would therefore be developing the rules (procedures) for public participation in the process of creating, modernizing, or liquidating water reservoirs from the concept stage to the implementation stage. Currently, in the EU, public participation in this area is marginalized 47 and is most often limited to public consultations when obtaining decisions on environmental conditions—a formal requirement of the Water Framework Directive.

It should be emphasized that the model for the decision-making process in the US should be used for future activities in this area of expertise. Therefore, holistic approaches considering the entire river system with a deep and detailed understanding of local features are recommended (e.g., the presence of invasive species upstream and the potential consequences on other downstream infrastructure indirectly affected). An example of this is the catchment area of the Willamette River in Oregon (US), where active management would enable the restoration of the continuity of 52% of the watercourses, with a drop in the production of electric energy and stored water by only 1.6% 78 . Another example highlighting the negative effects is the selective removal of dams in the Allier River basin in France, where the removal of a single dam did not solve the problem of the lack of a river continuum (FNRRC) 55 .

This review has shown that there are no complete statistical databases for removed dams on rivers. The research revealed that data may be sparse, even on the national level. In the UK, Norway, and Sweden, some dams have been decommissioned, not physically removed; rather, their height has been lowered to a level where they no longer fit the safety standards set for dams and lose their classifications as dams. Additionally, the poor technical condition of some dams in these countries will result in these dams being abandoned. Nevertheless, they are registered as decommissioned despite only being abandoned. This is the case with post-Soviet dams in Russia, where the removal of such structures is on-going but has affected only small structures so far. So-called small object dams are still being built in Russia, Poland and Norway, and these countries are also characterized by a very strong commitment to the maintenance of obsolete dams through refurbishment.

Two accessible information sources are American Rivers and the DRE. These organizations store data about the name and location of the dam, the name of the river, sometimes the height of the dam, and what the dam was made of. The DRE dam removal list is not really a database, but simply a map-based resource. However, the presentation of general data (a mix of information on the removal of culverts, thresholds, small barriers and large dams) may certainly drive the boom to shorten the lifespan of structures on rivers.

Large dams in the US are still in operation, and those that were removed had suffered technical problems or were abandoned. However, none of the dismantled constructions had been located on main navigational waterways. Only 14 large dams have been removed of the 91,486 registered in the US. Examples include decommissioned dams and reservoirs full of sediments that were unable to provide the population with sufficient water volumes; thus, they had ceased to fulfil their original function, or their function had depreciated over time. The situation in Europe is comparable, as 12 large dams have been removed so far, and the scheduled deconstructions of larger facilities cover only those that are completely worn out. Certain EU countries, such as Poland, and the Russian Federation still develop programmes aimed at constructing large dams.

The identification of various groups of interest, a multiple-criterion analysis of social needs and options for their satisfaction, and the use of decision support tools facilitate indications of strategic priorities and a final decision to remove or spare a dam, river barrier, or associated reservoirs. These actions should be preceded by comprehensive familiarity with natural and anthropogenic conditions, the size and type of the structures, and their intended use and impact, all of which show significant geographical variability across the globe and regionally (e.g., the functions of the structures, their cultural and historical context, their safety and their technical condition). In terms of water management, dam removal poses a challenge for river management plans.

We identified dam removal studies published through February 28, 2020, using available scientific journal databases, Google Scholar, and Researchgate. However, the most important sources for this study were governmental and nongovernmental databases. In this work, we depended on four types of databases maintained by governments with free access to data: unpublished government data with sectorial consent for the use of data, such as the Open Government License; nonprofit organizations; and scientific research projects. The first group of databases is as follows: the National Anthropogenic Barrier Dataset (NABD) (US); National Inventory Dams (NID) (US); USGS Dam Removal Information Portal (DRIP); Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) (US); and the Association of State Dam Safety Officials (ASDSO) (US). The second group of databases is as follows: Environmental Agency (EA) (England); Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA); Natural Resource Wales (NRW); Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI); Spain Ministry of Agriculture and Fishing, Food and Environment (MAPAMA); Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE); French National River Restoration Centre (FNRRC);Dam Monitoring Centre of the Polish Institute of Meteorology and Water Management—National Research Institute (OTKZ); State Water Holding Polish Waters (PGW WP); and the Federal Service for Environmental, Technological and Nuclear Oversight of Russia (FSETNOR). The nonprofit organization databases were as follows: American Rivers; Dam Removal Europe (DRE); European River Network (ERN). The scientific project databases were as follows: Global Reservoir and Dam (GRanD) and AMBER. We applied the information from the databases to graphically analyse the number of removed dams, the cumulative number of removals by year, and the distribution of dam heights for removal. We also identified the set of determinants responsible for the implementation of disposal projects. Scientific journal data were applied to determine the main social, economic, and environmental impacts.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to sincerely thank the institutions and people who prepared the data for us and made it available to us, Mrs. Kathy Banner from the Natural Resources Wales (NRW); Mr. Jamie Reid from the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA); Mr. Wojciech Skowyrski from State Water Holding Polish Waters (PGW WP); Mr. Rober Gil from Dam Monitoring Centre of Polish Institute of Meteorology and Water Management—National Research Institute (OTKZ); Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI), Spain Ministry of Agriculture and Fishing, Food and Environment (MAPAMA) and Federal Service for Environmental, Technological and Nuclear Oversight of Russia. The study is co-financed under the program of the Minister of Science and Higher Education under the name “Regional Initiative of Excellence” in 2019–2022 (project 008/RID/2018/19). Sergey Chalov is supported by Russian Fund for Basic Research (project 18-05-60219).

Author information

These authors contributed equally: Karl Mechkin, Krescencja Podgorska, Zygmunt Babiński, Sergey Chalov and Damian Absalon.

Authors and Affiliations

Institute of Geography, Kazimierz Wielki University, 85-033, Bydgoszcz, Poland

Michal Habel, Zygmunt Babiński & Zbigniew Podgórski

Faculty of Socio-Economic Geography and Spatial Management, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61-680, Poznań, Poland

Karl Mechkin

Geography and Environment, School of Social Sciences and Humanities, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK

Krescencja Podgorska

School of Computing, Engineering and Built Environment, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, G4 0BA, Scotland, UK

Marius Saunes

Faculty of Geography, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation, 119991

Sergey Chalov

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M.H. conceived the overall study concept and approach; M.H., K.M., K.O., K.P., M.S., S.C., and D.A. contributed to data collection and analyzed the results; M.H., K.M., K.O., S.C., Z.B. and Z.P. wrote the manuscript, with all authors contributing to manuscript revisions; M.H., Z.B. and Z.P. attracted funds for the project. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

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Habel, M., Mechkin, K., Podgorska, K. et al. Dam and reservoir removal projects: a mix of social-ecological trends and cost-cutting attitudes. Sci Rep 10 , 19210 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-76158-3

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ASSESSING SUSTAINABILITY OF RURAL WATER PROJECTS IN NAIVASHA, KENYA, CASE STUDY: MARAIGUSHU WATER PROJECT

As the world hurried to achieve the millennium Development Goal number 7 which aimed at halving the population accessing safe and improved drinking water, many water development projects were undertaken in the developing countries and indeed in Kenya. Now that these target has been attained, the challenge remains to ensure that these projects benefits are sustained and that they continue to offer the benefits of clean water services to the communities served without compromising future generation's ability to enjoy such benefits. The first step towards sustained access to safe water services is to draw an understanding of the current situation, by identifying and addressing the gaps in service delivery and the institutional capacity. Maraigushu water project is a case example of rural water projects that has been in existence for almost two decades and continues to provide services to the community. For over twenty years, this project has been managed by the community. Since its inception, no systematic assessment has been conducted to establish its sustainability. The researcher undertook this research with the goal of assessing the water project sustainability. The study employed a mixed method comprising of a household survey. Water committee members were interviewed for key project information, documents reviewed and physical assessment of the water project conducted. Data was analyzed using Stata 10. With reference to the conceptual framework underpinning the relevance of the study, through the use of ordinal logistic regression, it has been possible to demonstrate the extent to which " Sustainability " as the dependent variable is related to " Community participation " , " Management factor " and " Technical factor ". In most cases, it is observed that the relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable exist at 95% level of confidence. The management factors were observed to deserve in improvement in order to further enhance this project's sustainability.

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Case Study: Khato Civil’s 100km Water Pipeline Project in Botswana

Dr Mokgweetsi Masisi, President of Botswana has praised Khato Civils for delivering the 100km-long Masama-Mmamashia pipeline ahead of schedule, averting a water supply crisis that would have crippled business in the capital city of Botswana.

Engagement with local communities and a commitment to creating local job opportunities were key elements in Khato’s successful project delivery. The approach won praise from the highest levels of government.

President Masisi said “I wish to urge other contractors to complete government projects on time and within budget. 

“The pipeline did not only improve the reliability of water supply but also enhanced the socioeconomic status of the people living along the pipeline corridor. 

“I am informed that more than 700 Botswana, both skilled and unskilled, were employed during the construction of the project.”

Good morning. I am deeply honoured to be at the Mmamashia Water Treatment Plant this morning to officially open the 100km Masama-Mmamashia Water Pipeline & infrastructure. This is yet another project delivered. Next will be Gamononyane-Molepolole & Lobatse Water Masterplan. 🇧🇼 pic.twitter.com/tTslyJdiqp — Dr. Mokgweetsi E.K Masisi (@OfficialMasisi) October 15, 2021

Facing Up To Botswana’s Water Crisis

Globally, leaders are searching for solutions to an ever-growing water supply crisis. The world faces a severe water shortage by 2030 , and with climate change exacerbating the situation, Africa is likely to bear the brunt. 

Over 300 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa lack access to clean drinking water and over 700 million live without access to good sanitation.

According to the World Resources Institute , Botswana faces the highest levels of water stress in Africa.

Botswana is situated on an arid landscape and has suffered from a perennial water problem for many decades. It enjoys scarce surface water supplies and a flat terrain that is mostly unsuitable for reservoirs.

In 1990, Botswana acknowledged that it needed to upgrade its water infrastructure and began a 30-year plan. However, implementation of the plan proved challenging.  

In 2015, Gabarone started experiencing rolling water outages. Climate change, population growth and demands from industry and farming were combining to place unmanageable stress on the water supply. It was a situation that distressed residents in the capital city of a nation considered one of the wealthiest and best-run in Africa, threatening to reverse decades of economic growth. 

At the time Botswana had access to water sitting in dams in the north but faced an inability to move it down to Gaborone in the south. The real problem facing the nation was a lack of infrastructure, rather than a lack of water.

The North-South Carrier pipeline project was established as Botswana’s means of moving that water from the north of the county to the south. The NSC is the largest engineering project ever undertaken in Botswana and was divided into two phases called NSC-1 and NSC-2.

However, Ntshambiwa Moathodi, Technical Services Director of the Water Utilities Corporation explained “NSC 2 was supposed to be completed in 2008 but that hasn’t been the case. The situation necessitated the construction of the Mmamashia project to address the water shortages in Greater Gaborone.”  

The greater Gaborone area has a population of around 700,000 people who need a supply of 179 million litres of water per day. The supply of water prior to the 100km pipeline project was 130 million litres a day.

Given the failure of successive administrations to resolve the situation, water supply became the key issue in the 2019 elections and a major campaign item for all the presidential aspirants. The Emergency Water Security and Efficiency Project, with its deadline to address water shortages by 2021, was a central point of national debate. 

The issue became a key campaign promise for the current administration, helping it win the 2019 election.

Hon. Kefentse Mzwinila, Minister of Land Management, Water and Sanitation Services, described the task facing Khato Civils as an emergency project at a time of crisis, saying “Botswana is dealing with a serious water deficit and the contractor is taking on an emergency project. The crisis has been compounded by the pandemic and the situation has been dire.

“If the water crisis is not addressed soon, other sectors of the economy will be hampered. The planned Lobatse Special Economic Zone focusing specifically on meat and leather beneficiation will be dysfunctional without adequate water supply and thus hinder employment creation.

“Some of the infrastructure projects being undertaken such as the construction of the Moshupa Hospital will also be in jeopardy without enough water supply. Other projects are also dependent on the contractor to complete the water project on time.” 

The 100km pipeline project, if delivered according to plan, would resolve the 49 million litre daily shortfall facing Greater Gabarone by bringing an extra 74 million litres of water per day to the area.

Khato Civils entered the project tasked with ensuring the national government would deliver on its election promises to the people of Botswana.

Project Overview

Water Utilities Corporation in Botswana commissioned Khato Civils to design and construct a transmission water pipeline of approximately 100 km from Masama Well fields to Mmamashia Water Treatment Plant in Gaborone. The pipeline will provide water to Botswana’s capital Gaborone and 23 villages.

Khato Civils CEO Mongezi Mnyani said of the project “The biggest highlight of 2021 was working to ensure we complete the 100km project there on time. It’s been a challenging period with lots of sacrifices that have ended up paying dividends. I am glad to say that water is now flowing freely in the greater Gaborone area thanks to the project. The project had many detractors in the beginning but we rose to the occasion and got it done. We solved the challenges that we came across and ended up completing the project in record time.”

Pillars of Success

The success of the project can be put down to three pillars that define Khato’s approach to work:

Local Community Engagement and Conflict Mitigation

Site management: human resources & strong supply chains, ownership of state of the art technology.

“Our approach was to reduce cases of conflict as much as we could. Our recruitment system had to change and become more inclusive.

“We ensured that we had workers from each village where the pipeline was crossing through. We had to train all the recruits because some had not worked on such a project before. We have adopted a policy that ensures we hire locals wherever we work. We can’t just parachute our staff from site to site without being sensitive to the employment needs of locals.

“We have seen conflicts arise where locals feel international contractors and foreign interests are being imposed on them without any consultation. International companies are welcome if you ask me, but they must be willing to listen to locals while also involving local contractors. Consultation must begin before the project has begun and it must be a series of meetings.

“Anyone who thinks that one meeting with local leaders and other stakeholders will do may just have to learn the hard way. We as a company have a division that meets with the local leadership in the places we work. The members of staff we send to those meetings are always people who speak the language and have an idea of the cultural norms.

“We love to initiate dialogues and listen to their needs and concerns. We also screen local people, train them and hire them for our local projects. We also keep people posted on our progress and ensure that we empower the locals. We empower the locals by spending money with local businesses for materials, food and even accommodation.”

Mr Mnyani further explains in a feature on AfricaLive the five threats to African infrastructure that come from the lack of local participation and leadership in infrastructure projects.

“We have improved our skills as well when it comes to dealing with our workers. Hiring people on payroll is not that efficient for us because they clock out when their hours have passed. Some of the local labourers have made a habit of clocking out at 5 PM whether the work for the day is done or not. We have tackled that by grouping workers into consortiums.

“The consortiums are paid an agreed amount when certain project goals are hit. Our workers are now led by goals and incentives and not by time worked. This has helped us move faster while also getting high-quality work done. We have also improved our communications with suppliers. Suppliers can hinder a project if they don’t supply materials on time and that has to be addressed through forming great relationships. It’s all about improving skills to make sure we are better with every coming project.”

“We acquired Tesmec Trencher machines which have helped set us apart from our competition. The machines helped us trench faster and move quicker. Each of the machines, which we acquired from Italy, can trench three kilometres a day on soft terrain and one and a half kilometres in hard rocky terrain. This is a big improvement from our previous capacity.

“We acquired eight of them with two deployed here in South Africa, four in Botswana and two in Malawi ahead of a new project there. The machines are efficient and easy to use with the ability to do three to five kilometres a day. We love their ability to handle rocks because they save us the additional costs of blasting through rocks.

“Using the latest technologies is critical for the success of any construction project. We must also venture into new areas that are beyond our comfort zone for us to grow. New trends are also worth looking at especially when it comes to new technologies from Europe and Asia. We have to emulate the Chinese for example because of their success in projects. A lot of their success has to do with the constant adoption of new technologies which help them work fast without compromising quality.”

Significant Budget Savings Passed to National Government

Ntshambiwa Moathodi, Technical Services Director at the Water Utilities Corporation’s director, explained that Khato Civils had saved the government P1.2 billion (106m USD) compared to the usual costs of similar large scale water projects in the country.

Mr Moathodi added “You will see in the next two years, we will be delivering similar projects just as cost-effective, there is no doubt we can bring down the cost of mega water projects”

Re e weditse!! Water Utilities Corporation's Technical director Ntshambiwa Moathodi talks on how cost effective the Khato Civils' way of project implementation is. #Masama #Mmamashia #Reeweditse #Botswana #KhatoInBotwsana pic.twitter.com/1kqX8FQKGo — Khato Civils (@KhatoCivils) October 12, 2021

Project Impact

Hon. Kefentse Mzwinila , Botswana’s Minister of Land Management, Water and Sanitation Services , spoke of the impact that the project will have for the people of Botswana saying that “there are significant water shortages in the area and the completion of this project will alleviate those.”

The project will bring a significant socio-economic benefit to the region and Khato Civils are working to attract funding to address Africa’s annual $35bn water infrastructure deficit. In Forbes Africa magazine, Khato Civils Chairman Simbi Phiri highlighted that every $1 spent on water infrastructure brings between $3 and $24 of economic benefits.

However, it is by creating economic opportunities for Africans and mentoring younger firms in the sector that Khato Civils looks to build a legacy on the continent.

Chairman Simbi Phiri explains “I absolutely believe that African business leaders have a responsibility to reinvest in the next generation. If we don’t, there will be a major vacuum. If my generation is on its way out, there must be a new one coming in.

I want to ensure that more than ten big black-owned construction companies are built, thanks to my influence before I retire.  I emphasise black-owned, to counter racist notions that have been propagated in the past that dark-skinned people cannot build. Lack of entrepreneurial flair amongst black people is caused by a shortage of entrepreneurial black success stories.

When black people succeed in their numbers, it will change a lot of mindsets. Local people succeeding will ensure that we have local companies ready to participate in national development. This will help avoid a scenario where only foreign companies are building our infrastructure. We should never allow any foreign companies to come and build infrastructure in Africa without the participation of local firms. Our local firms must also have the drive to learn and the ability to apply themselves properly.

We plan to expand into 42 African countries and give 30 per cent of each project to local companies. We plan to allocate resources to a few local companies in each of those countries to expose them properly. They will come in and see how we work and how we prepare. “

CNBC Africa recently highlighted Khato Civils drive to mentor new African firms as it expands across the continent.

On Instagram: Simbi Phiri explains what is needed to deliver on African infrastructure megaprojects.

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Environmental Impact Assessment of Water Resource Projects

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• Jitesh N. Vyas 12 ,
• Supriya Nath 12 ,
• Dudekula Nikhil Kumar 12 ,
• R. B. Deogade 12 &
• Prabhat Chandra 12  

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering ((LNCE,volume 314))

Included in the following conference series:

• International Conference on Hydraulics, Water Resources and Coastal Engineering

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Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a tool to ensure sustainable development by assessing the impact of activities or projects on the environment. The goal of an EIA is to anticipate and address any potential environmental issues that may occur as a result of the proposed development during the planning and design phase of the project. EIA is used to predict and suggest ways to reduce adverse impacts of the project for maximum social and economic benefit with minimum environmental impact due to the project. EIA plays a significant role in determining the sustainability of the proposed project and helps decision-makers accept or reject the proposed project based on the EIA report. In this paper, EIAs conducted on various water resource projects across India in recent years were studied. The methodology followed for the EIA study in India has been discussed, and the findings of various projects were analysed by comparing them with the guidelines by MoEF. The reports on water resource projects were reviewed, and the findings have been discussed in the context of physicochemical analysis and biological parameters.

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Pandey KM, Ajoy D, Hirakjyoti D, Amitava R, Writuparna N (2013) Environmental impact assessment and management: protecting ecology in North-East India. J Environ Res Dev 7:1459

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Jitesh N. Vyas, Supriya Nath, Dudekula Nikhil Kumar, R. B. Deogade & Prabhat Chandra

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Vyas, J.N., Nath, S., Kumar, D.N., Deogade, R.B., Chandra, P. (2023). Environmental Impact Assessment of Water Resource Projects. In: Timbadiya, P.V., Patel, P.L., Singh, V.P., Barman, B. (eds) Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics. HYDRO 2021. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, vol 314. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9151-6_47

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Can Chennai handle its primary monsoon?

Since 2015, the fear of flooding past continues to haunt the people of chennai each year. residents continue to wonder if they will be safe during the northeast monsoon..

Updated - August 25, 2024 07:32 am IST

Published - August 25, 2024 04:47 am IST

An invisible bridge: The Saidapet road bridge, over the Adyar river, was completely submerged on December 2, 2015 as the floodgates of the Chembarambakkam lake were opened. An elevated section of the metro line, currently under construction, was also affected. | Photo Credit: B. Jothi Ramalingam

Sholinganallur

In 2015, Sholinganallur faced severe flooding with water levels reaching up to 3-4 feet and water stagnation lasted for 7-10 days.

An aerial view of marooned Sholinganallur in Chennai on December 7, 2015. | Photo Credit: S.R. Raghunathan

The situation in 2023 was similar, with water levels again around 3-4 feet and stagnation lasting 5-7 days

Essential services such as electricity and water supply were severed.

Many were forced to move to b shelters and hotels.

The illegal sewage let out from several homes at the IT corridor, which has been facing rapid urbanisation, mixed with rainwater worsened the situation.

Greater Chennai Corporation (GCC) has proposed stormwater drains under the Kovalam Basin project. Further, CMDA has proposed to restrict construction around the Pallikaranai marsh that receives rainwater from this area among many others.

Though not typically prone to flooding, saw water levels reach 2-3 feet during the 2015 floods, with stagnation lasting 5-6 days, but the situation was better in 2023 — when water levels were about two feet high near Tamil Salai (Halls Road), with stagnation lasting 3-5 days.

Railway tracks are marooned at Egmore Railway Station in Chennai on December 3, 2015. | Photo Credit: The Hindu

The flooding was owing to blockages in the local drainage systems, and the overflow of the Adyar River.

In both years, essential services such as power, water supply and food were strained but not completely shut down since there are hospitals, locals mentioned.

The GCC has begun desilting drains from July to avoid blockages this year.

Around Egmore, the projects are: construction of stormwater drains along Police Commissioner Office road, Tamil road, Egmore High Road, Velayutham street, Koyathoppu, for a length of 1.91 km at a cost of Rs.2.06 crore. Drains have been constructed along Pantheon Road and Montieth Road, linking it to the Cooum River. Digging of roads by TNEB is under way. It is expected to be completed ahead of the onset of the monsoon.

Kodungaiyur

It has been witnessing severe flooding each year, but 4-5 feet water stagnation lasting over 10 days in 2015.

Rain water overflowing from a manhole during the heavy rains at Kodungaiyur in Chennai on December 3, 2015. | Photo Credit: B. Jothi Ramalingam

In 2023, similar issues led to water levels of 3-4 feet and stagnation for 7-8 days.

Even the GCC’s dumpyard faced flooding. A low-lying area, that has poorly maintained drainage systems — both for sewage and stormwater — and heavy siltation in drains was cited as a reason. Developments over an alleged water body in this area were mentioned to be the issue for repeated flooding.

The AE Koil Street in Kodungaiyur area was heavily inundated during the 2022 monsoon.

A sump to collect the rainwater and pump sets of capacity 30 HP and 25 HP will be used to bail out rainwater from AE koil street in Kodungaiyur. Two 40 HP pump sets have been installed and a new storm water drain has been constructed for a length of 2.7 km at a cost of Rs. 16.76 crore to drain rainwater to the sea.

The GCC is constructing stormwater drainage systems under the Kosasthalaiyar Basin project. Meanwhile, continuous road digging to install drains has been mentioned as a hassle for residents currently.

Another low-lying area next to a lake, it experienced water levels of 3-4 feet during the 2015 floods, with stagnation lasting 8-9 days. In 2023, water levels rose to around 3 feet, with stagnation lasting 6-7 days.

An aerial view of marooned Porur area in Chennai on December 6, 2015. | Photo Credit: Special Arrangement

The flooding was caused by inadequate drain systems, blocked existing SWDs and the heavy inflow of water from Porur Lake. Porur Junction was flooded during the monsoon due to ongoing construction work by CMRL along the entire stretch of Porur.

WRD has proposed improvements for Porur lake.

It was suggested to install a 600 m pipeline along Arcot road from Porur Junction to Vanagaram, along with the installation of two 100 HP pump sets.

Additionally, it was proposed to install a 100 HP pump set to drain water from Porur Junction to Mount Poonamallee Road.

Again, an area abutting a lake, in 2015, Kolathur saw water levels of 2-3 feet and stagnation for nearly a week. it saw water levels up to around 2 feet, with stagnation lasting 4-5 days in 2023.

An aerial view of the Kolathur area which is flooded after the rain in Chennai on December 3, 2015. | Photo Credit: The Hindu

Frequent power outages and water supply issues were reported during both floods. Kolathur Lake has seen rapid urbanisation which is also a cause for concern, according to GCC officials, as sewage drain systems need to be installed for newer development, otherwise, the lake will be at the receiving end of all untreated wastewater, they added.

The GCC has been desilting stormwater drains and planning new drain routes in some streets to mitigate future floods. Chief Minister M.K Stalin inspected the area recently to check flood mitigation works.

Manali was among the worst affected in North Chennai, especially Sathyamoorthy Nagar. Last year, in December, locals said water levels rose over feet in many parts and stagnation lasted for about 6 days.

A view of the marooned Manali Express Road, Tiruvottiyur in Chennai on December 5, 2015. | Photo Credit: B. Jothi Ramalingam

Moreover, oil leak from industrial areas exacerbated the issue. Back in 2015, this industrial area saw 3-4 feet of flooding, with water stagnation lasting 7-8 days. In both occurrences, power cuts and lack of proper shelter, food and medical services were reported. Industrial operations were significantly impacted.

The GCC is working on improving the SWD system under the Kosasthalaiyar Basin. The situation has not improved much as many drains still remain clogged and inflow from northern suburbs may worsen conditions, locals have raised concern.

T. Nagar and Kodambakkam

In 2015, T.Nagar faced severe flooding with water levels reaching up to five feet. In the following monsoons, flooding reduced in several areas, but some new roads reported similar flooding, with water levels 3-4 feet.

View of flooded South Usman Road, T. Nagar in Chennai on December 2, 2015. | Photo Credit: R. Ragu

Essential services such as electricity and water supply were disrupted.

Many were forced to move to relief shelters and hotels.

The illegal sewage let out from several homes mixed with rainwater worsened the situation.

Residents have complained about sewage mixing with drinking water and pollution of ground water because of the Usman Road bridge project.

In the heavily-inundated areas in T. Nagar during the monsoon of 2021, construction of stormwater drain was completed in Bazullah road, GN Chetty Road, Vijayaraghava road, Thirumalai Pillai road, Nair road for a length of 5.29 km at a cost of Rs.21.95 crore. Preparation along canals such as Mambalam canal is under way.

Velachery was among the worst affected in the city last monsoon. Residents said water levels rose to three to five feet in many parts and stagnation lasted for three days.

Country boats were used to supply food and other essentials and to bring people from the flooded area at Vijayanagar in Velachery on December 6, 2023. | Photo Credit: S.R. Raghunathan

Disruption of power supply, lack of proper shelter, food and medical services were reported.

In the heavily inundated areas in Velachery, eight pumpsets with a total capacity of 400 HP have been installed to drain water.

Construction of storm water drains has been completed in AGS Colony, Tansi Nagar, Anna Nagar Extn, Peeliamman Koil Street for a length of 990 m at a cost of Rs.3.15 crore. Encroachments in Velachery lake have not been removed yet. Veerangal Odai has not been cleared. Encroachments on a canal near Perungudi Railway Station to the marshland continues to increase the risk to Ward 177 and Ward 178.

Madipakkam, Pallikaranai

In 2015, Pallikaranai faced severe flooding with water levels reaching up to three feet and water stagnation lasted for 7-10 days.

Water surrounds homes in and around Pandian Nagar and Sai Ganesh Nagar, Pallikaranai in Chennai in 2015. | Photo Credit: The Hindu

The situation in 2023 was similar, with water levels again around 3-4 feet and stagnation lasting 5-7 days.

Essential services such as electricity and water supply was disrupted

Many were forced to move to shelters and hotels.

In South Chennai, construction of an integrated storm water drain has been taken up in two phases for a length of 160.54 km at an estimated amount of Rs. 597.48 crore. Work has been completed for a length of 125.95 km at a cost of Rs.370 crore.

Phase III is currently in progress and is estimated to cost Rs. 989 crore. The project is being funded with assistance from KfW, a German bank. As of now, 83% of the work for phases I and II has been completed.

Once the integrated stormwater drain work is completed, residents in areas such as Velachery, Madipakkam, and Pallikarani will get relief from rain water stagnation.

In 2015, Manapakkam faced severe flooding with water levels reaching up to five feet and water stagnation lasted for a week.

An aerial view of marooned Manapakkam in Chennai on December 7, 2015. | Photo Credit: S.R. Raghunathan

The situation in 2023 was similar, with water levels again around 3-4 feet.

In South Chennai, work on the 15 lakh litre capacity sump at three locations along the Adyar river to pump water is under way.

Tiruvottiyur

Flooding was 3 to 5 feet in several areas.

Youngsters share an umbrella in the heavy rain. | Photo Credit: R. Ragu

In the extended areas of Greater Chennai Corporation, construction of integrated storm water drain has been taken up for a length of 675 km at an estimated amount of Rs.3220 crore under the funding assistance of Asian Development Bank and completed for a length of 570 km at a cost of Rs.2300 crore.

So far 85% of work has been completed. Remaining work will be completed before September 30, 2024.

After completing the integrated stormwater drain works, inundation is expected to reduce in Thirvottriyur, Manali, Madhavaram, Ambattur and Kolathur.

Dr. Besant Road area was flooded during the previous monsoon, in some areas the water was neck deep.

The inundated Triplicane High Road in Chennai | Photo Credit: S.R. Raghunathan

The construction of a stormwater drain for a length of 470 metre at a cost of Rs. 1.59 crore has been undertaken, and the work has been completed.

Facts about forthcoming rainfall

Related topics.

rains / Tamil Nadu / Chennai / Chennai rains 2015 / flood

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