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How to Present a Case Study: Examples and Best Practices

Marketers, consultants, salespeople, and all other types of business managers often use case study analysis to highlight a success story, showing how an exciting problem can be or was addressed. But how do you create a compelling case study and then turn it into a memorable presentation? Get a lowdown from this post! 

Table of Content s

• Why Case Studies are a Popular Marketing Technique 

Popular Case Study Format Types

How to write a case study: a 4-step framework, how to do a case study presentation: 3 proven tips, how long should a case study be, final tip: use compelling presentation visuals, business case study examples, what is a case study .

Let’s start with this great case study definition by the University of South Caroline:

In the social sciences, the term case study refers to both a method of analysis and a specific research design for examining a problem, both of which can generalize findings across populations.

In simpler terms — a case study is investigative research into a problem aimed at presenting or highlighting solution(s) to the analyzed issues.

A standard business case study provides insights into:

• General business/market conditions 
• The main problem faced 
• Methods applied 
• The outcomes gained using a specific tool or approach

Case studies (also called case reports) are also used in clinical settings to analyze patient outcomes outside of the business realm. 

But this is a topic for another time. In this post, we’ll focus on teaching you how to write and present a business case, plus share several case study PowerPoint templates and design tips! 

Why Case Studies are a Popular Marketing Technique 

Besides presenting a solution to an internal issue, case studies are often used as a content marketing technique . According to a 2020 Content Marketing Institute report, 69% of B2B marketers use case studies as part of their marketing mix.

A case study informs the reader about a possible solution and soft-sells the results, which can be achieved with your help (e.g., by using your software or by partnering with your specialist). 

For the above purpose, case studies work like a charm. Per the same report: 

• For 9% of marketers, case studies are also the best method for nurturing leads. 
• 23% admit that case studies are beneficial for improving conversions. 

Moreover, case studies also help improve your brand’s credibility, especially in the current fake news landscape and dubious claims made without proper credit. 

Ultimately, case studies naturally help build up more compelling, relatable stories and showcase your product benefits through the prism of extra social proof, courtesy of the case study subject. 

Most case studies come either as a slide deck or as a downloadable PDF document. 

Typically, you have several options to distribute your case study for maximum reach:

• Case study presentations — in-person, virtual, or pre-recorded, there are many times when a case study presentation comes in handy. For example, during client workshops, sales pitches, networking events, conferences, trade shows, etc. 
• Dedicated website page — highlighting case study examples on your website is a great way to convert middle-on-the-funnel prospects. Google’s Think With Google case study section is a great example of a web case study design done right.

• Blog case studies — data-driven storytelling is a staunch way to stand apart from your competition by providing unique insights, no other brand can tell. 
• Video case studies — video is a great medium for showcasing more complex business cases and celebrating customer success stories.

Once you decide on your case study format, the next step is collecting data and then translating it into a storyline. There are different case study methods and research approaches you can use to procure data. 

But let’s say you already have all your facts straight and need to organize them in a clean copy for your presentation deck. Here’s how you should do it. 

1. Identify the Problem 

Every compelling case study research starts with a problem statement definition. While in business settings, there’s no need to explain your methodology in-depth; you should still open your presentation with a quick problem recap slide.

Be sure to mention: 

• What’s the purpose of the case study? What will the audience learn? 
• Set the scene. Explain the before, aka the problems someone was facing. 
• Advertise the main issues and findings without highlighting specific details.

The above information should nicely fit in several paragraphs or 2-3 case study template slides

2. Explain the Solution 

The bulk of your case study copy and presentation slides should focus on the provided solution(s). This is the time to speak at length about how the subject went from before to the glorious after. 

Here are some writing prompts to help you articulate this better:

• State the subject’s main objective and goals. What outcomes were they after?
• Explain the main solution(s) provided. What was done? Why this, but not that? 
• Mention if they tried any alternatives. Why did those work? Why were you better?

This part may take the longest to write. Don’t rush it and reiterate several times. Sprinkle in some powerful words and catchphrases to make your copy more compelling.

3. Collect Testimonials 

Persuasive case studies feature the voice of customer (VoC) data — first-party testimonials and assessments of how well the solution works. These provide extra social proof and credibility to all the claims you are making. 

So plan and schedule interviews with your subjects to collect their input and testimonials. Also, design your case study interview questions in a way that lets you obtain quantifiable results.

4. Package The Information in a Slide Deck

Once you have a rough first draft, try different business case templates and designs to see how these help structure all the available information. 

As a rule of thumb, try to keep one big idea per slide. If you are talking about a solution, first present the general bullet points. Then give each solution a separate slide where you’ll provide more context and perhaps share some quantifiable results.

For example, if you look at case study presentation examples from AWS like this one about Stripe , you’ll notice that the slide deck has few texts and really focuses on the big picture, while the speaker provides extra context.

Need some extra case study presentation design help? Download our Business Case Study PowerPoint template with 100% editable slides. 

Your spoken presentation (and public speaking skills ) are equally if not more important than the case study copy and slide deck. To make a strong business case, follow these quick techniques. 

Focus on Telling a Great Story

A case study is a story of overcoming a challenge, and achieving something grand. Your delivery should reflect that. Step away from the standard “features => benefits” sales formula. Instead, make your customer the hero of the study. Describe the road they went through and how you’ve helped them succeed. 

The premises of your story can be as simple as:

• Help with overcoming a hurdle
• Gaining major impact
• Reaching a new milestone
• Solving a persisting issue no one else code 

Based on the above, create a clear story arc. Show where your hero started. Then explain what type of journey they went through. Inject some emotions into the mix to make your narrative more relatable and memorable. 

Experiment with Copywriting Formulas 

Copywriting is the art and science of organizing words into compelling and persuasive combinations that help readers retain the right ideas. 

To ensure that the audience retains the right takeaways from your case study presentation, you can try using some of the classic copywriting formulas to structure your delivery. These include:

• AIDCA — short for A ttention, I nterest, D esire, C onviction, and A ction. First, grab the audience’s attention by addressing the major problem. Next, pique their interest with some teaser facts. Spark their desire by showing that you know the right way out. Then, show a conviction that you know how to solve the issue—finally, prompt follow-up action such as contacting you to learn more. 
• PADS — is short for Problem, Agitation, Discredit, or Solution. This is more of a sales approach to case study narration. Again, you start with a problem, agitate about its importance, discredit why other solutions won’t cut it, and then present your option. 
• 4Ps — short for P roblem, P romise, P roof, P roposal. This is a middle-ground option that prioritizes storytelling over hard pitches. Set the scene first with a problem. Then make a promise of how you can solve it. Show proof in the form of numbers, testimonials, and different scenarios. Round it up with a proposal for getting the same outcomes. 

Take an Emotion-Inducing Perspective

The key to building a strong rapport with an audience is showing that you are one of them and fully understand what they are going through. 

One of the ways to build this connection is by speaking from an emotion-inducing perspective. This is best illustrated with an example: 

• A business owner went to the bank
• A business owner came into a bank branch 

In the second case, the wording prompts listeners to paint a mental picture from the perspective of the bank employees — a role you’d like them to relate to. By placing your audience in the right visual perspective, you can make them more receptive to your pitches. 

One common question that arises when creating a case study is determining its length. The length of a case study can vary depending on the complexity of the problem and the level of detail you want to provide. Here are some general guidelines to help you decide how long your case study should be:

• Concise and Informative: A good case study should be concise and to the point. Avoid unnecessary fluff and filler content. Focus on providing valuable information and insights.
• Tailor to Your Audience: Consider your target audience when deciding the length. If you’re presenting to a technical audience, you might include more in-depth technical details. For a non-technical audience, keep it more high-level and accessible.
• Cover Key Points: Ensure that your case study covers the key points effectively. These include the problem statement, the solution, and the outcomes. Provide enough information for the reader to understand the context and the significance of your case.
• Visuals: Visual elements such as charts, graphs, images, and diagrams can help convey information more effectively. Use visuals to supplement your written content and make complex information easier to understand.
• Engagement: Keep your audience engaged. A case study that is too long may lose the reader’s interest. Make sure the content is engaging and holds the reader’s attention throughout.
• Consider the Format: Depending on the format you choose (e.g., written document, presentation, video), the ideal length may vary. For written case studies, aim for a length that can be easily read in one sitting.

In general, a written case study for business purposes often falls in the range of 1,000 to 2,000 words. However, this is not a strict rule, and the length can be shorter or longer based on the factors mentioned above.

Our brain is wired to process images much faster than text. So when you are presenting a case study, always look for an opportunity to tie in some illustrations such as: 

• A product demo/preview
• Processes chart 
• Call-out quotes or numbers
• Custom illustrations or graphics 
• Customer or team headshots 

Use icons to minimize the volume of text. Also, opt for readable fonts that can look good in a smaller size too.

To better understand how to create an effective business case study, let’s explore some examples of successful case studies:

Apple Inc.: Apple’s case study on the launch of the iPhone is a classic example. It covers the problem of a changing mobile phone market, the innovative solution (the iPhone), and the outstanding outcomes, such as market dominance and increased revenue.

Tesla, Inc.: Tesla’s case study on electric vehicles and sustainable transportation is another compelling example. It addresses the problem of environmental concerns and the need for sustainable transportation solutions. The case study highlights Tesla’s electric cars as the solution and showcases the positive impact on reducing carbon emissions.

Amazon.com: Amazon’s case study on customer-centricity is a great illustration of how the company transformed the e-commerce industry. It discusses the problem of customer dissatisfaction with traditional retail, Amazon’s customer-focused approach as the solution, and the remarkable outcomes in terms of customer loyalty and market growth.

Coca-Cola: Coca-Cola’s case study on brand evolution is a valuable example. It outlines the challenge of adapting to changing consumer preferences and demographics. The case study demonstrates how Coca-Cola continually reinvented its brand to stay relevant and succeed in the global market.

Airbnb: Airbnb’s case study on the sharing economy is an intriguing example. It addresses the problem of travelers seeking unique and affordable accommodations. The case study presents Airbnb’s platform as the solution and highlights its impact on the hospitality industry and the sharing economy.

These examples showcase the diversity of case studies in the business world and how they effectively communicate problems, solutions, and outcomes. When creating your own business case study, use these examples as inspiration and tailor your approach to your specific industry and target audience.

Finally, practice your case study presentation several times — solo and together with your team — to collect feedback and make last-minute refinements! 

1. Business Case Study PowerPoint Template

To efficiently create a Business Case Study it’s important to ask all the right questions and document everything necessary, therefore this PowerPoint Template will provide all the sections you need.

Use This Template

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Student Case Study

Delving into student case studies offers invaluable insights into educational methodologies and student behaviors. This guide, complete with detailed case study examples , is designed to help educators, researchers, and students understand the nuances of creating and analyzing case studies in an educational context. By exploring various case study examples, you will gain the tools and knowledge necessary to effectively interpret and apply these studies, enhancing both teaching and learning experiences in diverse academic settings.

What is a Student Case Study? – Meaning A student case study is an in-depth analysis of a student or a group of students to understand various educational, psychological, or social aspects. It involves collecting detailed information through observations, interviews, and reviewing records, to form a comprehensive picture. The goal of a case study analysis is to unravel the complexities of real-life situations that students encounter, making it a valuable tool in educational research. In a case study summary, key findings are presented, often leading to actionable insights. Educators and researchers use these studies to develop strategies for improving learning environments. Additionally, a case study essay allows students to demonstrate their understanding by discussing the analysis and implications of the case study, fostering critical thinking and analytical skills.

Download Student Case Study Bundle

Schools especially those that offers degree in medicine, law, public policy and public health teaches students to learn how to conduct a case study. Some students say they love case studies . For what reason? Case studies offer real world challenges. They help in preparing the students how to deal with their future careers. They are considered to be the vehicle for theories and concepts that enables you to be good at giving detailed discussions and even debates. Case studies are useful not just in the field of education, but also in adhering to the arising issues in business, politics and other organizations.

Student Case Study Format

Case Study Title : Clear and descriptive title reflecting the focus of the case study. Student’s Name : Name of the student the case study is about. Prepared by : Name of the person or group preparing the case study. School Name : Name of the school or educational institution. Date : Date of completion or submission.

Introduction

Background Information : Briefly describe the student’s background, including age, grade level, and relevant personal or academic history. Purpose of the Case Study : State the reason for conducting this case study, such as understanding a particular behavior, learning difficulty, or achievement.

Case Description

Situation or Challenge : Detail the specific situation, challenge, or condition that the student is facing. Observations and Evidence : Include observations from teachers, parents, or the students themselves, along with any relevant academic or behavioral records.

Problem Analysis : Analyze the situation or challenge, identifying potential causes or contributing factors. Impact on Learning : Discuss how the situation affects the student’s learning or behavior in school.

Intervention Strategies

Action Taken : Describe any interventions or strategies implemented to address the situation. This could include educational plans, counseling, or specific teaching strategies. Results of Intervention : Detail the outcome of these interventions, including any changes in the student’s behavior or academic performance.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Summary of Findings : Summarize the key insights gained from the case study. Recommendations : Offer suggestions for future actions or strategies to further support the student. This might include recommendations for teachers, parents, or the student themselves.

Best Example of Student Case Study

Overcoming Reading Challenges: A Case Study of Emily Clark, Grade 3 Prepared by: Laura Simmons, Special Education Teacher Sunset Elementary School Date: May 12, 2024   Emily Clark, an 8-year-old student in the third grade at Sunset Elementary School, has been facing significant challenges with reading and comprehension since the first grade. Known for her enthusiasm and creativity, Emily’s struggles with reading tasks have been persistent and noticeable. The primary purpose of this case study is to analyze Emily’s reading difficulties, implement targeted interventions, and assess their effectiveness.   Emily exhibits difficulty in decoding words, reading fluently, and understanding text, as observed by her teachers since first grade. Her reluctance to read aloud and frustration with reading tasks have been consistently noted. Assessments indicate that her reading level is significantly below the expected standard for her grade. Parental feedback has also highlighted Emily’s struggles with reading-related homework.   Analysis of Emily’s situation suggests a potential learning disability in reading, possibly dyslexia. This is evidenced by her consistent difficulty with word recognition and comprehension. These challenges have impacted not only her reading skills but also her confidence and participation in class activities, especially those involving reading.   To address these challenges, an individualized education plan (IEP) was developed. This included specialized reading instruction focusing on phonemic awareness and decoding skills, multisensory learning approaches, and regular sessions with a reading specialist. Over a period of six months, Emily demonstrated significant improvements. She engaged more confidently in reading activities, and her reading assessment scores showed notable progress.   In conclusion, the intervention strategies implemented for Emily have been effective. Her case highlights the importance of early identification and the implementation of tailored educational strategies for students with similar challenges. It is recommended that Emily continues to receive specialized instruction and regular monitoring. Adjustments to her IEP should be made as necessary to ensure ongoing progress. Additionally, fostering a positive reading environment at home is also recommended.

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Case Study Definition

A case study is defined as a research methodology that allows you to conduct an intensive study about a particular person, group of people, community, or some unit in which the researcher could provide an in-depth data in relation to the variables. Case studies can examine a phenomena in the natural setting. This increases your ability to understand why the subjects act such. You may be able to describe how this method allows every researcher to take a specific topic to narrow it down making it into a manageable research question. The researcher gain an in-depth understanding about the subject matter through collecting qualitative research and quantitative research datasets about the phenomenon.

Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies

If a researcher is interested to study about a phenomenon, he or she will be assigned to a single-case study that will allow him or her to gain an understanding about the phenomenon. Multiple-case study would allow a researcher to understand the case as a group through comparing them based on the embedded similarities and differences. However, the volume of data in case studies will be difficult to organize and the process of analysis and strategies needs to be carefully decided upon. Reporting of findings could also be challenging at times especially when you are ought to follow for word limits.

Example of Case Study

Nurses’ pediatric pain management practices.

One of the authors of this paper (AT) has used a case study approach to explore nurses’ pediatric pain management practices. This involved collecting several datasets:

Observational data to gain a picture about actual pain management practices.

Questionnaire data about nurses’ knowledge about pediatric pain management practices and how well they felt they managed pain in children.

Questionnaire data about how critical nurses perceived pain management tasks to be.

These datasets were analyzed separately and then compared and demonstrated that nurses’ level of theoretical did not impact on the quality of their pain management practices. Nor did individual nurse’s perceptions of how critical a task was effect the likelihood of them carrying out this task in practice. There was also a difference in self-reported and observed practices; actual (observed) practices did not confirm to best practice guidelines, whereas self-reported practices tended to.

How do you Write a Case Study for Students?

1. choose an interesting and relevant topic:.

Select a topic that is relevant to your course and interesting to your audience. It should be specific and focused, allowing for in-depth analysis.

2. Conduct Thorough Research :

Gather information from reputable sources such as books, scholarly articles, interviews, and reliable websites. Ensure you have a good understanding of the topic before proceeding.

3. Identify the Problem or Research Question:

Clearly define the problem or research question your case study aims to address. Be specific about the issues you want to explore and analyze.

4. Introduce the Case:

Provide background information about the subject, including relevant historical, social, or organizational context. Explain why the case is important and what makes it unique.

5. Describe the Methods Used:

Explain the methods you used to collect data. This could include interviews, surveys, observations, or analysis of existing documents. Justify your choice of methods.

6. Present the Findings:

Present the data and findings in a clear and organized manner. Use charts, graphs, and tables if applicable. Include direct quotes from interviews or other sources to support your points.

7. Analytical Interpretation:

Analyze the data and discuss the patterns, trends, or relationships you observed. Relate your findings back to the research question. Use relevant theories or concepts to support your analysis.

8. Discuss Limitations:

Acknowledge any limitations in your study, such as constraints in data collection or research methods. Addressing limitations shows a critical awareness of your study’s scope.

9. Propose Solutions or Recommendations:

If your case study revolves around a problem, propose practical solutions or recommendations based on your analysis. Support your suggestions with evidence from your findings.

10. Write a Conclusion:

Summarize the key points of your case study. Restate the importance of the topic and your findings. Discuss the implications of your study for the broader field.

What are the objectives of a Student Case Study?

1. learning and understanding:.

• To deepen students’ understanding of a particular concept, theory, or topic within their field of study.
• To provide real-world context and practical applications for theoretical knowledge.

2. Problem-Solving Skills:

• To enhance students’ critical thinking and problem-solving abilities by analyzing complex issues or scenarios.
• To encourage students to apply their knowledge to real-life situations and develop solutions.

3. Research and Analysis:

• To develop research skills, including data collection, data analysis , and the ability to draw meaningful conclusions from information.
• To improve analytical skills in interpreting data and making evidence-based decisions.

4. Communication Skills:

• To improve written and oral communication skills by requiring students to present their findings in a clear, organized, and coherent manner.
• To enhance the ability to communicate complex ideas effectively to both academic and non-academic audiences.

5. Ethical Considerations:

To promote awareness of ethical issues related to research and decision-making, such as participant rights, privacy, and responsible conduct.

6. Interdisciplinary Learning:

To encourage cross-disciplinary or interdisciplinary thinking, allowing students to apply knowledge from multiple areas to address a problem or issue.

7. Professional Development:

• To prepare students for future careers by exposing them to real-world situations and challenges they may encounter in their chosen profession.
• To develop professional skills, such as teamwork, time management, and project management.

8. Reflection and Self-Assessment:

• To prompt students to reflect on their learning and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses in research and analysis.
• To foster self-assessment and a commitment to ongoing improvement.

9. Promoting Innovation:

• To inspire creativity and innovation in finding solutions to complex problems or challenges.
• To encourage students to think outside the box and explore new approaches.

10. Building a Portfolio:

To provide students with tangible evidence of their academic and problem-solving abilities that can be included in their academic or professional portfolios.

What are the Elements of a Case Study?

A case study typically includes an introduction, background information, presentation of the main issue or problem, analysis, solutions or interventions, and a conclusion. It often incorporates supporting data and references.

How Long is a Case Study?

The length of a case study can vary, but it generally ranges from 500 to 1500 words. This length allows for a detailed examination of the subject while maintaining conciseness and focus.

How Big Should a Case Study Be?

The size of a case study should be sufficient to comprehensively cover the topic, typically around 2 to 5 pages. This size allows for depth in analysis while remaining concise and readable.

What Makes a Good Case Study?

A good case study is clear, concise, and well-structured, focusing on a relevant and interesting issue. It should offer insightful analysis, practical solutions, and demonstrate real-world applications or implications.

Case studies bring people into the real world to allow themselves engage in different fields such as in business examples, politics, health related aspect where each individuals could find an avenue to make difficult decisions. It serves to provide framework for analysis and evaluation of the different societal issues. This is one of the best way to focus on what really matters, to discuss about issues and to know what can we do about it.

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A PowerPoint Presentation on: Using Case Studies As A Method Of Teaching

While the lecture method remains a time-honored way of teaching, the use of various pedagogical approaches, especially case studies, are more effective in learning the Catholic faith, especially canon law. This PDF explores the reasons for such a conviction and gives examples.

Related Papers

Aaron Milavec

This article details the personal history of how a New Testament and church history professor abandoned traditional teaching methods as he became captivated by the Harvard Case Study Method and went on to create dozens of Case Studies designed to facilitate the interactive learning of his college and seminary students. The advantages and disadvantages of this methodology are examined, with special attention being given to the needs of adult learners who find all significant learning to be deep, personal, and transformative. The article illustrates how the author orientates his students to readjust their learning style to take advantage of a self-discovery mode of learning. Details are provided as to how the Guardian Angel and Learning Partner function to facilitate cooperative learning and the sharing of satisfaction beyond the classroom. Teaching with Case Studies results in a nine-fold increase in the interaction between students in the classroom. Students respond enthusiastically because Case Studies enables them to do deep thinking, and everyone comes into class with something to contribute. Adult learners, more especially, learn best with Case Studies because they thrive when they are figuring things out for themselves and going at their own pace. Former graduates regularly return to tell me, "You were my best teacher." They invariably point to some combination of their experience doing my Case Studies and my contagious enthusiasm for learning. They say, "The Case Studies taught me how sacred texts are initially shaped by and later end up shaping a faith community." Others tell me how they repeatedly used the deep lessons learned: "Not a week passes when I don't make use of my discoveries in one or the other of your Case Studies." For many years I stayed away from the Case Study Methodology because I judged that the time in the classroom was too precious to waste on ill-defined and open-ended discussions. . . .

This article details the personal history of how a New Testament and church history professor abandoned traditional teaching methods as he became captivated by the Harvard Case Study Method and went on to create dozens of Case Studies designed to facilitate the interactive learning of his college and seminary students. The advantages and disadvantages of this methodology are examined, with special attention being given to the needs of adult learners who find all significant learning to be deep, personal, and transformative. The article illustrates how the author orientates his students to readjust their learning style to take advantage of a self-discovery mode of learning.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Damber Kharka

In this paper I have shared some of my experiences on how to handle case studies in teaching with the intent to facilitate more discussions during our meeting over the two day conference on “research informed teaching” at Samtse College of Education organized by the Royal University of Bhutan in October 2014. We know that case studies are stories used as knowledge and skill transfer vehicles by which a lot of real life scenario is brought into the classroom to be discussed by the students and instructors. How we use case studies dependsuponthe objectives and the format of the course. My experience suggest that if it is a regular university dictated course with astrict timetable (one hour period everyday per subject) with pre-identified contents and has a large class size,it is not normally possible or at least not meaningfully efficient to go beyond the use ofsimple cases that will only help to illustrate the subject concepts and demonstrate afew practical aspects. However, if t...

Journal of Policy Analysis and Management

Sally J . Kenney

Higher Education Pedagogies

Frances O'Brien

Journal of Jesuit Business Education

Dennis O'Connor

There is mounting evidence that we are facing an historic inflection point in the early 21st century. A torrential cascade of interconnected events with global reach increasingly demands a reconsideration of ongoing strategies and assumptions in both academia and industry. We believe there is a strategic opportunity for a Jesuit Case Series that explores issues of ethics, values, and concern for sustainability in a more emphatic manner. This case for a Jesuit business case series will address three simple questions: 1) why it would be a contribution to the field of business education to begin a new case series that reflects the quality and values associated with Jesuit education, 2) what differentiates such a series from existing options, and 3) how might this series be developed and shared. As we prepare our graduates for the complexities, opportunities, and challenges of the 21st century-- the international network of Jesuit Colleges and Universities uniquely have the intellectual power, global reach, intellectual authority, and moral responsibility to make a real difference. A Jesuit tradition of almost 500 years provides fertile soil for strategic differentiation in primary values, epistemology, methodology, and scope. A Jesuit case series is congruent with, and perhaps even mandated by our Jesuit inspired missions.

International Studies Perspectives

Vicki Golich , Steven Lamy

Ushnish Sengupta

We describe and discuss three types of cases studies – teaching, research, and service learning – that are used in higher education in a variety of disciplines. The three types are compared to highlight when each type of case is appropriately used. We then examine the issue of the importance of accuracy of the three types. We conclude that we need focus less on the issue of factual accuracy but more on the purpose of each case type and how each captures an element of reality.

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9 Creative Case Study Presentation Examples & Templates

Learn from proven case study presentation examples and best practices how to get creative, stand out, engage your audience, excite action, and drive results.

9 minute read

helped business professionals at:

Short answer

What makes a good case study presentation?

A good case study presentation has an engaging story, a clear structure, real data, visual aids, client testimonials, and a strong call to action. It informs and inspires, making the audience believe they can achieve similar results.

Dull case studies can cost you clients.

A boring case study presentation doesn't just risk putting your audience to sleep—it can actuallyl ead to lost sales and missed opportunities.

When your case study fails to inspire, it's your bottom line that suffers.

Interactive elements are the secret sauce for successful case study presentations.

They not only increase reader engagement by 22% but also lead to a whopping 41% more decks being read fully , proving that the winning deck is not a monologue but a conversation that involves the reader.

Let me show you shape your case studies into compelling narratives that hook your audience and drive revenue.

Let’s go!

How to create a case study presentation that drives results?

Crafting a case study presentation that truly drives results is about more than just data—it's about storytelling, engagement, and leading your audience down the sales funnel.

Here's how you can do it:

Tell a story: Each case study should follow a narrative arc. Start with the problem, introduce your solution, and showcase the results. Make it compelling and relatable.

Leverage data: Hard numbers build credibility. Use them to highlight your successes and reinforce your points.

Use visuals: Images, infographics, and videos can enhance engagement, making complex information more digestible and memorable.

Add interactive elements: Make your presentation a two-way journey. Tools like tabs and live data calculators can increase time spent on your deck by 22% and the number of full reads by 41% .

Finish with a strong call-to-action: Every good story needs a conclusion. Encourage your audience to take the next step in their buyer journey with a clear, persuasive call-to-action.

Visual representation of what a case study presentation should do:

How to write an engaging case study presentation?

Creating an engaging case study presentation involves strategic storytelling, understanding your audience, and sparking action.

In this guide, I'll cover the essentials to help you write a compelling narrative that drives results.

What is the best format for a business case study presentation?

4 best format types for a business case study presentation:

• Problem-solution case study
• Before-and-after case study
• Success story case study
• Interview style case study

Each style has unique strengths, so pick one that aligns best with your story and audience. For a deeper dive into these formats, check out our detailed blog post on case study format types .

What to include in a case study presentation?

An effective case study presentation contains 7 key elements:

• Introduction
• Company overview
• The problem/challenge
• Your solution
• Customer quotes/testimonials

To learn more about what should go in each of these sections, check out our post on what is a case study .

How to motivate readers to take action?

Based on BJ Fogg's behavior model , successful motivation involves 3 components:

This is all about highlighting the benefits. Paint a vivid picture of the transformative results achieved using your solution.

Use compelling data and emotive testimonials to amplify the desire for similar outcomes, therefore boosting your audience's motivation.

This refers to making the desired action easy to perform. Show how straightforward it is to implement your solution.

Use clear language, break down complex ideas, and reinforce the message that success is not just possible, but also readily achievable with your offering.

This is your powerful call-to-action (CTA), the spark that nudges your audience to take the next step. Ensure your CTA is clear, direct, and tied into the compelling narrative you've built.

It should leave your audience with no doubt about what to do next and why they should do it.

Here’s how you can do it with Storydoc:

How to adapt your presentation for your specific audience?

Every audience is different, and a successful case study presentation speaks directly to its audience's needs, concerns, and desires.

Understanding your audience is crucial. This involves researching their pain points, their industry jargon, their ambitions, and their fears.

Then, tailor your presentation accordingly. Highlight how your solution addresses their specific problems. Use language and examples they're familiar with. Show them how your product or service can help them reach their goals.

A case study presentation that's tailor-made for its audience is not just a presentation—it's a conversation that resonates, engages, and convinces.

How to design a great case study presentation?

A powerful case study presentation is not only about the story you weave—it's about the visual journey you create.

Let's navigate through the design strategies that can transform your case study presentation into a gripping narrative.

Add interactive elements

Static design has long been the traditional route for case study presentations—linear, unchanging, a one-size-fits-all solution.

However, this has been a losing approach for a while now. Static content is killing engagement, but interactive design will bring it back to life.

It invites your audience into an evolving, immersive experience, transforming them from passive onlookers into active participants.

Which of these presentations would you prefer to read?

Use narrated content design (scrollytelling)

Scrollytelling combines the best of scrolling and storytelling. This innovative approach offers an interactive narrated journey controlled with a simple scroll.

It lets you break down complex content into manageable chunks and empowers your audience to control their reading pace.

To make this content experience available to everyone, our founder, Itai Amoza, collaborated with visualization scientist Prof. Steven Franconeri to incorporate scrollytelling into Storydoc.

This collaboration led to specialized storytelling slides that simplify content and enhance engagement (which you can find and use in Storydoc).

Here’s an example of Storydoc scrollytelling:

Bring your case study to life with multimedia

Multimedia brings a dynamic dimension to your presentation. Video testimonials lend authenticity and human connection. Podcast interviews add depth and diversity, while live graphs offer a visually captivating way to represent data.

Each media type contributes to a richer, more immersive narrative that keeps your audience engaged from beginning to end.

Prioritize mobile-friendly design

In an increasingly mobile world, design must adapt. Avoid traditional, non-responsive formats like PPT, PDF, and Word.

Opt for a mobile-optimized design that guarantees your presentation is always at its best, regardless of the device.

As a significant chunk of case studies are opened on mobile, this ensures wider accessibility and improved user experience , demonstrating respect for your audience's viewing preferences.

Here’s what a traditional static presentation looks like as opposed to a responsive deck:

Streamline the design process

Creating a case study presentation usually involves wrestling with an AI website builder .

It's a dance that often needs several partners - designers to make it look good, developers to make it work smoothly, and plenty of time to bring it all together.

Building, changing, and personalizing your case study can feel like you're climbing a mountain when all you need is to cross a hill.

By switching to Storydoc’s interactive case study creator , you won’t need a tech guru or a design whizz, just your own creativity.

You’ll be able to create a customized, interactive presentation for tailored use in sales prospecting or wherever you need it without the headache of mobilizing your entire team.

Storydoc will automatically adjust any change to your presentation layout, so you can’t break the design even if you tried.

Case study presentation examples that engage readers

Let’s take a deep dive into some standout case studies.

These examples go beyond just sharing information – they're all about captivating and inspiring readers. So, let’s jump in and uncover the secret behind what makes them so effective.

What makes this deck great:

• A video on the cover slide will cause 32% more people to interact with your case study .
• The running numbers slide allows you to present the key results your solution delivered in an easily digestible way.
• The ability to include 2 smart CTAs gives readers the choice between learning more about your solution and booking a meeting with you directly.

Light mode case study

• The ‘read more’ button is perfect if you want to present a longer case without overloading readers with walls of text.
• The timeline slide lets you present your solution in the form of a compelling narrative.
• A combination of text-based and visual slides allows you to add context to the main insights.

Marketing case study

• Tiered slides are perfect for presenting multiple features of your solution, particularly if they’re relevant to several use cases.
• Easily customizable slides allow you to personalize your case study to specific prospects’ needs and pain points.
• The ability to embed videos makes it possible to show your solution in action instead of trying to describe it purely with words.

UX case study

• Various data visualization components let you present hard data in a way that’s easier to understand and follow.
• The option to hide text under a 'Read more' button is great if you want to include research findings or present a longer case study.
• Content segmented using tabs , which is perfect if you want to describe different user research methodologies without overwhelming your audience.

Business case study

• Library of data visualization elements to choose from comes in handy for more data-heavy case studies.
• Ready-to-use graphics and images which can easily be replaced using our AI assistant or your own files.
• Information on the average reading time in the cover reduces bounce rate by 24% .

Modern case study

• Dynamic variables let you personalize your deck at scale in just a few clicks.
• Logo placeholder that can easily be replaced with your prospect's logo for an added personal touch.
• Several text placeholders that can be tweaked to perfection with the help of our AI assistant to truly drive your message home.

Real estate case study

• Plenty of image placeholders that can be easily edited in a couple of clicks to let you show photos of your most important listings.
• Data visualization components can be used to present real estate comps or the value of your listings for a specific time period.
• Interactive slides guide your readers through a captivating storyline, which is key in a highly-visual industry like real estate .

Medical case study

• Image and video placeholders are perfect for presenting your solution without relying on complex medical terminology.
• The ability to hide text under an accordion allows you to include research or clinical trial findings without overwhelming prospects with too much information.
• Clean interactive design stands out in a sea of old-school medical case studies, making your deck more memorable for prospective clients.

Dark mode case study

• The timeline slide is ideal for guiding readers through an attention-grabbing storyline or explaining complex processes.
• Dynamic layout with multiple image and video placeholders that can be replaced in a few clicks to best reflect the nature of your business.
• Testimonial slides that can easily be customized with quotes by your past customers to legitimize your solution in the eyes of prospects.

Grab a case study presentation template

Creating an effective case study presentation is not just about gathering data and organizing it in a document. You need to weave a narrative, create an impact, and most importantly, engage your reader.

So, why start from zero when interactive case study templates can take you halfway up?

Instead of wrestling with words and designs, pick a template that best suits your needs, and watch your data transform into an engaging and inspiring story.

Hi, I'm Dominika, Content Specialist at Storydoc. As a creative professional with experience in fashion, I'm here to show you how to amplify your brand message through the power of storytelling and eye-catching visuals.

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StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

This publication is provided for historical reference only and the information may be out of date.

StatPearls [Internet].

Case study: 33-year-old female presents with chronic sob and cough (archive).

Sandeep Sharma ; Muhammad F. Hashmi ; Deepa Rawat .

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Last Update: February 20, 2023 .

• Case Presentation

History of Present Illness:  A 33-year-old white female presents after admission to the general medical/surgical hospital ward with a chief complaint of shortness of breath on exertion. She reports that she was seen for similar symptoms previously at her primary care physician’s office six months ago. At that time, she was diagnosed with acute bronchitis and treated with bronchodilators, empiric antibiotics, and a short course oral steroid taper. This management did not improve her symptoms, and she has gradually worsened over six months. She reports a 20-pound (9 kg) intentional weight loss over the past year. She denies camping, spelunking, or hunting activities. She denies any sick contacts. A brief review of systems is negative for fever, night sweats, palpitations, chest pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, abdominal pain, neural sensation changes, muscular changes, and increased bruising or bleeding. She admits a cough, shortness of breath, and shortness of breath on exertion.

Social History: Her tobacco use is 33 pack-years; however, she quit smoking shortly prior to the onset of symptoms, six months ago. She denies alcohol and illicit drug use. She is in a married, monogamous relationship and has three children aged 15 months to 5 years. She is employed in a cookie bakery. She has two pet doves. She traveled to Mexico for a one-week vacation one year ago.

Allergies:  No known medicine, food, or environmental allergies.

Past Medical History: Hypertension

Past Surgical History: Cholecystectomy

Medications: Lisinopril 10 mg by mouth every day

Physical Exam:

Vitals: Temperature, 97.8 F; heart rate 88; respiratory rate, 22; blood pressure 130/86; body mass index, 28

General: She is well appearing but anxious, a pleasant female lying on a hospital stretcher. She is conversing freely, with respiratory distress causing her to stop mid-sentence.

Respiratory: She has diffuse rales and mild wheezing; tachypneic.

Cardiovascular: She has a regular rate and rhythm with no murmurs, rubs, or gallops.

Gastrointestinal: Bowel sounds X4. No bruits or pulsatile mass.

• Initial Evaluation

Laboratory Studies:  Initial work-up from the emergency department revealed pancytopenia with a platelet count of 74,000 per mm3; hemoglobin, 8.3 g per and mild transaminase elevation, AST 90 and ALT 112. Blood cultures were drawn and currently negative for bacterial growth or Gram staining.

Chest X-ray

Impression:  Mild interstitial pneumonitis

• Differential Diagnosis
• Aspiration pneumonitis and pneumonia
• Bacterial pneumonia
• Immunodeficiency state and Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia
• Carcinoid lung tumors
• Tuberculosis
• Viral pneumonia
• Chlamydial pneumonia
• Coccidioidomycosis and valley fever
• Recurrent Legionella pneumonia
• Mediastinal cysts
• Mediastinal lymphoma
• Recurrent mycoplasma infection
• Pancoast syndrome
• Pneumococcal infection
• Sarcoidosis
• Small cell lung cancer
• Aspergillosis
• Blastomycosis
• Histoplasmosis
• Actinomycosis
• Confirmatory Evaluation

CT of the chest was performed to further the pulmonary diagnosis; it showed a diffuse centrilobular micronodular pattern without focal consolidation.

On finding pulmonary consolidation on the CT of the chest, a pulmonary consultation was obtained. Further history was taken, which revealed that she has two pet doves. As this was her third day of broad-spectrum antibiotics for a bacterial infection and she was not getting better, it was decided to perform diagnostic bronchoscopy of the lungs with bronchoalveolar lavage to look for any atypical or rare infections and to rule out malignancy (Image 1).

Bronchoalveolar lavage returned with a fluid that was cloudy and muddy in appearance. There was no bleeding. Cytology showed Histoplasma capsulatum .

Based on the bronchoscopic findings, a diagnosis of acute pulmonary histoplasmosis in an immunocompetent patient was made.

Pulmonary histoplasmosis in asymptomatic patients is self-resolving and requires no treatment. However, once symptoms develop, such as in our above patient, a decision to treat needs to be made. In mild, tolerable cases, no treatment other than close monitoring is necessary. However, once symptoms progress to moderate or severe, or if they are prolonged for greater than four weeks, treatment with itraconazole is indicated. The anticipated duration is 6 to 12 weeks total. The response should be monitored with a chest x-ray. Furthermore, observation for recurrence is necessary for several years following the diagnosis. If the illness is determined to be severe or does not respond to itraconazole, amphotericin B should be initiated for a minimum of 2 weeks, but up to 1 year. Cotreatment with methylprednisolone is indicated to improve pulmonary compliance and reduce inflammation, thus improving work of respiration. [1] [2] [3]

Histoplasmosis, also known as Darling disease, Ohio valley disease, reticuloendotheliosis, caver's disease, and spelunker's lung, is a disease caused by the dimorphic fungi  Histoplasma capsulatum native to the Ohio, Missouri, and Mississippi River valleys of the United States. The two phases of Histoplasma are the mycelial phase and the yeast phase.

Etiology/Pathophysiology 

Histoplasmosis is caused by inhaling the microconidia of  Histoplasma  spp. fungus into the lungs. The mycelial phase is present at ambient temperature in the environment, and upon exposure to 37 C, such as in a host’s lungs, it changes into budding yeast cells. This transition is an important determinant in the establishment of infection. Inhalation from soil is a major route of transmission leading to infection. Human-to-human transmission has not been reported. Infected individuals may harbor many yeast-forming colonies chronically, which remain viable for years after initial inoculation. The finding that individuals who have moved or traveled from endemic to non-endemic areas may exhibit a reactivated infection after many months to years supports this long-term viability. However, the precise mechanism of reactivation in chronic carriers remains unknown.

Infection ranges from an asymptomatic illness to a life-threatening disease, depending on the host’s immunological status, fungal inoculum size, and other factors. Histoplasma  spp. have grown particularly well in organic matter enriched with bird or bat excrement, leading to the association that spelunking in bat-feces-rich caves increases the risk of infection. Likewise, ownership of pet birds increases the rate of inoculation. In our case, the patient did travel outside of Nebraska within the last year and owned two birds; these are her primary increased risk factors. [4]

Non-immunocompromised patients present with a self-limited respiratory infection. However, the infection in immunocompromised hosts disseminated histoplasmosis progresses very aggressively. Within a few days, histoplasmosis can reach a fatality rate of 100% if not treated aggressively and appropriately. Pulmonary histoplasmosis may progress to a systemic infection. Like its pulmonary counterpart, the disseminated infection is related to exposure to soil containing infectious yeast. The disseminated disease progresses more slowly in immunocompetent hosts compared to immunocompromised hosts. However, if the infection is not treated, fatality rates are similar. The pathophysiology for disseminated disease is that once inhaled, Histoplasma yeast are ingested by macrophages. The macrophages travel into the lymphatic system where the disease, if not contained, spreads to different organs in a linear fashion following the lymphatic system and ultimately into the systemic circulation. Once this occurs, a full spectrum of disease is possible. Inside the macrophage, this fungus is contained in a phagosome. It requires thiamine for continued development and growth and will consume systemic thiamine. In immunocompetent hosts, strong cellular immunity, including macrophages, epithelial, and lymphocytes, surround the yeast buds to keep infection localized. Eventually, it will become calcified as granulomatous tissue. In immunocompromised hosts, the organisms disseminate to the reticuloendothelial system, leading to progressive disseminated histoplasmosis. [5] [6]

Symptoms of infection typically begin to show within three to17 days. Immunocompetent individuals often have clinically silent manifestations with no apparent ill effects. The acute phase of infection presents as nonspecific respiratory symptoms, including cough and flu. A chest x-ray is read as normal in 40% to 70% of cases. Chronic infection can resemble tuberculosis with granulomatous changes or cavitation. The disseminated illness can lead to hepatosplenomegaly, adrenal enlargement, and lymphadenopathy. The infected sites usually calcify as they heal. Histoplasmosis is one of the most common causes of mediastinitis. Presentation of the disease may vary as any other organ in the body may be affected by the disseminated infection. [7]

The clinical presentation of the disease has a wide-spectrum presentation which makes diagnosis difficult. The mild pulmonary illness may appear as a flu-like illness. The severe form includes chronic pulmonary manifestation, which may occur in the presence of underlying lung disease. The disseminated form is characterized by the spread of the organism to extrapulmonary sites with proportional findings on imaging or laboratory studies. The Gold standard for establishing the diagnosis of histoplasmosis is through culturing the organism. However, diagnosis can be established by histological analysis of samples containing the organism taken from infected organs. It can be diagnosed by antigen detection in blood or urine, PCR, or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The diagnosis also can be made by testing for antibodies again the fungus. [8]

Pulmonary histoplasmosis in asymptomatic patients is self-resolving and requires no treatment. However, once symptoms develop, such as in our above patient, a decision to treat needs to be made. In mild, tolerable cases, no treatment other than close monitoring is necessary. However, once symptoms progress to moderate or severe or if they are prolonged for greater than four weeks, treatment with itraconazole is indicated. The anticipated duration is 6 to 12 weeks. The patient's response should be monitored with a chest x-ray. Furthermore, observation for recurrence is necessary for several years following the diagnosis. If the illness is determined to be severe or does not respond to itraconazole, amphotericin B should be initiated for a minimum of 2 weeks, but up to 1 year. Cotreatment with methylprednisolone is indicated to improve pulmonary compliance and reduce inflammation, thus improving the work of respiration.

The disseminated disease requires similar systemic antifungal therapy to pulmonary infection. Additionally, procedural intervention may be necessary, depending on the site of dissemination, to include thoracentesis, pericardiocentesis, or abdominocentesis. Ocular involvement requires steroid treatment additions and necessitates ophthalmology consultation. In pericarditis patients, antifungals are contraindicated because the subsequent inflammatory reaction from therapy would worsen pericarditis.

Patients may necessitate intensive care unit placement dependent on their respiratory status, as they may pose a risk for rapid decompensation. Should this occur, respiratory support is necessary, including non-invasive BiPAP or invasive mechanical intubation. Surgical interventions are rarely warranted; however, bronchoscopy is useful as both a diagnostic measure to collect sputum samples from the lung and therapeutic to clear excess secretions from the alveoli. Patients are at risk for developing a coexistent bacterial infection, and appropriate antibiotics should be considered after 2 to 4 months of known infection if symptoms are still present. [9]

Prognosis 

If not treated appropriately and in a timely fashion, the disease can be fatal, and complications will arise, such as recurrent pneumonia leading to respiratory failure, superior vena cava syndrome, fibrosing mediastinitis, pulmonary vessel obstruction leading to pulmonary hypertension and right-sided heart failure, and progressive fibrosis of lymph nodes. Acute pulmonary histoplasmosis usually has a good outcome on symptomatic therapy alone, with 90% of patients being asymptomatic. Disseminated histoplasmosis, if untreated, results in death within 2 to 24 months. Overall, there is a relapse rate of 50% in acute disseminated histoplasmosis. In chronic treatment, however, this relapse rate decreases to 10% to 20%. Death is imminent without treatment.

• Pearls of Wisdom

While illnesses such as pneumonia are more prevalent, it is important to keep in mind that more rare diseases are always possible. Keeping in mind that every infiltrates on a chest X-ray or chest CT is not guaranteed to be simple pneumonia. Key information to remember is that if the patient is not improving under optimal therapy for a condition, the working diagnosis is either wrong or the treatment modality chosen by the physician is wrong and should be adjusted. When this occurs, it is essential to collect a more detailed history and refer the patient for appropriate consultation with a pulmonologist or infectious disease specialist. Doing so, in this case, yielded workup with bronchoalveolar lavage and microscopic evaluation. Microscopy is invaluable for definitively diagnosing a pulmonary consolidation as exemplified here where the results showed small, budding, intracellular yeast in tissue sized 2 to 5 microns that were readily apparent on hematoxylin and eosin staining and minimal, normal flora bacterial growth. 

• Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

This case demonstrates how all interprofessional healthcare team members need to be involved in arriving at a correct diagnosis. Clinicians, specialists, nurses, pharmacists, laboratory technicians all bear responsibility for carrying out the duties pertaining to their particular discipline and sharing any findings with all team members. An incorrect diagnosis will almost inevitably lead to incorrect treatment, so coordinated activity, open communication, and empowerment to voice concerns are all part of the dynamic that needs to drive such cases so patients will attain the best possible outcomes.

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Histoplasma Contributed by Sandeep Sharma, MD

Disclosure: Sandeep Sharma declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Muhammad Hashmi declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Deepa Rawat declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

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Does a perceptual gap lead to actions against digital misinformation? A third-person effect study among medical students

• Zongya Li   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4479-5971 1 &
• Jun Yan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9539-8466 1  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  1291 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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We are making progress in the fight against health-related misinformation, but mass participation and active engagement are far from adequate. Focusing on pre-professional medical students with above-average medical knowledge, our study examined whether and how third-person perceptions (TPP), which hypothesize that people tend to perceive media messages as having a greater effect on others than on themselves, would motivate their actions against misinformation.

We collected the cross-sectional data through a self-administered paper-and-pencil survey of 1,500 medical students in China during April 2022.

Structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis, showed that TPP was negatively associated with medical students’ actions against digital misinformation, including rebuttal of misinformation and promotion of corrective information. However, self-efficacy and collectivism served as positive predictors of both actions. Additionally, we found professional identification failed to play a significant role in influencing TPP, while digital misinformation self-efficacy was found to broaden the third-person perceptual gap and collectivism tended to reduce the perceptual bias significantly.

Conclusions

Our study contributes both to theory and practice. It extends the third-person effect theory by moving beyond the examination of restrictive actions and toward the exploration of corrective and promotional actions in the context of misinformation., It also lends a new perspective to the current efforts to counter digital misinformation; involving pre-professionals (in this case, medical students) in the fight.

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Introduction

The widespread persistence of misinformation in the social media environment calls for effective strategies to mitigate the threat to our society [ 1 ]. Misinformation has received substantial scholarly attention in recent years [ 2 ], and solution-oriented explorations have long been a focus but the subject remains underexplored [ 3 ].

Health professionals, particularly physicians and nurses, are highly expected to play a role in the fight against misinformation as they serve as the most trusted information sources regarding medical topics [ 4 ]. However, some barriers, such as limitations regarding time and digital skills, greatly hinder their efforts to tackle misinformation on social media [ 5 ].

Medical students (i.e., college students majoring in health/medical science), in contrast to medical faculty, have a greater potential to become the major force in dealing with digital misinformation as they are not only equipped with basic medical knowledge but generally possess greater social media skills than the former generation [ 6 ]. Few studies, to our knowledge, have tried to explore the potential of these pre-professionals in tackling misinformation. Our research thus fills the gap by specifically exploring how these pre-professionals can be motivated to fight against digital health-related misinformation.

The third-person perception (TPP), which states that people tend to perceive media messages as having a greater effect on others than on themselves [ 7 ], has been found to play an important role in influencing individuals’ coping strategies related to misinformation. But empirical exploration from this line of studies has yielded contradictory results. Some studies revealed that individuals who perceived a greater negative influence of misinformation on others than on themselves were more likely to take corrective actions to debunk misinformation [ 8 ]. In contrast, some research found that stronger TPP reduced individuals’ willingness to engage in misinformation correction [ 9 , 10 ]. Such conflicting findings impel us to examine the association between the third-person perception and medical students’ corrective actions in response to misinformation, thus attempting to unveil the underlying mechanisms that promote or inhibit these pre-professionals’ engagement with misinformation.

Researchers have also identified several perceptual factors that motivate individuals’ actions against misinformation, especially efficacy-related concepts (e.g., self-efficacy and health literacy) and normative variables (e.g., subjective norms and perceived responsibility) [ 3 , 8 , 9 ]. However, most studies devote attention to the general population; little is known about whether and how these factors affect medical students’ intentions to deal with misinformation. We recruited Chinese medical students in order to study a social group that is mutually influenced by cultural norms (collectivism in Chinese society) and professional norms. Meanwhile, systematic education and training equip medical students with abundant clinical knowledge and good levels of eHealth literacy [ 5 ], which enable them to have potential efficacy in tackling misinformation. Our study thus aims to examine how medical students’ self-efficacy, cultural norms (i.e., collectivism) and professional norms (i.e., professional identification) impact their actions against misinformation.

Previous research has found self-efficacy to be a reliable moderator of optimistic bias, the tendency for individuals to consider themselves as less likely to experience negative events but more likely to experience positive events as compared to others [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. As TPP is thought to be a product of optimistic bias, accordingly, self-efficacy should have the potential to influence the magnitude of third-person perception [ 14 , 15 ]. Meanwhile, scholars also suggest that the magnitude of TPP is influenced by social distance corollary [ 16 , 17 ]. Simply put, individuals tend to perceive those who are more socially distant from them to be more susceptible to the influence of undesirable media than those who are socially proximal [ 18 , 19 , 20 ]. From a social identity perspective, collectivism and professional identification might moderate the relative distance between oneself and others while the directions of such effects differ [ 21 , 22 ]. For example, collectivists tend to perceive a smaller social distance between self and others as “they are less likely to view themselves as distinct or unique from others” [ 23 ]. In contrast, individuals who are highly identified with their professional community (i.e., medical community) are more likely to perceive a larger social distance between in-group members (including themselves) and out-group members [ 24 ]. In this way, collectivism and professional identification might exert different effects on TPP. On this basis, this study aims to examine whether and how medical students’ perceptions of professional identity, self-efficacy and collectivism influence the magnitude of TPP and in turn influence their actions against misinformation.

Our study builds a model that reflects the theoretical linkages among self-efficacy, collectivism, professional identity, TPP, and actions against misinformation. The model, which clarifies the key antecedents of TPP and examines the mediating role of TPP, contribute to the third-person effect literature and offer practical contributions to countering digital misinformation.

Context of the study

As pre-professionals equipped with specialized knowledge and skills, medical students have been involved in efforts in health communication and promotion during the pandemic. For instance, thousands of medical students have participated in various volunteering activities in the fight against COVID-19, such as case data visualization [ 25 ], psychological counseling [ 26 ], and providing online consultations [ 27 ]. Due to the shortage of medical personnel and the burden of work, some medical schools also encouraged their students to participate in health care assistance in hospitals during the pandemic [ 28 , 29 ].

The flood of COVID-19 related misinformation has posed an additional threat to and burden on public health. We have an opportunity to address this issue and respond to the general public’s call for guidance from the medical community about COVID-19 by engaging medical students as a main force in the fight against coronavirus related misinformation.

Literature review

The third-person effect in the misinformation context.

Originally proposed by Davison [ 7 ], the third-person effect hypothesizes that people tend to perceive a greater effect of mass media on others than on themselves. Specifically, the TPE consists of two key components: the perceptual and the behavioral [ 16 ]. The perceptual component centers on the perceptual gap where individuals tend to perceive that others are more influenced by media messages than themselves. The behavioral component refers to the behavioral outcomes of the self-other perceptual gap in which people act in accordance with such perceptual asymmetry.

According to Perloff [ 30 ], the TPE is contingent upon situations. For instance, one general finding suggests that when media messages are considered socially undesirable, nonbeneficial, or involving risks, the TPE will get amplified [ 16 ]. Misinformation characterized as inaccurate, misleading, and even false, is regarded as undesirable in nature [ 31 ]. Based on this line of reasoning, we anticipate that people will tend to perceive that others would be more influenced by misinformation than themselves.

Recent studies also provide empirical evidence of the TPE in the context of misinformation [ 32 ]. For instance, an online survey of 511 Chinese respondents conducted by Liu and Huang [ 33 ] revealed that individuals would perceive others to be more vulnerable to the negative influence of COVID-19 digital disinformation. An examination of the TPE within a pre-professional group – the medical students–will allow our study to examine the TPE scholarship in a particular population in the context of tackling misinformation.

Why TPE occurs among medical students: a social identity perspective

Of the works that have provided explanations for the TPE, the well-known ones include self-enhancement [ 34 ], attributional bias [ 35 ], self-categorization theory [ 36 ], and the exposure hypothesis [ 19 ]. In this study, we argue for a social identity perspective as being an important explanation for third-person effects of misinformation among medical students [ 36 , 37 ].

The social identity explanation suggests that people define themselves in terms of their group memberships and seek to maintain a positive self-image through favoring the members of their own groups over members of an outgroup, which is also known as downward comparison [ 38 , 39 ]. In intergroup settings, the tendency to evaluate their ingroups more positively than the outgroups will lead to an ingroup bias [ 40 ]. Such an ingroup bias is typically described as a trigger for the third-person effect as individuals consider themselves and their group members superior and less vulnerable to undesirable media messages than are others and outgroup members [ 20 ].

In the context of our study, medical students highly identified with the medical community tend to maintain a positive social identity through an intergroup comparison that favors the ingroup and derogates the outgroup (i.e., the general public). It is likely that medical students consider themselves belonging to the medical community and thus are more knowledgeable and smarter than the general public in health-related topics, leading them to perceive the general public as more vulnerable to health-related misinformation than themselves. Accordingly, we propose the following hypothesis:

H1: As medical students’ identification with the medical community increases, the TPP concerning digital misinformation will become larger.

What influences the magnitude of TPP

Previous studies have demonstrated that the magnitude of the third-person perception is influenced by a host of factors including efficacy beliefs [ 3 ] and cultural differences in self-construal [ 22 , 23 ]. Self-construal is defined as “a constellation of thoughts, feelings, and actions concerning the relationship of the self to others, and the self as distinct from others” [ 41 ]. Markus and Kitayama (1991) identified two dimensions of self-construal: Independent and interdependent. Generally, collectivists hold an interdependent view of the self that emphasizes harmony, relatedness, and places importance on belonging, whereas individualists tend to have an independent view of the self and thus view themselves as distinct and unique from others [ 42 ]. Accordingly, cultural values such as collectivism-individualism should also play a role in shaping third-person perception due to the adjustment that people make of the self-other social identity distance [ 22 ].

Set in a Chinese context aiming to explore the potential of individual-level approaches to deal with misinformation, this study examines whether collectivism (the prevailing cultural value in China) and self-efficacy (an important determinant of ones’ behavioral intentions) would affect the magnitude of TPP concerning misinformation and how such impact in turn would influence their actions against misinformation.

The impact of self-efficacy on TPP

Bandura [ 43 ] refers to self-efficacy as one’s perceived capability to perform a desired action required to overcome barriers or manage challenging situations. He also suggests understanding self-efficacy as “a differentiated set of self-beliefs linked to distinct realms of functioning” [ 44 ]. That is to say, self-efficacy should be specifically conceptualized and operationalized in accordance with specific contexts, activities, and tasks [ 45 ]. In the context of digital misinformation, this study defines self-efficacy as one’s belief in his/her abilities to identify and verify misinformation within an affordance-bounded social media environment [ 3 ].

Previous studies have found self-efficacy to be a reliable moderator of biased optimism, which indicates that the more efficacious individuals consider themselves, the greater biased optimism will be invoked [ 12 , 23 , 46 ]. Even if self-efficacy deals only with one’s assessment of self in performing a task, it can still create the other-self perceptual gap; individuals who perceive a higher self-efficacy tend to believe that they are more capable of controlling a stressful or challenging situation [ 12 , 14 ]. As such, they are likely to consider themselves less vulnerable to negative events than are others [ 23 ]. That is, individuals with higher levels of self-efficacy tend to underestimate the impact of harmful messages on themselves, thereby widening the other-self perceptual gap.

In the context of fake news, which is closely related to misinformation, scholars have confirmed that fake news efficacy (i.e., a belief in one’s capability to evaluate fake news [ 3 ]) may lead to a larger third-person perception. Based upon previous research evidence, we thus propose the following hypothesis:

H2: As medical students’ digital misinformation self-efficacy increases, the TPP concerning digital misinformation will become larger.

The influence of collectivism on TPP

Originally conceptualized as a societal-level construct [ 47 ], collectivism reflects a culture that highlights the importance of collective goals over individual goals, defines the self in relation to the group, and places great emphasis on conformity, harmony and interdependence [ 48 ]. Some scholars propose to also examine cultural values at the individual level as culture is embedded within every individual and could vary significantly among individuals, further exerting effects on their perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors [ 49 ]. Corresponding to the construct at the macro-cultural level, micro-psychometric collectivism which reflects personality tendencies is characterized by an interdependent view of the self, a strong sense of other-orientation, and a great concern for the public good [ 50 ].

A few prior studies have indicated that collectivism might influence the magnitude of TPP. For instance, Lee and Tamborini [ 23 ] found that collectivism had a significant negative effect on the magnitude of TPP concerning Internet pornography. Such an impact can be understood in terms of biased optimism and social distance. Collectivists tend to view themselves as an integral part of a greater social whole and consider themselves less differentiated from others [ 51 ]. Collectivism thus would mitigate the third-person perception due to a smaller perceived social distance between individuals and other social members and a lower level of comparative optimism [ 22 , 23 ]. Based on this line of reasoning, we thus propose the following hypothesis:

H3: As medical students’ collectivism increases, the TPP concerning digital misinformation will become smaller.

Behavioral consequences of TPE in the misinformation context

The behavioral consequences trigged by TPE have been classified into three categories: restrictive actions refer to support for censorship or regulation of socially undesirable content such as pornography or violence on television [ 52 ]; corrective action is a specific type of behavior where people seek to voice their own opinions and correct the perceived harmful or ambiguous messages [ 53 ]; promotional actions target at media content with desirable influence, such as advocating for public service announcements [ 24 ]. In a word, restriction, correction and promotion are potential behavioral outcomes of TPE concerning messages with varying valence of social desirability [ 16 ].

Restrictive action as an outcome of third-person perceptual bias (i.e., the perceptual component of TPE positing that people tend to perceive media messages to have a greater impact on others than on themselves) has received substantial scholarly attention in past decades; scholars thus suggest that TPE scholarship to go beyond this tradition and move toward the exploration of corrective and promotional behaviors [ 16 , 24 ]. Moreover, individual-level corrective and promotional actions deserve more investigation specifically in the context of countering misinformation, as efforts from networked citizens have been documented as an important supplement beyond institutional regulations (e.g., drafting policy initiatives to counter misinformation) and platform-based measures (e.g., improving platform algorithms for detecting misinformation) [ 8 ].

In this study, corrective action specifically refers to individuals’ reactive behaviors that seek to rectify misinformation; these include such actions as debunking online misinformation by commenting, flagging, or reporting it [ 3 , 54 ]. Promotional action involves advancing correct information online, including in response to misinformation that has already been disseminated to the public [ 55 ].

The impact of TPP on corrective and promotional actions

Either paternalism theory [ 56 ] or the protective motivation theory [ 57 ] can act as an explanatory framework for behavioral outcomes triggered by third-person perception. According to these theories, people act upon TPP as they think themselves to know better and feel obligated to protect those who are more vulnerable to negative media influence [ 58 ]. That is, corrective and promotional actions as behavioral consequences of TPP might be driven by a protective concern for others and a positive sense of themselves.

To date, several empirical studies across contexts have examined the link between TPP and corrective actions. Koo et al. [ 8 ], for instance, found TPP was not only positively related to respondents’ willingness to correct misinformation propagated by others, but also was positively associated with their self-correction. Other studies suggest that TPP motivates individuals to engage in both online and offline corrective political participation [ 59 ], give a thumbs down to a biased story [ 60 ], and implement corrective behaviors concerning “problematic” TV reality shows [ 16 ]. Based on previous research evidence, we thus propose the following hypothesis:

H4: Medical students with higher degrees of TPP will report greater intentions to correct digital misinformation.

Compared to correction, promotional behavior has received less attention in the TPE research. Promotion commonly occurs in a situation where harmful messages have already been disseminated to the public and others appear to have been influenced by these messages, and it serves as a remedial action to amplify messages with positive influence which may in turn mitigate the detrimental effects of harmful messages [ 16 ].

Within this line of studies, however, empirical studies provide mixed findings. Wei and Golan [ 24 ] found a positive association between TPP of desirable political ads and promotional social media activism such as posting or linking the ad on their social media accounts. Sun et al. [ 16 ] found a negative association between TPP regarding clarity and community-connection public service announcements (PSAs) and promotion behaviors such as advocating for airing more PSAs in TV shows.

As promotional action is still underexplored in the TPE research, and existing evidence for the link between TPP and promotion is indeed mixed, we thus propose an exploratory research question:

RQ1: What is the relationship between TPP and medical students’ intentions to promote corrective information?

The impact of self-efficacy and collectivism on actions against misinformation

According to social cognitive theory, people with higher levels of self-efficacy tend to believe they are competent and capable and are more likely to execute specific actions [ 43 ]. Within the context of digital misinformation, individuals might become more willing to engage in misinformation correction if they have enough knowledge and confidence to evaluate information, and possess sufficient skills to verify information through digital tools and services [ 61 ].

Accordingly, we assumed medical students with higher levels of digital misinformation self-efficacy would be likely to become more active in the fight against misinformation.

H5: Medical students with higher levels of digital misinformation self-efficacy will report greater intentions to (a) correct misinformation and (b) promote corrective information on social media.

Social actions of collectivists are strongly guided by prevailing social norms, collective responsibilities, and common interest, goals, and obligations [ 48 ]. Hence, highly collectivistic individuals are more likely to self-sacrifice for group interests and are more oriented toward pro-social behaviors, such as adopting pro-environmental behaviors [ 62 ], sharing knowledge [ 23 ], and providing help for people in need [ 63 ].

Fighting against misinformation is also considered to comprise altruism, especially self-engaged corrective and promotional actions, as such actions are costly to the actor (i.e., taking up time and energy) but could benefit the general public [ 61 ]. Accordingly, we assume collectivism might play a role in prompting people to engage in reactive behaviors against misinformation.

It is also noted that collectivist values are deeply rooted in Chinese society and were especially strongly advocated during the outbreak of COVID-19 with an attempt to motivate prosocial behaviors [ 63 ]. Accordingly, we expected that the more the medical students were oriented toward collectivist values, the more likely they would feel personally obliged and normatively motivated to engage in misinformation correction. However, as empirical evidence was quite limited, we proposed exploratory research questions:

RQ2: Will medical students with higher levels of collectivism report greater intentions to (a) correct misinformation and (b) promote corrective information on social media?

The theoretical model

To integrate both the antecedents and consequences of TPP, we proposed a theoretical model (as shown in Fig. 1 ) to examine how professional identification, self-efficacy and collectivism would influence the magnitude of TPP, and how such impact would in turn influence medical students’ intentions to correct digital misinformation and promote corrective information. Thus, RQ3 was proposed:

RQ3: Will the TPP mediate the impact of self-efficacy and collectivism on medical students’ intentions to (a) correct misinformation, and (b) promote corrective information on social media? Fig. 1 The proposed theoretical model. DMSE = Digital Misinformation Self-efficacy; PIMC = Professional Identification with Medical Community; ICDM = Intention to Correct Digital Misinformation; IPCI = Intention to Promote Corrective Information Full size image

To examine the proposed hypotheses, this study utilized cross-sectional survey data from medical students in Tongji Medical College (TJMC) of China. TJMC is one of the birthplaces of Chinese modern medical education and among the first universities and colleges that offer eight-year curricula on clinical medicine. Further, TJMC is located in Wuhan, the epicenter of the initial COVID-19 outbreaks, thus its students might find the pandemic especially relevant – and threatening – to them.

The survey instrument was pilot tested using a convenience sample of 58 respondents, leading to minor refinements to a few items. Upon approval from the university’s Institutional Research Board (IRB), the formal investigation was launched in TJMC during April 2022. Given the challenges of reaching the whole target population and acquiring an appropriate sampling frame, this study employed purposive and convenience sampling.

We first contacted four school counselors as survey administrators through email with a letter explaining the objective of the study and requesting cooperation. All survey administrators were trained by the principal investigator to help with the data collection in four majors (i.e., basic medicine, clinical medicine, nursing, and public health). Paper-and-pencil questionnaires were distributed to students on regular weekly departmental meetings of each major as students in all grades (including undergraduates, master students, and doctoral students) were required to attend the meeting. The projected time of completion of the survey was approximately 10–15 min. The survey administrators indicated to students that participation was voluntary, their responses would remain confidential and secure, and the data would be used only for academic purposes. Though a total of 1,500 participants took the survey, 17 responses were excluded from the analysis as they failed the attention filters. Ultimately, a total of 1,483 surveys were deemed valid for analysis.

Of the 1,483 respondents, 624 (42.10%) were men and 855 (57.70%) were women, and four did not identify gender. The average age of the sample was 22.00 ( SD  = 2.54, ranging from 17 to 40). Regarding the distribution of respondents’ majors, 387 (26.10%) were in basic medicine, 390 (26.30%) in clinical medicine, 307 (20.70%) in nursing, and 399 (26.90%) in public health. In terms of university class, 1,041 (70.40%) were undergraduates, 291 (19.70%) were working on their master degrees, 146 (9.90%) were doctoral students, and five did not identify their class data.

Measurement of key variables

Perceived effects of digital misinformation on oneself and on others.

Three modified items adapted from previous research [ 33 , 64 ] were employed to measure perceived effects of digital misinformation on oneself. Respondents were asked to indicate to what extent they agreed with the following: (1) I am frequently concerned that the information about COVID-19 I read on social media might be false; (2) Misinformation on social media might misguide my understanding of the coronavirus; (3) Misinformation on social media might influence my decisions regarding COVID-19. The response categories used a 7-point scale, where 1 meant “strongly disagree” and 7 meant “strongly agree.” The measure of perceived effects of digital misinformation on others consisted of four parallel items with the same statement except replacing “I” and “my” with “the general others” and “their”. The three “self” items were averaged to create a measure of “perceived effects on oneself” ( M  = 3.98, SD  = 1.49, α  = 0.87). The three “others” items were also added and averaged to form an index of “perceived effects on others” ( M  = 4.62, SD  = 1.32, α  = 0.87).

The perceived self-other disparity (TPP)

TPP was derived by subtracting perceived effects on oneself from perceived effects on others.

Professional identification with medical community

Professional identification was measured using a three item, 7-point Likert-type scale (1 =  strongly disagree , 7 =  strongly agree ) adapted from previous studies [ 65 , 66 ] by asking respondents to indicate to what extent they agreed with the following statements: (1) I would be proud to be a medical staff member in the future; (2) I am committed to my major; and (3) I will be in an occupation that matches my current major. The three items were thus averaged to create a composite measure of professional identification ( M  = 5.34, SD  = 1.37, α  = 0.88).

Digital misinformation self-efficacy

Modified from previous studies [ 3 ], self-efficacy was measured with three items. Respondents were asked to indicate on a 7-point Linkert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) their agreement with the following: (1) I think I can identify misinformation relating to COVID-19 on social media by myself; (2) I know how to verify misinformation regarding COVID-19 by using digital tools such as Tencent Jiaozhen Footnote 1 and Piyao.org.cn Footnote 2 ; (3) I am confident in my ability to identify digital misinformation relating to COVID-19. A composite measure of self-efficacy was constructed by averaging the three items ( M  = 4.38, SD  = 1.14, α  = 0.77).

• Collectivism

Collectivism was measured using four items adapted from previous research [ 67 ], in which respondents were asked to indicate their agreement with the following statements on a 7-point scale, from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree): (1) Individuals should sacrifice self-interest for the group; (2) Group welfare is more important than individual rewards; (3) Group success is more important than individual success; and (4) Group loyalty should be encouraged even if individual goals suffer. Therefore, the average of the four items was used to create a composite index of collectivism ( M  = 4.47, SD  = 1.30, α  = 0.89).

Intention to correct digital misinformation

We used three items adapted from past research [ 68 ] to measure respondents’ intention to correct misinformation on social media. All items were scored on a 7-point scale from 1 (very unlikely) to 7 (very likely): (1) I will post a comment saying that the information is wrong; (2) I will message the person who posts the misinformation to tell him/her the post is wrong; (3) I will track the progress of social media platforms in dealing with the wrong post (i.e., whether it’s deleted or corrected). A composite measure of “intention to correct digital misinformation” was constructed by adding the three items and dividing by three ( M  = 3.39, SD  = 1.43, α  = 0.81).

Intention to promote corrective information

On a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (very unlikely) to 7 (very likely), respondents were asked to indicate their intentions to (1) Retweet the corrective information about coronavirus on my social media account; (2) Share the corrective information about coronavirus with others through Social Networking Services. The two items were averaged to create a composite measure of “intention to promote corrective information” ( M  = 4.60, SD  = 1.68, r  = 0.77).

Control variables

We included gender, age, class (1 = undergraduate degree; 2 = master degree; 3 = doctoral degree), and clinical internship (0 = none; 1 = less than 0.5 year; 2 = 0.5 to 1.5 years; 3 = 1.5 to 3 years; 4 = more than 3 years) as control variables in the analyses. Additionally, coronavirus-related information exposure (i.e., how frequently they were exposed to information about COVID-19 on Weibo, WeChat, and QQ) and misinformation exposure on social media (i.e., how frequently they were exposed to misinformation about COVID-19 on Weibo, WeChat, and QQ) were also assessed as control variables because previous studies [ 69 , 70 ] had found them relevant to misinformation-related behaviors. Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations between main variables were shown in Table 1 .

Statistical analysis

We ran confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in Mplus (version 7.4, Muthén & Muthén, 1998) to ensure the construct validity of the scales. To examine the associations between variables and tested our hypotheses, we performed structural equation modeling (SEM). Mplus was chosen over other SEM statistical package mainly because the current data set included some missing data, and the Mplus has its strength in handling missing data using full-information maximum likelihood imputation, which enabled us to include all available data [ 71 , 72 ]. Meanwhile, Mplus also shows great flexibility in modelling when simultaneously handling continuous, categorical, observed, and latent variables in a variety of models. Further, Mplus provides a variety of useful information in a concise manner [ 73 ].

Table 2 shows the model fit information for the measurement and structural models. Five latent variables were specified in the measurement model. To test the measurement model, we examined the values of Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE) (Table 1 ). Cronbach’s alpha values ranged from 0.77 to 0.89. The CRs, which ranged from 0.78 to 0.91, exceeded the level of 0.70 recommended by Fornell (1982) and thus confirmed the internal consistency. The AVE estimates, which ranged from 0.54 to 0.78, exceeded the 0.50 lower limit recommended by Fornell and Larcker (1981), and thus supported convergent validity. All the square roots of AVE were greater than the off-diagonal correlations in the corresponding rows and columns [ 74 ]. Therefore, discriminant validity was assured. In a word, our measurement model showed sufficient convergence and discriminant validity.

Five model fit indices–the relative chi-square ratio (χ 2 / df ), the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and the standardized root-mean-square residual (SRMR) were used to assess the model. Specifically, the normed chi-square between 1 and 5 is acceptable [ 75 ]. TLI and CFI over 0.95 are considered acceptable, SRMR value less than 0.08 and RMSEA value less than 0.06 indicate good fit [ 76 ]. Based on these criteria, the model was found to have an acceptable fit to the data.

Figure 2 presents the results of our hypothesized model. H1 was rejected as professional identification failed to predict TPP ( β  = 0.06, p  > 0.05). Self-efficacy was positively associated with TPP ( β  = 0.14, p  < 0.001) while collectivism was negatively related to TPP ( β  = -0.10, p  < 0.01), lending support to H2 and H3.

Note. N  = 1,483. The coefficients of relationships between latent variables are standardized beta coefficients. Significant paths are indicated by solid line; non-significant paths are indicated by dotted lines. * p  < .05, ** p  < .01; *** p  < .001. DMSE = Digital Misinformation Self-efficacy; PIMC = Professional Identification with Medical Community; ICDM = Intention to Correct Digital Misinformation; IPCI = Intention to Promote Corrective Information

H4 posited that medical students with higher degrees of TPP would report greater intentions to correct digital misinformation. However, we found a negative association between TPP and intentions to correct misinformation ( β  = -0.12, p  < 0.001). H4 was thus rejected. Regarding RQ1, results revealed that TPP was negatively associated with intentions to promote corrective information ( β  = -0.08, p  < 0.05).

Further, our results supported H5 as we found that self-efficacy had a significant positive relationship with corrective intentions ( β  = 0.18, p  < 0.001) and promotional intentions ( β  = 0.32, p  < 0.001). Collectivism was also positively associated with intentions to correct misinformation ( β  = 0.14, p  < 0.001) and promote corrective information ( β  = 0.20, p  < 0.001), which answered RQ2.

Regarding RQ3 (see Table 3 ), TPP significantly mediated the relationship between self-efficacy and intentions to correct misinformation ( β  = -0.016), as well as the relationship between self-efficacy and intentions to promote corrective information ( β  = -0.011). However, TPP failed to mediate either the association between collectivism and corrective intentions ( β  = 0.011, ns ) or the association between collectivism and promotional intentions ( β  = 0.007, ns ).

Recent research has highlighted the role of health professionals and scientists in the fight against misinformation as they are considered knowledgeable, ethical, and reliable [ 5 , 77 ]. This study moved a step further by exploring the great potential of pre-professional medical students to tackle digital misinformation. Drawing on TPE theory, we investigated how medical students perceived the impact of digital misinformation, the influence of professional identification, self-efficacy and collectivism on these perceptions, and how these perceptions would in turn affect their actions against digital misinformation.

In line with prior studies [ 3 , 63 ], this research revealed that self-efficacy and collectivism played a significant role in influencing the magnitude of third-person perception, while professional identification had no significant impact on TPP. As shown in Table 1 , professional identification was positively associated with perceived effects of misinformation on oneself ( r  = 0.14, p  < 0.001) and on others ( r  = 0.20, p  < 0.001) simultaneously, which might result in a diminished TPP. What explains a shared or joint influence of professional identification on self and others? A potential explanation is that even medical staff had poor knowledge about the novel coronavirus during the initial outbreak [ 78 ]. Accordingly, identification with the medical community was insufficient to create an optimistic bias concerning identifying misinformation about COVID-19.

Our findings indicated that TPP was negatively associated with medical students’ intentions to correct misinformation and promote corrective information, which contradicted our hypotheses but was consistent with some previous TPP research conducted in the context of perceived risk [ 10 , 79 , 80 , 81 ]. For instance, Stavrositu and Kim (2014) found that increased TPP regarding cancer risk was negatively associated with behavioral intentions to engage in further cancer information search/exchange, as well as to adopt preventive lifestyle changes. Similarly, Wei et al. (2008) found concerning avian flu news that TPP negatively predicted the likelihood of engaging in actions such as seeking relevant information and getting vaccinated. In contrast, the perceived effects of avian flu news on oneself emerged as a positive predictor of intentions to take protective behavior.

Our study shows a similar pattern as perceived effects of misinformation on oneself were positively associated with intentions to correct misinformation ( r  = 0.06, p  < 0.05) and promote corrective information ( r  = 0.10, p  < 0.001, See Table 1 ). While the reasons for the behavioral patterns are rather elusive, such findings are indicative of human nature. When people perceive misinformation-related risk to be highly personally relevant, they do not take chances. However, when they perceive others to be more vulnerable than themselves, a set of sociopsychological dynamics such as self-defense mechanism, positive illusion, optimistic bias, and social comparison provide a restraint on people’s intention to engage in corrective and promotional actions against misinformation [ 81 ].

In addition to the indirect effects via TPP, our study also revealed that self-efficacy and collectivism serve as direct and powerful drivers of corrective and promotive actions. Consistent with previous literature [ 61 , 68 ], individuals will be more willing to engage in social corrections of misinformation if they possess enough knowledge, skills, abilities, and resources to identify misinformation, as correcting misinformation is difficult and their effort would not necessarily yield positive outcomes. Collectivists are also more likely to engage in misinformation correction as they are concerned for the public good and social benefits, aiming to protect vulnerable people from being misguided by misinformation [ 82 ].

This study offers some theoretical advancements. First, our study extends the TPE theory by moving beyond the examination of restrictive actions and toward the exploration of corrective and promotional actions in the context of misinformation. This exploratory investigation suggests that self-other asymmetry biased perception concerning misinformation did influence individuals’ actions against misinformation, but in an unexpected direction. The results also suggest that using TPP alone to predict behavioral outcomes was deficient as it only “focuses on differences between ‘self’ and ‘other’ while ignoring situations in which the ‘self’ and ‘other’ are jointly influenced” [ 83 ]. Future research, therefore, could provide a more sophisticated understanding of third-person effects on behavior by comparing the difference of perceived effects on oneself, perceived effects on others, and the third-person perception in the pattern and strength of the effects on behavioral outcomes.

Moreover, institutionalized corrective solutions such as government and platform regulation are non-exhaustive [ 84 , 85 ]; it thus becomes critical to tap the great potential of the crowd to engage in the fight against misinformation [ 8 ] while so far, research on the motivations underlying users’ active countering of misinformation has been scarce. The current paper helps bridge this gap by exploring the role of self-efficacy and collectivism in predicting medical students’ intentions to correct misinformation and promote corrective information. We found a parallel impact of the self-ability-related factor and the collective-responsibility-related factor on intentions to correct misinformation and promote corrective information. That is, in a collectivist society like China, cultivating a sense of collective responsibility and obligation in tackling misinformation (i.e., a persuasive story told with an emphasis on collective interests of social corrections of misinformation), in parallel with systematic medical education and digital literacy training (particularly, handling various fact-checking tools, acquiring Internet skills for information seeking and verification) would be effective methods to encourage medical students to engage in active countering behaviors against misinformation. Moreover, such an effective means of encouraging social corrections of misinformation might also be applied to the general public.

In practical terms, this study lends new perspectives to the current efforts in dealing with digital misinformation by involving pre-professionals (in this case, medical students) into the fight against misinformation. As digital natives, medical students usually spend more time online, have developed sophisticated digital competencies and are equipped with basic medical knowledge, thus possessing great potential in tackling digital misinformation. This study further sheds light on how to motivate medical students to become active in thwarting digital misinformation, which can help guide strategies to enlist pre-professionals to reduce the spread and threat of misinformation. For example, collectivism education in parallel with digital literacy training would help increase medical students’ sense of responsibility for and confidence in tackling misinformation, thus encouraging them to engage in active countering behaviors.

This study also has its limitations. First, the cross-sectional survey study did not allow us to justify causal claims. Granted, the proposed direction of causality in this study is in line with extant theorizing, but there is still a possibility of reverse causal relationships. To establish causality, experimental research or longitudinal studies would be more appropriate. Our second limitation lies in the generalizability of our findings. With the focus set on medical students in Chinese society, one should be cautious in generalizing the findings to other populations and cultures. For example, the effects of collectivism on actions against misinformation might differ in Eastern and Western cultures. Further studies would benefit from replication in diverse contexts and with diverse populations to increase the overall generalizability of our findings.

Drawing on TPE theory, our study revealed that TPP failed to motivate medical students to correct misinformation and promote corrective information. However, self-efficacy and collectivism were found to serve as direct and powerful drivers of corrective and promotive actions. Accordingly, in a collectivist society such as China’s, cultivating a sense of collective responsibility in tackling misinformation, in parallel with efficient personal efficacy interventions, would be effective methods to encourage medical students, even the general public, to actively engage in countering behaviors against misinformation.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Tencent Jiaozhen Fact-Checking Platform which comprises the Tencent information verification tool allow users to check information authenticity through keyword searching. The tool is updated on a daily basis and adopts a human-machine collaboration approach to discovering, verifying, and refuting rumors and false information. For refuting rumors, Tencent Jiaozhen publishes verified content on the homepage of Tencent's rumor-refuting platform, and uses algorithms to accurately push this content to users exposed to the relevant rumors through the WeChat dispelling assistant.

Piyao.org.cn is hosted by the Internet Illegal Information Reporting Center under the Office of the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission and operated by Xinhuanet.com. The platform is a website that collects statements from Twitter-like services, news portals and China's biggest search engine, Baidu, to refute online rumors and expose the scams of phishing websites. It has integrated over 40 local rumor-refuting platforms and uses artificial intelligence to identify rumors.

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Acknowledgements

We thank all participants and staff working for the project.

This work was supported by Humanities and Social Sciences Youth Foundation of the Ministry of Education of China (Grant No. 21YJC860012).

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Zongya Li & Jun Yan

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Zongya Li wrote the main manuscript and Jun yan collected the data. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

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Li, Z., Yan, J. Does a perceptual gap lead to actions against digital misinformation? A third-person effect study among medical students. BMC Public Health 24 , 1291 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18763-9

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New CAS Class Teaches the History of Empires Through Fashion and Beauty

Students design and construct custom outfits based on historical case studies.

Jilene Chua’s Fashion and Beauty Under War and Empire is a course on how clothing and makeup provided insights into war and empire in the 20th century.

Sam Thomas (COM’24)

Jackie ricciardi.

A skirt made of newspaper. A blonde wig with brown roots. A headband made of crocheted “plarn” (yarn made of repurposed plastic bags). A pair of army green pants with extra pockets sewn around the ankles.

In lieu of a traditional exam, Jilene Chua , a College of Arts & Sciences assistant professor of history, assigned her students a different kind of final for their Fashion and Beauty Under War and Empire class: designing and constructing an entire outfit. The course, which wrapped earlier this month, spans the time periods from settler colonialism in the 1800s to the modern day and sets out to examine how clothing and makeup can provide insights into war and empire in the 20th century.

During the final two meetings of the class, groups presented their creations, accompanied by historical case studies they wrote reflecting on the symbolism of each piece. While some students had sewing experience, others were crafting outfits for the first time.

Chua, who came to BU this year, says she designed the Fashion and Beauty Under War and Empire class as a way to unite her research interests of history, fashion, and empire. “I wanted to figure out a way to have students learn about [this history], but in a way that wasn’t just constant violence,” she says. “Sometimes, histories of empires can be really dark and involve a lot of brutal things, so I wanted the students to think about how unexpected things like clothing, fashion, and beauty can be ways of analyzing this form of power.”

Sometimes, histories of empires can be really dark and involve a lot of brutal things, so I wanted the students to think about how unexpected things like clothing, fashion, and beauty can be ways of analyzing this form of power. Jilene Chua

Chua says the students in the class—which attracted different majors and class years—made connections she hadn’t even considered. For example, one class discussion on the prevalence of camouflage in fashion turned into an analysis of military recruitment—specifically, how it affected students during their high school experience.

In a presentation titled “Sustainability & Empire Through Time,” students investigated how different populations utilized resources readily available around them for clothing. For example, one student created a crocheted wrap to reflect how some Native American tribes used the fur of Churro sheep for clothing since it was a by-product of a food source. Another student made a shirt and attached a Kirkland jasmine rice bag, representing how people repurposed food sacks during the Great Depression.

In another presentation, titled “Combat Couture: The American Culture of War,” students examined how fashion in the United States is based on a military aesthetic. They discussed the Bikini Atoll , a coral reef in the Pacific Ocean that the US government used as a nuclear testing site and how it displaced and harmed its inhabitants. The bikini swimsuit was introduced and named just four days after the testing. Now, when someone says “bikini,” it conjures images of summer days and swimming rather than nuclear waste. 

“It started to make me think about how I didn’t have that on my syllabus, so I changed it to adapt,” Chua said. “It made sense to add because they have all these experiences with militarism in their own lives that they’re bringing in.” 

During the presentation, one student displayed a fuzzy green jacket with a camo pattern with “Are you registered for the draft?” and only a “Yes” checkbox, painted on the back. This, the student explained, was meant to represent how the draft was not optional, as well as how “fashion can reframe ugly parts of an empire into something soft and fuzzy.”

Reflecting on the course, Kal Hawley (CAS’27) says they were excited to create outfits with the added historical context from the course. Their outfit included a blazer with sewn lace hanging from about waist level, a commentary on softness—that is, not being afraid of being vulnerable or perceived as weak.

Among other topics in the course are the commodification of human products such as hair, skincare during chemical warfare, and profit as a connection between war and beauty. 

Throughout the semester, Chua encouraged students to engage in sustainable practices. The class went together to Goodwill to pick out raw materials and clothing items and they discussed the environmental impacts of the fashion industry—for example, 87 percent of garments made each year end up in a landfill. The material they thrifted or recycled was then used to construct their final outfits.

Students were able to use BU’s Engineering Product Innovation Center (EPIC), right on the Charles River Campus, when crafting their clothes. EPIC spans 15,000 square feet and offers students access to a variety of engineering and manufacturing tools, such as laser cutters, welding equipment, drill presses, sewing machines, and more. 

Ivan Perez (CAS’24) had no experience making clothes and had no background in fashion before enrolling. He says he took the class as a creative outlet and because he wanted “to see how and what a class like this could offer.” His enrollment in the course was a “happy accident,” he says.

“Aside, of course, from the material covered throughout the semester, the class really helped me express myself creatively through an unfamiliar yet incredibly cool medium,” Perez says. “It certainly was a unique experience, and an obscure class that made the semester very memorable. It is something quite niche that BU offers. I was just fortunate enough to stumble upon a new diamond in the rough.”

Although the class focuses specifically on fashion and beauty, Chua says she hopes this kind of critical societal analysis carries over to other parts of her students’ lives.

“I think they’re already starting to make connections to how this is a culture of militarism all around us even today,” she says. “But with these big topics like war and empire, students can see how they also appear in everyday life, not just through clothing and beauty. We are still living this culture out, right now.”

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Jackie Ricciardi is a staff photojournalist at BU Today and Bostonia  magazine. She has worked as a staff photographer at newspapers that include the Augusta Chronicle  in Augusta, Ga., and at Seacoast Media Group in Portsmouth, N.H., where she was twice named New Hampshire Press Photographer of the Year. Profile

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