assignment for french revolution

• Games & Quizzes
• History & Society
• Science & Tech
• Biographies
• Animals & Nature
• Geography & Travel
• Arts & Culture
• On This Day
• One Good Fact
• New Articles
• Lifestyles & Social Issues
• Philosophy & Religion
• Politics, Law & Government
• World History
• Health & Medicine
• Browse Biographies
• Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
• Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
• Environment
• Fossils & Geologic Time
• Entertainment & Pop Culture
• Sports & Recreation
• Visual Arts
• Demystified
• Image Galleries
• Infographics
• Top Questions
• Britannica Kids
• Saving Earth
• Space Next 50
• Student Center
• Introduction & Top Questions

Origins of the Revolution

Aristocratic revolt, 1787–89.

• Events of 1789
• The new regime
• Counterrevolution, regicide, and the Reign of Terror
• The Directory and revolutionary expansion

What was the French Revolution?

Why did the french revolution happen, why did the french revolution lead to war with other nations.

• Who was Maximilien Robespierre?
• How did Maximilien Robespierre come to power?

French Revolution

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• Ancient Origins - The French Revolution and Birth of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity
• Alpha History - The French Revolution
• World History Encyclopedia - French Revolution
• Humanities LibreTexts - The French Revolution
• The Victorian Web - French Revolution
• U.S. Department of State - Office of the Historian - The United States and the French Revolution
• Khan Academy - French Revolution (part 1)
• GlobalSecurity.org - The French Revolution 1789-1799
• NSCC Libraries Pressbooks - The French Revolution
• French Revolution - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• French Revolution - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

The French Revolution was a period of major social upheaval that began in 1787 and ended in 1799. It sought to completely change the relationship between the rulers and those they governed and to redefine the nature of political power. It proceeded in a back-and-forth process between revolutionary and reactionary forces.

There were many reasons. The bourgeoisie —merchants, manufacturers, professionals—had gained financial power but were excluded from political power. Those who were socially beneath them had very few rights, and most were also increasingly impoverished. The monarchy was no longer viewed as divinely ordained. When the king sought to increase the tax burden on the poor and expand it to classes that had previously been exempt, revolution became all but inevitable.

King Louis XVI of France yielded to the idea of a new constitution and to the sovereignty of the people but at the same time sent emissaries to the rulers of neighbouring countries seeking their help in restoring his power. Many revolutionaries, especially the Girondins , believed that the revolution needed to spread throughout Europe to succeed. An Austro-Prussian army invaded France, and French revolutionary forces pushed outward.

How did the French Revolution succeed?

In some respects, the French Revolution did not succeed. But the ideas of representational democracy and basic property rights took hold, and it sowed the seeds of the later revolutions of 1830 and 1848 . 

Recent News

French Revolution , revolutionary movement that shook France between 1787 and 1799 and reached its first climax there in 1789—hence the conventional term “Revolution of 1789,” denoting the end of the ancien régime in France and serving also to distinguish that event from the later French revolutions of 1830 and 1848 .

The French Revolution had general causes common to all the revolutions of the West at the end of the 18th century and particular causes that explain why it was by far the most violent and the most universally significant of these revolutions. The first of the general causes was the social structure of the West. The feudal regime had been weakened step-by-step and had already disappeared in parts of Europe . The increasingly numerous and prosperous elite of wealthy commoners—merchants, manufacturers, and professionals, often called the bourgeoisie —aspired to political power in those countries where it did not already possess it. The peasants , many of whom owned land, had attained an improved standard of living and education and wanted to get rid of the last vestiges of feudalism so as to acquire the full rights of landowners and to be free to increase their holdings. Furthermore, from about 1730, higher standards of living had reduced the mortality rate among adults considerably. This, together with other factors, had led to an increase in the population of Europe unprecedented for several centuries: it doubled between 1715 and 1800. For France, which with 26 million inhabitants in 1789 was the most populated country of Europe, the problem was most acute .

A larger population created a greater demand for food and consumer goods. The discovery of new gold mines in Brazil had led to a general rise in prices throughout the West from about 1730, indicating a prosperous economic situation. From about 1770, this trend slackened, and economic crises, provoking alarm and even revolt, became frequent. Arguments for social reform began to be advanced. The philosophes —intellectuals whose writings inspired these arguments—were certainly influenced by 17th-century theorists such as René Descartes , Benedict de Spinoza and John Locke , but they came to very different conclusions about political, social, and economic matters. A revolution seemed necessary to apply the ideas of Montesquieu , Voltaire , or Jean-Jacques Rousseau . This Enlightenment was spread among the educated classes by the many “societies of thought” that were founded at that time: masonic lodges, agricultural societies, and reading rooms.

It is uncertain, however, whether revolution would have come without the added presence of a political crisis. Faced with the heavy expenditure that the wars of the 18th century entailed, the rulers of Europe sought to raise money by taxing the nobles and clergy, who in most countries had hitherto been exempt, To justify this, the rulers likewise invoked the arguments of advanced thinkers by adopting the role of “ enlightened despots .” This provoked reaction throughout Europe from the privileged bodies, diets. and estates. In North America this backlash caused the American Revolution , which began with the refusal to pay a tax imposed by the king of Great Britain. Monarchs tried to stop this reaction of the aristocracy , and both rulers and the privileged classes sought allies among the nonprivileged bourgeois and the peasants.

Although scholarly debate continues about the exact causes of the Revolution, the following reasons are commonly adduced: (1) the bourgeoisie resented its exclusion from political power and positions of honour; (2) the peasants were acutely aware of their situation and were less and less willing to support the anachronistic and burdensome feudal system; (3) the philosophes had been read more widely in France than anywhere else; (4) French participation in the American Revolution had driven the government to the brink of bankruptcy ; (5) France was the most populous country in Europe, and crop failures in much of the country in 1788, coming on top of a long period of economic difficulties, compounded existing restlessness; and (6) the French monarchy , no longer seen as divinely ordained , was unable to adapt to the political and societal pressures that were being exerted on it.

The Revolution took shape in France when the controller general of finances, Charles-Alexandre de Calonne , arranged the summoning of an assembly of “notables” (prelates, great noblemen, and a few representatives of the bourgeoisie) in February 1787 to propose reforms designed to eliminate the budget deficit by increasing the taxation of the privileged classes. The assembly refused to take responsibility for the reforms and suggested the calling of the Estates-General , which represented the clergy , the aristocracy , and the Third Estate (the commoners) and which had not met since 1614. The efforts made by Calonne’s successors to enforce fiscal reforms in spite of resistance by the privileged classes led to the so-called revolt of the “aristocratic bodies,” notably that of the parlements (the most important courts of justice), whose powers were curtailed by the edict of May 1788.

During the spring and summer of 1788, there was unrest among the populace in Paris , Grenoble , Dijon , Toulouse , Pau , and Rennes . The king, Louis XVI , had to yield. He reappointed reform-minded Jacques Necker as the finance minister and promised to convene the Estates-General on May 5, 1789. He also, in practice, granted freedom of the press, and France was flooded with pamphlets addressing the reconstruction of the state. The elections to the Estates-General, held between January and April 1789, coincided with further disturbances, as the harvest of 1788 had been a bad one. There were practically no exclusions from the voting; and the electors drew up cahiers de doléances , which listed their grievances and hopes. They elected 600 deputies for the Third Estate, 300 for the nobility, and 300 for the clergy.

Ohio State nav bar

Ohio state navigation bar.

• BuckeyeLink
• Search Ohio State

The French Revolution

Introduction

Pre-class preparation, lesson plan  , shifts in power, french nationalism.

• The French Revolution

Introduction

How a revolution that began with the lofty purposes of the Declaration of Rights and Man and Citizen, a statement of universal individual rights, so rapidly devolved into a Reign of Terror is one of the most vexing questions about the French Revolution. Teachers who have but two or three days (a best-case scenario) to lecture on the French Revolution are often forced to rely on the largely discredited theory that the French Revolution was a creation of the French bourgeoisie and the Terror was a reaction to a proto-socialist worker's movement.

This lesson plan focuses on two competing interpretations of the Terror: one political and the other ideological. The political interpretation claims that the first-generation revolutionaries enshrined individual liberties only to have their aspirations crushed by an escalating set of political crises—the foreign war, the outbreak of civil war in western France, and the political maneuvering of a monarch who became increasingly hostile to the French Revolution. The Terror was, therefore, a political reaction to political and diplomatic circumstances by a revolutionary government under siege.

The ideological interpretation argues that the seeds of the Reign of Terror were already planted in 1789. Rather than creating the individual rights of the citizen, the revolutionaries of 1789, with no political experience on which to draw, drew upon the only political model available, the absolute monarchy. This claim holds that unity of the "nation" was far more important than the rights of the citizen. Onto this, the Revolution grafted the republican ideology of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose concept of a unanimous and infallible "general will" was a comfortable but abstract replacement for the absolute monarchy. However, the abstraction of the nation was a poor substitute for a flesh-and-blood king and thus generated hostility to the Revolution. The foreign and civil wars along with the Reign of Terror, therefore, were symptomatic of the failure to achieve national unity, not the cause of the excesses of the Terror government.

The focus on the debate between individual rights versus the unified nation and the related debate about the origins of the Reign of Terror presented here offers students the opportunity to analyze primary documents, both visual and printed. It also offers a good case study for the interrelationship between ideology and politics. Finally, by focusing on these issues specifically, this lesson should help prepare students for the study of the politics and ideologies of the nineteenth century, especially liberalism, conservatism, and socialism, all of which have connections to the political philosophy of the French Revolution.

To explain the collapse of absolutism in France and the consequences of the political vacuum created by its downfall for the course of the Revolution.

To be able to describe and contrast the two competing ideologies by which French revolutionaries reconstituted France as a nation, rather than a kingdom, and individuals as citizens instead of subjects.

To comprehend and analyze interpretations of the causes of the Reign of Terror as either the creation of specific political circumstances or as the logical consequence of the ideologies of the early Revolution.

To be able to interpret products of revolutionary political culture, such as written and visual political propaganda, as tools in understanding political ideology.

I. The Pre-Revolution Period

While it will be important to explain the various aspects of the pre-Revolution period, such as the financial crisis of the monarchy and the division of French society into distinct orders of clergy, nobility, and commoners, this lesson plan relies heavily on an understanding of Enlightenment philosophy.

The eighteenth-century philosophical movement known as the Enlightenment challenged both the social order and absolute monarchy by questioning the assumptions on which these institutions were based. Rather than accepting tradition as a basis for rule, reason dictated what was best for society and government. Thus, the philosophes of the Enlightenment began to speak of the social contract as a basis for governance and of individual rights.

John Locke, the English philosopher who was influential in France, argued that humans had "inalienable liberties" as individuals. In France, philosophes such as Voltaire promoted the ideology of individual liberty, but Voltaire was far from becoming a democrat. He believed in "enlightened absolutism" as the surest defender of individual liberty. Nevertheless, many of the philosophes of the later Enlightenment, the last two decades prior to the Revolution, such as the Marquis de Condorcet, would support both republicanism and the rights of the individual.

The focus on individual rights, however, was by no means the only voice of the Enlightenment concerning the social contract. The political philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau similarly dealt with the basis of a just form of government and the rights of citizens within that ideal state. However, unlike Locke, who believed that the rights of the individual could never be lost, Rousseau claimed that in the perfect form of government, citizens willingly alienated their rights in the name of the "general will"—that is, the unanimous consent of the citizenry who acted out of civic virtue rather than individual self-interest. The text of Rousseau's Social Contract can be found at the Enlightenment and Human Rights section of George Mason University's website Exploring the French Revolution .

II. The Revolution Begins

A. the meeting of the estates-general.

Prior to the meeting of the Estates-General, the issue of voting procedures became the dominant political theme, overshadowing specific grievances and reform proposals drawn up by each estate, known as Cahiers de doleances . Tradition mandated that each estate meet separately and vote as an estate, that is, one vote for the clergy, one for the nobility, and one for the commoners.

The Third Estate protested that because they represented the vast majority of the French population, voting should be by head, one vote per delegate. The crown turned the matter over to the Parlement of Paris, who decided that voting initially must be done in the traditional format, but did not forbid the possibility that the format could be amended by the Estates-General itself.

One argument, which certainly contemporaries believed, was that the Parlement's decision was part of an aristocratic reaction to prevent the Third Estate from having a legitimate voice. Abbé Sieyes's pamphlet "What Is the Third Estate?" is one of the more hostile responses to the Parlement's decision.

Once convened at Versailles, the Estates-General became bogged down in a debate over voting. The Third Estate hoped to debate the issue with the other two groups, but the crown provided no clear instruction on how to proceed, other than that the edict of the Paris court should be followed. The impasse led to the breakdown of the Estates-General and the Third Estate's declaration that they alone represented the French nation as the "National Assembly."

This was the beginning of the French Revolution. The defection of members of the First Estate, mostly parish clergy, and a handful of liberal members of the Second Estate to the National Assembly forced the crown to recognize the National Assembly as legitimate.

One approach to the opening of the Estates-General is to examine various images that represented the three orders of France. Some, such as the "The Joyous Accord" and Jacques-Louis David's "The Tennis Court Oath," emphasize the Estates-General and the creation of the National Assembly as a unifying experience. Others, such as "The Third Estate Awakens," stress the divisions between the orders. These images are available on the Exploring the French Revolution website. Search by title.

Activity: Reenacting the Estates-General

Divide the class into three “estates.” The numbers should be roughly divided so that half the class is divided into the First and Second Estates and the remaining half into the Third Estate—this is how the breakdown actually occurred in 1789.

Without the support of some members of the First or Second Estates, even "voting by head" was no guarantee of political victory for the Third Estate. Any proposals by the Third Estate must therefore appeal to some of the other two groups. Some students can be identified as impoverished priests or "enlightened" aristocrats. Have students "fix" the crown's financial crisis.

Students may very well ask how to proceed with their debate, much as did the Estates-General itself. Acting as the crown, the instructor should in fact give little indication of procedure. Hopefully, students will find the only way to agree as to procedure will be through uniting the three separate estates into one group.

Assignment: Document Analysis

Have students write an essay analyzing Sieyes's "What Is the Third Estate?" Is the primary ideological basis for Sieyes Voltaire's individual liberties or Rousseau's general will? Does this foreshadow what would actually transpire in 1789?

B. Popular Reaction and Creating a Constitutional Response

The "people" of France became a force in the Revolution through the taking of the Bastille in Paris on July 14, 1789, and the anti-aristocratic "Great Fear" of the peasantry during the entire summer. These are both important events in the course of the Revolution; however, for the purpose of this lesson plan, they form the backdrop against which the National Assembly was forced to create a new constitution for France.

A response to the Great Fear was the abolition of feudalism on August 5, 1789. This may be viewed as an immediate political response to the Great Fear or as part of the logic of creating a nation that was founded on the general will and therefore unified. The same analysis can be made with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of August 26, 1789. This text and the decree abolishing feudalism are also available on the Exploring the French Revolution website.

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1791 was more complicated. Rather than drawing on the American model, which prohibited the establishment of a state church, the Assembly made the Catholic Church an organ of the State, and members of the clergy paid civil servants.

Papal condemnation of the Civil Constitution polarized French society into groups of "good Catholics" versus "good Revolutionaries." However, it is possible to argue that the Civil Constitution of the Clergy was necessary not only because the new government needed to gain control over Church income but also because ideologically, like feudalism, a "separate" corps of clergy prevented true national unity. Therefore, even priests and monks needed to become incorporated into the general will. See, for example, the image "Monks Learning to Exercise" on the Exploring the French Revolution site.

Divide students into groups representing "individual liberties" versus the "general will." Have them debate the merits and failings of specific aspects of the Abolition of Feudalism, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Is there ideological consistency in these documents and/or images?

III. The Revolution Radicalizes

The radical phase of the French Revolution, or the Reign of Terror, is currently analyzed as either a reaction to specific events, such as foreign wars and internal counterrevolution, or as the logical consequence of the ideologies of 1789. Historians who view the guiding political ideology of the early Revolution as one dedicated to protecting the individual liberties of "citizens" interpret the stripping away of those liberties as an unfortunate response to the crises created by foreign and civil war. However, many other historians view the Terror as a completion of the ideology of the general will—that in order to create a nation, the rights of the citizen became subordinate to the rights of the nation. War and counterrevolution thus were the symptoms, not the cause, of the failure to achieve unity, and the Terror was the attempt to enshrine the unified general will by force.

There is no question that the Reign of Terror was a complicated and confusing phenomenon. To account for details of the foreign and civil wars, the political struggles between the Jacobins and Girondins, the economic crisis, and urban unrest could take almost an entire course itself. One way to approach the Reign of Terror is by using the trial of Louis XVI as a case study. Royal recalcitrance toward the Revolutionary government, which accelerated following his failed attempt to flee France in 1791, eventually led to his arrest, trial as a traitor, and execution.

Analysis of the numerous documents in the Exploring the French Revolution database (search: "trial King") exposes both interpretations of the Reign of Terror. Having the monarch become an enemy of the Revolution certainly created a political crisis to which the Reign of Terror may well have been a response. However, many of the documents also demonstrate that the king was no more exempt from the dictates of the general will and therefore no more or less a part of the greater nation than any other individual.

Activity: The King's Trial

Assign roles to individual students and recreate the trial of Louis XVI (or Citizen Capet, as the charge formally read). Students without specific parts serve as the Constituent Assembly (formerly the National Assembly) and the jury. Those on the side of the prosecution can be further divided into advocates for the general will and those who support the trial because of political necessity. Similarly, the defense can be divided into two groups: one of "absolutists" who might argue that the king by definition can never be a traitor, and another of "individual rights" supporters who might claim that although the monarch was no different than any other citizen, his trial was a violation of his individual rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

Assignment: The Constitutions of 1789 and 1793

A second approach to the Reign of Terror is through a document analysis of the Declaration of Rights within the French constitutions of 1789 and 1793. Again, the theory of circumstance will see the rights outlined in 1789 to be basic and individual while those of 1793 to be radically different. The alternate interpretation would view the rights outlined in 1793 as only an intensification of the same political ideology present in the Declaration of 1789. Ask students to write an essay comparing and contrasting the two views.

IV. The Rise of Napoleon

In many ways, the downfall of Robespierre and the collapse of the Terror government set the stage for the Napoleonic dictatorship, just as 1789 perhaps set the stage for the Terror. Over the course of the Directory, the government hoped to avoid the excesses of the radical revolution by maintaining a "middle ground" between Jacobinism and the resurgent aristocratic and monarchical movement that returned to France after the Thermidorian Reaction.

In order to preserve moderate politics, the Directory interfered with elections for the Council of 500 (the lower house of the post-Terror government) by nullifying election results that leaned either too far to the left or the right. Hence, the Directory increasingly invalidated its own constitution, was ineffective in governing, and made the 1799 Brumaire Coup of Napoleon, Abbé Sieyes, and Roger Ducos possible.

Napoleon is, of course, as controversial as the Terror. Having claimed, "The revolution is over!" upon his seizure of power during the Brumaire Coup, he portrayed himself as the savior of the Revolution, bringing it to a successful completion. Indeed, his Civil Code, although harsh, was perhaps no worse than the laws passed by the Terror government. And with the Code, France was truly unified under a single code of law, with a political leader who possessed the power to enforce it.

However, Napoleon also restored the aristocracy, although his nobility was open to men of talent, not birthright, and he plunged France into a war of empire. In the end, Napoleon did not look much different than the absolute monarchs of the pre-Revolution period.

Additional Resources

Baker, Keith Michael. Inventing the French Revolution: Essays on French Political Culture in the Eighteenth Century . New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. This is one of the best studies of the impact of Rousseau's political philosophy on the French Revolution.

de Tocqueville, Alexis. The Old Regime and the French Revolution . Translated by Stuart Gilbert. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1955. This nineteenth-century classic originated the interpretation that the Terror originated in 1789.

Doyle, William. The Origins of the French Revolution . Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. See part 1 of this book for an excellent overview of the various interpretations of the French Revolution, including strengths and weaknesses of each.

Doyle, William. The Oxford History of the French Revolution . New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. This study favors the interpretation of individual rights and the circumstantial origins of the Reign of Terror, stressing the role of the foreign war.

Furet, Francois. "The Revolution Is Over." In Interpreting the French Revolution . Edited by Francois Furet. Translated by Elborg Forster. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981. This essay focuses on the relationship between the events of 1789 and Old Regime absolutism leading to the Reign of Terror.

Hunt, Lynn. Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. An excellent study of revolutionary imagery, offers a compelling synthesis between the individual rights and circumstantial interpretations of the origins of the Terror.

Sutherland, Donald M. G. France, 1789-1815: Revolution and Counterrevolution . London: Fontana Press/Collins, 1985. This falls into the circumstantial origins of the Terror interpretation and emphasizes internal social divide and conflict.

• Early Modern Empires
• The Structures of Nineteenth-Century Government
• German Unification
• The Russian Revolution
• The Cold War
• German Reunification, 1989-90

French Revolution

The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a period of major societal and political upheaval in France. It witnessed the collapse of the monarchy, the establishment of the First French Republic, and culminated in the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte and the start of the Napoleonic era. The French Revolution is considered one of the defining events of Western history.

The Revolution of 1789, as it is sometimes called to distinguish it from later French revolutions, originated from deep-rooted problems that the government of King Louis XVI of France (r. 1774-1792) proved incapable of fixing; such problems were primarily related to France's financial troubles as well as the systemic social inequality embedded within the Ancien Régime . The Estates-General of 1789 , summoned to address these issues, resulted in the formation of a National Constituent Assembly, a body of elected representatives from the three societal orders who swore never to disband until they had written a new constitution. Over the next decade, the revolutionaries attempted to dismantle the oppressive old society and build a new one based on the principles of the Age of Enlightenment exemplified in the motto: " Liberté, égalité, fraternité ."

Although initially successful in establishing a French Republic, the revolutionaries soon became embroiled in the French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802) in which France fought against a coalition of major European powers. The Revolution quickly devolved into violent paranoia, and 20-40,000 people were killed in the Reign of Terror (1793-94), including many of the Revolution's former leaders. After the Terror, the Revolution stagnated until 1799, when Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) took control of the government in the Coup of 18 Brumaire , ultimately transitioning the Republic into the First French Empire (1804-1814, 1815). Although the Revolution failed to prevent France from falling back into autocracy, it managed to succeed in other ways. It inspired numerous revolutions throughout the world and helped shape the modern concepts of nation-states, Western democracies, and human rights.

Most of the causes of the French Revolution can be traced to economic and social inequalities that were exacerbated by the brokenness of the Ancien Régime (“old regime”), the name retroactively given to the political and social system of the Kingdom of France in the last few centuries of its initial existence. The Ancien Régime was divided into three estates, or social orders: the clergy, nobility, and commoners. The first two estates enjoyed many social privileges, including tax exemptions, that were not granted to the commoners, a class that made up well over 90% of the population. The Third Estate was burdened with manual labor as well as paying most of the taxes.

Rapid population growth contributed to the general suffering; by 1789, France was the most populous European state with over 28 million people. Job growth had not kept up with the swelling population, leaving 8- 12 million impoverished. Backwards agricultural techniques and a steady string of terrible harvests led to starvation. Meanwhile, a rising class of wealthy commoners, the bourgeoisie, threatened the privileged position of the aristocracy, increasing tensions between social classes. Ideas of the Age of Enlightenment also contributed to national unrest; people began to view the Ancien Régime as corrupt, mismanaged, and tyrannical. Hatred was especially directed toward Queen Marie Antoinette , who was seen to personify everything wrong with the government.

A final significant cause was France's monumental state debt, accumulated by its attempts to maintain its status as a global power. Expensive wars and other projects had put the French treasury billions of livres into debt, as it had been forced to take out loans at enormously high interest rates. The country's irregular systems of taxation were ineffective, and as creditors began to call for repayment in the 1780s, the government finally realized something had to be done.

The Gathering Storm: 1774-1788

On 10 May 1774, King Louis XV of France died after a reign of nearly 60 years, leaving his grandson to inherit a troubled and broken kingdom. Only 19 years old, Louis XVI was an impressionable ruler who adhered to the advice of his ministers and involved France in the American War of Independence. Although French involvement in the American Revolution succeeded in weakening Great Britain , it also added substantially to France's debt while the success of the Americans encouraged anti-despotic sentiments at home.

In 1786, Louis XVI was convinced by his finance minister, Charles-Alexandre Calonne, that the issue of state debt could no longer be ignored. Calonne presented a list of financial reforms and convened the Assembly of Notables of 1787 to rubberstamp them. The Notables, a mostly aristocratic assembly, refused and told Calonne that only an Estates-General could approve such radical reforms. This referred to an assembly of the three estates of pre-revolutionary France , a body that had not been summoned in 175 years. Louis XVI refused, realizing that an Estates-General could undermine his authority. Instead, he fired Calonne and took the reforms to the parlements .

The parlements were the 13 judicial courts that were responsible for registering royal decrees before they went into effect. Consisting of aristocrats, the parlements had long struggled against royal authority, still bitter that their class had been subjugated by the "sun king" Louis XIV of France a century before. Spotting a chance to recover some power, they refused to register the royal reforms and joined the Notables in advocating for an Estates-General. When the crown responded by exiling the courts, riots erupted across the country; the parlements had presented themselves as champions of the people, thereby winning the commoners' support. One of these riots erupted in Grenoble on 7 June 1788 and led the three estates of Dauphiné to gather without the king's consent. Known as the Day of Tiles, this is credited by some historians as the start of the Revolution. Realizing he had been bested, Louis XVI appointed the popular Jacques Necker as his new finance minister and scheduled an Estates-General to convene in May 1789.

Rise of the Third Estate: February-September 1789

Across France, 6 million people participated in the electoral process for the Estates-General, and a total 25,000 cahiers de doléances , or lists of grievances, were drawn up for discussion. When the Estates-General of 1789 finally convened on 5 May in Versailles, there were 578 deputies representing the Third Estate, 282 for the nobility, and 303 for the clergy. Yet the double representation of the Third Estate was meaningless, as votes would still be counted by estate rather than by head. As the upper classes were sure to vote together, the Third Estate was at a disadvantage.

Subsequently, the Third Estate refused to verify its own elections, a process needed to begin proceedings. It demanded votes to be counted by head, a condition the nobility staunchly refused. Meanwhile, Louis XVI's attention was drawn away by the death of his son, paralyzing royal authority. On 13 June, having reached an impasse, the Third Estate commenced roll call, breaking protocol by beginning proceedings without the consent of the king or the other orders. On 17 June, following a motion proposed by Abbé Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès , the Third Estate officially proclaimed itself a National Constituent Assembly. Two days later, the clergy formally voted to join it, and the nobility begrudgingly followed suit. On 20 June, after finding themselves locked out of the assembly hall, the deputies of the National Assembly met in the royal tennis court. There, they swore the Tennis Court Oath, promising never to disband until they had given France a new constitution. The French Revolution had begun.

Louis XVI realized he needed to regain control. In early July, he called over 30,000 soldiers into the Paris Basin, and on 11 July, he dismissed Necker and other ministers considered too friendly to the insolent revolutionaries. Fearing the king meant to crush the Revolution, the people of Paris rioted on 12 July. Their uprising climaxed on 14 July with the Storming of the Bastille , when hundreds of citizens successfully attacked the Bastille fortress to loot it for ammunition. The king backed down, sending away his soldiers and reinstating Necker. Unnerved by these events, the king's youngest brother, Comte d'Artois, fled France with an entourage of royalists on the night of 16 July; they were the first of thousands of émigrés to flee.

In the coming weeks, the French countryside broke out into scattered riots, as rumors spread of aristocratic plots to deprive citizens of their liberties. These riots resulted in mini-Bastilles as peasants raided the feudal estates of local seigneurs, forcing nobles to renounce their feudal rights. Later known as the Great Fear , this wave of panic forced the National Assembly to confront the issue of feudalism . On the night of 4 August, in a wave of patriotic fervor, the Assembly announced that the feudal regime was "entirely destroyed" and ended the privileges of the upper classes. Later that month, it accepted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , a landmark human rights document that championed the general will of the people, separation of powers, and the idea that human rights were universal. These two achievements are considered the most important and longest-lasting accomplishments of the Revolution.

A People's Monarchy: 1789-1791

As the National Assembly slowly drafted its constitution, Louis XVI was sulking in Versailles. He refused to consent to the August Decrees and the Declaration of the Rights of Man, demanding instead that the deputies include his right to an absolute veto in the new constitution. This enraged the people of Paris, and on 5 October 1789, a crowd of 7,000 people, mostly market women , marched from Paris to Versailles in the pouring rain, demanding bread and that the king accept the Assembly's reforms. Louis XVI had no choice but to accept and was forced to leave his isolation at Versailles and accompany the women back to Paris, where he was installed in the Tuileries Palace . Known as the Women's March on Versailles , or the October Days, this insurrection led to the end of the Ancien Régime and the beginning of France's short-lived constitutional monarchy.

The next year and a half marked a relatively calm phase of the Revolution; indeed, many people believed the Revolution was over. Louis XVI agreed to adopt the Assembly's reforms and even appeared reconciled to the Revolution by accepting a tricolor cockade. The Assembly, meanwhile, began to rule France, adopting its own ill-fated currency, the assignat , to help tackle the outstanding debt. Having declawed the nobility, it now turned its attentions toward the Catholic Church. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy , issued on 12 July 1790, forced all clerics to swear oaths to the new constitution and put their loyalty to the state before their loyalty to the Pope in Rome . At the same time, church lands were confiscated by the Assembly, and the papal city of Avignon was reintegrated into France. These attacks on the church alienated many from the Revolution, including the pious Louis XVI himself.

Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!

14 July 1790, the first anniversary of the Bastille, saw a massive celebration on the Champ de Mars . Led by the Marquis de Lafayette , the Festival of the Federation was meant to mark the unity of the newly liberated French people under the magnanimous rule of their citizen-king. But the king had other plans. A year later, on the night of 20-21 June 1791, he and his family left the Tuileries in disguise and attempted to escape France in what has become known as the Flight to Varennes . They were quickly caught and returned to Paris, but their attempt had irrevocably destroyed any trust the people had in the monarchy. Calls began to mount for Louis XVI to be deposed, while some even began to seriously demand a French Republic. The issue divided the Jacobin Club, a political society where revolutionaries gathered to discuss their goals and agendas. Moderate members loyal to the idea of constitutional monarchy split to form the new Feuillant Club, while the remaining Jacobins were further radicalized.

On 17 July 1791, a crowd of demonstrators gathered on the Champ de Mars to demand the king's deposition. They were fired on by the Paris National Guard, commanded by Lafayette , resulting in 50 deaths. The Champ de Mars Massacre sent republicans on the run, giving the Feuillants enough time to push through their constitution, which centered around a weakened, liberal monarchy. On 30 September 1791, the new Legislative Assembly met, but despite the long-awaited constitution, the Revolution was more divided than ever.

Birth of a Republic: 1792-1793

Many deputies of the Legislative Assembly formed themselves into two factions: the more conservative Feuillants sat on the right of the Assembly president, while the radical Jacobins sat to his left, giving rise to the left/right political spectrum still used today. After the monarchs of Austria and Prussia threatened to destroy the Revolution in the Declaration of Pillnitz , a third faction split off from the Jacobins, demanding war as the only way to preserve the Revolution. This war party, later known as the Girondins, quickly dominated the Legislative Assembly, which voted to declare war on Austria on 20 April 1792. This began the French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802), as the old regimes of Europe , feeling threatened by the radical revolutionaries, joined together in a coalition against France.

Initially, the war went disastrously for the French. The summer of 1792 saw a Prussian army accompanied by French royalist émigrés slowly march toward Paris. In August, the invaders issued the Brunswick Manifesto, threatening to destroy Paris should any harm come to the French royal family. This threat sent the people of Paris into a hysterical panic that led to the Storming of the Tuileries Palace on 10 August 1792, the insurrection that finally toppled the monarchy. Still fearful of counter-revolutionary enemies who might aid the Prussians, Paris mobs then invaded the city's prisons and murdered over 1,100 people in the September Massacres .

On 20 September 1792, a French army finally halted the Prussian invasion at the miraculous Battle of Valmy . The next day, the jubilated Legislative Assembly officially proclaimed the French Republic. The later French Republican calendar dated itself from this moment, which was seen as the ultimate accomplishment of humankind. The Assembly was disbanded, and a National Convention was convened to draft a new constitution. One of the Convention's first tasks was to decide the fate of the deposed Louis XVI; ultimately, he was tried and guillotined on 21 January 1793, his family kept imprisoned in the Tower of the Temple until the trial and execution of Marie Antoinette that October. The trial and execution of Louis XVI shocked Europe, causing Great Britain, Spain, and the Dutch Republic to enter the coalition against France.

Reign of Terror: 1793-1794

After the decline of the Feuillants, the Girondins became the Revolution's moderate faction. In early 1793, they were opposed by a group of radical Jacobins called the Mountain, primarily led by Maximilien Robespierre , Georges Danton , and Jean- Paul Marat. The Girondins and the Mountain maintained a bitter rivalry until the fall of the Girondins on 2 June 1793, when roughly 80,000 sans-culottes , or lower-class revolutionaries, and National Guards surrounded the Tuileries Palace, demanding the arrests of leading Girondins. This was accomplished, and the Girondin leaders were later executed.

The Mountain's victory deeply divided the nation. The assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday occurred amidst pockets of civil war that threatened to unravel the infant republic, such as the War in the Vendée and the federalist revolts . To quell this dissent and halt the advance of coalition armies, the Convention approved the creation of the Committee of Public Safety , which quickly assumed near total executive power. Through measures such as mass conscription, the Committee brutally crushed the civil wars and checked the foreign armies before turning its attention to unmasking domestic traitors and counter-revolutionary agents. The ensuing Reign of Terror, lasting from September 1793-July 1794 resulted in hundreds of thousands of arrests, 16,594 executions by guillotine, and tens of thousands of additional deaths. Aristocrats and clergymen were executed alongside former revolutionary leaders and thousands of ordinary people.

Robespierre accumulated almost dictatorial powers during this period. Attempting to curtail the Revolution's rampant dechristianization, he implemented the deistic Cult of the Supreme Being to ease France into his vision of a morally pure society. His enemies saw this as an attempt to claim total power and, fearing for their lives, decided to overthrow him; the fall of Maximilien Robespierre and his allies on 28 July 1794 brought the Terror to an end, and is considered by some historians to mark the decline of the Revolution itself.

Thermidorians & the Directory: 1794-1799

Robespierre's execution was followed by the Thermidorian Reaction , a period of conservative counter-revolution in which the vestiges of Jacobin rule were erased. The Jacobin Club itself was permanently closed in November 1794, and a Jacobin attempt to retake power in the Prairial Uprising of 1795 was crushed. The Thermidorians defeated a royalist uprising on 13 Vendémiaire (5 October 1795) before adopting the Constitution of Year III (1795) and transitioning into the French Directory , the government that led the Republic in the final years of the Revolution.

Meanwhile, French armies had succeeded in pushing back the coalition's forces, defeating most coalition nations by 1797. The star of the war was undoubtedly General Napoleon Bonaparte, whose brilliant Italian campaign of 1796-97 catapulted him to fame. On 9 November 1799, Bonaparte took control of the government in the Coup of 18 Brumaire, bringing an end to the unpopular Directory. His ascendency marked the end of the French Revolution and the beginning of the Napoleonic era.

Subscribe to topic Related Content Books Cite This Work License

Bibliography

• Andress, David. The Terror . Time Warner Books Uk, 2005.
• Blanning, T. C. W. The French Revolutionary Wars, 1787-1802 . Hodder Education Publishers, 1996.
• Carlyle, Thomas & Sorensen, David R. & Kinser, Brent E. & Engel, Mark. The French Revolution . Oxford University Press, 2019.
• Davidson, Ian. The French Revolution. Pegasus Books, 2018.
• Doyle, William. The Oxford History of the French Revolution. Oxford University Press, 2018.
• Francois Furet & Mona Ozouf & Arthur Goldhammer. A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution. Belknap Press: An Imprint of Harvard University Press, 1989.
• Fraser, Antonia. Marie Antoinette. Anchor, 2002.
• Lefebvre, Georges & Palmer, R. R. & Palmer, R. R. & Tackett, Timothy. The Coming of the French Revolution . Princeton University Press, 2015.
• Lefebvre, Georges & White, John Albert. The Great Fear of 1789. Princeton University Press, 1983.
• Mikaberidze, Alexander. The Napoleonic Wars. Oxford University Press, 2020.
• Palmer, R. R. & Woloch, Isser. Twelve Who Ruled. Princeton University Press, 2017.
• Roberts, Andrew. Napoleon. Penguin Books, 2015.
• Schama, Simon. Citizens. Vintage, 1990.
• Scurr, Ruth. Fatal Purity. Holt Paperbacks, 2007.
• Tocqueville, Alexis de & Bevan, Gerald & Bevan, Gerald. The Ancien Régime and the Revolution . Penguin Classics, 2008.

About the Author

Translations

We want people all over the world to learn about history. Help us and translate this definition into another language!

Questions & Answers

What was the french revolution, what were 3 main causes of the french revolution, what began the french revolution, what ended the french revolution, what are some important events of the french revolution, related content.

Thermidorian Reaction

Georges Danton

Maximilien Robespierre

Fall of Maximilien Robespierre

Power Struggles in the Reign of Terror

Reign of Terror

Free for the world, supported by you.

World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization. For only $5 per month you can become a member and support our mission to engage people with cultural heritage and to improve history education worldwide.

Recommended Books

Cite This Work

Mark, H. W. (2023, January 12). French Revolution . World History Encyclopedia . Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/French_Revolution/

Chicago Style

Mark, Harrison W.. " French Revolution ." World History Encyclopedia . Last modified January 12, 2023. https://www.worldhistory.org/French_Revolution/.

Mark, Harrison W.. " French Revolution ." World History Encyclopedia . World History Encyclopedia, 12 Jan 2023. Web. 11 Jun 2024.

License & Copyright

Submitted by Harrison W. Mark , published on 12 January 2023. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike . This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

French Revolution I INTRODUCTION

Related Papers

Dušan Dostanić

Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales (English edition)

Francesco Benigno

iksad publishing house

Ananda Majumdar

According to Historians Robert Darnton and Francois Furet, revolutionary ideas were spread into French political culture through pornography and porous state borders, while Jergen Habermas mentioned about French public sphere that helped to allow social change discussions among the periodical press, learned societies etc. that was created due to cultural changes of commercialism and consumerism in France. Class struggle was made due to a toothless monarchy that could not advocate and represent millions of people, which finally created a power vacuum. Social mobility was another reason for class struggle, through which Bourgeoisie was beginning to feel self-confident in their merits and self-privileges while the poor class was showing protested the feudal landlords (anti-seigneurial) by their bad attitude. The French monarchy was in a deep financial crisis due to the worldwide conflict with England due to the seven-year war (1756-1763). France lost its colonial power throughout the world and surrendered against the British allied group. Public debt was in full swing, making the monarchy disrespectful, suspicious, unskilled, and less confidential. The crisis in France finally created Enlightenment as one of its narratives for the French Revolution. It raised the right of people sovereignty mentioned in Rousseau's Social Contract long ago. The paper's objective is to discover the socio-economic-political consequences, of course, while the outcome is to achieve in-depth knowledge about French Revolution. Books and academic journals are information sources for a paper's methodological process. The feature question is, what are the discredits of French monarchies that brought the Revolution in 1789?

Meri Durglishvili

[Brackets] enclose editorial explanations. Small ·dots· enclose material that has been added, but can be read as though it were part of the original text. Occasional •bullets, and also indenting of passages that are not quotations, are meant as aids to grasping the structure of a sentence or a thought. Every four-point ellipsis. .. . indicates the omission of a brief passage that seems to present more difficulty than it is worth. Longer omissions are reported between brackets in normal-sized type.-The division into Parts is not in the original, and is purely for ease of management on this website.-The section-headings are not in the original. Each marks the start of a new topic but not necessarily the end of the preceding one.-This work was written in 1790, three years before the executions of the French king and queen and the 'reign of terror' that followed.-In the last paragraph of this work Burke says that his life has been mainly 'a struggle for the liberty of others'. So it was. His opposition to the French revolution was one of the four main political battles in his life, the other three being support for the American colonists, for the Irish, and for the people of India (see page 25).

Modhurima Khan

Modern state system mostly began with the French Revolution. Up to the mid eighteenth century, most of countries in the world were governed by monarchs. But French revolution opens a way for new and modern state system, which makes it more important than any other revolutions in world politics. This revolution is not only important for political development; it is connected with the philosophical development of that era also. Those days French people were inspired by Voltaire and Rousseau, specially with Rousseau’s “Social Contract”. It discussed about society’s laws belonging to the citizenry, which inspire the French people in bringing change. Through French Revolution people can see revolution beyond a political perspective and more into philosophical.

Theory and Society

Jack Goldstone

Farhad Ahmad

In this study will focus on the reasons and the consequences of the French revolution. We know that the French revolution is one of the most important event in the modern history of Europe. As a political science student, it is very important to know about the context of the French revolution which has a great impact on the political science discipline. Therefore, the causes and consequences behind the French revolution can be explained in social, economic, political perspectives. However, this paper will explain the four political causes of the French such as absolutism, inequalities of right, the influence of enlightenment scholar and bankruptcy of the government.

Adolfo Wissar, LC

Nurul Ain Farhana Rizduan

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

Izzivi Prihodnosti

Milan Katuninec

Darius von Guttner

harshita agarwal

Ian Davidson

Peter R Campbell

Sydney Studies in Society and Culture

Alastair MacLachlan

Blake M Salemink

Student Pulse

Melissa S McHugh

Dhawal Dutta

Azizah Bakar

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

French Revolution Timeline, Causes & Impact

Adam Bilinski has taught Political Science courses at various colleges since 2008. In 2015 he graduated with a PhD in Political Science from the University of Florida. He has Applying the QM Rubric (APPQMR) certificate on teaching online. His research interest include immigrant integration and democratization.

Nate Sullivan holds a M.A. in History and a M.Ed. He is an adjunct history professor, middle school history teacher, and freelance writer.

What was the French Revolution?

The French Revolution was a period of dramatic social and political transformations in 1789-99. The monarchy was abolished during the revolution, the republic was established, and feudalism was terminated. The revolution was inspired by the goals of liberty and equality but brought about a brutal dictatorship in 1792-94 with tens of thousands victims of revolutionary terror.

What were the causes of the French Revolution?

There were many complex causes of the French Revolution. The immediate cause was a fiscal crisis of the absolute French monarchy, which forced the king to convene the parliament (Estates General). The background causes were general dissatisfaction with the unfairness of the feudal system and the spread of the Enlightenment ideas, which called for a government based on the popular will.

Where and when did the French Revolution begin?

The French Revolution began in Paris, France, in July 1789. The revolution broke out due to rumors that the king would close the newly-opened legislature and an ongoing food crisis.

How did the French Revolution end?

Most historians consider the November 1799 coup the end of the revolution. General Napoleon Bonaparte abolished an unpopular republican government (called the Directory) and established a dictatorship in the coup. In 1804, he proclaimed himself the Emperor of the French.

Table of Contents

What was the french revolution, when was the french revolution, what caused the french revolution, outcome and impact of the french revolution, lesson summary.

The French Revolution (Révolution francçise in French, Revolución francesa in Spanish) was a period in French history between 1789-99. Although goals of freedom and inequality inspired the French to start this movement, a repressive dictatorship was established in revolutionary France. Nevertheless, it inspired the subsequent movements for freedom in other countries. This article will discuss the causes of the French Revolution and its timeline.

To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. Create your account

An error occurred trying to load this video.

Try refreshing the page, or contact customer support.

You must c C reate an account to continue watching

Register to view this lesson.

As a member, you'll also get unlimited access to over 88,000 lessons in math, English, science, history, and more. Plus, get practice tests, quizzes, and personalized coaching to help you succeed.

Get unlimited access to over 88,000 lessons.

Already registered? Log in here for access

Resources created by teachers for teachers.

I would definitely recommend Study.com to my colleagues. It’s like a teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me. I feel like it’s a lifeline.

You're on a roll. Keep up the good work!

Just checking in. are you still watching.

• 0:01 What Was the French…
• 0:52 Timeline
• 5:43 The Impact
• 6:48 Lesson Summary

Most historians delimit the French Revolution date to the 1789-99 period, although its major events occurred in 1789-94. The French Revolution started with the king convening the Estates General (the traditional French legislature) in 1789. It featured the overthrow of the monarchy through a popular uprising, the execution of the king, the proclamation of a republic, the revolutionary terror (1793-1794), and dramatic social transformations. The revolution ended in 1799 when a corrupt dictatorship of the Directory was abolished in a coup by an ambitious general Napoleon Bonaparte, who established a military dictatorship and in 1804 proclaimed himself an emperor of the French.

When did the French Revolution Start?

In the 1770s and 1780s, France was in a deep financial crisis. The government incurred substantial expenses, the most important of which covered the involvement in the American Revolutionary War (1775-83), in which France supported the revolutionaries. Yet, the government had limited options to increase taxes. French appellate courts (so-called parliaments) refused to do so as they would go against the nobility's interests, which controlled these institutions. Another body that could approve new taxes, the Estates-General (the French parliament), had not been convened since 1614.

In the same period, much of the French middle classes embraced the Enlightenment ideas propagated by such philosophers as Voltaire (1694-1778) or Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78). These thinkers argued that sovereignty derives from the people, not the absolute monarch, that all citizens should be equal under the law, and for the idea of the people's inalienable (natural) rights (e.g., the freedom of speech or religion). The system of an absolute monarchy ruled by King Louis XVI , reigning since 1772, was increasingly perceived as unjust and obsolete while alternative political options, constitutional monarchy, and republic, grew in popularity.

After a growing fiscal crisis, the king decided to convene the Estates General after a growing fiscal crisis. It was a legislature composed of three chambers with equal powers. A different estate is elected in each chamber:

• The first represented the clergy (about 1.4% of the population);
• The second is the nobility (about 1%);
• The third all the rest.

In the elections of the Third Estates delegates, all male landowners and taxpayers could participate, which yielded reasonably democratic suffrage, with most men entitled to vote.

The Estates-General met on May 5, 1789. The Third Estate quickly conflicted with the king and the other two estates. Its deputies argued that their chamber should have equal or the same voting powers as the other two estates because it represented most of the population. This demand was rejected, and the monarch formally dissolved the estates. In reaction, the Third Estate reformulated itself as the National Assembly and declared a plan to adopt a constitution that would transform France from an absolute to a constitutional monarchy. Under popular pressure, the king agreed to this demand.

Yet, rumors widely circulated that the monarch intended to dissolve the National Assembly and reintroduce absolutism. The situation was worsened by a food crisis, which brought about widespread protests and anarchy in the countryside. In Paris, people started to protest in defense of the assembly and demanded food aid. There was general lawlessness in the capital as royal troops failed or refused to enforce social order. When did the French Revolution start? The protests culminated on July 14 with a successful storming of the Bastille prison, which also served as the munition storage (July 14 remains a national holiday in France). Following the siege, the king and his court largely lost power, which moved to the National Assembly and the people of Paris.

French Revolution Summary

The French Revolution could be divided into three main phases: The constitutional monarchy (1789-1792), the revolutionary republic (1792-94), and the Directorate (1794-99), a less radical form of republican government.

Immediately after reaching power, the National Assembly moved to reform France's social and political system. In August 1789, it abolished feudalism. This abolishment entailed:

• the introduction of equality under the law (no longer the nobility and clergy enjoyed special privileges);
• abolition of dues paid by peasants to the nobility (the latter, at least formally, had owned the land used by peasants);
• and elimination of regional privileges and most church taxes.

During the revolution, peasants became owners of the land they tiled, although about half belonged to large estates employing agricultural workers.

To justify the revolution ideologically, in September 1789, the National Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen . The declaration introduced:

• The principle of popular sovereignty (replacing the king's divine right to rule);
• Citizens' equality under the law;
• Basic due process rights (such as innocent until proven guilty);
• And freedom of speech and religion.

Still, these rights were notoriously violated, especially during the revolution's radical phase.

In June 1791, the king, who had never reconciled himself with being a constitutional monarch, fled Paris to rally loyal troops to reintroduce absolutism. Yet, the royal family was recognized and arrested. The king and the queen (heavily involved in political affairs) were accused of treason, and the public support for the monarchy dwindled.

In September 1791, the National Assembly (renamed the Constitutional Assembly) adopted the first written constitution of France, which introduced a constitutional monarchy following the British model. Yet, the constitution was in force for less than a year as the public mood moved in favor of a republic, and the revolution entered a more radical phase.

This phase began in August 1792, when a working-class insurrection replaced a moderate with a radical government and forced the legislature to suspend the monarchy. In September 1792, a republic was proclaimed. In January 1793, the king and his spouse were convicted to death for treason and publicly executed. Subsequently, a power struggle emerged between a moderate Girondist faction and a radical Jacobin faction, headed by Maximillian Robespierre and Louis Saint-Just. Due to the support of the Parisian working class, Jacobins won.

The ensuing period, known as the Jacobin Dictatorship (roughly June 1793-July 1794), was the revolution's most brutal phase. Jacobins introduced the Reign of Terror , during which about 27,000 people were executed or died in prison. The victims were both committed enemies of the revolution, mostly from the clergy and aristocracy, and moderate Republicans who opposed Jacobin's policies. Politically, the faction represented the urban middle and lower classes. They introduced welfare for the urban poor but also supported property rights. In June 1793, Jacobins adopted a radical republican constitution that introduced universal male suffrage, protected civil liberties, and basic social policies. Yet, the constitution was never implemented.

A brutal civil war also marked the radical phase of the revolution. In June 1793, peasants rebelled in Vendee and surrounding regions in opposition to conscription. This counterrevolution aimed to reintroduce monarchy and the Catholic Church, which was persecuted and suppressed by the revolutionary government. The war lasted till March 1796 and featured atrocities committed by both sides. About 200,000 people died in the war, most of whom were pro-rebel civilians massacred by the government troops.

When did the French Revolution End?

On July 26, 1794, Robespierre , speaking at the National Convention , denounced unspecified traitors to the republic. Because previous speeches of this kind resulted in the arrest and execution of real and imagined enemies of the government, members of the legislature organized a conspiracy against the Jacobin government. The next day Robespierre was arrested and promptly executed. Several hundred Jacobins and their supporters were executed in the following White Terror, but mass repressions ceased afterward.

The French society was tired of the instability and excesses of the revolution. The new government, which called itself Directory in November 1795, withdrew the most radical revolutionary measures. The Directory was in constant war with surrounding countries, which opposed the revolution and France's republican regime. The wars necessitated high taxes, impoverishing the nation and dwindling the regime's popularity. In the 1798 election, the right-wing opposition won, but the government invalidated the election of opposition deputies to remain in power. The regime was perceived as illegitimate and increasingly corrupt. Hence, few people regretted its demise when a popular ambitious young general, Napoleon Bonaparte , conducted a successful military coup in November 1799. When did the French Revolution end? The coup is commonly considered to signify the end of the revolution. Napoleon established a political system called the Consulate (1799-1804), which was de facto his dictatorship. In 1804, following a rigged plebiscite, Napoleon crowned himself the Emperor of the French.

Napoleon's regime retained most revolutionary reforms, like equality before the law and the abolition of feudalism. To achieve social peace, he restored many privileges of the Catholic Church and respected the freedom of religion. He also introduced a modern civil code that later inspired other European states. However, he reintroduced slavery in colonies and gave away the revolutionary ideal of liberty by censoring the press and restricting other liberties.

Why did the French Revolution start? The French Revolution had multiple causes. What caused the French Revolution? The background causes included the general dissatisfaction among the country's middle class and peasantry. The middle class resented the lack of equality under the law, especially since the highest offices were reserved for the nobility. The peasants resented feudal dues and trade-inhibiting fees they had to pay to the nobility. Both the middle class and peasants opposed the fact that the nobility was relieved from most taxes. Otherwise, among the French middle class and some nobles, the Enlightenment ideals of popular sovereignty and natural rights were prevalent, triggering opposition to the absolute monarchy.

A more immediate cause of the revolution was the fiscal crisis of the French state. To solve it, the king needed to collect new taxes, which were opposed by the nobility-controlled appellate courts (parliaments). Hence, he had to convene Estates General's ancient parliament to enact the taxes. The convening of the assembly, coupled with widespread dissatisfaction brought about by the economic crisis, made events spiral out of control. This way, the revolution broke out.

The revolution's legacy is a controversial topic in French and European history. It began with a promise of liberty but resulted in the establishment of one of the most repressive dictatorships in European history (the Jacobin dictatorship of 1793-94). Jacobins unleashed the reign of terror not only against the enemies of the republic but also more moderate revolutionaries; Hence, the saying that "the revolution devours its children." Ten years of revolutionary turmoil (1789-99) ended with Napoleon's military coup and the creation of a regime that was in many ways similar to the absolute monarchy abolished in 1789. In the meantime, hundreds of thousands died in political repressions (mainly during the Civil in Vendee), including King Louis XVI, executed in 1793.

Yet, the revolution also brought about permanent social changes retained by Napoleon and subsequent French regimes. Those included the end of feudalism, peasants becoming owners of their land, equality before the law, and religious tolerance. The Catholic Church, persecuted during the revolution, was restored by Napoleon with a much-diminished social and political role. Otherwise, the revolution inspired similar movements for greater liberty and popular sovereignty in other European countries and elsewhere. The radical Jacobin dictatorship encouraged their tactics and social goals to the Russian Bolsheviks and other Communist revolutionary movements.

Overall, the revolution's legacy was a double-edged sword as it boosted efforts to retain absolute monarchy in Europe. To justify the lack of liberty, opponents of liberal movements argued that the latter would bring the same kind of anarchy and terror the French Revolution brought to France. The revolution brought death to the French royal family and much of the aristocracy. For that reason, the royalty and aristocracy elsewhere, fearing the same fate if a revolution broke out in their countries, fiercely suppressed similar revolutionary movements.

The French Revolution (1789-99) was a period characterized by dramatic political and social transformations. It followed a period of prolonged economic and fiscal crisis. In 1789, after convening the traditional French parliament ( Estates General ), absolute monarchy was overthrown, and a constitutional monarchy was proclaimed. The radical phase of the revolution (1792-94) featured the Reign of Terror . The ruling faction of Jacobins aimed to eliminate people they considered enemies: both opponents of the republic and more moderate revolutionaries. In this violent era, tens of thousands were executed (including the former King Louis XVI ), and even more, perished during the brutal civil war in Vendee (1793-96). In 1794, the Jacobin government was overthrown, and a more moderate but corrupt regime called the Directory was established. It ended with Napoleon Bonaparte's military coup in 1799. Among the revolution's achievements, one can mention the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen . The revolution weakened the Catholic religious authorities and ended feudalism in France. The latter entailed citizens' equality under the law and peasants assuming ownership of the land they tilled.

Video Transcript

What was the french revolution.

The French Revolution was a watershed event in modern history. It took place between 1789 and 1799 and resulted in profound political and social change, most noticeably the establishment of the First French Republic and the execution of King Louis XVI. It was a horribly violent affair. Tens of thousands of people were executed during the Reign of Terror (don't worry; we'll talk about this more in a little bit).

When you include the wars spawned by the Revolution, it cost the lives of over 1,000,000 people. The French Revolution came to a close when Napoleon Bonaparte ascended to power at the turn of the century.

Timeline of the French Revolution

King Louis XVI was the King of France throughout the second half of the 18th century. Under his leadership, French involvement in North American affairs (like the French and Indian War and the American Revolution) left the country in a state of near bankruptcy. On top of this, poor harvests, cattle disease, and other internal problems exacerbated France's financial crisis. To deal with this crisis, heavy taxes were imposed, angering the already struggling French peasants and urban poor.

To gather support for a financial reform program, the king called to order the Estates-General. The Estates-General was a general assembly representing the French population. It was composed of three parts: the First Estate (made up of the clergy), the Second Estate (made up of the nobility), and the Third Estate (made up of the common people). Although the Third Estate represented the vast majority of the French population, its vote could essentially be vetoed by the other two Estates, giving the king and the aristocrats in power an advantage.

In May 1789, the Third Estate organized themselves into a new legislative body called the National Assembly. They invited the other two Estates to join them, which to the dismay of the king, they did. Fearful that the king might disband the National Assembly and clamp down on the radicals, the people of Paris took to the streets in rioting and demonstrations.

On July 14, rioters stormed the Bastille fortress, attempting to secure arms and gunpowder. This event has been highly mythologized, and today remains one of the primary symbols of the French Revolution. Jumping on the bandwagon of revolutionary fervor, the lower classes rose up against the nobility. Rioting, looting, and chaos swept the country.

In August 1789, the National Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen . This document outlined universal human rights regardless of class. It did not extend rights to women or slaves, since they were ineligible for citizenship at the time. This important document was partly inspired by the Declaration of Independence and was rooted in Enlightenment thinking. Over the next few years, legislative assemblies worked to reform government. A written constitution was drafted in 1791, making France a constitutional monarchy.

In April 1792, war broke out between France and a coalition of other countries, including Austria and Great Britain. Increasingly, the government was coming under the influence of the Jacobins , a radical, left-wing political faction intent on purging France of conservative elements. Led by Jacobin radicalism, the First French Republic was established in September 1792 by a newly appointed assembly called the National Convention. In January 1793, King Louis XVI was executed by guillotine. His wife, Marie Antoinette, was beheaded nine months later.

The guillotine itself became a symbol of the French Revolution. The years 1793-1794 were particularly violent and are often called the Reign of Terror . During this time, approximately 40,000 people were rounded up and executed for alleged 'counter-revolutionary' activity.

Fed up with the extremism of the Jacobins, a more moderate political group called the Girondins formed a government in which most of the power was concentrated within a five-member executive group called the Directory. The Directory proved to be unpopular with the French people, and increasingly, power was ceded to the military and its leaders. In 1799, young Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup in which he installed a new government called the Consulate. Within a few years, he disbanded the Consulate and established a dictatorship. Therein lies the end of the tumultuous French Revolution.

The Impact of the French Revolution

The French Revolution was a critical event in modern history. Its impact was far-reaching. The French Revolution helped promote modern notions of democracy and individual liberty, while eroding the long-standing authority of monarchical governments and the aristocratic class. But it goes even beyond that. The French Revolution also eroded the influence of religion, fostering the growth of secularism. The French Revolution demonstrated that Enlightenment ideas could take practical form.

The movement has been the inspiration for countless other revolutions and has reminded generations that individuals have the power to effect change. Of course, it definitely had a 'dark side.' Because of this, many historians have varied opinions of the French Revolution. Some regard it as a glorious struggle against oppression, while others perceive it as a murderous rebellion.

Wow! This lesson contains a lot of detailed information. Let's review some of the central themes. The French Revolution took place between 1789 and 1799 and resulted in the overthrow of King Louis XVI and the establishment of the First French Republic. One of the most important products of the Revolution was the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen . This document outlined universal human rights regardless of class and has been one of the sources of inspiration for the modern human rights movement.

During the Revolution, the Jacobins, a radical, leftist political group, unleashed what has been called the Reign of Terror, in which roughly 40,000 people were executed. The French Revolution was a defining moment in modern history. It eroded ancient traditions of monarchical government and gave rise to new expressions of democracy.

Learning Outcomes

After completing this lesson, you should be able to:

• Recognize that the start of the French Revolution began during the reign of Louis XVI
• Identify the various groups involved in the overthrow of Louis and rise of the republic
• Recall the 'Reign of Terror' caused by the revolution

Unlock Your Education

See for yourself why 30 million people use study.com, become a study.com member and start learning now..

Already a member? Log In

Recommended Lessons and Courses for You

Related lessons, related courses, recommended lessons for you.

French Revolution Timeline, Causes & Impact Related Study Materials

• Related Topics

Browse by Courses

• Developmental US History: High School
• AP US History Textbook
• US History from Reconstruction for Teachers: Professional Development
• The Civil War & Reconstruction for Teachers: Professional Development
• History of the Vietnam War: Certificate Program
• CLEP Western Civilization II - 1648 to the Present Prep
• DSST The Civil War and Reconstruction Prep
• The Civil War and Reconstruction: Certificate Program
• The Civil War and Reconstruction: Help and Review
• Civil War History: Homework Help
• AP European History: Homeschool Curriculum
• High School World History: Homeschool Curriculum
• DSST Western Europe Since 1945: Study Guide & Test Prep
• Western Europe Since 1945: Certificate Program
• UExcel World Conflicts Since 1900: Study Guide & Test Prep

Browse by Lessons

• French Estate System | History, Social Classes & Role
• Europe Reacts to the French Revolution
• French Revolution Lesson for Kids: Summary & Timeline
• High School Assignment - French Revolution Objectives & Outcomes
• Phanes, the Greek God of Creation | Mythology & Story Variations
• Morpheus, the Greek God of Dreams | Mythology & Depictions
• Ganymede in Greek Mythology | Family History & Character Traits
• Electra in Greek Mythology | Family & Role
• Echo in Greek Mythology | Overview & Stories
• Callisto in Greek Mythology | Genealogy, Story Variations & Art
• Comparing and Contrasting Political Ideologies & Movements: Essay Prompts
• Causation of War: Individual, State & System
• Causation of War at the State Level
• The Role of Nationalism in Modern Intra-State Conflict
• Resource Wars in Africa: Diamonds & Oil

Create an account to start this course today Used by over 30 million students worldwide Create an account

Explore our library of over 88,000 lessons

• Foreign Language
• Social Science
• See All College Courses
• Common Core
• High School
• See All High School Courses
• College & Career Guidance Courses
• College Placement Exams
• Entrance Exams
• General Test Prep
• K-8 Courses
• Skills Courses
• Teacher Certification Exams
• See All Other Courses
• Create a Goal
• Create custom courses
• Get your questions answered

• IAS Preparation
• UPSC Preparation Strategy

French Revolution

The French Revolution was a time of social and political upheaval in France and its colonies that began in 1789 and ended in 1799. Inspired by liberal and radical ideas, Its overthrow of the Monarchy influenced the decline of absolute Monarchies in other parts of Europe.

French Revolution – UPSC Notes Download PDF Here

This article will further elaborate on the effects and causes of French Revolution within the context of the Civil Services Examination .

Aspirants preparing for the IAS exam will find the article helpful in preparing for General Studies Paper 1 of UPSC.

French Revolution of 1789 – Background

The French involvement in the American Revolution of 1776 was a costly affair that left the country in a state of near bankruptcy. King Louis’s extravagant spending also did not help matters.

Empty royal coffers, poor harvests and a rise in food prices had created feelings of unrest among the poor rural and urban populace. The matter was further worsened by the imposition of taxes that provided no relief. As a result rioting, looting and general strikes became the norm

Towards the end of 1786, a universal land tax was proposed by the controller general, Charles Alexandre de Calonne. This tax reform would no longer exempt the privileged classes like the clergy and the nobility as had been the case for centuries

The King summoned the Estates-General to pass these measures. The Estates-General was an assembly that represented the French nobility clergy and the middle class. The last time the Estates-General was called was in 1614.

The date of the meeting was fixed on May 5 1789, where grievances of the three estates would be presented to the king.

To know the Difference Between Democracy and Monarchy visit the linked article.

Causes of French Revolution of 1789 

• Social – The social conditions in France in the late 18th century were extremely unequal and exploitative. The clergy and the nobility formed the first two Estates and were the most privileged classes in French society. They were exempt from payment of taxes to the State. On the other hand, the Third Estate which consisted of peasants and workers formed the majority of the population. They were burdened with excessive taxes with no political and social rights. As a result, they were extremely discontent.
• Economic – As a result of numerous wars waged by Louis XVI the State coffers were empty. The situation was made even more complex by France’s involvement in the American War of Independence and the faulty system of taxation. While the privileged classes were excused from paying taxes the Third Estate was more and more burdened with them.
• Political – The Bourbon king of France, Louis XVI was an extremely autocratic and weak-willed king who led a life of obscene luxury. This led to a lot of disenchantment among the masses who then were leading life of extreme poverty and widespread hunger.
• Intellectual – The 18th century was marked by a conscious refusal by French thinkers of the ‘Divine Rights Theory’. Philosophers like Rousseau rejected the paradigm of absolute monarchy and promulgated the doctrine of equality of man and sovereignty of people. They played a pivotal role in exposing the fault lines of the old political system, i.e. the ancien regime, and articulating the popular discontent.

Stages of French Revolution

Stage i – the meeting of the estates-general.

Despite the non-aristocratic members outnumbering the aristocrats in terms of population. Yet, they could be outvoted by the other two bodies.

Before the meeting of the Estates-General on May 5, members of the Third Estate (as the non-aristocratic class was known) began to mobilise the support of equal voting rights which would be based on head and not by status.

While the middle class believed that fiscal and judicial reform was the need of the hour, the nobles were against the idea of giving up the privileges they had enjoyed under the traditional system.

When the meeting was convened, the question over the voting process turned to open hostility between the three orders, thus the original purpose of the meeting and the authority of the king who called for it being neglected.

With further talks having failed the Third Estate met alone and formally adopted the title of National Assembly on June 17, 1789. They gathered in a nearby indoor tennis court and took the oath of office. This oath was known as the Tennis Court Oath. The members of this new assembly vowed not to disperse until reforms had been initiated.

Seeing no other option Loius XVI had the absorb the three assemblies into the new order.

You can find out the difference between constitution and law by visiting the linked article

Stage II – The French Revolution Begins

The National Assembly continued to meet at Versailles. In the meantime, fear and violence had consumed Paris.

Speculations went around regarding an imminent military coup. This led to an insurgency which resulted in the taking of Bastille fortress on July 14, 1789. This event marked the beginning of the French Revolution

A wave of revolutionary fervour spread throughout the countryside, which led to a peasant revolt that saw many homes of tax collectors and burnt as well as those of the aristocrats themselves.

The rebellions caused the nobles of the country to flee en masse. This period is known as the Great Fear when the National Assembly finally dealt a fatal blow to feudalism on August 4, 1789. The old order had finally ended.

Stage III – Declaration of Rights of Man

The National Assembly adopted the Rights of Man and of the Citizen on August 4, 1789. The charter was grounded on democratic principles, drawing from the philosophical as well as political ideas of Enlightenment thinkers like Jena-Jacques Rosseau. The declaration was published on August 26, 1789

The Constitution was adopted on September 3, 1791. It symbolised a new French society where the king would have limited powers with a moderate assembly wielding the most power. This, however, was not enough for the radical elements of the assembly like Goerges Danton and Maximilien de Robespierre, who demanded a trial of the king and a more republican form of government.

The French constitution was adopted on September 3, 1791. Although it was moderate in its stance by limiting the powers of the king, it was not enough for the more radical members of the assembly like Maximilien de Robespierre who wanted Loise XVI to stand trial.

To know the difference between written and unwritten constitutions , visit the linked article

Stage IV – Reign of Terror

The revolution took a more radical turn when a group of insurgents attacked the royal residence in Paris and arrested  Louis XVI on August 10, 1792

The following month many who were accused of being the ‘enemies of the revolution’ were massacred in Paris. Some of these included the moderate voices of the revolution. The Legislative Assembly was replaced by the National Convention which proclaimed the establishment of the Republic of France and the abolition of the Monarchy.

King Louis XVI was condemned to death on January 21, 1793, and executed for treason. His wife, Marie Antoinette would follow him nine months later.

The execution of the king marked the beginning of the most violent and turbulent phase of the French Revolution – the Reign of Terror.

The National Convention was under the control of an extremist faction led by Robespierre. Under his auspices, thousands were executed for suspected treason and counter-revolutionary activities. The Reign of Terror ended with Robespierre’s execution on July 28, 1794.

Robespierre’s death began a moderate phase during which the people of France revolted against the excesses committed during the Reign of Terror . This was known as the Thermidorian Reaction.

Stage V – End of the French Revolution

On August 22, 1795, the National Convention, now composed of moderates who had survived the excesses of the Reign of Terror approved the creation of a new constitution that created France’s bicameral legislature.

The power would be in the hands of the Directory, a five-member group appointed by the parliament. Any opposition to this group was removed through the efforts of the army, now led by an upcoming and successful general, Napoleon Bonaparte.

The Directory’s rule was marked by financial crises and corruption. In addition, they had ceded much of their authority to the army that had helped them stay in power.

Finally, resentment against the Directory reached a fever pitch and a coup d’état was staged by Napoleon himself, toppling them from power. Napoleon appointed himself “first consul”. The French Revolution was over and the Napoleonic era was about the begin during which time French domination of continental Europe would become the norm.

Candidates can learn more about Napolean Bonaparte on the given link.

Significance of the French Revolution 

For all its faults, the French Revolution is highly regarded as the turning point in modern history as the rise of new ideas steeped in liberalism, enlightenment and democracy. These ideals were carried throughout Europe by French armies that fought many wars to preserve the Republic’s existence. It inspired the common folk in Europe to rise against their own Monarchs in a wave of revolutionary fervour. Although most were harshly put down, the revolutions would continue into the early years of the 19th century which saw the fall of many absolute Monarchy all over Europe.

FAQ about French Revolution

What are the main causes of french revolution, what were the impacts of french revolution.

To know more about other Government Exams , visit the linked article. For more preparation materials they can refer to the links given in the table below:

Related Links

Leave a Comment Cancel reply

Your Mobile number and Email id will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Request OTP on Voice Call

Post My Comment

IAS 2024 - Your dream can come true!

Download the ultimate guide to upsc cse preparation, register with byju's & download free pdfs, register with byju's & watch live videos.

• Skip to primary navigation
• Skip to main content
• Skip to primary sidebar

UPSC Coaching, Study Materials, and Mock Exams

Enroll in ClearIAS UPSC Coaching Join Now Log In

Call us: +91-9605741000

French Revolution (1789-1799)

Last updated on September 14, 2023 by ClearIAS Team

The French Revolution was the watershed event in modern European history that brought about the enlightenment principles and democracy, creating a rational and egalitarian society. It started in 1789 and ended in 1799.

The French Revolution was a time of social and political upheaval in France and its colonies. The liberal and radical ideas overthrew the Monarchy and influenced the decline of absolute Monarchies in other parts of Europe.

This was the revolution that led to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte as well.

Table of Contents

France in 1789:

France was the most populated nation in Europe during this time and had been growing in wealth and prestige since the time of King Louis XIV. But this economic growth wasn’t visible as the country was still very backward socially and politically.

The social divide was because it was still divided into feudal classes of people clergy, those who pray, nobles, those who fight, and the peasants, the working class. And political backwardness was because they were still ruled by an absolute monarch who believed in the divine right of kings.

But the French involvement in the American Revolution of 1776 was a costly affair and the extravagant lifestyle of King Louis XVI and the royal family was draining the coffers. The empty royal coffers, poor harvests, and rise in food prices had created feelings of unrest among the poor rural and urban populace. The matter was further worsened by the imposition of taxes that provided no relief. As a result rioting, looting and general strikes became the norm.

The major causes that led to the French Revolution:

• The clergy and the nobility formed the first two Estates and were the most privileged classes. They were exempted from payment of taxes to the State.
• The Third Estate consisting of peasants and workers formed the majority of the population. They were burdened with excessive taxes with no political and social rights. As a result, they were extremely discontent.
• Louis XVI waged many wars making the State coffers were empty.
• The situation was made even more complex by France’s involvement in the American War of Independence and the faulty system of taxation.
• The extravagant lifestyle of the royals added to the financial burden.
• The unstable political situation: The situation was very unstable because the Bourbon king of France, Louis XVI was an extremely autocratic and weak-willed king who led a life of excessive luxury. This caused anger among the masses who were leading lives of extreme poverty and widespread hunger.
• Philosophers like Rousseau rejected the paradigm of absolute monarchy and promulgated the doctrine of equality of man and sovereignty of people.
• They played a pivotal role in exposing the fault lines of the old political system- ‘ the ancien regime’ , thus adding to the popular discontent.
• The American Revolution also triggered the ideas of enlightenment and liberty among the intellectuals of the French society.

Timeline of the French Revolution:

1789: the meeting of the estate generals.

• The Estates-General was an assembly that represented the French nobility clergy and the middle class. They were called by Louis XVI to discuss the new tax measures in May 1789.
• The third estate was already gathering support for their involvement in the decision-making body and voting rights during this time.
• The middle class was in favour of the political and judicial reforms while the nobles did not want to give up their privileges. The talks with the third estate also failed.
• The Tennis court oath: The third estate and their support formed the National Assembly and took an oath of office in June 1789 and vowed not to disperse until reforms have been initiated.
• Seeing no other option Louis XVI had to absorb the three assemblies into the new order.

1789-92: The revolution

• The national assembly continued in Versailles as the nation was gripped in fear and uncertainty which led to the insurgency.
• This resulted in the taking of Bastille fortress on July 14, 1789. This event marked the beginning of the French Revolution.
• The peasants revolted, attacked the houses of nobles and tax collectors, and the upper class was forced to flee for their lives. This period is called the period of Great Fear.

1789: The Declaration of Rights of the Man

• The National Assembly adopted the Rights of Man and of the Citizen on August 4, 1789. The charter was based on democratic principles, drawing from philosophical as well as political ideas of Enlightenment thinkers like Jena-Jacques Rosseau.
• The French constitution was adopted on September 3, 1791. It was moderate in its stance by limiting the powers of the king, but it was not enough for the more radical members of the assembly, Robespierre who wanted Louis XVI to stand trial.

1793-95: The Reign of Terror

• A group of insurgents attacked the royal residence in Paris and arrested  Louis XVI on August 10, 1792
• The following month many who were accused of being the ‘enemies of the revolution’ were massacred in Paris. The Legislative Assembly was replaced by the National Convention which proclaimed the establishment of the Republic of France and the abolition of the Monarchy.
• King Louis XVI was condemned to death on January 21, 1793, and executed for treason. His wife, Marie Antoinette was also executed nine months later.
• The execution of the king marked the beginning of the most violent and turbulent phase of the French Revolution – the Reign of Terror.
• The National Convention was under the control of an extremist faction led by Robespierre. Under him, thousands were executed for suspected treason and counter-revolutionary activities.
• The Reign of Terror ended after Robespierre’s execution on July 28, 1794.

1795: The end of the French Revolution

• On August 22, 1795, the National Convention composed of moderates approved the creation of a new constitution that created France’s bicameral legislature.
• A Directory, a five-member group was formed by the parliament, and an army was groomed under General Napoleon Bonaparte.
• The Directory became corrupt and the army had more powers with them. A coup d’état was staged by Napoleon himself, toppling them from power.
• Napoleon appointed himself “first consul”. The French Revolution was over and the Napoleonic era was about the begin.

Role of women in the French Revolution:

Women in the Third Estate worked for a living and didn’t have access to education or training. Only daughters of the noblewomen and richer sections of society had access to any education. The wages for women were lower than those of men. Women were also mostly homemakers, hence they had to do all the housework, care for children.

But during the Revolution, women played an active role in revolutionary activities. They started their own clubs and newspapers. One of the most famous political clubs was the Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women and they were disappointed by the Constitution of 1791 which designated them, passive citizens. This Society demanded equal political rights as men. They wanted to vote and stand in elections for political office.

After the end of the revolution, the early revolutionary governments introduced many laws that improved the lives and status of women in society. Schools were created, and education was made compulsory for all girls. Marriage without consent was made illegal and divorce was made legal. Women were also allowed to be artisans and run small businesses.

Impact of the French Revolution:

The French revolution brought fundamental social, political, and economic changes in the history of France.

• End of the social divide: The French Revolution destroyed the social discriminative class system in France and declared equality for all. This led to the rise of the middle class who had acquired education to positions of responsibility.
• Declaration of rights of man: The constitutional assembly came out with the document of human rights which granted political liberty, like freedom of speech, press, association, worship, and ownership of property.
• Revolutionary ideas: The revolution gave birth to the revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity. These ideas started in France and spread to other areas like Italy, Germany, etc. promoting equality, freedom and democracy, and good governance. France became the birthplace of democracy.
• End of Monarchy: The Bourbon monarch that had ruled France for over 400 years came to end by the French revolution. The monarchy rule was abolished in 1792 and replaced it with the Republican form of Government. Although the Bourbon monarch was restored by the great powers after the downfall of Napoleon, it could not survive beyond 1830 because the monarchs were already weakened by the changes caused by the French revolution.
• Political Parties: France became a multiparty state as a result of the revolution. The freedom of association led to the rise of political clubs such as the Jacobins, Cordeliers, etc that competed for power. These parties kept the government under check and balance by criticizing bad policies.
• Parliamentary Democracy: The French revolution led to the revival of the parliament which was abandoned for a period of over 175 years. The revolution gave France a functional parliament with representatives who are democratically elected.
• Constitution and Rule of Law: The French revolution introduced the rule of law. Before 1789, France had no constitution to safeguard people’s rights and freedom. The constitution clearly separated the executive, the judiciary, and the legislature.
• Land ownership: The revolution brought new reforms and changes to land ownership in France. Before the revolution, the land was dominated by the clergy and the nobles who exploited the peasants. The working class was given equal rights to possess the land.
• National Guard: There was the formation of the National Guard that replaced the royal guard of the Bourbon monarchy. National Guard was the revolutionary army whose role was to protect the achievements of the French revolution.

The revolution achieved the good through a path of negatives nevertheless. There were losses of lives and properties, the reign of terror saw violence, the economy further declined to make the poor even poorer. The relationship between the church and the state deteriorated as the radical new laws and nationalization of church properties became a sour page.

The revolution also led to poor relationships between France and other states. Revolutionary ideas of the french revolution were threats to other powers and monarchs in Europe, hence, Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and other countries allied against France in order to prevent the spread of revolutionary ideas to their countries.

Also read: Bastille Day

Global impact of the French Revolution:

The French Revolution changed modern history forever and many nations took inspiration from the ideologies it gave birth to.

The suppressive monarchies were being challenged everywhere by the people.

The ideas of liberty and equality spread all around the world over the years through the French armies.

The French became the dominant force to be reckoned with as it radicalized the political and social system of the 18 th century.

The French Revolution ended feudalism and made a path for future advances in individual freedoms, democratic principles, and equality of life.

Aim IAS, IPS, or IFS?

About ClearIAS Team

ClearIAS is one of the most trusted learning platforms in India for UPSC preparation. Around 1 million aspirants learn from the ClearIAS every month.

Our courses and training methods are different from traditional coaching. We give special emphasis on smart work and personal mentorship. Many UPSC toppers thank ClearIAS for our role in their success.

Download the ClearIAS mobile apps now to supplement your self-study efforts with ClearIAS smart-study training.

Reader Interactions

June 24, 2022 at 3:45 am

Very informative and good peace of writing

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Don’t lose out without playing the right game!

Follow the ClearIAS Prelims cum Mains (PCM) Integrated Approach.

Join ClearIAS PCM Course Now

UPSC Online Preparation

• Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)
• Indian Administrative Service (IAS)
• Indian Police Service (IPS)
• IAS Exam Eligibility
• UPSC Free Study Materials
• UPSC Exam Guidance
• UPSC Prelims Test Series
• UPSC Syllabus
• UPSC Online
• UPSC Prelims
• UPSC Interview
• UPSC Toppers
• UPSC Previous Year Qns
• UPSC Age Calculator
• UPSC Calendar 2024
• About ClearIAS
• ClearIAS Programs
• ClearIAS Fee Structure
• IAS Coaching
• UPSC Coaching
• UPSC Online Coaching
• ClearIAS Blog
• Important Updates
• Announcements
• Book Review
• ClearIAS App
• Work with us
• Advertise with us
• Privacy Policy
• Terms and Conditions
• Talk to Your Mentor

Featured on

and many more...

Take ClearIAS Mock Exams: Analyse Your Progress

Analyse Your Performance and Track Your All-India Ranking

Ias/ips/ifs online coaching: target cse 2025.

Are you struggling to finish the UPSC CSE syllabus without proper guidance?

French Revolution Storybook Project - Mod. World History: Home

Assignment Part 1: Graphic Organizer

For your final project, you will create an illustrated storybook that synthesizes the information you've learned about the French Revolution. You will also assess whether or not you believe the French Revolution led to advancing democracy in France. For specific project requirements, refer to the assignment guidelines and grading rubric above.

Before you can create your storybook, you will use  this graphic organizer  to decide what topics you will focus on as well as write out the script for your storybook.

• Friday, 12/9, end of day: Graphic organizer (submitted to Canvas)
• Tuesday, 12/13, end of day: Storybook (link submitted to Canvas)

Storybook Submission Instructions

Once you have completed your storybook, you will submit the link to Canvas. Follow these steps:

1. Click "Share."

2. Scroll to the "Share with family and friends" option and click "Copy Share Link."

3. Paste this link into the assignment on Canvas.

Storybook due end of day Tuesday, 12/13

Assignment Part 2: Storybook Creation

You will create an illustrated storybook using StoryJumper. Your storybook must include the following features:

• A visually appealing cover with an appropriate title
• An illustration(s) of the event
• Thought or voice bubbles coming from the characters in the picture
• Story narrative using what you've compiled in your graphic organizer
• One spread per topic (meaning 2 pages!)

Don't forget that your teacher is expecting you to  fully explain and detail  the information you are addressing in your book! (Refer to assignment guidelines and project rubric to see specific requirements!)

Click here to see an example.

StoryJumper

You will create your storybook using StoryJumper. Follow these instructions to create your account:

• Click on your teacher's picture below and enter the appropriate password.  Pay attention to who you click on! Each class has a different link!
• Click "NO" when it asks if you already have an account.
• Click "Sign in with Google" and choose your Blue Valley account.
• Click "Skip" when it asks if you want to independently own your account.
• You should now see a dashboard called "My Classes," and see your teacher's class listed.
• You can now create your book!

(Note: It makes you create a practice picture book. When this opens, click "Save and exit." Go back into your teacher's class, and you can delete that practice book and create a new one.)

• Last Updated: Dec 7, 2022 7:15 AM
• URL: https://bluevalleyk12.libguides.com/frenchrevolution

• About the French Revolution

Just before the French Revolution, the economic situation was so bad that a loaf of bread would cost a peasant a week’s worth of wages! The poor population of France was starving to death while the nobility continued to live a life of luxury. These atrocities snowballed into the French Revolution. Let us learn about it.

Suggested Videos

Introduction to french revolution.

In the year 1789, French Revolution started leading to a series of the events started by the middle class. The people had revolted against the cruel regime of the monarchy . This revolution had put forth the ideas of liberty, fraternity as well as equality .

The start of the revolution took place on the morning of 14 th July 1789 in the state of Paris with the storming of the Bastille which is a fortress prison. The Bastille stood for the repressive power of the king due to which it was hated by all. The revolt became so strong that the fortress was eventually demolished.

Causes of French Revolution

Although there were innumerable causes and reasons for the French Revolution a few have been found to be the main culprits. These causes can be divided accordingly

Social Cause

As over the old regime, the French society and institution are described much before 1789 wherein the society was divided into three estates–the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners.

The first state included the group of people who were involved in the church matters known as clergy. The second estate includes people who are highly ranked in state administration known as nobility. The first two estates enjoy all the privileges right from the birth and are even exempted from any kind of taxes to the state . The third estate comprises of big businessmen, court, lawyers, officials, artisans, peasants, servants and even landless laborer. This estate usually were the ones who must bear the taxes.

Economic Cause

The population of France had risen between 1715 and 1789 from about 23 million to 28 million. This, in turn, leads to surplus demand for food grains, further leading to lack of pace in the production cycle as relative to demand – ultimately leading to rice in price for the food grains.

Majority of the laborers who worked in the workshops didn’t see any increase in their wages. And the taxes were not lowered. This had eventually lead to a worst-case crisis leading to food grain scarcity or also known as Subsistence Crisis that occurred frequently during the old regime.

Political Cause

The long years of war had turned France into a dry land with almost no financial resources. During the year 1774, Louis XVI came into power and found nothing. In his reign, France helped the 13 American colonies to gain independence from Britain, who was their common enemy.

The state during this time was forced to increase the taxes as they had to meet the regular expense that included the cost of upholding an army, running government offices or universities and running governments.

The Legacy of French Revolution

The most important legacy of the French Revolution were its ideas of Liberty and Democratic rights which spread progressively in the 19 th century from France to the rest of Europe where the feudal system was abolished. These ideas were later adopted by Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Tipu Sultan, the famous Indian revolutionary strugglers.

Solved Question for You

Question: Describe the legacy of the French Revolution for the peoples of the world during the 19 th and the 20 th centuries?

Ans: The legacy of the French Revolution for the peoples of the world during the 19 th and the 20 th centuries are as followed –

• The spread of ideas of equality, as well as democratic, brought about a huge difference from France to other European Countries. The feudalism was abolished.
• The ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity was adopted.
• The declaration of Rights of Man and Citizens allowed them the freedom of speech, equality before law and right to life.
• Women were also given rights including where they couldn’t be forced to get married against will, divorce was made legal and right to education was made compulsory to train for their jobs.

Customize your course in 30 seconds

Which class are you in.

French Revolution

One response to “about the french revolution”.

Please say what are the main reason for French revolution for 9th STD please

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Download the App

French Revolution

This tenth grade annotated inquiry leads students through an investigation of the French Revolution. Adolescent students are quite concerned with challenging authority and establishing their independence within the world; the concept of revolution brings those two concerns to their most world-altering levels. This inquiry gives students an entry point into thinking like historians about the French Revolution. The question of success invites students into the intellectual space that historians occupy. By investigating the question of the French Revolution’s success, students will need to make decisions about what the problems of the Revolution were, how to give weight to the events of three different periods of the Revolution, and what distance, if any, was between intentions and effects.

Compelling Question:

Was the french revolution successful, staging the question:.

Supporting Question What were the social, economic, and political problems in prerevolutionary France?

Formative Task List social, economic, and political problems in prerevolutionary France.

Sources Source A: Political cartoon of the Three Estates Source B: Graph of the Three Estates Source C: Cahiers de Doléances of 1789

Supporting Question How did the relationship between the French people and the king change in the early stages of the Revolution?

Formative Task Write one or two paragraphs explaining how the relationship between the French people and the king changed between 1789 and 1793.

Sources Source A: Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen Source B: Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen Source C: Decree Abolishing the Feudal System

Supporting Question How did Robespierre justify the Reign of Terror?

Formative Task Write a summary of Robespierre’s justification for the Reign of Terror and identify two key details that support his justification.

Sources Source A: Engraving of Robespierre and the guillotine Source B: Speech by Maximilien Robespierre

Supporting Question Did Napoleon’s rise to power represent a continuation of or an end to revolutionary ideals?

Formative Task Develop a claim supported by evidence about whether Napoleon’s rise to power represents a continuation of or an end to revolutionary ideals.

Sources Source A: Napoleon’s account of his coup d’état Source B: Painting of the Consecration of the Emperor Napoleon I and Coronation of the Empress Josephine Source C: Napoleon’s account of the internal situation of France in 1804

Summative Performance Task

Taking informed action.

French Revolution and Napoleonic Era: Home

• Helpful Websites
• Student Examples

Museum Tour Questions

• Submit Your Museum Exhibit Questions Here Every student needs to submit 2 questions with answers. Be sure your questions can be answered by visiting your museum exhibit!

Question Guidelines:

Create "short answer" questions, not ones that require a date or small fact.

Think about the historical significance or a cause and effect relationship.

Good question:

Q: Why did the nations form the Coaltion against France?

A: The coalition tried to do two things: weaken the French state by taking its land and to reinstate the French Monarchy.

Bad question:

Q: When was the Coalition formed?

Number Assignments

French Revolution and Napoleonic Era Museum

World History 2022

Students will learn about the French Revolution and Napoleonic Era from a museum of their own creation.

3-step Assignment:

Create a museum exhibit on your assigned topic. This is a visual representation with written descriptions.

Submit two questions and answers (per student) about your exhibit for museum tourists.

Tour the museum and complete assigned questions.

Guidelines:

Be creative!

You can expand upon your topic (after conducting preliminary research), but make logical connections.

Class time is limited, so stay on task and do not procrastinate!

The museum tour questions should only require a one sentence answer. Do not make them too easy or too hard.

This is a team effort, so don’t bring down your group.

Many people will be touring the museum, so take pride in your work!

Students will be graded on the following:

Museum Exhibit:

Would it appear in a museum?

Is it of high quality and did students put in appropriate effort?

Does it relate to the assigned topic?

Does exhibit include descriptions that help the visitor understand the museum exhibit?

Are descriptions well written without spelling and grammar mistakes?

Questions for Museum Tourists:

2 questions and answers from each student.

Can they be answered at your museum exhibit?

• Can they be answered in one sentence or less?

What is the purpose of a museum?

Creating knowledge for, and about, society.

     Museums hold collections, develop culture and create knowledge for society. They help enable a process of learnng and sharing knowledge between specialist experts and the general public.

Facilitating individual development through education, stimulation and building skills

     All museums support learning and to stimulate thought and reflection. They can foster a sense of enquiry and promote equality and diversity. They offer thought-provoking and inspiring experiences to help people make meaning and better understand the world. They provide opportunities for contemplation, curiosity, and creativity.

Holding collections and mounting displays

     Museums safeguard and develop collections, create knowledge and controbute to cultural life. They see themselves as serving society. Collections are central to museums’ cultural acitivity and are used by society in many ways: for education, for a wide range of research from family history to cutting edge science.

Care and preservation of heritage

     Museums concern themselves with researching, preparing and maintaining collections. Collecting and displaying are undertaken for their own sake and museums are institutions that collect, safeguard and make accessible artifacts and specimens, which they hold in trust for society.

Assignment and Rubric

• Next: Helpful Websites >>
• Last Updated: May 9, 2024 2:17 PM
• URL: https://rbchs.libguides.com/frenchrev

• Library of Congress
• Research Guides

France: Women in the Revolution

Marie antoinette.

• Introduction
• Print Bibliography & Primary Sources
• Primary and Secondary Sources
• External Websites
• Germaine de Staël
• Manon Roland
• Sophie de Condorcet
• Olympe de Gouges
• Charlotte Corday
• Juliette Récamier
• Théroigne de Méricourt
• Pauline Léon
• Claire Lacombe
• Louise-Reine Audu
• Élisabeth of France
• Agathe de Rambaud
• Images of Women in the French Revolution
• Satirical Images of the French Revolution
• Adaptations: Film, Theater, Music & Novels
• Women in the American Revolution
• Women in the Haitian Revolution
• Revolutions in France: 1789, 1830, 1848
• The Paris Commune
• Social Media
• European Reading Room

Marie Antoinette was born November 2, 1755 in Vienna, Austria and was executed on October 16, 1793 at the Place de la Concorde, Paris, France. While the Chapelle Expiatoire in Paris is dedicated to her and to her husband, King Louis XVI, she is buried at the Basilica Cathedral of Saint Denis, France. In many ways Marie Antoinette was a victim of the world into which she was thrown. To begin with, she came from Austria and after an initially warm welcome in France she was increasingly viewed with suspicion from the French people. She was born an archduchess and came to France at a very young age (a mere 14 years old) to marry Louis XVI. It is worth considering that these two were put in charge of the nation of France as teenagers, Louis being only 19 to her 18 when he was crowned. This was a financially unstable time in France and neither of them seemed able to fully comprehend the Revolution that was brewing. She also had extravagant tastes and a genuine love of fashion and art. She became a patron of the immensely talented artist Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun who painted not only Marie Antoinette's portrait but over 600 other portraits. A figure of significance in many ways, during the Revolution, the painter wisely fled France and sought safety in Italy, Austria and Russia until she was finally able to return to France to live out her days. Marie Antoinette's love of art and haute couture did her no favors during the Revolution as this caused her to spend profligately. Apparently she bought about 300 gowns a year, gaining a reputation as spoiled and vain. As the years went on and general unrest began to reach revolutionary levels, she also served as a scapegoat for those who would rather blame the Austrian queen than criticize their King. She is reported to have been genuinely fond of her husband but it was known that she had other lovers. She continued to spend freely even when France was in a financial crisis, making vast improvements to the charming hideaway of the Petit Trianon that cost over two million francs. These and other whims understandably went over poorly. Some modern scholars question whether her strong will and bold decisions suggest she was a proto-feminist, but this is usually dismissed since all her bold actions were ultimately motivated for personal gain rather than to bring up other women. Nevertheless, Marie Antoinette was vilified more than almost any female figure in French history and many scholars have asked the question, "Why was she hated so much?". During her trial the scrutiny and condemnation over her purported "libertine ways" was highlighted for dramatic effect (the sheer volume of pornographic cartoons of the Queen attests to this preoccupation with her sexuality). Contemporary biographies continue to fixate on this aspect of her life, often to the exclusion of other areas, including her political machinations and attempts to save the Monarchy. Whether or not one is sympathetic to her ideological leanings, or judgmental about her extra-marital affairs-it has never been proven that she heartlessly said, "let them eat cake" to the hungry people of Paris.

For an overview of French women in history and the evolution of the French feminist movement, please see the research guide Feminism & French Women in History .

For movies, theater productions and music inspired by Marie Antoinette and other women in the French Revolution see the Adaptations: Film, Theater & Music section of this guide.

You can identify additional material by searching the Library of Congress Online Catalog using the following headings:

Marie Antoinette, Queen, consort of Louis XVI, King of France, 1755-1793. (Name Heading; returns works by Marie Antoinette)

Marie Antoinette, Queen, consort of Louis XVI, King of France, 1755-1793. (Subject Heading; returns works about Marie Antoinette)

Memoires written by members of court (eg. Madame Campan) from this period are plentiful: France--Court and courtiers--History--18th century

Selected Resources

The following titles link to fuller bibliographic information in the Library of Congress Online Catalog . Links to additional online content are included when available.

External Website

• Memoires of Marie Antoinette External Available in full text from HathiTrust. Translated memories written by Madame Campan (Jeanne-Louise-Henriette), lady's maid in the service of Marie Antoinette and later appointed head mistress to the first "Maison d'éducation de la Légion d'honneur" by Napoleon. This work is a valuable source of information from this time period. Although Mme. Campan's works were published posthumously, they are first hand accounts.
• << Previous: Louise-Reine Audu
• Next: Élisabeth of France >>
• Last Updated: Jun 6, 2024 1:53 PM
• URL: https://guides.loc.gov/women-in-the-french-revolution

Look inside

Visions of Inequality

From the French Revolution to the End of the Cold War

Branko Milanovic

Harvard University Press books are not shipped directly to India due to regional distribution arrangements. Buy from your local bookstore, Amazon.co.in, or Flipkart.com.

This book is not shipped directly to country due to regional distribution arrangements.

Pre-order for this book isn't available yet on our website.

This book is currently out of stock.

Edit shipping location

Dropdown items

• Barnes and Noble
• Bookshop.org
• Waterstones

ISBN 9780674264144

Publication date: 10/10/2023

Request exam copy

A Financial Times Best Book of the Year.

A sweeping and original history of how economists across two centuries have thought about inequality, told through portraits of six key figures.

“How do you see income distribution in your time, and how and why do you expect it to change?” That is the question Branko Milanovic imagines posing to six of history's most influential economists: François Quesnay, Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Karl Marx, Vilfredo Pareto, and Simon Kuznets. Probing their works in the context of their lives, he charts the evolution of thinking about inequality, showing just how much views have varied among ages and societies. Indeed, Milanovic argues, we cannot speak of “inequality” as a general concept: any analysis of it is inextricably linked to a particular time and place.

Visions of Inequality takes us from Quesnay and the physiocrats, for whom social classes were prescribed by law, through the classic nineteenth-century treatises of Smith, Ricardo, and Marx, who saw class as a purely economic category driven by means of production. It shows how Pareto reconceived class as a matter of elites versus the rest of the population, while Kuznets saw inequality arising from the urban-rural divide. And it explains why inequality studies were eclipsed during the Cold War, before their remarkable resurgence as a central preoccupation in economics today.

Meticulously extracting each author’s view of income distribution from their often voluminous writings, Milanovic offers an invaluable genealogy of the discourse surrounding inequality. These intellectual portraits are infused not only with a deep understanding of economic theory but also with psychological nuance, reconstructing each thinker’s outlook given what was knowable to them within their historical contexts and methodologies.

A timely book that brings the weight of the past to bear on one of the most pressing issues of our time…Milanovic is a clear and direct writer, unafraid of making strong judgements and with an idiosyncratic eye for detail. That makes for original, and sometimes amusingly wry, revelations. —Darrin M. McMahon, Literary Review

Inequality is back, as a political topic and as a focus of study. In this fascinating book, Milanovic, one of the world’s most influential scholars of inequality, examines what leading economists of the past have had to say on this issue. —Martin Wolf, Financial Times

A history of the changing ways economists have broached the subject [of inequality] since the French Revolution…[Milanovic] describes how Western economists were in thrall to an unholy combination of extremely simplistic assumptions and extremely complex mathematical models. —Jennifer Szalai, New York Times

A work of art in today’s economics. With equal intensity, the book traverses contemporary ideological, political, and social divides and implores theoretical and empirical economists to critically assess their intellectual positions…an essential and insightful analysis of the history of economic inequality urgently relevant today…a groundbreaking work, bound to influence the economics profession and our worldview. —Aleksandr V. Gevorkyan, LSE Review of Books

An in-depth contextual analysis of how economic minds from Adam Smith to Karl Marx have shaped our understanding of class, income and wealth…This is a vital reference for the economic and philosophical theories underpinning our understanding of inequality today. —Tej Parikh, Financial Times

An absorbing account of how thinking about inequality has evolved…Milanovic mixes his methodical examination of the evolution of economic thought about inequality with fascinating portraits of great economists and the society and polity of their times. —Zia Qureshi, Finance & Development

For anybody interested in inequality—and we all should be—anything by Milanovic is an essential read…This book is a great scene setter for the modern debate, not least in illustrating the link between ideas of inequality and the times in which ideas are formed. —Diane Coyle, Enlightened Economist

'To remind us of the half-forgotten ways in which class can be integrated into the big economic picture, Milanovic takes us on a guided tour of six minds, spanning 200 years. The chapters blend tight analysis of how each thinker understood the forces reshaping inequality in their day with gobbets of gossip…[The author’s] judgments…are arrestingly fresh. —Tom Clark, Prospect Magazine

Steps back to question the study of inequality itself. Where does this work come from? Was inequality always so central a preoccupation for economists — or in politics at large? Ultimately, the book reveals the limits of a purely economic framing of these questions…a breezy tour d’horizon of economic conceptions of inequality since the Enlightenment. —Simon Torracinta, Dissent

A captivating journey through the time of ideas, with an impact on current events. —Julien Damon, Les Echoes

By…exploring the different ways inequality has been conceptualized, [Milanovic] prompts us to consider the political ramifications of our restricted focus on inter-individual distribution. —Daniel Zamora, Commonweal

A noted economist examines the thinking of six of his predecessors on how income is distributed and the conditions that favor or hinder the accumulation of wealth. —Kirkus Reviews

[A] sweeping survey of more than 200 years of philosophical thought about inequality. —Publishers Weekly

Fascinating and often surprising, offering new insight into iconic figures like Smith and Marx and unexpected perspectives on their work. Branko Milanovic shows that the writings of centuries past have much to teach us about inequality, especially about class and power. A truly important book. —Angus Deaton, Nobel Laureate in Economic Sciences

What do we talk about when we talk about economic inequality? To those who came of age after the 2008 financial crisis and Thomas Piketty’s Capital in the Twenty-First Century —an era marked by a widening fracture between rich and poor, especially within Western nations—the question might seem obvious. But as Branko Milanovic shows in his indispensable chronicle of the concept, we underestimate just how young, limited, and fraught our current understanding of inequality is—and how diverse its range of forebears. Researched with forensic thoroughness, and hardly shy about its political implications, Visions of Inequality presents a rare and rewarding combination of economic and conceptual history. —Anton Jäger, Catholic University of Leuven

A fascinating journey across the history of economic thought through the lens of inequality. Milanovic’s erudite and thought-provoking exploration casts new light both on the analysis of income concentration and on the ideological travails of economics as a discipline. —Ingrid Bleynat, King's College London

Imagine being able to ask Smith, Marx, and Pareto round for dinner and a chat about how each of them sees inequality. In effect, that’s what Branko Milanovic does in this new book. As he shows, economists’ interest in the subject is by no means a new phenomenon—but what counts, and who counts, in any analysis of inequality has varied dramatically over time. Recognizing this fact should make us reflect on how our own contemporary assays of inequality are more limited than we think. Taking us on an eye-opening tour from Quesnay to Kuznets, Milanovic shows us how inequality and capitalism have always intertwined. —Mark Blyth, Brown University

• Branko Milanovic is Senior Scholar at the Stone Center on Socio-Economic Inequality at the City University of New York and Visiting Professor at the International Inequalities Institute at the London School of Economics and Political Science. Formerly Lead Economist in the World Bank’s research department, he is the author of Capitalism, Alone ; and The Haves and the Have-Nots .

Book Details

• 6-1/8 x 9-1/4 inches
• Belknap Press

From this author

Capitalism, Alone

Global Inequality

Recommendations.

A Brief History of Equality

Aquinas and the Market

Is Capitalism Obsolete?

Sorry, there was an error adding the item to your shopping bag.

Expired session

Sorry, your session has expired. Please refresh your browser's tab.

Main navigation

An item has been added to the cart

Added to shopping bag

• Copy to clipboard

Set your location

It looks like you're in   . Would you like to update your location?

Unavailable

Harvard University Press titles are not shipped directly to India due to local distribution arrangements.

Unavailable in country .

Shopping Bag

Your shopping bag is currently empty. Add items to your shopping bag, to complete check out.

• Sign Up / Log In

Create a free profile to get unlimited access to exclusive show news, updates, and more!

What’s a Phryge? Meet the 2024 Paris Olympics Mascot

Hats off to the design of the adorable symbol of the Summer Games, which is steeped in French history. 

Vive Les Phryges!

The official mascots of the 2024 Paris Olympics are a “tribe” of adorable, anthropomorphic hats – the latest in a long line of cute characters that host countries have adopted to market the Summer and Winter Games to international audiences.

What are the 2024 Paris Olympics mascots?

The Phryges ( pronounced free-jee-us , according to organizers ) aren’t just any headwear; they are based on caps with deep significance in the history of France . The style of cap was adopted by the revolutionaries as a symbol of liberty during the French Revolution and has been a national staple ever since.

The cartoonish chapeau – decked out in the French national colors of red, blue, and white and featuring eyes that taper into ribbon cockades, a popular ornament in France -- were unveiled as Olympic mascots in November 2022.

“Rather than an animal, our mascots represent an ideal,” Paris 2024 President   Tony Estanguet said in a statement at the time. “Since it is familiar to us and appears on our stamps and the pediments of our town halls, it also represents French identity and spirit.”

Though there are a legion of Phryges used in marketing, there are two official main characters: One represents the 2024 Paris Olympics and the other symbolizes the 2024 Paris Paralympics, with a prosthetic leg. On their fronts are the logos of their respective Games, emblazoned like superhero symbols. 

The Olympic Phryge is billed as the tactician of the bunch, while its Paralympics counterpart is “a party animal, spontaneous and a bit hotheaded.”

Paris 2024 proclaims the Phryges mission is to “lead a revolution in sport.”

What was the first official Olympics mascot?

France introduced what some consider the first official Olympic mascot for the 1968 Grenoble Winter Games with Schuss, a z-shaped skier with a big red head, blue legs, and a single sky, that was more a symbol than a character.

The practice took off four years later during the 1972 Summer Games in Munich with the first universally recognized official Olympic mascot. That’s when and where Waldi, a dachshund designed by graphic artist Elena Winschermann and inspired by a real dog, made its debut. The mascot’s body is ringed in the official colors of three of the Olympic rings, with red and black left out because of German sensitivity of any association with the Nazi flag.

Why do mascots matter so much for host countries?

As the Olympics have drawn increasingly larger international audiences in the past half century, designing a mascot that can be a merchandizing draw and as well as publicity for the host country has become more and more important economically.

The host committees have leaned on design teams to come up with representations that tap into native animals or the country's cultural symbols for inspiration.  When the mascot is a success, it's memorable:  Misha the Bear, the mascot for the 1980 Moscow Olympics, for example, is still a popular character on toys and souvenirs in Russia. 

Watch live coverage of the  Opening Ceremony  on Friday, July 26, on NBC and Peacock beginning at 12 p.m. ET. Telemundo will provide Spanish-language coverage beginning at 1 p.m. ET. Primetime coverage starts at 7:30 p.m. ET/PT on NBC and  Peacock .

The mascot for the 1984 Summer Games in Los Angeles was based on the bald eagle, the American national bird, and designed by a team led by Disney artist Robert Moore. Sam the Eagle proved a marketing and merchandizing hit and is credited with being a major reason that the L.A. Games became the first Olympics to turn a profit in more than 50 years.

Los Angeles will next host the Summer Games in 2028.

The next generation of Olympic mascots  have already been announced for the 2026 Winter Games in Milano and Cortina, Italy. The pair of stoats, small mammals found in that part of Europe, are named Tino and Mila in nods to the twin host cities.  

Related Stories

Olympics 2024: Team USA Shares Women's Basketball Roster

Caitlin Clark Reacts to Being Left Off Team USA

Everything to Know about Dwyane Wade and Gabrielle Union

What Are the Twisties in Gymnastics?

All About Gymnast Nastia Liukin's Life After the Olympics

These Olympic Athletes Are Dating: Pics, Details

D-Day Documentary to Debut During NBC Olympics Coverage

Sesame Street Gang Joins Coverage of 2024 Olympic Games

Who's on the U.S. Olympic Women's 3x3 Basketball Team?

Kevin Hart Stilt-Walks As Shaq in SNL's "Inside the NBA"

Where to Watch the U.S. Gymnastics Olympic Trials

Everything to Known about Olympic Gymnast Simone Biles

Recommended for you.

2-Year-Old Mariska Hargitay Appears on the Merv Griffin Show

Ryan Gosling and Jimmy Fallon Deserve Oscars for Playing Identical-Looking Tough Cops

Scarlett Johansson Matches Katie Britt's SOTU Energy in SNL Parody: Watch

Mobile Menu Overlay

The White House 1600 Pennsylvania Ave NW Washington, DC 20500

Remarks by President   Biden and President Macron of France at State Dinner | Paris,   France

Élysée Palace

8:13 P.M. CEST

PRESIDENT MACRON:  (As interpreted.)  Mr. President, dear Joe; Madam First Lady, Dr. Jill Biden. (In English.)  I want to reassure you, it’s just a toast and not a speech — (laughter) — so I will be very short. (As interpreted.)  Ladies and gentlemen, dear friends, my wife and myself are very honored to be hosting you today here at the Élysée with all of your delegation and all of our guests, because every time there is an occasion to celebrate that brings together Americans and French people, the spirit of 1776 is never far, conjuring what is best in both of our countries. These warm feelings borne of a long and deep friendship is further enhanced by the joy today of hosting you today for your first official state visit to France with a very pleasant feeling of déjà vu.  Indeed, a year and a half ago, you were hosting me in Washington in December 2022, thus demonstrating through regular visits how close we are in the reciprocal interests of our countries. And this year, 2024, for all people who are attached to the Franco relation- — Franco-American relationship, there is something special to celebrate because there is a reciprocal sacrifice for our independence, for our freedom. Indeed, this year, we will celebrate the 200th anniversary of the farewell tour of the Marquis de Lafayette, a hero of the American Revolution.  I know that he is close to the hearts of all Americans. We also commemorate the 80th anniversary of the landings in Normandy and in Provence. We stood side by side then, as we did two days ago in Normandy for the ceremonies on June 6th, to bow our heads in the peaceful cemetery of Colleville to remember their courage on the Omaha Beach — Omaha the bloody — where so many of your countrymen gave their lives for a country they had never been to before. Never will we forget these heroes who, from Normandy to Berlin, helped to free a continent in our country.  Their sacrifice has cemented our friendship. Amongst these heroes, there was a young man, Harold Terens.  He was 18 when Pearl Harbor happened.  At the age of 20, he was a radio operator working with your Air Force.  He was at his duty post on D-Day, and then the war led him everywhere in France, in Morocco, and all the way to Ukraine. Today, Harold has chosen our country to marry Jeanne Swerlin.  They are with us today, and they are just making their marriage vows, so let us congratulate the young newlyweds.  (Applause.) (Speaks French.) (As interpreted.)  We’re very pleased to be here for your wedding (inaudible).  On this foundation, so many relations have developed — from cinema to music, from literature to space, from energy to transport, agriculture and health — so many partnerships that have served to consolidate our bilateral relationship that we have further strengthened recently. It’s also this relation that make it possible to affirm our values faced with a war of aggression by Russia in Ukraine or today in the Middle East in Gaza, and, once again, thank you for the initiative that you have just taken and that we support to be united in spite of our differences when the main values are at stake.  This is what is our — lie across the Atlantic.

When it comes to defending our values, we stand together, so, of course, there’s something a bit special in our relationship, because you are — you’re American; we are French.  And there’s something of a mutual fascination you find from Tocqueville all the way to Miller or, indeed, in our respective film industries. 

We love the American Dream, and you like the French art de vivre , the French lifestyle.  And we tend to be maybe defending our singularities, but we love each other for what we are.  And this applies to each and every one of us. 

And when I — we see the affection that you have for France, the way in which you have been prepared to attend the Olympic and Paralympic Games, I can see that more than ever you remain your best allies — united we stand, divided we fall.  This is enshrined in the very name of your country.  This should be the philosophy that should inspire us, that inspired the Greatest Generation to which you pay tribute yesterday at Pointe du Hoc.  And, indeed, that is what binds us together today. 

We are allies.  We will remain allies.  And these are the values which 80 years down the road keep us together. 

And this is why, Mr. President, dear Joe, dear Jill, it is such an honor to have you here in France on the occasion of this state visit that is an opportunity to celebrate the untrammeled vitality of our alliance and this very special relationship between our two nations and, indeed, our love for freedom. 

If I may, I would like to propose a toast to the United States of America, to France, and, indeed, to the friendship between the United States and France.

(President Macron offers a toast.)  (Applause.)

PRESIDENT BIDEN:  Mr. President, Brigitte, distinguished guests. You know, one of the things that’s been a legend in my family is my middle name is Robinette.  And, allegedly, I’ve ne- — I’ve been told by my grandfather that this was established — I have not found it yet; maybe someone could help me — that I’m a son of the American Revolution, because Robinette came over with Lafayette and never went home.  He stayed in the United States. 

So, that makes me a son of the American Revolution.  And — but I haven’t been able to establish that yet.  So, maybe one of your genealogists can figure it out for me.

Look, the — your — France is our first ally.  And that’s not insignificant.  The fact of the matter is you were with us to help us secure our freedom, and we were with you 170 years later — (clears throat) — excuse me — to do the same.  And ever since, we’ve remained united, unyielding, as well as unwavering in our partnership. 

That’s what democracies do.  That has been an extraordinary week here for us, for Jill and me.  It’s just been amazing to be here.  I’ve been here a number of times over the years.  I know I don’t look it, but I’m only 40 years old.  (Laughter.)  But all kidding aside, been here many times, but this has been the most remarkable trip that I’ve ever made.

Together, we celebrated D-Day, the heroes of D-Day, and told the story of the alliance and how, together, we saved Europe.  And the people of France t- — and t- — and you two, personally, honored our veterans with such warmth and dignity.  On behalf of all the American people, we want to say thank you, thank you, thank you from the bottom of our heart.  I mean it.

When the American troops came to these shores 80 years ago on an audacious mission to save the continent, they each carried a book given to them by the U.S. military.  And the book was called “A Pocket Guide to France.”  Seriously.  It included helpful hints like this: “No bragging; the French don’t like it.”  (Laughter.)  Not a joke.  “Be generous; it won’t hurt you.”  “Avoid controversial topics, even if you — even if you took French in high school.”  (Laughter.) 

And try to follow at least one — I tried my best to follow at least one of those.  But, you know —

And then it said the French are allies who, quote — to quote, “happen to speak democracy in a different language.  And we democracies aren’t just doing favors; we’re fighting for each other when history goes — when history goes — gets through.  We all are in the same boat,” end of quote.

France and the United States have always been there for one another.  We stand together when the going gets tough, and that’s a fact.  We stand together to defend the values that lie at the soul — the very soul of both our nations — and I believe that to be the case today — liberty, equality, brotherhood. Generation after generation, people across both our nations have upheld these ideals because they know, when we stand as one, our countries are stronger and, literally, the world is safer. Emmanuel, you’ve heard me say it before.  We stand at an inflection point in history.  The decisions we make now will determine the course of our future for decades to come.  We have a lot of opportunity but a lot of responsibility.  And it gives me hope to know France and the United States stand together now and always — or as the “Pocket Guide to France” given to the invading Americans might say, “We’re rowing in the same boat.” Ladies and gentlemen, to France, the United States, and to our people, may we continue to seek democracy.  May we — in both our languages.  And may we always stay together.  It’s been a great honor to be here.  And I want to thank you.  I’m going to raise my glass. (President Biden offers a toast.) To France.  (Applause.) END  8:25 P.M. CEST

Stay Connected

We'll be in touch with the latest information on how President Biden and his administration are working for the American people, as well as ways you can get involved and help our country build back better.

Opt in to send and receive text messages from President Biden.