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Sardinia from the Middle Ages to Contemporaneity

A case study of a Mediterranean island identity profile

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Table Of Contents

• About the author
• About the book
• This eBook can be cited
• Some criticalities on exegetical and methodological issues of researching the Sardinian identity profile (Luciano Gallinari)
• Landscapes, archaeology, and identity in Sardinia (Federica Sulas)
• The Sardinian giudici between historical memory and identity. A matter of longue durée? (Luciano Gallinari)
• The Catalan-Aragonese Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae and the Giudicato of Arborea in the fourteenth century. (Alessandra Cioppi)
• Oligarchies, urban government and royal cities in late medieval Sardinia: elements for the construction of an identity (Esther Martí Sentañes)
• The Navarro family. Mediterranean networks and activities of a family of fifteenth-century Valencian merchants (Giuseppe Seche)
• Society and identity in fifteenth-century Cagliari testaments (Maria Giuseppina Meloni)
• Reflections on the socio-political and cultural transmissions at the end of the Giudicato of Arborea. Identity-based resistance and (re)construction of historic memory? (Giovanni Sini)
• The political role of noblewomen in the Kingdom of Sardinia at the time of the Camarasa Parliament (1666–1668): a preliminary study (Rafaella Pilo)
• Passing through the Sardinian landscape in search of signs of identity and otherness (Sebastiana Nocco)
• Figurative continuity and artistic syncretism in the wooden roofs of Romanesque churches in Sardinia (Andrea Pala)
• “E pluribus unum. The Sardinian identity profile from the Middle Ages to Contemporaneity”. Cultural architecture of the Sardinian territory (Jorge Lobos)
• Architecture and globalisation in Sardinia. The construction of the identity in Contemporary Sardinia, through Architecture (María Andrea Tapia / Horacio Casal)

L UCIANO G ALLINARI

CNR – Istituto di Storia dell’Europa Mediterranea

Some criticalities on exegetical and methodological issues of researching the Sardinian identity profile *

1.  Some critical reflections on methodological and exegetical approaches to the History of Sardinia

It is not easy to motivate the publication of another book on Sardinian identity profile – from the Middle Ages to Contemporaneity, in this case – a theme with a very wide and articulated research literature, although with some significant differences in quality.

The present book stems from the need to disseminate some of the contributions produced by an international research project 1 , and also the opportunity to put forward our reflections on a theme in a constant evolutionary dynamism, and in the light of recent studies too.

This is also because of how the History of the island has been used and continues to be used in Sardinia – especially for some specific periods –, for agendas that fall outside the scholarly debate 2 . These purposes aim at presenting an image of the island that still suffers from rooted and ingrained stereotypes, ← 1 | 2 → or from hyper-corrections of these, leading to new interpretations that are not completely solid. Stereotypes, historical and historiographic myths that confirm how memory – and therefore identity – is the result of continuous choices – conscious or not 3 – of what we want to remember, what we want to be rather than what we really are, and of how we want to represent ourselves 4 .

In addition to the continuous flowering and, perhaps, in some cases, to the obsessiveness of reflections on Sardinian identity, it is also the insularity which fosters this survival of stereotypes and myths, offering scholars a case study of limited size and, therefore, supposedly manageable with ease 5 .

In some cases, puzzling is the use made of documentary sources available, particularly scarce throughout the Middle Ages until the 14 th century, when Sardinia becomes involved in political orbit of the Crown of Aragon and, therefore, its archives. The scarcity of sources is another difficulty with which the scholar of Sardinia must confront himself very scrupulously. More than ever when it comes to reconstructing the identity profile of its people, mostly only through the representation made by the Other, to which it is nearly impossible to oppose the Sardinians’ one, except from the Modern Age onwards, thanks also to the other Iberian archives that provide almost all the sources known until the beginning of the 18 th century 6 . ← 2 | 3 →

Such diligence – even in very recent times – has not been the basis of some interpretative hypotheses that continue to propose stereotypes of isolation and remoteness of Sardinia 7 . In other texts, on the other hand, they fill the gaps of the sources – not just the textual ones, of course – with theories that are not sufficiently supported by primary sources, but with wide appeal for other scholars 8 .

In this sense, it is paradigmatic the historiographic debate on a theme of great importance for the island history: the possible Islamic presence in Sardinia in the Middle Ages.

In recent years, hypotheses have been formulated – much more interesting for the exegetical methodology of their authors than for the few sources cited. These hypotheses envisage a certain and considerable presence of Muslims in parts of the island between the 8 th and the 10 th c., which would confirm the opening of Sardinia to the Mediterranean with its capital, endowed with a multicultural, perhaps even a multi-ethnic and multi-confessional society ‘which is the perfect image of the Mediterranean world of those centuries’ 9 . Perhaps here lies the historiographic problem: ← 3 | 4 → the adherence of events to the “perfect” model, according to current scholars’ parameters 10 .

As if, the starting institutional dependency and, the later formal one on the Byzantine Empire, the diplomatic relations with the Holy Roman Empire in the first half of the 9th century, and with the Caliphate of Cordoba in the mid-10th c., were not sufficient elements to believe that Sardinia had a multiethnic Mediterranean society. These are all relations proved by numerous written and epigraphic sources of Western and Eastern origin.

But we go even further. On the basis on abovementioned sources and interpretations, and adding arguments of logic, admissibility and presumption, there is someone who goes as far as claiming a sure Muslim presence on the island. Simultaneously, the same scholar even questions the Christianity of Sardinia between the 8 th and 10 th centuries. All of this, after having underlined at the beginning on his writing that ‘the problem of verifying sources is therefore crucial to the development of research on medieval Sardinia’ 11 . ← 4 | 5 →

These interpretative hypotheses are linked to what we mentioned before on the reconstruction of memory, according to choices that respond to the purpose – conscious and not – of those who rebuild it: to show how Sardinian society was aligned with contemporary Mediterranean society, revealing that, for them, this was not the case neither in that historical period nor today.

Once again, we see surfacing the belief, very widespread in Sardinia – sometimes even unconsciously, as it emerges in the texts –, that the island must always be “special”, detached from the “normal” course of the surrounding events, despite statements in the opposite direction 12 .

If we want to find a sort of “original sin” in the delicate relationship between historiography and sources on Sardinia – and not only the one on the Middle Ages – we have to go back to the story of “Arborea’s Forgeries (Falsi d’Arborea)”in the second half of the 19 th century. This was an operation that lends itself to a twofold interpretation: 1) a fraudulent reconstruction of a historical memory with two purposes: a clearly economic one for the counterfeiters and another cultural and psychological one, responding to the needs of counterfeiters and the contemporary Sardinian society 13 ; 2) the Falsi are not historical memory, but a medium of the ← 5 | 6 → ‘illusory language of identification, ambition to omnipotence, and the not-yet-achieved access to the reality’ (‘ linguaggio illusorio dell’identificazione, dell’aspirazione all’onnipotenza e del non ancora raggiunto accesso al reale ’) 14 . These needs and ambitions are present to some extent also in today’s Sardinian society 15 .

Current historiographic problems also concern scholars who transform themselves into primary sources, not satisfied with what these contained therein 16 . Or, in other cases, scholars deny the sources’ contents even in the titles of their essays 17 .

Such attitudes are found with regard to another fundamental theme of Sardinian medieval history, concerning the alleged kingship of Sardinian ← 6 | 7 → judges and their “states”. A topic that is also at the centre of recent publications, and clearly full of of present-day identitarian and nationalistic aspects, giving the impression that they choose to ignore some authoritative medieval legal sources, that are contemporary to the Giudicati .

In addition to the Notae de Mathilda Comitissa already mentioned, let us consider the Siete Partidas , the legal encyclopaedia wanted by the King of Castile Alfonso X el Sabio in the second half of the 13 th century. In the Second Partida , Title I, Law XI, dedicated to emperors and kings, their powers and origins, the lack of royal status for Sardinian judges is manifested by a precise reference that leaves no room for misunderstandings:

Biographical notes

Luciano Gallinari (Volume editor)

Luciana Galliari is a researcher at the Istituto di Storia dell’Europa Mediterranea of the Italian Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR); Ph.D. in Medieval History; Ph.D. in Histoire et Civilisations (EHESS - Paris, France).

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An interdisciplinary debate on project perspectives

• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 22 February 2020

Planning tourist infrastructures to regenerate marginalised territories: the study case of North Sardinia, Italy

• Ludovica Sechi 1 ,
• Rossella Moscarelli 1 &
• Paolo Pileri 1  

City, Territory and Architecture volume  7 , Article number:  5 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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European marginalised areas are affected by an alarming rate of abandonment and depopulation. Thus, they are therefore object of specific European policies aiming to their reactivation. Official guidelines, both European and Italian, indicate sustainable tourism as one of the main triggers able to activate positive processes. This research experiments a suggestion in a case study, the North of Sardinia. The coastal areas of Sardinia are popular tourist destinations, particularly in the North with the famous Costa Smeralda. Therefore, it is worthy to imagine a way to allow them to discover the inner territories of the region too.

Introduction

It is possible to consider marginalisation as a process, driven by a combination of social, political and environmental factors (Brouwer et al. 1997 ) by which certain areas cease to be viable under an existing socio-economic structure. Marginalisation is an increasing phenomenon across Europe (Espon 2017a ), affecting rural (Espon 2017b ) and mountain (Nordregio 2004 ) areas especially. Key signs of de-anthropisation (Breman et al. 2010 ) highlight marginalisation conditions: population falling below the critical threshold and demographic ageing, due to dwindling employment and use of territorial capital. One key factor of this marginalisation is the demographic issue: by 2050, the population of Europe’s urban regions is projected to increase by 24.1 million people and will provide homes to almost half of the EU-28 population. By contrast, the population of other regions is likely to fall by 7.9 million (Eurostat 2016 ). Such shrinkage is simultaneously a demographic and economic phenomenon and has to be interpreted as part of wider trends in European territorial restructuring, currently characterised by a significant regional development imbalance (Serbanica and Constantin 2017 ). A growing mismatch between the supply and demand of services represents the general reason for such depopulation. Local living conditions and quality of life deteriorate, unemployment rises and skilled labour becomes scarce, causing migration to urban poles, which provide more services. Processes of marginalisation are also related to loss of identity and bonds with the territory, caused by the huge decrease of inhabitants (Turco 1984 ; Maciocco et al. 2011 ).

When addressing the issue of marginalisation, the general frame to take into account is the European Cohesion Policy. This is essentially a regional development policy with the aim to support all regions of the EU in reaching their full potential in terms of economic and social development. As Danson and De Souza ( 2012 , 100) point out,

‘ the word cohesion stands as a substantiated nucleus of political thinking, where the issue of balanced levels of economic development and welfare aspects of society are addressed jointly. In particular, Article 2 of the Maastricht Treaty states the goals of the EU as incorporating the promotion of the harmonious and balanced economic development.’

In other words, Cohesion Policy has the role to stem the critical condition caused by the territorial imbalance, in terms of economic, political, social and cultural inequality, that contributes into generating phenomena of marginalisation.

As a direct consequence of the European Cohesion Policy in the 2014–2020 period (EC 2011 ), the Italian Public Investment Evaluation Unit (UVAL), reported to the Department for Development and Economic Cohesion of the Ministry for Economic Development, carried out the Strategy for Inner Areas. Inner areas are defined as territories substantially far from those centres offering essential services and are thus characterised by depopulation and decline (UVAL 2014 ; Barca 2009 ). From this definition, it appears that remoteness and level of accessibility to services, crucial to ensure a good quality of life to the citizen (such as education, mobility and healthcare) are the main criteria to identify inner areas. According to these criteria, inner areas have been mapped throughout the Italian territory (Fig.  1 ). They cover 60% of the National territory, hosting nearly 13,540 million people. Italian inner areas are located approximately in Alpine and Apennine territories and they are mainly, 84%, formed by small municipalities, that means with less than 5000 inhabitants (Ifel 2015 ). Analysing demographic data (Anci and Ifel 2015 ), we can see how small Italian municipalities are suffering a demographic crisis: in the 1991–2016 period their population decreased by 6.3%, while national population increased by 7%.

(Source: Elaboration from data processed by UVAL ( 2014 ))

Italian inner areas (in grey)

The National Strategy for Italian inner areas proposes some guidelines for local development, experimenting, thanks both to the European and Italian funds, in 22 pilot areas in the Country (Lucatelli 2015 ). Thus, such phenomenon of marginalisation is not considered as irreversible (Domansky and Lung 2009 ), also regarding the re-population process (Bayona and Gil-Alonso 2012 ; Bender and Kanitscheider 2012 ; Pinilla et al. 2008 ). On the contrary, it should be seen as an opportunity to develop new strategies (Espon 2017a ) able to regenerate this territory and to avoid the loss of natural and historical heritage (Di Biase 2013 ). Indeed, territorial capital is defined as

‘ the stock of assets which form the basis for endogenous development in each city and region, as well as […] the institutions, modes of decision - making and professional skills to make best use of those assets.’ (OECD 2001 , 13)

In Italian inner areas, territorial capital consists of historic and artistic capital, agricultural, pastoral and forest systems, territorial protection, know-how and craftsmanship (UVAL 2014 , 16). Taking care of these territorial assets is, at the same time, the final aim and the key element to trigger a strategy. On the one hand, only human activities and presence can maintain this huge capital. On the other hand, if well administrated, territorial capital becomes the resource to activate an alternative model of tourist development, with a consequent regeneration (Fratesi and Perucca 2017 ; Mazzola et al. 2018 ; Romão and Neuts 2017 ).

Sustainable tourism, seen as means of enhancing and exploiting the territorial capital, is proposed as a valid strategy to revitalise marginalised territories (UVAL 2014 , 42). The direct experience of the territory is what sustainable tourism is based upon (Pine and Gilmore 1999 ). From this perspective, it can be considered a key factor in local development (Liu et al. 2017 ; Maretti and Salvatore 2012 ; Salvatore and Chiodo 2016 ), as demonstrated previously in the case of rural tourism, based on the natural and cultural assets (Garrod et al. 2005 ).

The main purpose of this study is to experiment and to apply one of the main guidelines suggested in the Italian Strategy for Inner Areas, which is the improvement of sustainable tourism to reactivate marginalised areas. Firstly, in the methodological section, the designing approach is explained. The case study is the methodology used to develop the study. The area is North Sardinia, in Italy, chosen due to the presence of many marginalised territories inland and of the mass tourism on the coasts. There is a pre-existing infrastructure, which allows flow from the coast to inner areas, that is the historical tourist train (called Trenino Verde) from Palau, located in the famous Costa Smeralda area, to Sassari. The strategy presented in this paper aims at combining the historical railway with new cycle tourism paths. Offering a well-designed alternative to coastal tourism is as a way to trigger a regeneration of Sardinian inner areas. Secondly, the project is described in the results section. The analysis of North Sardinia presents data on population, cultural and natural heritage and other infrastructures that interact with the Trenino Verde. In connection with this slow train line, three new cycle tourism paths are able to enter the territory more efficiently. Thirdly, in the discussion section, attention is drawn to what the case study is able to highlight. (1) Projects of sustainable tourism can revitalise marginalised areas if they represent an alternative to classical tourism. (2) Slow infrastructures, such as cycle tourism paths or historical railways, are excellent means by which one may enter the territory and enjoy its singularity. (3) The interaction between different infrastructures can increase travel possibilities, number of users and flexibility of the system. Finally, further development of this study is put forward.

Using a case study: the reason for the choice

The First methodological choice consists of experimenting, with a real case study, the idea of revitalising marginalised areas thanks to sustainable tourism. The case study, the North of Sardinia, was chosen because of an interesting dichotomy: the state of marginalisation of its inner areas and the strong tourist presence along the coasts.

According to the classification elaborated by Uval in 2014, Sardinia is one of the first Italian Regions for the percentage of Inner Areas: 84% of its territory is covered by Inner Areas. This data is combined with an alarming trend of population decrease, previously studied and analysed (CRP 2013 ; Carta et al. 2013 ; Bottazzi et al. 2006 ). According to the SDM index, State of Demographic Malaise, Footnote 1 elaborated by Puggioni ( 2016 ), 31 municipalities in Sardinia are at risk of disappearing within the next 60 years. It is of particular interest to consider the dynamics of the population in Sardinia in the last 25 years (1991–2016), and compare what happened in the Coastal Municipalities (CM), where the tourism flow is relevant, to the Inland Municipalities (IM) (Table  1 ). Bottazzi ( 2015 ) defines the demographic process in Sardinia as a kind of ‘doughnut’ depopulation. Indeed, data show how the inhabitants are gradually abandoning the core of the region (Fig.  2 ). We can briefly analyse the data. Even though the population density was definitely lower in IM than in CM (110.6 people/km 2 and 49.6 people/km 2 ), in 1991 there was a balance between population in CM and IM. Looking at the 2016 data, a decrease of population emerges (− 3.3% in IM), on the contrary, in CM the population increased by 4.5%. Then, if we divide municipalities in Inner Areas or Centres and in Small Municipalities (less than 5000 inhabitants) and no Small Municipalities (more than 5000 inhabitants), data shows that population increases in the centres and in municipalities with more than 5000 inhabitants; on the contrary, population decreases in Inner Areas and in Small Municipalities. We can notice that Inner Areas and Small Municipalities present a different behaviour if they are CM or IM. Indeed, even taking categories affected by a rate of depopulation, CM presents an increase of inhabitants, with peaks of + 15.2% for CM classified as Inner Areas.

(Source: Elaboration from Istat data)

Map of municipalities (in grey) with an increase of population in the period 1991–2016. The others have a decrease of population

This confirms the national data: at present, 66.37% of Italy’s population lives in the plains and coastal areas, whilst the inland areas (about 64% of the national territory) is scattered with 33.63% of the population (Istat 2009 ).

The tourist sector in Sardinia is quite an important economic sector (ISTAT 2017 ). From 2004 to 2015, the tourist arrivals increased by more than 33% (SRM 2016 ). It is significant to highlight that, according to 2016 data (Istat 2016 ), 50% of the total amount of the arrivals on the Island was in the North of Sardinia (Fig.  3 ). This tourist flow is strictly along the coast, so much that on approximately 1,400,000 arrivals, 93% are in coastal municipalities, and just 7% in inner ones. Cannaos and Onni ( 2017 ) have addressed an interesting consideration on the increase of tourism in the coastal areas in Sardinia and a parallel decrease of population in inner parts of the Island.

Map of municipalities (in black) with the concentration of tourist arrivals

The strategy (part I): rethinking that which already exists: the historical railway of Trenino Verde

Inner areas of Sardinia are crossed by historical railway lines, called Trenino Verde (Little Green Train), still active in spring and summer months as slow tourist lines. ‘ …So we will go by the secondary railway, wherever it goes. ’ Says D.H. Lawrence in his novel ‘Sea and Sardinia’, written in 1921. He tells of his journey on the Trenino Verde ante litteram . These were secondary railways which had the purpose of connecting the inland agro-pastoral areas with the mining areas (very important to the Island’s economy at that time), and with the ports. The infrastructure was designed according to the wishes of the Count of Cavour and inaugurated after his death in 1893. Originally, the length of the Island’s secondary railway was approximately 1000 km, making it the longest narrow-gauge railway in Europe (Pilia 1994 ). In the 1970s, after many years of service, the Italian railways underwent major reduction and for this reason, private entrepreneurs—who had understood that investment in this sector was no longer profitable—stopped investing. As a result, State intervention was deemed necessary and the outcome was a reduction of the railway to approximately 600 km. In time, the risk of total abandonment of the railway increased. Local communities, and above all the railway workers, brought back memories of the English author’s work when, in 1997, the ‘Trenino Verde della Sardegna’ was suggested. Trenino Verde lines were converted into tourist railways. These are ‘lines dedicated exclusively to tourism that does not provide public service’ (Blancheton and Marchi 2012 , 33).

In Sardinia, the historical railway was divided into four sections distributed around the island each used for tourist purposes: (1) Sassari-Tempio-Palau 151 km; (2) Macomer-Bosa 46 km; (3) Isili-Sorgono 96 km; (4) Mandas-Seui-Arbatax 134 km (Fig.  4 ). This operation has been rather successful, so much so that this tourist railway is still active after 20 years. The main attraction of this train journey is the landscape, a sight in the distance which is observed from the window. The value of these places is mildly perceived during the journey but may not easily be fully appreciated as the Trenino does not stop but for the odd short ‘photo-breaks’. That which today encourages tourists to venture into inland Sardinia on the Trenino Verde is curiosity and the hope of getting to know the true essence of the Island away from the coast (Fig.  5 ). The present experience offered meets these wishes only in part and the tourist experiences it inactively; they may admire the inspiring landscape but hardly get to see the villages of which they catch glimpses on the way. Considering this as a waste of potential, the proposed project is based on a mixed conception of mobility that tries to associate train travel with cycling as it has the positive effect of experiencing places in a sustainable way.

(Source: Tracks from http://www.treninoverde.com/ )

Map of historical railways, Trenino Verde (in black). In grey, the municipalities classified “inner areas”

(Source: Photo from http://www.treninoverde.com/ )

The Trenino Verde

The strategy (part II): combining railway tourist lines and cycle tourist paths

This research studies how slow tourism, representing an alternative to the usual tourism on the coasts, may activate a regeneration of Sardinian inner areas. If the Trenino Verde were to stop in the smaller towns and were supported by efficient mobility facilities such as buses, bicycles and adequate pedestrian and cycle paths that connect the stations to the centre of the villages, this would allow for a comprehensive experience of the territory. Not only to experience the natural scenery but also to appreciate the value of its cultural heritage. The Trenino Verde and its stations can become gateways of the territory (Moscarelli et al. 2017 ), allowing tourists to discover inland Sardinia. The basic element of this project is to provide the missing link in bicycle tourism: the Trenino Verde can surmount the complicated slopes that characterize Sardinian territory. Taking advantage of the Trenino Verde, cyclists would be able to move from coastal to inland territory, stop at any station and create their own travelling experience.

By common definition, bicycle tourism is a cycling free-time activity whereby at least 24 h are spent away from home (Ritchie 1998 ). This means there may be various kinds of cycle tourists, such as mountain bikers, holiday cyclists, experienced and inexperienced cyclists or group-led cycle touring (Hoyt and Lumsdon 1993 ): bicycle tourism has a wide variety of individuals and potential market segments. Legambiente and ISNART (National Institute of Touristic Research) have issued some impressive and encouraging data on the presence of cycle tourists in Italy: in 2018 8.4% of the entire Italian tourist flow has been identified as cycle tourism and cycle tourists have spent over 77 million days on specific itineraries and destinations. Dividing the presence of tourists by the average number of nights spent travelling, the result is that over 6 million people have embarked on this kind of ‘active vacation’ confirming an increasing presence of cycle tourists by 41% in the 2013–2018 period (ISNART and Legambiente 2019 ).

It is important to highlight that cycle tourism has a non-competitive nature, and is an activity suitable for all ages, ability and training. Thus, the safety of the roads is a priority in planning cycle tourism infrastructures: long distance (more than 150 km), paths need to be created independently and not as shared routes (ADFC 2017 ; AA. VV. 2009 ). In European Countries, such as Germany, Denmark or the Netherlands, where cycling routes were designed with this criterion, bicycle travellers are able to move around within the territory. This allows for regeneration of those areas from different points of view. Firstly, from an economic perspective.

‘ These travellers contribute to the local economy by stimulating the development of infrastructure construction (e.g. roads, bicycle hire/repair shops, and accommodation). Meanwhile, the development of the service sector (e.g. food and beverage service) […] provides business and job opportunities.’ (Han et al. 2017 , 293).

The economic impact of cycle tourism in different sectors, related both with the so-called bike economy and with the consumption of local products and services, is largely recognised (AA. VV. 2014 ; Cope et al. 1998 ; CC 1995 ). According to the National Tourism Observatory (ENIT), the daily average expense of a cycle tourist amounts to 65.8 Euros, plus 54.6 Euros per day for accommodation and 255.4 Euros for the journey. Typically, cycle tourists have medium to high standards regarding levels of comfort and their choice in accommodation is at least in the 3-star bracket, making this a highly demanding and quality-orientated kind of tourist (ENIT 2016 ).

Secondly, cycle tourism can foster social regeneration. Indeed, by riding through places and activating a demand for services, local communities are animated (Dickinson and Lumsdon 2010 ). Thirdly, this kind of tourism can promote a cultural reactivation. This slow passing through different landscapes and villages gives the scenery a narrative and representative connotation (Pileri et al. 2015 ), showing its heritage of parks, natural reserves, historical settlements, cultural assets, museums, local traditions, etc.

Development of the project

The project has been elaborated by establishing fundamental guidelines, acknowledging common grounds for the various areas and developing different strategies for each case. Main recurring elements of the project are:

Reopening of stations along the historical railway, the Trenino Verde Most stations are within reach of the small urban centres but do not benefit at all from the potential advantages that could be gained from the crossing of the Trenino Verde. The reopening of stations and consequently the stops in between would mean that the tourist would be able to experience not only that which may be perceived from a train window but would also have the opportunity to alight and truly experience the identity of these places. The station itself creates the need for services which in turn mean employment opportunities, therefore, the reopening of the stations would involve only those within the villages and strategically involved in the cycle-tourist paths. The continuity between train and bicycle guarantees a complete and fluent itinerary for the tourist. The fundamental concept of connecting is most significant as the stations provide links to other means of transport (which of course would need to coincide with train arrival times) and, above all, become start and arrival points for cycle routes.

Designing new cycling routes The role of cycle tourism highlights the idea of reconnecting isolated inner areas with bigger cities and the coastline. It is for this reason that interventions propose cycle tracks which link inland towns to the coast, smaller towns to cities and between intermodal terminals. The routes have been designed following three fundamental criteria. (a) Beauty, meaning the variety of the landscape and the crossing of places of interest such as historical settlements, churches, archaeological and natural sites. (b) Tourist flow, connecting the Trenino Verde stations with the regional railway and with the seaside. (c) Safety: if cycle tourism is to be considered for everyone, that is to say, people of all ages and abilities, then safe roads are imperative. Cycling in safety is the first and most essential objective for the cycle traveller and the presence of dedicated infrastructures is a deciding factor when choosing a travel destination.

Designing with the method of the field trip The masterplan design of the routes was based on a study of minor roads, especially those between plots of land. In order to plan an infrastructure efficiently, it is important to survey and acquire knowledge of the areas concerned. This allows the production designer to identify himself with the user and avoid giving ‘top-down’ solutions which could possibly prove to be a hindrance. In particular, as far as the bicycle is concerned, the main problem is related to slants and slopes. The survey carried out made it possible to avoid routes which have very steep slopes and study alternative routes that do not exceed a gradient of 5% for a maximum of two kilometres. Another distinguishing feature in this project is the beauty of the areas through which one travels: special attention has been given to routes through farmed fields, grazing land and woodland. In some cases, farms have deliberately been included in order to promote direct knowledge of farming and yielding of local products. Due to lack of alternatives, an overlap of the route with provincial roads has occasionally been considered obligatory. This implies that in order to guarantee the same criteria in terms of simplicity and safety, placement of cycling routes on existing roads would be required.

The research experiments such strategy taking into account only one of the Trenino Verde routes: Sassari to the Port of Palau, through Tempio-Pausania (see Fig.  4 ), 150 km in approximately 3 h.

The study area analysis

The route Sassari-Tempio-Palau is the longest. This section of the network goes through and links the two historical regions of Gallura and Logudoro. Passing through the Anglona plain, Mount Limbara and Coghinas Lake, the Trenino Verde travels at slow speed and crosses small remote villages. Besides the natural beauty, these areas have a historical and cultural heritage: unique nuragic age archaeological sites, ancient religious architecture, registered quality food and wine (DOC, DOP and DOCG trademarks), handcrafted textiles and ceramics decorated with ancient symbols, to name but a few (Fig.  6 ).

Map of the Trenino Verde line and natural and cultural assets

Said route goes through twenty-four villages where the train stations are closed and often derelict. Only three stations are active: Palau and Sassari, at the start and end of the line, respectively, and an intermediate stop in the station of Tempio-Pausania, the provincial capital.

The most densely populated towns along the line of the Trenino Verde are Sassari (127,634 inhabitants), Tempio-Pausania (14,172 inhabitants) and Arzachena (13,633 inhabitants). The least populated are Laerru (933 inhabitants), Bortigiadas (767 inhabitants) and Martis (536 inhabitants) (Fig.  7 ).

Map of municipalities along the Trenino Verde line and intersection with national train line

The design of new cycle paths

According to said factors and criteria, different projects could be applied to the case. The following three cycle routes are exemplify the possibility to apply analogous solutions in similar areas. These three options articulate different kinds of links and ways in which to enter and discover inner areas: (1) link between inner and coastal areas; (2) link between a small village, classified as inner area, and a bigger town with mobility facilities and services, classified as pole; (3) link between the Trenino Verde line and the national active railway, using the abandoned path of an old railway line (Fig.  8 ).

Masterplan of the project

The first, approximately 60 km, has the purpose of connecting two stations of the Trenino Verde line and to generate a ‘ring’ linking them to other two tourist towns by the sea (Castelsardo and Valledoria). This path resembles that given in the ‘Guide to Cycle tourism in Sardinia’ for the same area—it is the only one to have a largely flat itinerary. The aim of this cycle-tourist path is to steer coastal tourism flow towards inland Sardinia and reach the train stations. This would increase the number of tourists travelling through the countryside towards major towns and would also generate and encourage a kind of tourism that is aware of the quality that lies inland.

The second, approximately 13 km, passes through the mountainous area of Bortigiadas, crossing the town and reaching Aggius, which is a charming village that is not crossed by the railway. The path descends towards Tempio Pausania where the Trenino Verde stops. This provides the possibility of the cycle path and train working together as an intermodality system in order to reach considerable altitudes and therefore meet as many users as possible.

The third path, approximately 24 km, is the refurbishment and conversion into a cycle path of a railway fallen into disuse in the Sixties that represents the only link between the Trenino Verde railway and the national railway (Ferrovie dello Stato). This solution may prove to be convenient considering that it would take advantage of the existing track (although it is partially missing and abandoned): slopes and turns are gentle and therefore easy to ride. The link between Luras and the train station in Monti-Telti (through Calangianus) would guarantee a uninterrupted service of intermodality and the possibility to transform this into a tourist area.

These paths are approximately 93 km long, and more than 75% are already suitable for this purpose since they are cycle roads or minor roads, between plots of land. Each proposal has been developed differently: morphology, distance from major centres or regional railway lines, existing roads and paths and the presence of places of interest have been a few of the elements that have influenced the planning process. Moreover, developing more than one path enables tourists to decide and build their own experiences of the territory (Fig.  9 ).

Plan of the new cycle tourist paths in relation with the Trenino Verde line

The feasibility of these different projects has to be briefly covered. On one hand, it is interesting to imagine a gradual creation of the project, starting from a pilot path in order to experiment the idea. After which the other two paths may be completed at a later date. On the other hand, there are public participants, also thanks to some specific policies, that can finance this kind of project. First, the Italian Government provides funds for the municipalities classified as “inner areas”. In addition to that, the Sardinia Region is financing an interesting and ambitious plan to create a cycle tourism network. Finally, Fondazione FS Italiane, which manages most of the historical railways in Italy, may finance and foster the regeneration and enhancement of the Trenino Verde in Sardinia.

Discussion and conclusions

Sardinia, likewise many Italian and European regions, is suffering from the phenomena of marginalisation, especially in its inner areas affected by depopulation and abandonment of towns in favour of coastal cities. Taking into account the tourist sector data, a relevant imbalance between inner and coastal municipalities emerges. Traditional ‘summer tourism’ has generated an exploitation in the use of resources, emphasizing the disparities between Inland Sardinia and Coastal Sardinia. Since Italian National Strategy suggests tourism to regenerate inner areas, in this research it is experimented how this can be applied to this case. The study proposes a slow and sustainable alternative to intensive coastal tourism. The main idea is to combine a pre-existing historical railway with a new well-planned and safe system of cycle-tourist paths. Both cycle tourism (Lumsdon and McGrath 2011 ; Lumsdon 2000 ) and rail tourism (Kosters 1992 ; Dann 1994 ; Hall 2005 ; Novelli and Benson 2005 ) are regarded as branches of sustainable tourism.

These two slow infrastructures can innervate inner territories of North Sardinia thanks to multiple actions: (1) by connecting coasts to inner municipalities; (2) by allowing tourists to discover inland areas; (3) by generating a network together with the active state railway.

A slow train line and cycle tourism paths, due to their uniqueness in passing slowly through the territory, could activate an economic, social and cultural regeneration. Such tourism, supported by adequate facilities and infrastructures, would have the potential to create a green economy and green jobs, which would become the driving force for new extended, sustainable and lasting economies in those marginalised areas. The economic outcome is merely one of a series of considerable effects, which would have consequences on the areas of interest as well as on those who live in them and who seek new perspectives following the crisis. This type of tourism creates the demand for overnight accommodation, food and catering services, rail and bicycle maintenance services. In addition, the cultural discovery of the places would give the opportunity to villages to offer the tourist an unforgettable experience. There would be employment opportunities not only in the tourism sector but also in many secondary activities, related to the territorial capital still present there.

This research has the intent to demonstrate that it is possible to consider tourism as a regeneration trigger. In the case of peripheral territories, far from main infrastructures and services, the state of isolation can become the positive aspect to enhance. In the case of marginalised areas, it is necessary to elaborate innovative paradigms, alternative to ones used in other territories. Concerning the issue of tourism, this means that we need to find new proposals to discover and experiment the uniqueness of such regions, which still possess a strong natural, historical and social capital.

In conclusion, it is possible reach three main considerations. (1) This kind of project is feasible also in other situations, not only in Sardinia in connection with the other Trenino Verde lines, but also on mainland Italy, especially in those contexts with similar characteristics. (2) One of the most relevant aspects is that slow tourism and thereby the discovery of the territory generates economic income distributed in local places and communities. Tourism, when strictly related to the territory as in the case of slow tourism, may aid the recovery of marginalised places, such as Italian inner areas. A slow tourist flow can generate an economic, cultural and social re-activation by introducing the need for accommodation facilities, food and leisure activities, the wish to discover the territory and its heritage. Moreover, it would reduce isolation of the population and enhance human capital and traditional know-how. The initial investment would be considerably low since several elements of the project are already present in the territory. (3) Promoting territorial projects enhances the possibility of cooperation between municipalities. Indeed, the smaller and more isolated these municipalities are, the more they have to be able to interact beyond administrative fragmentation.

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Sechi, L., Moscarelli, R. & Pileri, P. Planning tourist infrastructures to regenerate marginalised territories: the study case of North Sardinia, Italy. City Territ Archit 7 , 5 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40410-019-0108-x

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• DOI: 10.1016/J.LANDUSEPOL.2009.09.004
• Corpus ID: 55896156

Assessment of the Regional Landscape Plan of Sardinia (Italy): a participatory-action-research case study type

• C. Zoppi , S. Lai
• Published 1 July 2010
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This paper intends to enhance the tourist offer in a dynamic meaning in which, referring to the paradigm of resilience and smartness, aims at the so-called multicultural tourism, suggesting for Sardinia the proposal for an integrated offer of typologically different goods. This offer is also adaptable to different needs without losing sight of all the territorial determinants that contribute to enhancing the central effects which, in a nutshell, are closely correlated with the prevailing cultural good. The proposals will take into consideration two factors: the first is the evolution of the demand for interest of users in a framework of components not only of cultural heritage but also of other factors that contribute to the characterization and identity of the context. The second will consider the possibility that the integrated offer of cultural goods proposed may vary in real time due to an evolution in the demand of the users and due to the different evolutions of the territory of a natural or artificial type. This objective will be achieved considering first of all the most used cultural assets, and then systematically aggregate different tourist offers, aimed at enhancing the two main economic natures of Sardinia, that of cultural heritage and the pastoral agricultural one, which, at present, do not appear almost never present in integrated actions within common programming activities.

This paper is the result of the joint work of the authors. In particular, paragraphs 3, and 4 have been jointly written by all authors. Giulia Desogus has written paragraph 1. Chiara Garau has written paragraph 2. Pasquale Mistretta has written paragraph 5.

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Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the project “Urban Polarities in the Cities of Newcastle (UK) and Cagliari (Italy) for monitoring the central and attractive effects of the city-territory”, founded by the programme “Bando 2019 Mobilità Giovani Ricercatori (MGR)”, financed by the Autonomous Region of Sardinia (under the Regional Law of 7 August 2007, n. 7 “Promotion of Scientific Research and Technological Innovation in Sardinia”). This study was also supported by the MIUR (Ministry of Education, Universities and Research [Italy]) through a project entitled WEAKI TRANSIT: WEAK-demand areas Innovative TRANsport Shared services for Italian Towns (Project protocol: 20174ARRHT_004; CUP Code: F74I19001290001), financed with the PRIN 2017 (Research Projects of National Relevance) programme. We authorize the MIUR to reproduce and distribute reprints for Governmental purposes, notwithstanding any copyright notations thereon. Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the MIUR.

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Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Architecture (DICAAR), University of Cagliari, 09129, Cagliari, Italy

Chiara Garau, Giulia Desogus, Federica Banchiero & Pasquale Mistretta

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Riccardo Privitera

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Garau, C., Desogus, G., Banchiero, F., Mistretta, P. (2021). A Multicultural Tourism for Evaluating the Cultural Heritage: The Case Study of the Region of Sardinia (Italy). In: La Rosa, D., Privitera, R. (eds) Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning. INPUT 2021. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, vol 146. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_59

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• Revision notes >
• IGCSE Geography Revision Notes >
• Theme 1: Population and Settlements

Settlements & Hierarchy - Sardinia

CIE iGCSE Geography Assessment

Nucleated Settlements – Dwellings that are bunched together around a specific point

Table of Contents

Linear Settlements – Dwellings that are spread out in a line

Dispersed Settlements – Dwellings that are spread out with large areas of land between them

• Soil type/quality
• Water supply
• Natural threat
• Natural resources/raw materials
• Accessibility

• Settlements in an area can be put in order based on their size or the services they provide.

Higher up the hierarchy the population size and number of services in the settlement increases.

• There are fewer large settlements

Sphere of Influence

• Settlements in an area depend on each other as people will use a variety of services found in different settlements.

The area served by a settlement is known as its sphere of influence.

• The size of this depends on the type and number of services offered by the settlement and the transport links to it.

RURAL SETTLEMENTS 

Few services – low order services

Low order services – Oftenly used e.g. small general store selling convenience goods

URBAN SETTLEMENTS

Greater number and variety of services: lower order & higher order services

High order services – Not needed so often e.g. comparison goods – furniture, clothing.        People are willing to travel further to buy them

Range – The distance people are prepared to travel to use a service

Threshold Population – A shop or service needs a minimum number of potential customers to make a profit.

• Services providing lower order goods/services require a lower threshold population
• Services providing higher order goods/services require a higher threshold population

Case Study: Sardinia

• An Italian island in the Mediterranean Sea 
• Population: 1.7 million people
• Most of the population lived in inland areas
• Economy was based on agriculture & mining of coal, lead and zinc
• In the last 50 years tourist development has taken place in coastal areas

Function of Different Towns

• Capital city
• Main Commercial + Industrial centre 
• One of the largest fish markets – vast ray of fish for sale to the public and trade
• One of the biggest container terminals in the Mediterranean area
• Built to provide housing for the workforce of the nearby mines
• The name *Carbonia* comes from the Italian word for coal – an abundant resource in this region
• However, the mines closed in the 1970s causing high unemployment
• Located on the West coast
• Traditionally agriculture and fishing played an important part on the economy
• Has one of the most beautiful yet popular beaches in Italy

An Important Port

• Olbia is a town of over 50,000 inhabitants in north-east Sardinia
• Passenger port
• Railway to Nuoro & Cagliari

• Define “sphere of influence”.
• Describe characteristics of a hierarchy.
• Explain what “Olbia” is.
• What is a “threshold population”.
• Describe the characteristics of a rural settlement.
• Describe the characteristics of an urban settlement

The area served by a settlement

• Explain the importance of Olbia

It is the main connection between Sardinia and the Italian mainland: airport, passenger port

• What is a “threshold population”?

A shop or service needs a minimum number of potential customers to make a profit.

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• Resources and Development Class 10 Case Study Social Science Geography Chapter 1

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Hello students, we are providing case study questions for class 10 social science. Case study questions are the new question format that is introduced in CBSE board. The resources for case study questions are very less. So, to help students we have created chapterwise case study questions for class 10 social science. In this article, you will find case study for CBSE Class 10 Social Science Geography Chapter 1 Resources and Development. It is a part of Case Study Questions for CBSE Class 10 Social Science Series.

Table of Contents

Case Study Questions on Resources and Development Class 10

Read the following passage and answer the questions:

We have shared our land with the past generations and will have to do so with the future generations too. Ninety five per cent of our basic needs for food, shelter and clothing are obtained from land.

Human activities have not only brought about degradation of land but have also aggravated the pace of natural forces to cause damage to land. Some human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, mining and quarrying too have contributed significantly in land degradation. Mining sites are abandoned, after excavation work is complete, leaving deep scars and traces of over burdening. In states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha, deforestation due to mining have caused severe land degradation. In states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, over-grazing is one of the main reasons for land degradation. In the states like Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, over irrigation is responsible for land degradation due to water logging leading to increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil.

Q 1. How does human activities have brought about land degradation? Ans. Human activities have brought about land degradation through the factors like deforestation, over-grazing, mining and quarrying.

Q 2. How is over irrigation responsible for land degradation? Ans. Over irrigation is responsible for land degradation due to water logging leading to increase in salinity in soil.

Q 3. Why is human considered as the main culprit for land degradation? Ans. Human is considered as the main culprit for land degradation due to the following reasons: (i) His excavation work at mining sites. (ii) His significant contribution to deforestation. (iii) He has aggravated the pace of natural forces causing damage to land. (Any two)

Planning is the widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources. It has importance in a country like India, which has enormous diversity in the availability of resources. There are regions which are rich in certain types of resources but are deficient in some other resources. There are some regions which can be considered self-sufficient in terms of the availability of resources and there are some regions which have acute shortage of some vital resources. For example, the states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal deposits. Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of water resources but lacks in infrastructural development. The state of Rajasthan is very well endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks in water resources. The cold desert of Ladakh is relatively isolated from the rest of the country. It has very rich cultural heritage, but it is deficient in water, infrastructure and some vital minerals. This calls for balanced resource planning at the national, state, regional and local levels.

Q. 1. Which of the following statements correctly describes about resource planning? a. Identification and quantification of available resources. b. Development of available resources. c. Both a. and b. d. Uneven distribution of resources.

Ans. Option (c) is correct.

Q. 2. Resource planning is important in a country like India due to: a. enormous diversity in availability of resources b. deficiency in certain types of resources c. abundance of water resources d. rich cultural heritage

Ans. Option (a) is correct.

Q. 3. The state(s) which is/are rich in minerals and coal deposits is/are: a. Jharkhand b. Chhattisgarh c. Madhya Pradesh d. All of these

Ans. Option (d) is correct.

Q. 4. The states like Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh are rich in coal and minerals but have less development in resources as: a. they are economically less developed b. they have rich cultural heritage c. they lack water resources d. they lack technological and institutional support

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• Types – natural and human
• Need for resource planning
• Natural resources
• Land as a resource
• Soil types and distribution
• Changing land-use pattern
• Land degradation and conservation measures.

Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs, provided it is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable, can be termed as ‘resource’.

The first International Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 endorsed global Forest Principles and adopted Agenda 21 for achieving sustainable development.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) on Resources and Development Class 10 Case Study

Q1: what are case study questions.

A1: Case study questions are a type of question that presents a detailed scenario or a real-life situation related to a specific topic. Students are required to analyze the situation, apply their knowledge, and provide answers or solutions based on the information given in the case study. These questions help students develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

Q2: How should I approach case study questions in exams?

A2: To approach case study questions effectively, follow these steps: Read the case study carefully: Understand the scenario and identify the key points. Analyze the information: Look for clues and relevant details that will help you answer the questions. Apply your knowledge: Use what you have learned in your course to interpret the case study and answer the questions. Structure your answers: Write clear and concise responses, making sure to address all parts of the question.

Q3: What are the benefits of practicing case study questions from your website?

A3: Practicing case study questions from our website offers several benefits: Enhanced understanding: Our case studies are designed to deepen your understanding of historical events and concepts. Exam preparation: Regular practice helps you become familiar with the format and types of questions you might encounter in exams. Critical thinking: Analyzing case studies improves your ability to think critically and make connections between different historical events and ideas. Confidence: Practicing with our materials can boost your confidence and improve your performance in exams.

Q4: What are the important keywords in this chapter “Resources and Development”?

A4: Important keywords for CBSE Class 10 Resources and Development are given below: Land Use Pattern: Use of land for different purposes like forests, cultivation, fallow land, etc. Ecological Balance: The balance in our physical and cultural environment. Man’s activities cause disturbances in this balance. For example, two important aspects are balance of gases in air and balance of constituents in soil. Land Degradation: Depletion of the resources of the land through soil erosion, mining, deforestation, etc. Khadar: The new alluvium. Kankar: Substance now containing calcium carbonates. Laterite: Soils from which silicates have been leached out and iron and aluminium predominate. Bangar: The old alluvium. Conservation: Preservation and protection of natural or man-made resources. Regur: Black soil of extremely fine clayey material. Basin: A wide depression or an area drained by a river. Sub-soil: Part of the soil below the top layer, normally used for cultivation to the depth to which most plant roots grow. Fallow Land: Agricultural land left uncultivated after two-three crops to restore its natural fertility. Marginal Land: Land which is difficult to cultivate and yields little profit. Net Sown Area: The total land under crop production excluding wasteland or land left fallow. Soil: Top layer of earth containing humus.

Q5: When and why was the Rio-de-Janeiro Earth summit held?

A5: Rio-de-Janeiro summit was held in 1992 in Brazil. Earth Summit: To achieve sustainable development in order to combat environment damage, poverty and disease, it laid emphasis on global cooperation, mutual needs and shared responsibilities.

Q6: What type of soil is found in the river deltas of the eastern coast? Write three main features of this type of soil.

A6: Alluvial Soil: Its main features are: (i) Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion of potash and lime which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat, etc. (ii) Such a soil is the result of deposits of river. (iii) Very fertile soil

Q7: What do you mean by land use pattern? Name the factors that determine the use of land.

A7: Utilisation of land for various purposes, such as cultivation, grazing of animals, mining, construction of roads, etc. Factors that determine land use pattern are: (i) Topography (ii) Climate (iii) Human Factor (iv) Accessibility

Q8: What does the term ‘sustainable economic development’ mean? How can we eradicate irrational consumption and over-utilisation of resources?

A8: Sustainable economic development means ‘development should take place without damaging the environment’ and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of the future generations. We can eradicate irrational consumption and over-utilisation of resources through conservation of resources. Irrational consumption and over-exploitation of resources lead to many socioeconomic and environmental problems. To overcome these problems and to preserve resources for our future generation as well, proper management and conservation of resources is essential

Q9: What is resource planning? Write three phases of resource planning.

A9: Resource planning is a proper and judicious planning of resources. Resources are put to use according to availability and needs for development of the economy. Three processes which are involved in resource planning are: (a) Identification and inventory of resources across various regions of the country. It involves surveying, mapping, qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources. (b) Evolving a planning structure, endowed with appropriate technological skill and institutional set up for implementing resource development plans. (c) Synchronizing the resource development with overall national development plans.

Q10: Explain the role of human in resource development

A10: Human is at the centre of resource development. Actually all resources become resources only when they are put to use by humans. It is human who makes natural things usable with the help of technology. Had no technology been there, development would not have been possible. There are regions where natural resources are in abundance but the regions are not developed, e.g., Africa. But if humans are developed, they make the region developed with technology, e.g., Japan.

Q11: Are there any online resources or tools available for practicing “ Resources and Development” case study questions?

A11: We provide case study questions for CBSE Class 10 Social Science on our  website . Students can visit the website and practice sufficient case study questions and prepare for their exams.

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