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How to Write a Research Paper: the LEAP approach (+cheat sheet)

In this article I will show you how to write a research paper using the four LEAP writing steps. The LEAP academic writing approach is a step-by-step method for turning research results into a published paper .

The LEAP writing approach has been the cornerstone of the 70 + research papers that I have authored and the 3700+ citations these paper have accumulated within 9 years since the completion of my PhD. I hope the LEAP approach will help you just as much as it has helped me to make an real, tangible impact with my research.

What is the LEAP research paper writing approach?

I designed the LEAP writing approach not only for merely writing the papers. My goal with the writing system was to show young scientists how to first think about research results and then how to efficiently write each section of the research paper.

In other words, you will see how to write a research paper by first analyzing the results and then building a logical, persuasive arguments. In this way, instead of being afraid of writing research paper, you will be able to rely on the paper writing process to help you with what is the most demanding task in getting published – thinking.

The four research paper writing steps according to the LEAP approach:

I will show each of these steps in detail. And you will be able to download the LEAP cheat sheet for using with every paper you write.

But before I tell you how to efficiently write a research paper, I want to show you what is the problem with the way scientists typically write a research paper and why the LEAP approach is more efficient.

How scientists typically write a research paper (and why it isn’t efficient)

Writing a research paper can be tough, especially for a young scientist. Your reasoning needs to be persuasive and thorough enough to convince readers of your arguments. The description has to be derived from research evidence, from prior art, and from your own judgment. This is a tough feat to accomplish.

The figure below shows the sequence of the different parts of a typical research paper. Depending on the scientific journal, some sections might be merged or nonexistent, but the general outline of a research paper will remain very similar.

Here is the problem: Most people make the mistake of writing in this same sequence.

While the structure of scientific articles is designed to help the reader follow the research, it does little to help the scientist write the paper. This is because the layout of research articles starts with the broad (introduction) and narrows down to the specifics (results). See in the figure below how the research paper is structured in terms of the breath of information that each section entails.

How to write a research paper according to the LEAP approach

For a scientist, it is much easier to start writing a research paper with laying out the facts in the narrow sections (i.e. results), step back to describe them (i.e. write the discussion), and step back again to explain the broader picture in the introduction.

For example, it might feel intimidating to start writing a research paper by explaining your research’s global significance in the introduction, while it is easy to plot the figures in the results. When plotting the results, there is not much room for wiggle: the results are what they are.

Starting to write a research papers from the results is also more fun because you finally get to see and understand the complete picture of the research that you have worked on.

Most importantly, following the LEAP approach will help you first make sense of the results yourself and then clearly communicate them to the readers. That is because the sequence of writing allows you to slowly understand the meaning of the results and then develop arguments for presenting to your readers.

I have personally been able to write and submit a research article in three short days using this method.

Step 1: Lay Out the Facts

You have worked long hours on a research project that has produced results and are no doubt curious to determine what they exactly mean. There is no better way to do this than by preparing figures, graphics and tables. This is what the first LEAP step is focused on – diving into the results.

How to p repare charts and tables for a research paper

Your first task is to try out different ways of visually demonstrating the research results. In many fields, the central items of a journal paper will be charts that are based on the data generated during research. In other fields, these might be conceptual diagrams, microscopy images, schematics and a number of other types of scientific graphics which should visually communicate the research study and its results to the readers. If you have reasonably small number of data points, data tables might be useful as well.

Tips for preparing charts and tables

• Try multiple chart types but in the finished paper only use the one that best conveys the message you want to present to the readers
• Follow the eight chart design progressions for selecting and refining a data chart for your paper: https://peerrecognized.com/chart-progressions
• Prepare scientific graphics and visualizations for your paper using the scientific graphic design cheat sheet: https://peerrecognized.com/tools-for-creating-scientific-illustrations/

How to describe the results of your research

Now that you have your data charts, graphics and tables laid out in front of you – describe what you see in them. Seek to answer the question: What have I found?  Your statements should progress in a logical sequence and be backed by the visual information. Since, at this point, you are simply explaining what everyone should be able to see for themselves, you can use a declarative tone: The figure X demonstrates that…

Tips for describing the research results :

• Answer the question: “ What have I found? “
• Use declarative tone since you are simply describing observations

Step 2: Explain the results

The core aspect of your research paper is not actually the results; it is the explanation of their meaning. In the second LEAP step, you will do some heavy lifting by guiding the readers through the results using logic backed by previous scientific research.

How to define the Message of a research paper

To define the central message of your research paper, imagine how you would explain your research to a colleague in 20 seconds . If you succeed in effectively communicating your paper’s message, a reader should be able to recount your findings in a similarly concise way even a year after reading it. This clarity will increase the chances that someone uses the knowledge you generated, which in turn raises the likelihood of citations to your research paper. 

Tips for defining the paper’s central message :

• Write the paper’s core message in a single sentence or two bullet points
• Write the core message in the header of the research paper manuscript

How to write the Discussion section of a research paper

In the discussion section you have to demonstrate why your research paper is worthy of publishing. In other words, you must now answer the all-important So what? question . How well you do so will ultimately define the success of your research paper.

Here are three steps to get started with writing the discussion section:

• Write bullet points of the things that convey the central message of the research article (these may evolve into subheadings later on).
• Make a list with the arguments or observations that support each idea.
• Finally, expand on each point to make full sentences and paragraphs.

Tips for writing the discussion section:

• What is the meaning of the results?
• Was the hypothesis confirmed?
• Write bullet points that support the core message
• List logical arguments for each bullet point, group them into sections
• Instead of repeating research timeline, use a presentation sequence that best supports your logic
• Convert arguments to full paragraphs; be confident but do not overhype
• Refer to both supportive and contradicting research papers for maximum credibility

How to write the Conclusions of a research paper

Since some readers might just skim through your research paper and turn directly to the conclusions, it is a good idea to make conclusion a standalone piece. In the first few sentences of the conclusions, briefly summarize the methodology and try to avoid using abbreviations (if you do, explain what they mean).

After this introduction, summarize the findings from the discussion section. Either paragraph style or bullet-point style conclusions can be used. I prefer the bullet-point style because it clearly separates the different conclusions and provides an easy-to-digest overview for the casual browser. It also forces me to be more succinct.

Tips for writing the conclusion section :

• Summarize the key findings, starting with the most important one
• Make conclusions standalone (short summary, avoid abbreviations)
• Add an optional take-home message and suggest future research in the last paragraph

How to refine the Objective of a research paper

The objective is a short, clear statement defining the paper’s research goals. It can be included either in the final paragraph of the introduction, or as a separate subsection after the introduction. Avoid writing long paragraphs with in-depth reasoning, references, and explanation of methodology since these belong in other sections. The paper’s objective can often be written in a single crisp sentence.

Tips for writing the objective section :

• The objective should ask the question that is answered by the central message of the research paper
• The research objective should be clear long before writing a paper. At this point, you are simply refining it to make sure it is addressed in the body of the paper.

How to write the Methodology section of your research paper

When writing the methodology section, aim for a depth of explanation that will allow readers to reproduce the study . This means that if you are using a novel method, you will have to describe it thoroughly. If, on the other hand, you applied a standardized method, or used an approach from another paper, it will be enough to briefly describe it with reference to the detailed original source.

Remember to also detail the research population, mention how you ensured representative sampling, and elaborate on what statistical methods you used to analyze the results.

Tips for writing the methodology section :

• Include enough detail to allow reproducing the research
• Provide references if the methods are known
• Create a methodology flow chart to add clarity
• Describe the research population, sampling methodology, statistical methods for result analysis
• Describe what methodology, test methods, materials, and sample groups were used in the research.

Step 3: Advertize the research

Step 3 of the LEAP writing approach is designed to entice the casual browser into reading your research paper. This advertising can be done with an informative title, an intriguing abstract, as well as a thorough explanation of the underlying need for doing the research within the introduction.

How to write the Introduction of a research paper

The introduction section should leave no doubt in the mind of the reader that what you are doing is important and that this work could push scientific knowledge forward. To do this convincingly, you will need to have a good knowledge of what is state-of-the-art in your field. You also need be able to see the bigger picture in order to demonstrate the potential impacts of your research work.

Think of the introduction as a funnel, going from wide to narrow, as shown in the figure below:

• Start with a brief context to explain what do we already know,
• Follow with the motivation for the research study and explain why should we care about it,
• Explain the research gap you are going to bridge within this research paper,
• Describe the approach you will take to solve the problem.

Tips for writing the introduction section :

• Follow the Context – Motivation – Research gap – Approach funnel for writing the introduction
• Explain how others tried and how you plan to solve the research problem
• Do a thorough literature review before writing the introduction
• Start writing the introduction by using your own words, then add references from the literature

How to prepare the Abstract of a research paper

The abstract acts as your paper’s elevator pitch and is therefore best written only after the main text is finished. In this one short paragraph you must convince someone to take on the time-consuming task of reading your whole research article. So, make the paper easy to read, intriguing, and self-explanatory; avoid jargon and abbreviations.

How to structure the abstract of a research paper:

• The abstract is a single paragraph that follows this structure:
• Problem: why did we research this
• Methodology: typically starts with the words “Here we…” that signal the start of own contribution.
• Results: what we found from the research.
• Conclusions: show why are the findings important

How to compose a research paper Title

The title is the ultimate summary of a research paper. It must therefore entice someone looking for information to click on a link to it and continue reading the article. A title is also used for indexing purposes in scientific databases, so a representative and optimized title will play large role in determining if your research paper appears in search results at all.

Tips for coming up with a research paper title:

• Capture curiosity of potential readers using a clear and descriptive title
• Include broad terms that are often searched
• Add details that uniquely identify the researched subject of your research paper
• Avoid jargon and abbreviations
• Use keywords as title extension (instead of duplicating the words) to increase the chance of appearing in search results

How to prepare Highlights and Graphical Abstract

Highlights are three to five short bullet-point style statements that convey the core findings of the research paper. Notice that the focus is on the findings, not on the process of getting there.

A graphical abstract placed next to the textual abstract visually summarizes the entire research paper in a single, easy-to-follow figure. I show how to create a graphical abstract in my book Research Data Visualization and Scientific Graphics.

Tips for preparing highlights and graphical abstract:

• In highlights show core findings of the research paper (instead of what you did in the study).
• In graphical abstract show take-home message or methodology of the research paper. Learn more about creating a graphical abstract in this article.

Step 4: Prepare for submission

Sometimes it seems that nuclear fusion will stop on the star closest to us (read: the sun will stop to shine) before a submitted manuscript is published in a scientific journal. The publication process routinely takes a long time, and after submitting the manuscript you have very little control over what happens. To increase the chances of a quick publication, you must do your homework before submitting the manuscript. In the fourth LEAP step, you make sure that your research paper is published in the most appropriate journal as quickly and painlessly as possible.

How to select a scientific Journal for your research paper

The best way to find a journal for your research paper is it to review which journals you used while preparing your manuscript. This source listing should provide some assurance that your own research paper, once published, will be among similar articles and, thus, among your field’s trusted sources.

After this initial selection of hand-full of scientific journals, consider the following six parameters for selecting the most appropriate journal for your research paper (read this article to review each step in detail):

• Scope and publishing history
• Ranking and Recognition
• Publishing time
• Acceptance rate
• Content requirements
• Access and Fees

How to select a journal for your research paper:

• Use the six parameters to select the most appropriate scientific journal for your research paper
• Use the following tools for journal selection: https://peerrecognized.com/journals
• Follow the journal’s “Authors guide” formatting requirements

How to Edit you manuscript

No one can write a finished research paper on their first attempt. Before submitting, make sure to take a break from your work for a couple of days, or even weeks. Try not to think about the manuscript during this time. Once it has faded from your memory, it is time to return and edit. The pause will allow you to read the manuscript from a fresh perspective and make edits as necessary.

I have summarized the most useful research paper editing tools in this article.

Tips for editing a research paper:

• Take time away from the research paper to forget about it; then returning to edit,
• Start by editing the content: structure, headings, paragraphs, logic, figures
• Continue by editing the grammar and language; perform a thorough language check using academic writing tools
• Read the entire paper out loud and correct what sounds weird

How to write a compelling Cover Letter for your paper

Begin the cover letter by stating the paper’s title and the type of paper you are submitting (review paper, research paper, short communication). Next, concisely explain why your study was performed, what was done, and what the key findings are. State why the results are important and what impact they might have in the field. Make sure you mention how your approach and findings relate to the scope of the journal in order to show why the article would be of interest to the journal’s readers.

I wrote a separate article that explains what to include in a cover letter here. You can also download a cover letter template from the article.

Tips for writing a cover letter:

• Explain how the findings of your research relate to journal’s scope
• Tell what impact the research results will have
• Show why the research paper will interest the journal’s audience
• Add any legal statements as required in journal’s guide for authors

How to Answer the Reviewers

Reviewers will often ask for new experiments, extended discussion, additional details on the experimental setup, and so forth. In principle, your primary winning tactic will be to agree with the reviewers and follow their suggestions whenever possible. After all, you must earn their blessing in order to get your paper published.

Be sure to answer each review query and stick to the point. In the response to the reviewers document write exactly where in the paper you have made any changes. In the paper itself, highlight the changes using a different color. This way the reviewers are less likely to re-read the entire article and suggest new edits.

In cases when you don’t agree with the reviewers, it makes sense to answer more thoroughly. Reviewers are scientifically minded people and so, with enough logical and supported argument, they will eventually be willing to see things your way.

Tips for answering the reviewers:

• Agree with most review comments, but if you don’t, thoroughly explain why
• Highlight changes in the manuscript
• Do not take the comments personally and cool down before answering

The LEAP research paper writing cheat sheet

Imagine that you are back in grad school and preparing to take an exam on the topic: “How to write a research paper”. As an exemplary student, you would, most naturally, create a cheat sheet summarizing the subject… Well, I did it for you.

This one-page summary of the LEAP research paper writing technique will remind you of the key research paper writing steps. Print it out and stick it to a wall in your office so that you can review it whenever you are writing a new research paper.

Now that we have gone through the four LEAP research paper writing steps, I hope you have a good idea of how to write a research paper. It can be an enjoyable process and once you get the hang of it, the four LEAP writing steps should even help you think about and interpret the research results. This process should enable you to write a well-structured, concise, and compelling research paper.

Have fund with writing your next research paper. I hope it will turn out great!

Learn writing papers that get cited

The LEAP writing approach is a blueprint for writing research papers. But to be efficient and write papers that get cited, you need more than that.

My name is Martins Zaumanis and in my interactive course Research Paper Writing Masterclass I will show you how to  visualize  your research results,  frame a message  that convinces your readers, and write  each section  of the paper. Step-by-step.

And of course – you will learn to respond the infamous  Reviewer No.2.

Hey! My name is Martins Zaumanis and I am a materials scientist in Switzerland ( Google Scholar ). As the first person in my family with a PhD, I have first-hand experience of the challenges starting scientists face in academia. With this blog, I want to help young researchers succeed in academia. I call the blog “Peer Recognized”, because peer recognition is what lifts academic careers and pushes science forward.

Besides this blog, I have written the Peer Recognized book series and created the Peer Recognized Academy offering interactive online courses.

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Rubric Design

Main navigation, articulating your assessment values.

Reading, commenting on, and then assigning a grade to a piece of student writing requires intense attention and difficult judgment calls. Some faculty dread “the stack.” Students may share the faculty’s dim view of writing assessment, perceiving it as highly subjective. They wonder why one faculty member values evidence and correctness before all else, while another seeks a vaguely defined originality.

Writing rubrics can help address the concerns of both faculty and students by making writing assessment more efficient, consistent, and public. Whether it is called a grading rubric, a grading sheet, or a scoring guide, a writing assignment rubric lists criteria by which the writing is graded.

Why create a writing rubric?

• It makes your tacit rhetorical knowledge explicit
• It articulates community- and discipline-specific standards of excellence
• It links the grade you give the assignment to the criteria
• It can make your grading more efficient, consistent, and fair as you can read and comment with your criteria in mind
• It can help you reverse engineer your course: once you have the rubrics created, you can align your readings, activities, and lectures with the rubrics to set your students up for success
• It can help your students produce writing that you look forward to reading

How to create a writing rubric

Create a rubric at the same time you create the assignment. It will help you explain to the students what your goals are for the assignment.

• Consider your purpose: do you need a rubric that addresses the standards for all the writing in the course? Or do you need to address the writing requirements and standards for just one assignment?  Task-specific rubrics are written to help teachers assess individual assignments or genres, whereas generic rubrics are written to help teachers assess multiple assignments.
• Begin by listing the important qualities of the writing that will be produced in response to a particular assignment. It may be helpful to have several examples of excellent versions of the assignment in front of you: what writing elements do they all have in common? Among other things, these may include features of the argument, such as a main claim or thesis; use and presentation of sources, including visuals; and formatting guidelines such as the requirement of a works cited.
• Then consider how the criteria will be weighted in grading. Perhaps all criteria are equally important, or perhaps there are two or three that all students must achieve to earn a passing grade. Decide what best fits the class and requirements of the assignment.

Consider involving students in Steps 2 and 3. A class session devoted to developing a rubric can provoke many important discussions about the ways the features of the language serve the purpose of the writing. And when students themselves work to describe the writing they are expected to produce, they are more likely to achieve it.

At this point, you will need to decide if you want to create a holistic or an analytic rubric. There is much debate about these two approaches to assessment.

Comparing Holistic and Analytic Rubrics

Holistic scoring .

Holistic scoring aims to rate overall proficiency in a given student writing sample. It is often used in large-scale writing program assessment and impromptu classroom writing for diagnostic purposes.

General tenets to holistic scoring:

• Responding to drafts is part of evaluation
• Responses do not focus on grammar and mechanics during drafting and there is little correction
• Marginal comments are kept to 2-3 per page with summative comments at end
• End commentary attends to students’ overall performance across learning objectives as articulated in the assignment
• Response language aims to foster students’ self-assessment

Holistic rubrics emphasize what students do well and generally increase efficiency; they may also be more valid because scoring includes authentic, personal reaction of the reader. But holistic sores won’t tell a student how they’ve progressed relative to previous assignments and may be rater-dependent, reducing reliability. (For a summary of advantages and disadvantages of holistic scoring, see Becker, 2011, p. 116.)

Here is an example of a partial holistic rubric:

Summary meets all the criteria. The writer understands the article thoroughly. The main points in the article appear in the summary with all main points proportionately developed. The summary should be as comprehensive as possible and should be as comprehensive as possible and should read smoothly, with appropriate transitions between ideas. Sentences should be clear, without vagueness or ambiguity and without grammatical or mechanical errors.

A complete holistic rubric for a research paper (authored by Jonah Willihnganz) can be  downloaded here.

Analytic Scoring

Analytic scoring makes explicit the contribution to the final grade of each element of writing. For example, an instructor may choose to give 30 points for an essay whose ideas are sufficiently complex, that marshals good reasons in support of a thesis, and whose argument is logical; and 20 points for well-constructed sentences and careful copy editing.

General tenets to analytic scoring:

• Reflect emphases in your teaching and communicate the learning goals for the course
• Emphasize student performance across criterion, which are established as central to the assignment in advance, usually on an assignment sheet
• Typically take a quantitative approach, providing a scaled set of points for each criterion
• Make the analytic framework available to students before they write  

Advantages of an analytic rubric include ease of training raters and improved reliability. Meanwhile, writers often can more easily diagnose the strengths and weaknesses of their work. But analytic rubrics can be time-consuming to produce, and raters may judge the writing holistically anyway. Moreover, many readers believe that writing traits cannot be separated. (For a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of analytic scoring, see Becker, 2011, p. 115.)

For example, a partial analytic rubric for a single trait, “addresses a significant issue”:

• Excellent: Elegantly establishes the current problem, why it matters, to whom
• Above Average: Identifies the problem; explains why it matters and to whom
• Competent: Describes topic but relevance unclear or cursory
• Developing: Unclear issue and relevance

A  complete analytic rubric for a research paper can be downloaded here.  In WIM courses, this language should be revised to name specific disciplinary conventions.

Whichever type of rubric you write, your goal is to avoid pushing students into prescriptive formulas and limiting thinking (e.g., “each paragraph has five sentences”). By carefully describing the writing you want to read, you give students a clear target, and, as Ed White puts it, “describe the ongoing work of the class” (75).

Writing rubrics contribute meaningfully to the teaching of writing. Think of them as a coaching aide. In class and in conferences, you can use the language of the rubric to help you move past generic statements about what makes good writing good to statements about what constitutes success on the assignment and in the genre or discourse community. The rubric articulates what you are asking students to produce on the page; once that work is accomplished, you can turn your attention to explaining how students can achieve it.

Works Cited

Becker, Anthony.  “Examining Rubrics Used to Measure Writing Performance in U.S. Intensive English Programs.”   The CATESOL Journal  22.1 (2010/2011):113-30. Web.

White, Edward M.  Teaching and Assessing Writing . Proquest Info and Learning, 1985. Print.

Further Resources

CCCC Committee on Assessment. “Writing Assessment: A Position Statement.” November 2006 (Revised March 2009). Conference on College Composition and Communication. Web.

Gallagher, Chris W. “Assess Locally, Validate Globally: Heuristics for Validating Local Writing Assessments.” Writing Program Administration 34.1 (2010): 10-32. Web.

Huot, Brian.  (Re)Articulating Writing Assessment for Teaching and Learning.  Logan: Utah State UP, 2002. Print.

Kelly-Reilly, Diane, and Peggy O’Neil, eds. Journal of Writing Assessment. Web.

McKee, Heidi A., and Dànielle Nicole DeVoss DeVoss, Eds. Digital Writing Assessment & Evaluation. Logan, UT: Computers and Composition Digital Press/Utah State University Press, 2013. Web.

O’Neill, Peggy, Cindy Moore, and Brian Huot.  A Guide to College Writing Assessment . Logan: Utah State UP, 2009. Print.

Sommers, Nancy.  Responding to Student Writers . Macmillan Higher Education, 2013.

Straub, Richard. “Responding, Really Responding to Other Students’ Writing.” The Subject is Writing: Essays by Teachers and Students. Ed. Wendy Bishop. Boynton/Cook, 1999. Web.

White, Edward M., and Cassie A. Wright.  Assigning, Responding, Evaluating: A Writing Teacher’s Guide . 5th ed. Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2015. Print.

University Writing Program

• Collaborative Writing
• Writing for Metacognition
• Supporting Multilingual Writers
• Alternatives to Grading
• Making Feedback Matter
• Peer Review
• Responding to Multilingual Writers’ Texts
• Model Library

Written by Arthur Russell

Just about every discussion of rubrics begins with a caveat: writing rubrics are not a substitute for writing instruction. Rubrics are tools for communicating grading criteria and assessing student progress. Rubrics take a variety of forms, from grids to checklists , and measure a range of writing tasks, from conceptual design to sentence-level considerations.  

As with any assessment tool, a rubric’s effectiveness is entirely dependent upon its design and its deployment in the classroom. Whatever form rubrics take, the criteria for assessment must be legible to all students—if students cannot decipher our rubrics, they are not useful.  

When effectively integrated with writing instruction, rubrics can help instructors clarify their own expectations for written work, isolate specific elements as targets of instruction, and provide meaningful feedback and coaching to students. Well-designed rubrics will draw program learning outcomes, assignment prompts, course instruction and assessment into alignment. 

Starting Points

Course rubrics vs. assignment rubrics.

Instructors may choose to use a standard rubric for evaluating all written work completed in a course. Course rubrics provide instructors and students a shared language for communicating the values and expectations of written work over the course of an entire semester. Best practices suggest that establishing grading criteria with students well in advance helps instructors compose focused, revision-oriented feedback on drafts and final papers and better coach student writers. When deploying course rubrics in writing-intensive courses, consider using them to guide peer review and self-evaluation processes with students. The more often students work with established criteria, the more likely they are to respond to and incorporate feedback in future projects.

At the same time, not every assignment needs to assess every aspect of the writing process every time. Particularly early in the semester, instructors may develop assignment-specific rubrics that target one or two standards. Prioritizing a specific learning objective or writing process in an assignment rubric allows instructors to concentrate time spent on in-class writing instruction and encourages students to develop targeted aspects of their writing processes.  

Developing Evaluation Criteria

• Establish clear categories. What specific learning objectives (i.e. critical and creative thinking, inquiry and analysis) and writing processes (i.e. summary, synthesis, source analysis, argument and response) are most critical to success for each assignment? 
• Establish observable and measurable criteria of success. For example, consider what counts for “clarity” in written work. For a research paper, clarity might attend to purpose: a successful paper will have a well-defined purpose (thesis, takeaway), integrate and explain evidence to support all claims, and pay careful attention to purpose, context, and audience. 
• Adopt student-friendly language. When using academic terminology and discipline-specific concepts, be sure to define and discuss these concepts with students. When in doubt , VALUE rubrics are excellent models of clearly defined learning objective and distinguishing criteria.  

Sticking Points: Writing Rubrics in the Disciplines  

Even the most carefully planned rubrics are not self-evident. The language we have adopted for writing assessment is itself a potential obstacle to student learning and success . What we count for “clarity” or “accuracy” or “insight” in academic writing, for instance, is likely shaped by our disciplinary expectations and measured by the standards of our respective fields. What counts for “good writing” is more subjective than our rubrics may suggest. Similarly, students arrive in our courses with their own understanding and experiences of academic writing that may or may not be reflected in our assignment prompts. 

Defining the terms for success with students in class and in conference will go a long way  toward bridging these gaps. We might even use rubrics as conversation starters, not only as an occasion to communicate our expectations for written work, but also as an opportunity to demystify the rhetorical contexts of discipline-specific writing with students.

Helpful Resources  

For a short introduction to rubric design, the Creating Rubrics guide developed by Louise Pasternack (2014) for the  Center for Teaching  Excellence and Innovation is an excellent resource.  The step-by-step tutorials developed by North Carolina State University and DePaul Teaching Commons are especially useful for instructors preparing rubrics from scratch.  On the use of rubrics for writing instruction and assignments in particular, Heidi Andrade’s “Teaching with Rubrics: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly” provides an instructive overview of the benefits and drawbacks of using rubrics.  For a more in-depth introduction (with sample rubrics), Melzer and Bean’s “Using Rubrics to Develop and Apply Grading Criteria” in  Engaging Ideas  is essential reading. 

Cited and Recommended Sources

• Andrade, Heidi Goodrich. “Teaching with Rubrics: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly.” College Teaching , vol. 53, no. 1, 2005, pp. 27–30, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27559213  
• Athon, Amanda. “Designing Rubrics to Foster Students’ Diverse Language Backgrounds.” Journal of Basic Writing , vol. 38, No.1, 2019, pp. 78–103, https://doi.org/10.37514/JBW-J.2019.38.1.05  
• Bennett, Cary. “Assessment Rubrics: Thinking inside the Boxes.” Learning and Teaching: The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences , vol. 9, no. 1, 2016, pp. 50–72,  http://www.jstor.org/stable/24718020  
• Broad, Bob. What We Really Value: Beyond Rubrics in Teaching and Assessing Writing . University Press of Colorado, 2003. https://doi-org.proxy1.library.jhu.edu/10.2307/j.ctt46nxvm  
• Melzer, Dan, and John C. Bean. Engaging Ideas: The Professor’s Guide to Integrating Writing, Critical Thinking, and Active Learning in the Classroom . 3rd ed., Jossey-Bass, 2021 (esp. pp. 253-277), https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.proxy1.library.jhu.edu/lib/jhu/detail.action?docID=6632622  
• Pasternack, Louise. “Creating Rubrics,” The Innovative Instructor Blog , Center for Teaching Excellence and Innovation, Johns Hopkins University, 21 Nov. 2014.  
• Reynders, G., et al. “Rubrics to assess critical thinking and information processing in undergraduate STEM courses.” International Journal of STEM Education vol. 7, no. 9, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-020-00208-5  
• Turley, Eric D., and Chris W. Gallagher. “On the ‘Uses’ of Rubrics: Reframing the Great Rubric Debate.” The English Journal , vol. 97, no. 4, 2008, pp. 87–92, http://www.jstor.org/stable/30047253  
• Wiggins, Grant. “The Constant Danger of Sacrificing Validity to Reliability: Making Writing Assessment Serve Writers.” Assessing Writing , vol. 1, no. 1, 1994, pp. 129-139, https://doi.org/10.1016/1075-2935(94)90008-6  

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How to Start a Research Paper: A Step-by-Step Guide

Starting a research paper can seem overwhelming, but breaking it down into manageable steps can make the process much easier. This guide will walk you through each stage, from choosing a topic to finalizing your paper, ensuring you stay organized and focused. Whether you're new to research or looking to improve your skills, these steps will help you create a strong, well-structured paper.

Key Takeaways

• Select a topic that interests you and has enough available resources.
• Formulate a clear and focused research question to guide your study.
• Conduct a thorough literature review to understand existing research and identify gaps.
• Develop a detailed research plan with a timeline and methodology.
• Ensure proper formatting and citation to maintain academic integrity.

Choosing a Research Topic

Choosing a research topic is a crucial first step in writing a research paper. It sets the stage for your entire project, so it's important to choose wisely. Here are some steps to help you select a topic that is both interesting and feasible.

Identifying Your Interests

Start by thinking about what excites you. Pick a topic that you find fun and fulfilling. This will keep you motivated throughout your research. Make a list of subjects you enjoy and see how they can relate to your field of study. Your job will be more pleasant if you choose a topic that holds your interest.

Evaluating the Scope of the Topic

Once you have a few ideas, check if they are too broad or too narrow. A good topic should be manageable within the time you have. Ask yourself if you can cover all aspects of the topic in your thesis. For example, exploring the link between technology and mental health could be narrowed down to how WhatsApp use impacts college students' well-being.

Ensuring Availability of Resources

Before finalizing your topic, ensure that there are enough resources available. Conduct preliminary research to see if there is sufficient data and literature on your chosen topic. This step is vital as you may discover issues with your original idea or realize you have insufficient resources to explore the topic effectively. This key bit of groundwork allows you to redirect your research topic in a different, more feasible, or more relevant direction if necessary.

Formulating a Research Question

Understanding the importance of a research question.

A well-defined research question is the cornerstone of any successful research paper. It provides a clear focus and direction for your study, ensuring that your efforts are both relevant and meaningful. A strong research question helps you stay on track and avoid unnecessary detours. It also makes it easier to communicate the purpose and significance of your research to others.

Techniques for Crafting a Strong Research Question

To develop a compelling research question, start by identifying your interests and the gaps in the existing literature. Use the 5 W's: who, what, where, when, and why , to explore different aspects of your topic. This approach will help you narrow down your focus and create a question that is both specific and researchable. Additionally, consider the feasibility of your question by evaluating the availability of resources and the scope of your study.

Aligning Your Question with Objectives

Your research question should align with the objectives of your study. This means that it should be directly related to what you aim to achieve through your research. Clearly defined objectives will guide your research process and ensure that your question remains relevant throughout your study. By aligning your question with your objectives, you can produce a coherent and focused research paper that effectively addresses the problem at hand.

Conducting a Literature Review

Gathering Relevant Sources

Start by collecting sources that are related to your research topic. Use libraries, online databases, and academic journals to find books, articles, and papers. Skimming sources initially can save you time; set aside those that seem useful for a more thorough read later.

Analyzing Existing Research

Once you have gathered your sources, read through them carefully. Take notes on key points and different viewpoints. This will help you understand the current state of research in your field. Look for common themes and debates that can inform your own work.

Identifying Research Gaps

As you analyze the existing research, look for areas that haven't been explored or questions that haven't been answered. These gaps can provide a direction for your own research and make your thesis more valuable. Identifying these gaps is crucial for crafting a strong research question and ensuring your work contributes new knowledge to the field.

Developing a Research Plan

Creating a solid research plan is crucial for the success of your thesis. It helps you stay organized and ensures that you cover all necessary aspects of your research.

Writing the Thesis Introduction

Establishing context.

Starting your thesis introduction can be daunting, but it's crucial for setting the stage for your research. Establishing the context for your study helps readers understand the background and significance of your work. This section should provide a clear overview of what your thesis will cover, making it easier for readers to follow your arguments.

Crafting a Thesis Statement

Your thesis statement is the heart of your introduction. Typically, it is placed at the end of the introductory paragraph. This statement should succinctly present the main argument or focus of your thesis, guiding the reader on what to expect.

Justifying the Research Problem

Once you have your research question, you need to justify why it is important. Explain the significance of your research problem in the context of existing literature. Highlight the gaps your research aims to fill and how it will contribute to the field. This step is crucial for crafting a bachelor thesis that stands out.

Structuring the Research Paper

Organizing sections.

A well-structured research paper is essential for clarity and coherence. Start by dividing your paper into key sections: Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Each section should serve a specific purpose and contribute to the overall argument of your paper. Organize your research by identifying main topics and subtopics, gathering relevant sources, and summarizing key points. This will help you maintain a logical flow throughout your paper.

Ensuring Logical Flow

Ensuring a logical flow between sections and paragraphs is crucial. Use transitions to connect ideas and guide the reader through your arguments. Each paragraph should begin with a clear topic sentence that introduces the main idea, followed by supporting evidence and analysis. This approach not only enhances readability but also strengthens your argument.

Maintaining Coherence

Coherence is achieved when all parts of your paper work together to support your thesis statement. To maintain coherence, make sure each section and paragraph aligns with your research objectives. Regularly review your work to ensure that your ideas are presented logically and that your voice remains dominant. Cite sources carefully to avoid plagiarism and to give credit to the original authors.

Data Collection and Analysis

Choosing data collection methods.

Selecting the right data collection methods is crucial for the success of your research. Data collection is the process of gathering, measuring, and analyzing accurate data. Consider methods such as surveys, interviews, or experiments based on your research needs. Each method has its strengths and weaknesses, so choose the one that best fits your study.

Analyzing Data Accurately

Once you have collected your data, the next step is to analyze it accurately. Use statistical tools and software to help you interpret the data. Create tables and graphs to illustrate your findings clearly. This will help you present your results in a structured and understandable way.

Interpreting Results

Interpreting your results is an essential part of your thesis. Discuss how your findings relate to your research questions and the existing literature. Highlight the significance of your analyses and the reliability of your findings. This will help you draw meaningful conclusions and provide valuable insights into your research topic.

Drafting and Revising the Paper

Writing the First Draft

Start by writing your first draft without worrying too much about perfection. Focus on getting your ideas down on paper. This initial draft is your chance to explore your thoughts and structure your argument. Remember, the goal is to create a foundation that you can build upon.

Incorporating Feedback

Once you have a draft, it's time to incorporate feedback. Share your work with your thesis supervisor and peers. Their insights can help you see your work from different perspectives and identify areas for improvement. Revising is a continuous process of re-seeing your writing. It involves considering larger issues like focus, organization, and audience.

Polishing the Final Draft

Finally, polish your final draft. Pay attention to grammar, punctuation, and formatting. Ensure that your thesis is clear, concise, and free of errors. This step is crucial for making a strong impression and effectively communicating your research findings.

Proper Formatting and Citation

Adhering to style guides.

When formatting your research paper, it's crucial to follow the specific style guide recommended by your institution. Common styles include APA, MLA, and Chicago. Each style has its own set of rules for formatting headings, tables, and references. Adhering to these guidelines ensures your paper meets academic standards and is easy to read.

Citing Sources Correctly

Citing your sources correctly is essential to avoid plagiarism and give credit to the original authors. Typically, a citation can include the author's name, date, location of the publishing company, journal title, or DOI (Digital Object Identifier) . Use the citation style specified by your university, such as APA or MLA . For example, in APA format, an in-text citation might look like this: (Smith, 2020).

Avoiding Plagiarism

Plagiarism is a serious academic offense. To avoid it, always cite the sources you use in your research. This not only gives credit to the original authors but also adds credibility to your work. Use tools like Grammarly’s Citation Generator to ensure your citations are flawless and your paper is free from plagiarism.

Maintaining Academic Integrity

Understanding academic integrity.

Academic integrity is the foundation of any scholarly work. It involves being honest and responsible in your research and writing. Maintaining academic integrity ensures that your work is credible and respected. It also means giving proper credit to the original authors of the sources you use. This practice not only helps you avoid plagiarism but also strengthens your arguments by backing them up with credible sources.

Strategies to Avoid Plagiarism

To avoid plagiarism, always cite your sources correctly. Use a consistent citation style, such as APA or MLA, and make sure to include all necessary information. Here are some tips to help you:

• Paraphrase information in your own words and cite the source.
• Use quotation marks for direct quotes and include a citation.
• Keep track of all the sources you consult during your research.
• Use plagiarism detection tools to check your work before submission.

Ensuring Originality

Ensuring the originality of your work is crucial. This means that your ideas and findings should be your own, even if they are based on existing research. Here are some ways to ensure originality:

• Conduct thorough research to understand what has already been done in your field.
• Identify gaps in the existing research and focus on filling those gaps with your work.
• Develop your own unique perspective or approach to the topic.
• Regularly review and revise your work to ensure it reflects your original ideas.

By following these steps, you can maintain academic integrity and produce a research paper that is both credible and original.

Finalizing the Research Paper

Proofreading and editing.

Before submitting your research paper, it's crucial to proofread and edit your work thoroughly. Start by reviewing the content for clarity and coherence. Ensure that each section flows logically and that your arguments are well-supported. Pay close attention to grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors, as these can detract from the professionalism of your paper. Consider reading your paper aloud or using a text-to-speech tool to catch mistakes you might have missed.

Preparing for Submission

Once you have polished your paper, it's time to prepare it for submission. Make sure you adhere to the specific formatting guidelines provided by your institution or the journal you are submitting to. This includes checking the font style and size, margins, and page numbering. Ensure that all citations and references are correctly formatted according to the required style guide, such as APA or MLA. Double-check that your paper meets all the submission requirements, including word count and any additional documents that need to be included.

Seeking Peer Review

Before finalizing your research paper, seek feedback from peers or mentors. A fresh set of eyes can provide valuable insights and help identify areas for improvement that you might have overlooked. Share your paper with colleagues or use online platforms to get constructive criticism. Incorporating feedback from others can enhance the quality of your work and ensure that your arguments are clear and compelling.

Wrapping up your research paper can be a daunting task, but it doesn't have to be. Our step-by-step Thesis Action Plan is here to guide you through every stage, making the process smoother and less stressful. Ready to conquer your thesis challenges? Visit our website now and discover how we can help you achieve your academic goals.

Starting a research paper can seem overwhelming, but breaking it down into manageable steps makes the process much easier. By choosing a topic that interests you, conducting thorough research, and organizing your findings, you lay a strong foundation for your paper. Remember to create a clear thesis statement to guide your writing and keep your arguments focused. Drafting, revising, and seeking feedback are crucial steps to refine your work. Finally, ensure your paper is well-formatted and free of errors. With dedication and careful planning, you can successfully navigate the research paper writing process. Good luck!

Frequently Asked Questions

How do i choose a research topic.

Start by thinking about what interests you. Pick a topic that you find fun and fulfilling. This will keep you motivated throughout your research. Also, make sure there are enough resources available on the topic.

Why is a research question important?

A research question guides your study, helping you focus on a specific issue. It makes your research more organized and meaningful.

What is the purpose of a literature review?

A literature review helps you understand what has already been studied about your topic. It shows gaps in the research that your study can fill.

How do I create a research plan?

Outline your methodology, create a timeline, and allocate resources. This helps you stay organized and ensures you cover all necessary aspects of your research.

What should be included in the thesis introduction?

Your thesis introduction should establish the context, present your thesis statement, and justify the research problem. This sets the stage for your study.

How do I ensure my research paper is well-structured?

Organize your sections logically, ensure a smooth flow of ideas, and maintain coherence throughout the paper. Each part should connect well with the others.

What are the best methods for data collection and analysis?

Choose methods that best suit your research needs, such as surveys, interviews, or experiments. Use statistical tools to analyze data accurately and interpret your results.

How can I avoid plagiarism in my research paper?

Always cite your sources correctly and follow the citation style recommended by your institution. Use plagiarism checkers to ensure your work is original.

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10 Essential Steps To Writing A Research Paper

Research papers are a cornerstone of academic growth, serving as a critical tool for students to delve deep into subject matters, enhance their analytical skills, and contribute to academic discourse. See also What Is The Writing Process? Let’s try to demystify the process of writing a research paper by providing a clear, step-by-step approach that…

Research papers are a cornerstone of academic growth, serving as a critical tool for students to delve deep into subject matters, enhance their analytical skills, and contribute to academic discourse.

See also What Is The Writing Process?

Let’s try to demystify the process of writing a research paper by providing a clear, step-by-step approach that can be adapted to any academic level or subject. Planning and organization can make writing a research paper less daunting. Students are encouraged to confidently approach this intellectual journey, using this guide as a roadmap to navigate the complexities of research writing.

The first step in any academic writing project, particularly a research paper, is to understand the assignment thoroughly. Misunderstanding the prompt can lead to significant missteps down the line. It’s important to read the assignment prompt carefully and use it to plan your paper. Students should consider consulting a paper writing service to guide interpreting complex instructions or academic expectations. Essential questions to ask include: What is the purpose of the paper? Who is the audience? What is the required scope and format?

• Understanding the Assignment

Selecting a topic is more than just picking an area of interest; it involves balancing personal curiosity with academic value and resource availability. A good topic should allow you to explore questions or issues you care about while meeting the assignment’s requirements. Strategies for topic selection include brainstorming, preliminary reading, and discussing ideas with peers or instructors.

• Conducting Preliminary Research

Begin with general sources to gain an overview of your topic’s broader context. This can include textbooks, encyclopedias, or reliable online resources. Identify key themes, concepts, and terminology relevant to your subject during this phase.

As you gather more information, start focusing your research on a specific aspect of the topic. This will help you develop a focused research question or a strong thesis statement that will guide the rest of your research and writing process.

See also Writing

• Developing a Research Plan

Determine what types of sources are most appropriate for your topic. This might include books, peer-reviewed journal articles, interviews, or primary documents. Plan a realistic timeline for your research and writing, setting key milestones to ensure steady progress.

Use digital tools such as citation management software, note-taking apps, and organizational platforms to organize your research. These tools can help manage sources, keep track of important quotes, and structure your paper’s outline.

• Conducting In-Depth Research

Distinguish between scholarly and non-scholarly sources. Utilize academic databases and libraries to access credible and relevant material. Internet sources should be cautiously approached and evaluated for credibility and relevance.

Learn to assess the reliability, bias, and usefulness of each source. Critical reading and analytical note-taking are essential at this stage to ensure that you gather strong evidence to support your thesis.

• Crafting a Strong Thesis Statement

A thesis statement is a concise summary of your paper’s main point or claim. It is typically one sentence long and states your position clearly. The thesis is crucial as it guides the structure and argumentation of your research paper.

As your research progresses, revisit and possibly refine your thesis statement to reflect deeper insights and stronger evidence. This may involve tightening its focus, adjusting its angle, or strengthening its argumentative power. Examples of effective thesis statements will illustrate how specificity and clarity contribute to a compelling argument.

• Creating an Outline

An outline is a blueprint for your paper; it organizes your thoughts and lays out the structure of your argument coherently. This helps prevent structural issues later in the writing process and ensures that each part of your argument flows logically into the next.

Start by outlining the main points of your introduction, body, and conclusion. Under each main point, list subpoints and supporting evidence, which can be detailed from your research that backs up your thesis. Consulting an online paper writing service can provide additional structure and guidance for students feeling overwhelmed by this stage.

• Writing the First Draft

Begin writing with the body of your paper, as it contains the bulk of information and analysis. Don’t worry about getting everything perfect on the first try. The goal is to put your research and ideas into a coherent structure.

Keep your writing clear and focused. Employ a mix of summarization, direct analysis, and critical thinking. Ensure that each paragraph opens with a clear topic sentence and closes with a transition to the next idea, ensuring smooth, logical flow.

• Revising and Editing

Once your first draft is complete, take time to revise it thoroughly. Look for ways to strengthen your argument, clarify your points, and improve the overall flow of the paper. Ensure that each section contributes directly to supporting your thesis. Don’t hesitate to rewrite sections for better clarity and impact if necessary.

After revising the content, focus on grammar, punctuation, and style. Look for mistakes like misplaced commas, incorrect verb tenses, or inconsistent formatting. Using tools from the best paper writing service can help ensure your paper meets academic standards.

• Formatting and Citations

Please familiarize yourself with the required citation style for your paper, whether it’s APA, MLA, Chicago, or another format. Proper citation is crucial to avoid plagiarism and to give proper credit to the sources of your research.

Ensure your paper is formatted correctly according to your assignment requirements. This includes setting the correct margins, using the appropriate font size, and including all necessary sections like a title page, headings, and a bibliography. Many students find this step meticulous; however, a paper writer skilled in formatting can assist in polishing the final document.

• Final Proofreading and Submission

Carefully proofread your paper to catch any lingering errors and ensure it reads smoothly. Techniques such as reading aloud or having a peer review of your work can be invaluable. Check for consistency in your arguments, accuracy in your information, and completeness in your research.

Create a checklist for all elements needed for submission, including additional materials like appendices or abstracts. Ensure everything is in order before you submit your paper, whether online or in person. Double-check that all guidelines are followed to avoid last-minute surprises.

Writing a research paper is a demanding but rewarding process. By following these steps, students can produce well-organized, insightful, and high-quality research papers that meet academic standards and enhance their understanding and expertise in the chosen subject area.

Remember, using resources such as a paper writing service should complement your efforts and provide support as you develop your skills as a researcher and writer. Dedication and attention to detail make the journey from a blank page to a completed research paper a significant academic achievement.

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CWP: Craft of Prose: Researching the White Paper

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Research the White Paper

Researching the white paper:.

The process of researching and composing a white paper shares some similarities with the kind of research and writing one does for a high school or college research paper. What’s important for writers of white papers to grasp, however, is how much this genre differs from a research paper.  First, the author of a white paper already recognizes that there is a problem to be solved, a decision to be made, and the job of the author is to provide readers with substantive information to help them make some kind of decision--which may include a decision to do more research because major gaps remain. 

Thus, a white paper author would not “brainstorm” a topic. Instead, the white paper author would get busy figuring out how the problem is defined by those who are experiencing it as a problem. Typically that research begins in popular culture--social media, surveys, interviews, newspapers. Once the author has a handle on how the problem is being defined and experienced, its history and its impact, what people in the trenches believe might be the best or worst ways of addressing it, the author then will turn to academic scholarship as well as “grey” literature (more about that later).  Unlike a school research paper, the author does not set out to argue for or against a particular position, and then devote the majority of effort to finding sources to support the selected position.  Instead, the author sets out in good faith to do as much fact-finding as possible, and thus research is likely to present multiple, conflicting, and overlapping perspectives. When people research out of a genuine desire to understand and solve a problem, they listen to every source that may offer helpful information. They will thus have to do much more analysis, synthesis, and sorting of that information, which will often not fall neatly into a “pro” or “con” camp:  Solution A may, for example, solve one part of the problem but exacerbate another part of the problem. Solution C may sound like what everyone wants, but what if it’s built on a set of data that have been criticized by another reliable source?  And so it goes. 

For example, if you are trying to write a white paper on the opioid crisis, you may focus on the value of  providing free, sterilized needles--which do indeed reduce disease, and also provide an opportunity for the health care provider distributing them to offer addiction treatment to the user. However, the free needles are sometimes discarded on the ground, posing a danger to others; or they may be shared; or they may encourage more drug usage. All of those things can be true at once; a reader will want to know about all of these considerations in order to make an informed decision. That is the challenging job of the white paper author.     
 The research you do for your white paper will require that you identify a specific problem, seek popular culture sources to help define the problem, its history, its significance and impact for people affected by it.  You will then delve into academic and grey literature to learn about the way scholars and others with professional expertise answer these same questions. In this way, you will create creating a layered, complex portrait that provides readers with a substantive exploration useful for deliberating and decision-making. You will also likely need to find or create images, including tables, figures, illustrations or photographs, and you will document all of your sources. 

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A systematic review of automated writing evaluation systems

• Published: 07 July 2022
• Volume 28 , pages 771–795, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

• Shi Huawei 1 &
• Vahid Aryadoust   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6960-2489 1  

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A Correction to this article was published on 01 August 2022

This article has been updated

Automated writing evaluation (AWE) systems are developed based on interdisciplinary research and technological advances such as natural language processing, computer sciences, and latent semantic analysis. Despite a steady increase in research publications in this area, the results of AWE investigations are often mixed, and their validity may be questionable. To yield a deeper understanding of the validity of AWE systems, we conducted a systematic review of the empirical AWE research. Using Scopus, we identified 105 published papers on AWE scoring systems and coded them within an argument-based validation framework. The major findings are: (i) AWE scoring research had a rising trend, but was heterogeneous in terms of the language environments, ecological settings, and educational level; (ii) a disproportionate number of studies were carried out on each validity inference, with the evaluation inference receiving the most research attention, and the domain description inference being the neglected one, and (iii) most studies adopted quantitative methods and yielded positive results that backed each inference, while some studies also presented counterevidence. Lack of research on the domain description (i.e., the correspondence between the AWE systems and real-life writing tasks) combined with the heterogeneous contexts indicated that construct representation in the AWE scoring field needs extensive investigation. Implications and directions for future research are also discussed.

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Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as the datasets generated during the current study are proprietary of Scopus. Using the search code discussed in the paper, interested readers who have access to Scopus can replicate the dataset.

Change history

01 august 2022.

A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11260-9

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*Gerard, L. F., & Linn, M. C. (2016). Using automated scores of student essays to support teacher guidance in classroom inquiry. Journal of Science Teacher Education , 27(1), 111-129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10972-016-9455-6

*Grimes, D., & Warschauer, M. (2010). Utility in a fallible tool: A multi-site case study of automated writing evaluation. Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 8(6), 1–44. Retrieved from http://www.jtla.org

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Huawei, S., Aryadoust, V. A systematic review of automated writing evaluation systems. Educ Inf Technol 28 , 771–795 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11200-7

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• How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates, and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
• Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models, and methods?
• Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

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To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

• Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

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Mastering Google Docs for Writing Academic Papers

• by Ilya Shabanov
• August 28, 2024 August 28, 2024
• Academic Writing

Google Docs is the most powerful, versatile and fast word editor, but publishing a scientific paper with its formatting and citing requirements, tables, and figures requires plugins and a good strategy. In this tutorial, you will learn all the plugins and hacks you need to make Google Docs the perfect tool for writing a paper with co-authors.

Join the Effortless Newsletter. Receive free tips on note-taking, literature review, AI tools, and other productivity topics specifically tailored for academics and students.

Say goodbye to emailing endless Word documents with yet another “final” in their title and switch to Google Docs. It’s clean, powerful and easy to use. Here are the main problems we want to solve:

• Structure your paper and keep track of progress for each section individually
• Configure Google Docs to find sections faster (with one click) and scroll easier.
• Setup a system to automatically number figures, tables and equations.
• Add a system of links to refer to figures tables and links that auto updates when the order changes.
• Incorporate figure numbers from supplementary materials (separate document)
• Use add-ons for reference management and finding typos
• Make your documents beautiful and professional.
• Learn to save versions of the document before making journal-specific changes without creating a copy.
• Using Google Docs for collaborative writing.

Before you begin it is best to have your literature and notes ready, this will greatly speed up the process. Check out the Literature Review and Note Taking Courses for more info.

Setting up your Document

To begin writing create two documents one for the main text and one for the supplementary materials. Always use Heading 1 for the main chapters of your document, such as Introduction, Methods, Results, and Headings 2, 3, and 4 as needed.

Choose a font size that is good to work with and also looks good when exporting. As a web designer in my previous life I know that picking the right fonts and sizes is more than just about the design, it is about the perception of your paper. A paper without typos and set in beautiful fonts emanates professionalism and completion. This will help your ideas to be perceived in a good light and taken more seriously. So spend a few minutes on adjusting fonts (Open Sans is often a great choice), line height (1.5x – 2x is optimal) and padding. This X thread has more informaiton.

Draft Versions: The key to structure

One of the biggest challenges in writing a paper is keeping track of what part of the document needs, what works, and from whom. I found that drop-downs are the perfect solution for this as they allow to annotate at which state a paragraph is in, e.g. “first draft”, “waiting for feedback”, “completed”. The best solution is to use a numbering system: version 1,2,3… Whenever significant changes are made to a paragraph, you increase the version. Before publishing, all paragraphs must be at the highest level to ensure you went through all parts of the document and everything is in harmony.

The options selectable in a drop-down menu can be added and removed by clicking the “add/edit options button,” and you can create any structure you need to organize yourself. Essentially, this is similar to a Kanban board, where each “task” is in a “column” indicating its current progress. Here, the tasks are paragraphs, and the column is the value of the drop-down menu.

Here is how to edit and work with dropdowns:

Combined with the folding of headings, you can get a perfect overview of the entire paper, as shown in the video.

Folding, Table of Contents and Pageless Mode for Navigation

Another issue is often the size of the document. If you are looking for a specific passage, you end up scrolling, which takes up too much time and disturbs your focus. My solution to this is twofold:

• Turn on pageless mode, which cuts the length of the document by at least 50%.
• Collapse or fold the parts of the paper you are not working on
• Use the table of contents menu to reach any heading in one click.

These three methods combined make your navigation inside the document effortless and, most importantly, pleasant.

Using Pageless Format

Go to Format > Switch to Pageless Format to turn on this feature. In the video below, you can observe how I scroll through the document at twice the speed I did after switching to the pageless format.

If you want things to go even faster, you can set the width of the text to fit more text onto the screen. However, you will need to export your Google document to a Word or PDF with pages before submission, and you, therefore, need to keep the size of the figures and tables to the width of a single page or resize all your figures and tables later (this is a total pain, don’t do this). Notice in the screenshot below that I limited the size of the diagram to be narrow, even though the text is very wide. If I had not done it and just exported it to a Word document, all my figures would not fit onto the pages, and the document would have been broken.

The pageless format is much more comfortable and fast to work with. To avoid any problems later on, make a first mini-draft of your paper and try to export it to docx or pdf. Ensure everything looks fine, as the export might look slightly different after turning on the pageless format.

Collapsing or Folding Headings

Consistently use hierarchic headings in your document. This allows you to collapse/hide/fold everything below a heading up to the next one and hide the parts of the document that are irrelevant, finished or unimportant. Here is how folding works:

Headings are numbered. Heading 1 is the largest, 2 is a subheading, 3 is a sub-subheading and so on. This is equivalent to a typical hierarchic numbering of “Chapter 1” (→ Heading 1), “Chapter 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 …” (→ Heading 2) and so on. Reserve Heading 1 for the main structure of your paper like the typical “Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion” and use sub headings as you see fit. Folding a bigger heading will hide all subheadings as well.

Using the Table of Contents

Another benefit of consistently using headings is the automated table of contents that Google Docs generates for you. Click the button at the top left to show it. If you do not see the button, you must first activate this feature by going to View > Show Outline . Here is how it looks.

Table of Contents allows you to navigate different parts of the document with one click. Unfortunately, there is currently no way to number your headings automatically. The chapter numbers you see in the video are manually typed in. Start by outlining the structure of your paper first to avoid frequently changing or adding numbers to your headings.

Extending Google Docs’ Academic Capabilities with Add-Ons

Google Docs lacks a few features right out of the box. Most importantly for academics, this is the automatic numbering of figures and management of references. Two extensions will take care of this: “Cross Reference” and “Paperpile”. Paperpile is a reference manager and, in my opinion, the best one if you are going to use Google Docs. Zotero is an alternative, but it is quite slow, and the references are not rendered as links, which makes it harder to spot them.

To install an Add-on or Extension, click “ Extensions → Add-ons → Get add-ons “. Here is how it looks:

There are dozens of add-ons available, but most are not very relevant to academics. Let’s explore the two main add-ons we will need: Cross Reference and Paperpile.

Automatically Numbering Figures, Tables and Equations in Google Docs

Figures in the result shift around quite a lot, and renaming your figure numbers if they change their order is incredibly inconvenient. Instead you can use “Cross Reference” a Google Doc Extension that will do the numbering for you. Here is what it does:

Notice that the references to figures 1 and 2 in the text and their subtitles are automatically updated when I change the order of the two figures. Once you have six figures, this can save you time and avoid mistakes.

Step 1: Install the Cross Reference add-on

Install the add-on by opening “ Extensions → Add-ons → Get add-ons “. Then search for “Cross Reference”. Hit the blue install button at the top right.

Once you have installed the add-on, open “ Extensions → Cross Reference → Configure References “.

Step 2: Understanding how Cross Reference Numbers Figures

For Cross Reference to work properly, you will create links in a specific format inside your document. Once you hit the update button, Cross Reference recognizes these links, generates the automatic numbering and inserts these numbers into the link text. A link, strictly speaking, consists of the text and the address. The text is arbitrary, and the address defines where the link leads to but is not visible to the user. Cross Reference links all have the format #{code}_{name}. The code identifies one of two types of links: Labels (in the title of your figure) and References (inside the main text). The name is a unique name you will use for your figure; it stays the same even if you move the figure itself. Here is an overview:

Let’s sum up the steps you need to do:

• First, open Cross Reference and select “Figure” at the top to determine which codes to use. The default codes are #figur for the label and #fig for references. These codes are not arbitrary, and you must use the ones displayed under Code in the Cross Reference sidebar.
• Create a unique and simple name for your figure, e.g. “errors” in my case. This gives you the links to use #figur_errors for the label and #fig_errors for the references, respectively.
• Under the figure, create a caption starting with “Figure….” Select “Figure,” right-click to create a link (or use the CMD/Ctrl + K hotkey), and type in “#figur_errors.”
• In the text where you want to refer to this figure, also type in “Figure A,” for example, and link the word “Figure” to “#fig_errors.”
• Go to Extensions → Cross Reference → Update Document . This will take a few seconds, but the links to “Figure” will be replaced with the correct numbers.

The name “errors” in our case remains constant and is required so that Cross Reference knows which links belong together. The two types of links, Reference (#fig) and Label (#figur), are necessary since the order of labels defines the number of figures, while the order of references is irrelevant. Here is a demo video for the whole process (steps 2-5):

Once you understand how it works, the process becomes quite simple, even though it is not intuitive.

Step 2: Using Cross Reference for Tables or Equations

Once you understand how cross-reference works (it uses links with a specific code to figure out which numbers to assign to each one and changes the text in your document according to your naming and styling convention), you can guess that this method is applicable not only to figures but to any type of numbered content. Tables usually follow a separate order from figures and need their own code. The default codes are #table for the label and #tab for the references.

The same works for equations; you can create your own types by specifying the code. This last step is what we can use for supplementary material tables often abbreviated with an S (e.g. Fig S1 ).

Step 3: Automatically Numbering Supplementary Material Figures and Tables

Normally your supplementary materials reside in a separate document, while you can use Cross Reference in this document as well you will not be able to access it in your main document. If, like me, your supplementary materials grow into a second paper, any changes to it will force you to do extensive renumbering in the main document. Luckily, there is a trick to help with this.

Creating a Supplementary Figure Type

First you will need to create a new type in cross reference and call it “supplementary figure” for example. You can define a new code  #supfi,  for example, and set it up so that your figures automatically get an “S” added (e.g. Fig S2). The new type is necessary to differentiate between your main and supplementary figures. Here is how to do it:

You must do this step in both the supplementary materials document and your main document.

Adding a List of Supplementary Figures to the Bottom of Your Main Document

To get the numbering from your supplementary material into your main document, you will do a small hack: We will add the supplementary figure titles and links to the main document without copying the figures themselves. It is just a list of figures. Cross Reference will then think these supplementary figures are inside the main document while only the titles are included. I usually add this block to the bottom of my main document:

Notice that all the names are links, and the naming code is “#sfigu”. The order is the same as in the supplementary materials document. If I reorder my supplementary materials document, I must manually reorder this list. While this is done manually it only takes a moment to reorder these 10 lines, all links to these supplementary figures are done automatically (and there are dozens of them in my main document)! Right before publishing, you need to delete this block from your main document.

Adding Reference Managers to Google Docs

To manage references, you have a choice of reference managers. Most support Google Docs (except Mendeley does not), and some are easier to use than others. My choice is Paperpile. To use it properly, you need to install:

• Paperpile Google Doc Add-on
• Paperpile Browser Plugin

Using both together makes Paperpile the fastest citation manager and, in my opinion, more than makes up for a small 3$/mo price. Here is how the browser extension works:

Note that references end up as links in the document, making them easier to spot and edit. Paperpile does not create a bibliography when you add a reference. Instead, this is done manually before publication. Go to Extensions > Paperpile > Manage Citations to open a sidebar and hit the red button “Update Citations and Bibliography”. This will do two things:

• It will add a bibliography to the bottom of the document
• It will change the blue in-text references to the correct way of citing according to your document (which can be numbers [1] or names (Smith et al. 2020)). The citation style is set right above the red button.

You can also click the same red button again to remove the bibliography and transform the references back to the original paper pile links.

Using Grammarly for Corrections

Save yourself a lot of energy by installing the Grammarly Extension to correct your writing and typos, especially if English is not your first language. If you want a more academic writing assistant check out my tutorial on using Paperpal, which however does not support Google Docs yet. Here is what such a correction looks like (The text has already been edited with Grammarly, so there are only a few insignificant corrections here):

You will need to install the Chrome extension for the best results. The desktop version works well on a Mac, too, but it is much slower.

Using AI assistance to Write Papers

Aim at writing your paper yourself to avoid problems with journals. This being said you should use AI to help you polish parts of your writing and get ideas on how to structure your paper. Here is a guide on how to use AI for academic writing . If you want to learn everything about academic AI, check out the Effortless AI course:

Achieve 10x efficiency in research, learning, and everyday tasks with ChatGPT bots. This course takes you from knowing nothing to using the most cutting-edge techniques most people don’t know about in just a few hours.

Research papers with Co-Authors in Google Docs

Google Docs is a collaborative text editor. Unlike Word, you do not need to send copies of your document to all your collaborators. Invite them as editors to your document; everyone can work on it in real-time. I suggest asking them not to make edits but rather comment on your writing (if you are the first author) and let you incorporate their changes.

Click the big “share” button at the top right to add people. You will receive an email notification whenever someone comments on the document. To reduce the number of emails everyone receives, try outsourcing the conversation about the paper to the comments section of the document.

Critical steps before submitting your paper

If your paper is completed there are only a few more steps to do. Here is my list to ensure a smooth submission:

• Create a named version before making any journal-specific formatting or edits
• Switch back to a paged format and check tables and figures (see section on pageless format )
• Create a bibliography (see section reference managers )
• Enable line numbers
• Close all comments

Automatic Backups with Version History

While you write Google Docs records, every edit allows you to return to this version. This is useful when, for example, your paper gets rejected by a journal, but you already made some changes to your main text specific to this journal. Roll back to the version before the edits, and you will be ready.

Versions are automatically named by date and time, but you can give important versions a clear text name, for example, “Pre-submission to GCB journal”. To do that, click on the three dots next to the version and select “Name this version” (see second 10 in the Video).

Enabling Line Numbers

Almost all peer-reviewed journals will ask you to include line numbers in your document. This is necessary for the reviewers to be able to review the exact locations in your first draft. Google Docs allows you to do this if you export the document as a Word doc (it does not work when exporting to PDF). You must disable pageless format to enable line numbers. After doing this click on “ Tools → Line Numbers “. In the sidebar enable the line numbers.

Sometimes, the line numbers initially do not show up correctly (as in the video, as you might notice), but this resolves itself after you scroll up and down the document once.

Closing all Comments

Do not keep comments in your document; be ready to remove them for clarity and confidence when you publish. Each comment has a little checkmark to remove it permanently.

I tend to remove all comments that are older than a certain date and have not been addressed to keep the overview in the document.

In this tutorial I presented a few methods on how to make Google Docs a great publishing platform for academic work. In summary:

• Use the drop-downs to track the progress of each sub-chapter individually
• Use folding, pageless format and automatic table of contents to find things faster in your document.
• Use a reference manager like Paperpile to deal with references.
• Use the Cross Reference add-on to number your figures, tables and equations automatically
• Create a dummy list of supplementary figures in your main document to number these as well as automatically
• Use the comment function in Google Docs rather than sending versions of the document to co-authors.
• Before making journal-specific edits, save a named version of the document
• Before publishing, enable line numbers, remove comments, and switch back to page format.

Want to learn more on how to use technology to write papers faster and with more confidence? Then check out my note-taking course:

Master a system of connected notes and tools that generate research ideas on auto-pilot. Stay organized in big projects and access everything you ever read in seconds.

I hope these tips will help you in your academic journey.

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Are you a college student looking to improve your writing skills? Look no further! This article includes 100+ writing prompts on technology, art, science, sports, personal growth, history, leadership, and more! 

With this, we’ve also included a special section of fun writing prompts for students. So let’s explore these amazing writing prompts!  

Elevate your writing with professional editing services! Learn more

1. Social issues and challenges 

1) Write an essay about the importance of gender equality and the steps to achieve gender equality. 

2) Craft an article about the rise of AI tools and how they are changing society. 

3) Write about democracy’s challenges due to disinformation and suggest solutions. 

4) Analyze the root causes of homelessness in urban areas and suggest innovative approaches to address this issue.

5) Describe how the rising prices of commodities (inflation) have led to an increase in the gap between the rich and the poor. Suggest what actions the government must implement. 

6) Elaborate on the impact of using mobile and computer technologies on mental health. 

7) Explain the importance of education in bringing social change. 

8) Describe the impact of climate change in your city and suggest solutions. 

9) Explore the role of art and culture in transforming society for the better. 

10) Discuss the economic, social, and cultural impact of immigration in the USA. 

2. Personal growth and self-reflection

11) Describe a difficult decision that you made and its positive impact. 

12) Reflect on how you worked towards achieving success and how you planned for it. 

13) Elaborate on how the experience of hearing a speech from a well-known celebrity changed your life. 

14) Describe an experience when you stepped outside of your comfort zone and took a risk.

15) Write about a skill or talent that you have developed and how it helped you in your personal life. 

16) Reflect on a time when you had to work as a part of a team and what you learned. 

17) Describe a time when you had to face your fear and the strategies you took to conquer your fear. 

18) Write about a time when you forgave someone for making a mistake and how it made you feel better. 

19) Elaborate on an incident that made you change a bad habit for the better. 

20) Reflect on an incident where there was a misunderstanding due to the lack of proper communication. What steps did you take to ensure proper communication? 

3. Technology and innovation

21) Discuss the role of technology in helping the world face the challenge of climate change. 

22) Explain the impact of robotics on fields such as healthcare, education, and customer service.

23) Analyze the impact of facial recognition technology on the world. 

24) Explore the potential of virtual and augmented reality technologies in education and entertainment. 

25) Explore the potential of wearable technology (like smart watches) to improve health. 

26) Examine the impact of 3D printing on manufacturing, supply chains, and enhancing production.

27) Describe the potential of blockchain technology in supply chain management, voting systems, or healthcare.

28) Explore the role of technology in improving communication.

29) Examine the potential of voice assistants like Alexa and Siri and AI writing assistants. 

30) Analyze the potential of mobile health apps in enhancing health and promoting easy access to medicines. 

Now let’s see some of the best creative writing prompts for students! 

4. Arts, culture, and creativity

31) Write a short story about a mad artist who brings change through his paintings. 

32) Compose a series of haiku poems inspired by seasons like summer, winter, autumn, and spring. 

33) Create a dialogue between two street artists discussing the importance of public art in society.

34) Write a flash fiction story about a meteor that falls in a village and its impact on the villagers. 

35) Pen a descriptive essay about a cultural food festival and the stories and traditions behind each dish.

36) Develop a short story about a time traveler who visits the 18th century and interacts with famous musicians and artists.

37) Craft a short story about a photographer who finds a photograph of a mysterious treasure, resulting in an exciting adventure.

38) Describe the art form of street theater and suggest strategies to promote it. 

39) Write about a detective team of English , Chinese, Australian, and Japanese officers that solve a case despite their cultural differences. 

40) Create a dialogue between two art critics discussing the merits and controversies of a controversial painting. 

Check out the environment-related writing prompts for students given below!

5. Environment 

41) Examine the consequences of deforestation and propose strategies for protecting forests worldwide.

42) Discuss the impact of plastic pollution and suggest innovative solutions for reducing plastic waste.

43) Analyze the role of eco-tourism in preserving the environment. 

44) Discuss the impact of meat consumption on the environment and explore the benefits of plant-based diets.

45) Explore the potential of electric vehicles in reducing carbon emissions.

46) Elaborate on strategies to conserve water and what steps should be taken at a global level to save water. 

47) Discuss the impact of electronic waste on the environment and propose strategies for waste management.

48) Explain the importance of recycling and propose ways to encourage more people to recycle. 

49) Discuss how renewable energy sources like solar and wind energy can help to conserve the environment. 

50) Describe various strategies to reduce soil erosion and suggest sustainable farming practices. 

Browse to explore science-related creative writing prompts for students! 

6. Science 

51) Explain the importance of genetic and DNA research in treating and preventing diseases. 

52) Discuss how scientific research has helped to enhance space research. 

53) Explore the benefits of collaboration between scientists belonging to different fields for developing innovative solutions. 

54) Describe how scientific technologies have revolutionized the transport industry. 

55) Explain various strategies related to how scientific innovation can be encouraged in schools and colleges. 

56) Pen a blog about how scientific discoveries have helped in waste management. 

57) Write an article about how chemistry research has led to better safety guidelines in industries. 

58) Discuss the potential of nanotechnology in electronics.

59) Analyze the importance of simulation and mention various simulation technologies to encourage experimentation. 

60) Explain the importance of various advanced technologies, including encryption technologies in ensuring cybersecurity. 

For sports lovers, the next section explores sports-themed good writing prompts for college students! 

61) Describe the efforts of the Olympics 2024 to promote sports like skateboarding and climbing. 

62) Give your opinion about how sports like judo and taekwondo help to encourage fitness. 

63) Explore the development of kite flying as a sport and its huge potential. 

64) Write about Simone Biles’ amazing return to gymnastics and why it is inspiring. 

65) Discuss how sports help to develop teamwork and leadership skills in students. 

66) Write about your favorite sport and suggest strategies to promote it. 

67) Pen an article about an unforgettable story about sportsmanship and fair play that you’ll always remember. 

68) Analyze the importance and role of sports journalism in shaping people’s opinions. Suggest ways to promote sports journalism. 

69) Explore the challenges, pros, and cons of hosting sports events on a global scale. Suggest strategies to face the challenges better. 

70) Describe the impact of technology on college sports, including wearable devices, social media, and video analysis. 

Want to write about travel and adventure? Get ready to explore creative writing prompts for college students inspired by these themes! 

8. Travel and adventure

71) Write about the growing popularity of solo travel and workations and how they can be encouraged. 

72) Describe a life-changing travel experience in detail. 

73) Explore the development of adventure tourism and list the top 5 spots famous for adventure tourism. 

74) Craft an article about your favorite World Heritage site that you’ve visited/would like to visit in the future. 

75) Give 20 tips about how to travel with a tight financial budget with limited resources to explore new destinations. 

76) Analyze the negative impact of over-tourism in famous tourist destinations. Suggest strategies to reduce negative consequences. 

77) Describe the importance of local customs and traditions while traveling to a new country. 

78) Write an essay on the importance of historical tourism and suggest how it can be encouraged. 

79) Explore how travel and tourism foster understanding between people belonging to different cultures. 

80) Write about how you faced serious obstacles and challenges while traveling. 

9. History 

81) Analyze the role of Nelson Mandela in the struggle against apartheid in South Africa and his lasting impact. 

82) Discuss the role of Mao Zedong in the Chinese Communist Revolution and the transformation of modern China.

83) Explore the life and achievements of Leonardo da Vinci and his contributions to art, science, and engineering.

84) Write about a historical figure that inspires you the most and why. 

85) Examine the impact of World War 1 and World War 2 on society. 

86) Explain the achievements of Albert Einstein and his contributions to physics.

87) Examine the causes and consequences of the Cold War between Russia and the USA in detail. 

88) Discuss the impact of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States. Explore the role of leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and Rosa Parks.

89) Explore the significance of the Silk Route in facilitating cultural exchange and trade between East and West.

90) Explore the life and legacy of Mahatma Gandhi, his philosophy of non-violence, and its impact. 

Now let’s see some writing prompts for college students about education and learning. 

10. Education and learning

91) Describe the importance of online courses and apps in learning. 

92) Write about your experience in learning a new language and how it helped you. 

93) Reflect on your most difficult exam and what you learned from the experience.  

94) Write a short article about a teacher who positively impacted your education. 

95) Analyze all the pros and cons of using technology for learning. 

96) Describe the benefits of studying multiple subjects in college.

97) Elaborate on the importance of time management and describe any 5 time management strategies that helped you learn. 

98) Discuss the role of extra-curricular activities like arts, crafts, and sports in personality development. 

99) Reflect on an experience where failure while learning encouraged you to perform better. 

100) Elaborate on strategies and learning methods through which colleges can encourage creativity through education. 

101) Explain how learning in groups and through practical projects can help gain knowledge. 

11. Leadership and collaboration

102) Describe various strategies for developing leadership skills through education. 

103) Write about a leader who inspired you the most. 

104) Explain the types and impact of leadership style on team performance. 

105) Analyze the impact of stress and burnout on leadership and collaboration. Suggest strategies for enhancing health and resilience within teams.

106) Examine the role of creativity and innovation in leadership and collaboration. Discuss strategies through which leaders can encourage creativity among team members. 

107) Describe strategies using which leaders can bridge generation gaps and encourage diverse perspectives in teams. 

108) Explain the importance of storytelling in leadership. Describe how stories can be used to inspire team members. 

109) Analyze the impact of cross-cultural differences on leadership. Mention strategies using which leaders can ensure clear communication in culturally diverse teams. 

110) Examine the role of networking and relationship-building in leadership and collaboration. Suggest strategies for building professional networks. 

111) Discuss the importance of accountability and ownership in leadership and collaboration. Recommend 10 strategies for fostering a sense of responsibility and commitment within teams.

Browse through the next section for fun writing prompts for students! 

12. Fun writing prompts 

112) Describe a day when a magical genie agrees to grant 5 wishes. What would you ask for? 

113) Imagine you could visit any fictional world in a book/movie of your choice. Which fictional world would you choose and what would you do?  

114) Pen a story, imagining yourself as a superhero. What superpowers would you choose and what would you do? 

115) Imagine and describe your day as a famous inventor. What would you invent and why? 

116) If you could have dinner with five famous personalities, who would they be and why? 

117) Write a story about a magical dream that surprisingly came true. 

118) Pen a story about a road trip that takes an unexpected turn, leading to a shocking decision. 

119) Write a letter to your best friend, expressing gratitude and remembering all the wonderful memories spent together. 

120) If you could trade places with someone and live someone else’s life for a day, who would it be and why? 

121) Pen a story where whatever you say starts happening in reality. What happens next? 

Now let’s see some interesting writing prompts for ESL students! 

13. Good writing prompts for ESL students 

122) Write about your favorite food and why you enjoy it so much. 

123) Describe a memorable celebration you were part of and what made it special. 

124) Pen an article about a circus you visited and what you experienced. 

125) Explain about your dream house in detail. 

126) Write about your favorite book/TV Show/movie and explain why you liked it. 

127) Describe your experience playing a memorable video game and why it is special for you. 

128) Pen some words about the festival you love the most and why. 

129) Write in detail about your trip to an amusement park and its unique features. 

130) Describe a music festival you went to and why it was unforgettable for you. 

131) Pen your experience about a time you helped someone and how it made you feel. 

Now that you know the best creative writing prompts for students, you can use them. Once you complete writing, the next step will be to edit the text. As experts in editing and proofreading services , we’d love to help you perfect your text! 

Here are some other useful resources for you: 

• Academic Writing in 2024: 5 Key Dos & Don’ts + Examples
• 50 Amazing ESL Resources for Students (Free & Paid)

Frequently Asked Questions

How to find writing prompts, what is a good writing prompt, what are easy topics to write about.

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Academic Referencing: How to Cite a Research Paper

Learning how to conduct accurate, discipline-specific academic research can feel daunting at first. But, with a solid understanding of the reasoning behind why we use academic citations coupled with knowledge of the basics, you’ll learn how to cite sources with accuracy and confidence.

When it comes to academic research, citing sources correctly is arguably as important as the research itself. "Your instructors are expecting your work to adhere to these professional standards," said Amanda Girard , research support manager of Shapiro Library at Southern New Hampshire University (SNHU).

With Shapiro Library for the past three years, Girard manages the library’s research support services, which includes SNHU’s 24/7 library chat and email support. She holds an undergraduate degree in professional writing and a graduate degree in library and information science. She said that accurate citations show that you have done your research on a topic and are knowledgeable about current ideas from those actively working in the field.

In other words, when you cite sources according to the academic style of your discipline, you’re giving credit where credit is due.

Why Cite Sources?

Citing sources properly ensures you’re following high academic and professional standards for integrity and ethics.

“When you cite a source, you can ethically use others’ research. If you are not adequately citing the information you claim in your work, it would be considered plagiarism ,” said Shannon Geary '16 , peer tutor at SNHU.

Geary has an undergraduate degree in communication  from SNHU and has served on the academic support team for close to 2 years. Her job includes helping students learn how to conduct research  and write academically.

“In academic writing, it is crucial to state where you are receiving your information from,” she said. “Citing your sources ensures that you are following academic integrity standards.”

According to Geary and Girard, several key reasons for citing sources are:

• Access. Citing sources points readers to original sources. If anyone wants to read more on your topic, they can use your citations as a roadmap to access the original sources.
• Attribution. Crediting the original authors, researchers and experts  shows that you’re knowledgeable about current ideas from those actively working in the field and adhering to high ethical standards, said Girard.
• Clarity. “By citing your sources correctly, your reader can follow along with your research,” Girard said.
• Consistency. Adhering to a citation style provides a framework for presenting ideas within similar academic fields. “Consistent formatting makes accessing, understanding and evaluating an author's findings easier for others in related fields of study,” Geary said.
• Credibility. Proper citation not only builds a writer's authority but also ensures the reliability of the work, according to Geary.

Ultimately, citing sources is a formalized way for you to share ideas as part of a bigger conversation among others in your field. It’s a way to build off of and reference one another’s ideas, Girard said.

How Do You Cite an Academic Research Paper?

Any time you use an original quote or paraphrase someone else’s ideas, you need to cite that material, according to Geary.

“The only time we do not need to cite is when presenting an original thought or general knowledge,” she said.

While the specific format for citing sources can vary based on the style used, several key elements are always included, according to Girard. Those are:

• Title of source
• Type of source, such as a journal, book, website or periodical

By giving credit to the authors, researchers and experts you cite, you’re building credibility. You’re showing that your argument is built on solid research.

“Proper citation not only builds a writer's authority but also ensures the reliability of the work,” Geary said. “Properly formatted citations are a roadmap for instructors and other readers to verify the information we present in our work.”

Common Citation Styles in Academic Research

Certain disciplines adhere to specific citation standards because different disciplines prioritize certain information and research styles . The most common citation styles used in academic research, according to Geary, are:

• American Psychological Association, known as APA . This style is standard in the social sciences such as psychology, education and communication. “In these fields, research happens rapidly, which makes it exceptionally important to use current research,” Geary said.
• Modern Language Association, known as MLA . This style is typically used in literature and humanities because of the emphasis on literature analysis. “When citing in MLA, there is an emphasis on the author and page number, allowing the audience to locate the original text that is being analyzed easily,” Geary said.
• Chicago Manual of Style, known as Chicago . This style is typically used in history, business and sometimes humanities. “(Chicago) offers flexibility because of the use of footnotes, which can be seen as less distracting than an in-text citation,” Geary said.

The benefit of using the same format as other researchers within a discipline is that the framework of presenting ideas allows you to “speak the same language,” according to Girard.

APA Citation for College: A Brief Overview

Are you writing a paper that needs to use APA citation, but don’t know what that means? No worries. You’ve come to the right place.

How to Use MLA Formatting: A Brief Overview

Are you writing a paper for which you need to know how to use MLA formatting, but don’t know what that means? No worries. You’ve come to the right place.

How to Ensure Proper Citations

Keeping track of your research as you go is one of the best ways to ensure you’re citing appropriately and correctly based on the style that your academic discipline uses.

“Through careful citation, authors ensure their audience can distinguish between borrowed material and original thoughts, safeguarding their academic reputation and following academic honesty policies,” Geary said.

Some tips that she and Girard shared to ensure you’re citing sources correctly include:

• Keep track of sources as you work. Writers should keep track of their sources every time an idea is not theirs, according to Geary. “You don’t want to find the perfect research study and misplace its source information, meaning you’d have to omit it from your paper,” she said.
• Practice. Even experienced writers need to check their citations before submitting their work. “Citing requires us to pay close attention to detail, so always start your citation process early and go slow to ensure you don’t make mistakes,” said Geary. In time, citing sources properly becomes faster and easier.
• Use an Online Tool . Geary recommends the Shapiro Library citation guide . You can find sample papers, examples of how to cite in the different academic styles and up-to-date citation requirements, along with information and examples for APA, MLA and Chicago style citations.
• Work with a Tutor. A tutor can offer support along with tips to help you learn the process of academic research. Students at SNHU can connect with free peer tutoring through the Academic Support tab in their online courses, though many colleges and universities offer peer tutoring.

Find Your Program

How to cite a reference in academic writing.

A citation consists of two pieces: an in-text citation that is typically short and a longer list of references or works cited (depending on the style used) at the end of the paper.

“In-text citations immediately acknowledge the use of external source information and its exact location,” Geary said. While each style uses a slightly different format for in-text citations that reference the research, you may expect to need the page number, author’s name and possibly date of publication in parentheses at the end of a sentence or passage, according to Geary.

A longer entry listing the complete details of the resource you referenced should also be included on the references or works cited page at the end of the paper. The full citation is provided with complete details of the source, such as author, title, publication date and more, Geary said.

The two-part aspect of citations is because of readability. “You can imagine how putting the full citation would break up the flow of a paper,” Girard said. “So, a shortened version is used (in the text).”

“For example, if an in-text citation reads (Jones, 2024), the reader immediately knows that the ideas presented are coming from Jones’s work, and they can explore the comprehensive citation on the final page,” she said.

The in-text citation and full citation together provide a transparent trail of the author's process of engaging with research.

“Their combined use also facilitates further research by following a standardized style (APA, MLA, Chicago), guaranteeing that other scholars can easily connect and build upon their work in the future,” Geary said.

Developing and demonstrating your research skills, enhancing your work’s credibility and engaging ethically with the intellectual contributions of others are at the core of the citation process no matter which style you use.

A degree can change your life. Choose your program  from 200+ SNHU degrees that can take you where you want to go.

A former higher education administrator, Dr. Marie Morganelli is a career educator and writer. She has taught and tutored composition, literature, and writing at all levels from middle school through graduate school. With two graduate degrees in English language and literature, her focus — whether teaching or writing — is in helping to raise the voices of others through the power of storytelling. Connect with her on LinkedIn .

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Financial risk assessments pilot update

Our Director of Major Policy Projects and Evaluation Helen Rhodes provides an update on the upcoming pilot of financial risk assessments.

Posted 27 August 2024 by Helen Rhodes

Our approach to piloting financial risk assessments

The issue of how to identify and support high-spending remote gambling customers who may be in financial difficulties is one that the Gambling Commission has repeatedly looked at over recent years, including through consultation. This started with an open call for evidence on the topic of ‘affordability’. Building on and making use of the responses to the call for evidence, a narrower ‘financial risk’ topic was then considered as part of Government’s Gambling Act Review. Following this, we proceeded to a consultation on specific proposals. These proposals, which we published in May, were not on affordability, but on a more targeted approach to identifying financial risk and difficulties.

We want to tackle cases where customers have been able to gamble large amounts without any checks or support where it was later identified that this led to significant harm. But we are proceeding cautiously to test whether and how financial risk assessments could be introduced in a way that supports high-spending customers in financial difficulties but also supports a frictionless customer journey for the vast majority of customers.

In May, we announced that our next step would be to conduct a pilot with the largest operators and credit reference agencies . This blog sets out more details about what is being piloted and how we will assess the findings alongside other evidence and information to make decisions on whether and how to proceed.

How the pilot will work

As we have said before in an earlier blog post on Financial Risk , it is not a ‘live test’ - no consumers will be affected. Instead, we will run a pilot of how assessments would work using real data all the way through the process, but not take action on it. During a pilot and if introduced, financial risk assessments would not affect a consumer’s credit rating.

The pilot will last 6 to 7 months. The largest remote gambling operators will work through three stages initially looking at historical customer data and then considering current data. We are testing whether high spending customers who are in significant current financial difficulties or severely degrading financial difficulties can be identified - for example, this means people who might be in significant arrears, high levels of indebtedness, or have multiple missed payments.

We are testing how operators can be given limited information to understand how severe these financial difficulties might be, in order to take action to support the customer. This would potentially allow operators in the future to look at other indicators of harm they have and tailor support to the customer ranging from reducing marketing, encouraging the use of deposit limits, right up to ceasing the customer relationship. Where no financial difficulties are identified, the operator would not need to take any action.

At each stage, we are testing at least one of the success criteria. We expect each stage will give us different results. For example, it is likely that a smaller proportion of accounts would be able to receive a frictionless assessment when using historical data. The criteria we are assessing are:

1. Frictionless part 1

If the assessment were to be applied to the highest spending accounts, what proportion of these accounts could get a financial risk assessment from credit reference agencies? Is this amount in line with the estimates of the 2023 Gambling Act Review White Paper (opens in new tab) which estimated that approximately 80 percent of accounts that undergo a check would be able to do so? Is the ‘unmatched / thin file’ proportion of accounts approximately 20 percent of those accounts that undergo a check?

If the thresholds were set at those proposed in the consultation, this would mean that approximately 3 percent of accounts would be checked. We are testing whether 80 percent or more of that small proportion being checked would be frictionless. Overall, this would mean that the gambling businesses can ensure that the vast majority of accounts could have a frictionless customer journey.

2. Frictionless part 2

How quickly could credit reference agencies process an assessment and return a score or Red, Amber, Green (RAG) rating to gambling operators? Can credit reference agencies return the score or RAG rating to gambling operator within minutes for matched customers? To what extent does latency affect the frictionless process?

3. Data relevance and accuracy

Is using credit reference data meaningful for understanding of an individual customer’s current or imminent overall financial risk and financial vulnerability? How does this data compare to information that is otherwise available to operators about a customer’s individual financial vulnerability? Can Current Account Turnover (CATO) data add additional relevant insights on a customer’s individual financial risk? If so, in what circumstances? Could CATO data in some circumstances negatively impact the accuracy of an overall financial risk assessment? If so, in what circumstances?

4. Implementation issues

• how could the data be presented to operators to help understand the level of financial risk/ vulnerabilities associated with individual customers? 
• how could operators build financial risk assessments into their overall customer interaction processes? 

The pilot will provide insight to help us decide whether to proceed with the implementation of frictionless Financial Risk Assessments and, if so, how.   But these decisions would also be informed by wider considerations of data, evidence, consultation responses and our consumer research.

If financial risk assessments are introduced in the future, we are committed to longer term evaluation which we have discussed in our March blog on this topic . This would enable the Commission and the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) jointly to consider if the policy is delivering the intended outcomes for consumers in a live environment. 

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