investment casting literature review

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Investment Casting

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This modern book on investment casting fills a substantial gap in the literature of metal founding. The investment casting sector of the foundry industry has seen rapid growth; despite this the literature devoted specially to investment casting and its products has remained relatively sparse. Investment Casting has been produced by drawing upon the knowledge of authorities within or closely associated with the industry, in co-operation with the British Investment Casting Trade Association, examining the process and its products in a way which is useful both to the industry and to design engineers. To this end the earlier chapters are devoted to each of the main production stages from tooling to finishing, with health and safety treated separately, commensurate with its current importance.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 | 29  pages, introduction, chapter 2 | 13  pages, chapter 3 | 22  pages, pattern technology, chapter 4 | 58  pages, investment materials and ceramic shell manufacture, chapter 5 | 27  pages, melting and casting, chapter 6 | 33  pages, gating and feeding investment castings, chapter 7 | 29  pages, finishing investment castings, chapter 8 | 28  pages, health, safety and environmental legislation, chapter 9 | 53  pages, defects and non-destructive testing, chapter 10 | 41  pages, metallurgical aspects: structure control, chapter 11 | 39  pages, design for investment casting, chapter 12 | 101  pages, review of applications, chapter 12.1 | 18  pages, application to aerospace, chapter 12.2 | 16  pages, general applications of investment castings, chapter 12.3 | 33  pages, jewellery investment casting, chapter 12.4 | 33  pages, investment casting in surgery and dentistry.

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Formulations, development and characterization techniques of investment casting patterns

Conventionally, unfilled wax has been used as a universal pattern material for the investment casting process. With increase in demand for accurate dimensions and complex shapes, various materials have been blended with wax to develop more suitable patterns for investment casting in order to overcome performance limitations exhibited by unfilled wax. The present article initially reviews various investigations on the development of investment casting patterns by exploring pattern materials, type of waxes and their limitations, the effect of filler materials and various additives on unfilled wax, wax blends for pattern materials, plastics and polymers for pattern materials and 3D-printed patterns. The superiority of filled and polymer patterns in terms of dimensional accuracy, pattern strength, surface and flow properties over unfilled wax is also discussed. The present use of 3D patterns following their versatility in the manufacturing sector to revolutionize the investment casting process is also emphasized. Various studies on wax characterization such as physical (surface and dimensions), thermal (thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry), mechanical (thermomechanical analysis, tensile stress testing, dynamic mechanical analysis) and rheological (viscosity and shearing properties) are also discussed.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support given by the Technology Innovation Authority, South Africa.

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Surface roughness and dimensional tolerances in A319 alloy samples produced by rapid investment casting process based on fused filament fabrication

Computer-aided engineering (cae) simulation for the robust gating system design: improved process for investment casting defects of 316l stainless steel valve housing, systematic review on investment casting.

Abstract: The Investment casting (IC) method is now used to make all precision components in the medical, hydropower, defence, car, and other sectors. IC has a wide range of applications and is well-known for its ability to make complex near-net form items with great dimensional precision and surface polish. Various scholars are making ongoing efforts to investigate the topic of investment casting. This publication offers a comprehensive survey of the studies in this vast topic. It emphasises improvements in the earliest stages of the investment casting process. It focuses on pattern creation improvements, mould composition, casting materials, and typical flaws, as well as preventative actions. Keywords: Investment casting, Pattern modelling, Mould, TiAl alloys, defects

Aluminum metal composites primed by fused deposition modeling-assisted investment casting: Hardness, surface, wear, and dimensional properties

Fused deposition modeling -based three-dimensional printing techniques, when merged with the investment casting process, is one of the most innovative techniques for developing functionally graded metal–matrix composites in high-performance industrial applications. In this study, Al–Al2O3 matrix composites have been prepared by the combined route of fused deposition modeling and modified investment casting processes. In the first step, the Al–Al2O3 particles have been reinforced into nylon 6 thermoplastics for the preparation of fused deposition modeling-based feedstock filaments (in two configurations: C1 (60% nylon 6–30% Al–10% Al2O3) and C2 (60% nylon 6–28% Al–12% Al2O3). In the next step, the investment casting patterns of the fused deposition modeling process of nylon 6–Al–Al2O3 composites were prepared. Furthermore, the investment casting has been performed by controlling the proportion of nylon 6–Al–Al2O3, the volume of pattern, the density of pattern, barrel finishing media weight, barrel fining time, and number of mold wall layers considering Taguchi L18-based experimental design. Finally, the functional aluminum matrix composites were subjected to testing to investigate average surface roughness ( Ra), deviation inside the cube, average wear, and average hardness. The study results have suggested that maintaining a higher proportion of Al2O3 in three-dimensional printed parts leads to higher Ra, higher dimensional deviation, and higher hardness of investment cast parts. On the contrary, solid patterns have provided low wear rates and low-density patterns resulting in increased wear rates in final investment casted products. Furthermore, the responses are optimized concurrently with the “technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution–Taguchi” technique while considering the analytical hierarchical process and entropy weights of significance.

Research on Modification of Steel Fiber in Investment Casting shell

Toughening of ceramic shell mould with rice husk fiber (csm-rh) to improve strength property and mould performance.

For ages, ceramic shell mould (CSm) have been extensively applied in investment casting industry. The formation of CSm requires multiple steps of dipping, layering drying and firing stages. The later steps are very crucial as the solidification thin layer CSm that consist of loose ceramic particles easily cracks when exposed to the higher thermal effect. The inclusion of fiber or any reinforces phases is able to enhance fired ceramic body and also strengthen the green ceramic structure. Thus, the feasibility of rougher NaOH treated rice husk fiber (RHT) prior embedded into composited structure has shown a significant CSm improvement by induced a better adhesion properties and larger bonding area with brittle ceramic matrix, resulted in increased green strength (1.34 MPa) and fired body strength (4.32 MPa). Owing to the decomposed of lignin layer in CSm with untreated rice husk fiber (CSm-RHU) exhibited a higher porosity that provide a better permeation paths of air flow during molten metal pouring as increased 30 % from the standard CSm permeability, giving an enormous benefit for investment casting cooling process. Overall, the incorporation of RHT fiber in a CSm matrix of both green and fired body governed in toughening of brittle ceramic body, hence avoid failure to the casting mould.

Non-Contact Multiscale Analysis of a DPP 3D-Printed Injection Die for Investment Casting

The investment casting method supported with 3D-printing technology, allows the production of unit castings or prototypes with properties most similar to those of final products. Due to the complexity of the process, it is very important to control the dimensions in the initial stages of the process. This paper presents a comparison of non-contact measurement systems applied for testing of photopolymer 3D-printed injection die used in investment casting. Due to the required high quality of the surface parameters, the authors decided to use the DPP (Daylight Polymer Printing) 3D-printing technology to produce an analyzed injection die. The X-ray CT, Structured blue-light scanner and focus variation microscope measurement techniques were used to avoid any additional damages to the injection die that may arise during the measurement. The main objective of the research was to analyze the possibility of using non-contact measurement systems as a tool for analyzing the quality of the surface of a 3D-printed injection die. Dimensional accuracy analysis, form and position deviations, defect detection, and comparison with a CAD model were carried out.

Dimensional control of ring-to-ring casting with a data-driven approach during investment casting

Analysis of microstructure and mechanical properties in as-built/as-cast and heat-treated conditions for in718 alloy obtained by selective laser melting and investment casting processes.

In this work, new customized heat treatments for selective laser melted (SLM) parts in IN718 alloy were analyzed. This was done through the evaluation of the mechanical properties and advanced characterization of the phases and microstructure obtained in as-built condition and after the application of standard and tailored heat treatments. The microstructure and mechanical properties were compared and discussed with results reported in the literature. Finally, strengthening mechanisms of IN718 alloy processed by SLM and its differences with mechanisms that occur in investment casting were analyzed. Both processes generate quite different microstructures, investment casting is composed mainly by a dendritic structure, and SLM is characterized by columnar and cellular structures with very thin cells. Due to the fine and homogeneous microstructure obtained from SLM processing and its specific strengthening mechanisms, it is not necessary to apply homogenization and solution stages as in standard heat treatment used for this type of alloy in casting or wrought. The pre-heating and process parameters selected, in combination with a direct stepped aging (at 720 °C/620 °C), provide the material with its best mechanical properties, which are superior to those obtained by standard heat treatment (AMS 5383F) applied to investment casting of IN718 alloy.

Functionally graded calcium zirconate molds with alginate-based spray coating for titanium investment casting

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• DOI: 10.1177/0954405415597844
• Corpus ID: 112309810

Precision investment casting: A state of art review and future trends

• Sunpreet Singh , Rupinder Singh
• Published 1 December 2016
• Engineering, Materials Science
• Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture

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Mechanical properties characterization of ti6al4v for artificial hip joint materials prepared by investment casting, recent advancements in customized investment castings through additive manufacturing, development and surface improvement of fdm pattern based investment casting of biomedical implants: a state of art review, investment casting using additive manufacturing: state-of-the-art and future directions - a review paper, modelling of dimensional accuracy in precision investment casting using buckingham’s pi approach, critical review of comparative study of selective laser melting and investment casting for thin-walled parts, investment casting (disposable mold), mechanical properties of aisi 316l for artificial hip joint materials made by investment casting, shell mould strength of rice husk ash (rha) and bentonite clays in investment casting, the effect of stucco sand size on the shell mould permeability and modulus of rupture (mor), 105 references, developments in investment casting process—a review, rapid prototyping and tooling techniques: a review of applications for rapid investment casting, differential ceramic shell thickness evaluation for direct rapid investment casting, experimental study on the ice pattern fabrication for the investment casting by rapid freeze prototyping (rfp).

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A Study of Investment Casting with Plastic Patterns

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Investment Casting Process: Advance and Precise Casting Technique for Complex Product Design

With the times changing and world getting more focused towards superior quality, manufacturers have started looking for better processes so as to make better product. Casting industry has shifted focus towards better casting techniques of which investment casting is of prime consideration. Literature available for investment casting is limited and not enveloped properly in one title. This paper aims at providing detailed description of the Investment Casting technique, its importance as casting process and its applications. Further this paper discusses comparison of Investment casting with conventional methods, its advantages and drawbacks.

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Parametric Cost Modelling for Investment Casting

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• Marco Mandolini 14 ,
• Federico Campi 14 ,
• Claudio Favi 15 ,
• Paolo Cicconi 16 ,
• Michele Germani 14 &
• Roberto Raffaeli 17  

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering ((LNME))

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• International Joint Conference on Mechanics, Design Engineering & Advanced Manufacturing

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This paper presents a parametric cost model for estimating the raw material cost of components realized employing the investment casting process. The model is built using sensitivity analysis and regression methods on data generated by an analytic cost model previously developed and validated by the same authors. This is the first attempt of developing a parametric cost model for investment casting based on activity-based costing. The proposed cost model accounts component volume, material density and material price. The error in estimating the raw material cost for components whose volume is within the common range of investment casting is around 11%.

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Manufacturing feature-based cost estimation of cast parts

Influence of complex structure on the shrinkage of part in investment casting process, proposal and evaluation of a selection procedure for cast parts.

• Parametric cost modelling
• Sensitivity analysis
• Investment casting
• Cost estimating relationship
• Cost estimation

1 Introduction and Literature Review

The lost wax casting technique is one of the oldest and most advanced of the metallurgical arts [ 1 ]. The precision casting process is capable of producing complex castings with tight tolerances and good surface finish, and can meet the highest performance standards, such as those typical of turbojet engines. Other advantages of this process include the ability to melt materials that are impossible to forge and difficult to process employing other technologies. Wax casted components have weight ranging from few grams to a couple of dozens of kg and dimensions ranging from 5 mm to 300 mm. The tolerance ranges normally achievable in investment cast casting is ±1% of the nominal size, with a minimum of ±0,10 mm for dimensions lower than 10 mm [ 2 ], with a minimum roughness of 3.2 µm [ 3 ].

The manufacturing cost is one of the most important design requirements, for many kinds of products, which drives most of the technical and technological solutions [ 4 ]. For casting processes, different analytic cost models have been developed based on the process's peculiarities. Several researchers [ 5 , 6 , 7 ] have identified the major cost items of a casting process, such as material, tooling, labour, energy and overheads. The DFM Concurrent Costing® software developed by Boothroyd Dewhurst Inc. [ 8 ] has an analytic and detailed investment casting cost estimation module aimed at product designers. It considers most phases of the process (pattern and core manufacturing, pattern and cluster assembly, cleaning and etching, investment operation, melting, sintering, break out, blast cleaning and cut off).

However, analytical cost estimation methods and related cost models can be used only during the embodiment and detailed design phases, when the product is almost completely defined. For estimating manufacturing cost at the conceptual design phase, parametric cost models seem more suitable for this aim. The parametric cost estimation method involves formulating relations between product characteristics and its cost using available data. The issues of using analytic cost models for estimating the investment casting process during the design phase is even stronger for investment casting. This manufacturing process consists of several manufacturing phases and product/process cost drivers, which are too many for being managed by a design engineer.

Nowadays, industry 4.0, internet of things and data analytic are paradigms that foster the popularity of parametric cost modelling and cost estimating relationship methods [ 9 ]. Nonetheless, in literature, only few works presenting parametric cost models for investment casting. Among them, the most significant is that one presented by Creese [ 10 ], which considers the following product drivers: number of surface patches, number of patterns, volume of the part, floor area, material density and price. The parametric cost model is built according to historical data and this activity is also called activity-based costing [ 11 , 12 ]. However, it is not recognizable any scientific paper presenting a parametric cost model for investment casting process, based on data got from an analytic model. This is the novelty of the paper.

Based on a well-established cost estimating relationship approach [ 9 ], this paper presents a parametric cost model for investment casting. The model is built using sensitivity analysis and data regression methods on data generated by an analytic cost model previously developed and validated by the same authors.

2 Cost Estimation Relationship Building Process

The estimation of the manufacturing cost for wax-casted products generally requires complex cost estimation relationship, which need various inputs by the designer. Often, the designer knows this data only at an advanced stage of part design. The purpose of this section and in general of the study is to obtain a parametric relationship which allows a cost estimation of the part using data already knows in the early stages of component design. The cost estimating relationship (CER) is the distinguishing feature of parametric cost estimation. A CER is a mathematical expression that describes how the values of, or changes in, a “dependent” variable are partially determined, or “driven,” by the values of, or changes in, one or more “independent” variables [ 9 ]. The CER building process described later is divided in three parts and it uses the method developed by the International Society of Parametric Analysts [ 9 ].

2.1 Data Collection

All parametric estimating techniques, including CERs and complex models, need credible data before they can be used effectively. Parametric techniques require the collection of historical cost data and the associated non-cost information and factors that describe and strongly influence those costs (technical non-cost data). Technical non-cost data describes the physical, performance, and engineering characteristics of a system, sub-system or individual item. Cost data are obtained using an analytical cost model for investment casting, developed in a previous work, which is an improvement of that one proposed by Boothroyd and Dewhurst [ 8 ] and taken as reference. The approach for this improvement consists of four steps, hereunder summarized.

The first step consisted in collecting equations and data, available in Boothroyd and Dewhurst [ 8 ], within an electronic spreadsheet in which investment casting process cost has been divided in 13 phases: (i) core manufacturing, (ii) pattern manufacturing, (iii) pattern assembly, (iv) cluster assembly, (v) dissolving core, (vi) cleaning and etching, (vii) investing pattern cluster, (viii) melt out, (ix) sintering, (x) melting, (xi) break out, (xii) blast cleaning and (xiii) cut off. The costs of each phase are composed by process costs (manufacturing, setup and consumables costs) and raw material costs (the costs related to the casted metal).

The second step consisted in organizing two workshops with foundries to improve the cost model.

During the third step all the improvements to the investment casting cost model proposed in DFM have been integrated in the electronic spreadsheet developed at step 1. In this manner, it was possible to draft the cost breakdown for investment casting and detect the most cost expensive phases: (ii) pattern manufacturing (12 ÷ 20%), (iv) cluster assembly (11 ÷ 12%), (vii) investing pattern cluster (14 ÷ 15%), (ix) sintering (~11%) and (x) melting (32 ÷ 39%), which globally represents the 87 ÷ 90% of the product cost.

In the fourth step the cost model has been evaluated by comparing the costs obtained with the proposed model and the actual values of around twenty components provided by the foundries. For all the components it can be noted a deviation lower than 10%.

Starting from the cost breakdown and taking into consideration the most cost expensive phases, cost drivers are the following: batch size; part volume; part thickness; raw material price; raw material density; labour cost . For each cost driver a reference value was fixed. These reference values refer to a component of a food packaging machine (weight: 2 kg, dimensions: 160 × 172 × 15 mm) realized in stainless steel AISI316 and manufactured in Italy.

For having enough data for the parametric relationship development, each cost driver indicated above was varied between a maximum and a minimum value and raw material and process costs derived from the analytical model were collected. This sensitivity analysis was carried out in two phases: in the first phase (a) only one cost driver at a time was changed, keeping the others at reference value; instead in the second phase (b) two cost drivers together were changed. The maximum, minimum and reference values of each cost driver are indicated in Table 1 .

2.2 CER Development

The cost estimating relationship development follows the two-phases analysis indicated above. With the data obtained in the first phase (a) it is possible to evaluate the relationships among the process/raw material costs and the cost drivers. From this first phase it can be concluded that volume and density are the only cost drivers that significantly influence both the cost of the process and the cost of the raw material. The batch size, part thickness, and labour cost affect only the process cost, while a change in the material price only affects the raw material cost. This first step lets to understand the cost drivers to use in the second step to obtain parametric cost relationships. In this study, the focus is about the cost of raw material, which relationship with raw material price, part volume, and density is shown in Fig.  1 . For this figure it is possible to observe that raw material cost linearly depends on its unitary price (the higher the unitary price the higher the cost). Raw material cost is related to part volume and density via a step function because, while increasing the weight, pouring and handling systems may change discontinuously.

To build a parametric relationship function of these three cost drivers, it was firstly calculated 26 linear least square regressions (one for each discrete levels of raw material price) between raw material cost, the dependent variable, and part volume, the independent variables. For each regression it was obtained 2 coefficients: the slope and the intercept. Two other linear least square regressions were subsequently made between the obtained coefficients, in this case the dependent variable, and the discrete raw material price levels, the independent variable. By combining the data of the two regressions, a parametric parabolic equation was obtained (1). To develop the previous equation, material density was fixed to the reference value (ρ = 7850 kg/m 3 ), allowing the raw material cost calculation only for part which have the same material density of reference value.

Therefore, in order to account the effects of using different materials (e.g. melting temperature, gate volume, etc.) on the raw material cost, a density factor coefficient ( f ρ ) it was introduced. Its value varies in function of material density and is equal to 1 for the reference material (AISI 316), less than 1 for materials with a density lower than the reference (0.31 for Aluminium 1100; 0.98 for G 1800 Gy cast iron; 0.99 for 42CrMo4), greater than 1 for material whit a density higher than the reference (1,01 for 39NiCrMo4). Then the cost of raw material can be calculated by Eq. ( 2 ).

Sensitivity analysis of raw material density, price and part volume on raw material cost.

2.3 Validation

The cost estimating relationship must produce, to a given level of confidence, results within an acceptable range of accuracy. The validation of the previous relationship was carried out comparing its results with those deriving from analytical cost model of investment casting. Table 2 presents the absolute cost deviation between estimated values and the data obtained using the analytical model.

Results show a low deviation between the raw material cost estimated using the parametric model and the data obtained using the analytical model (the average absolute deviation is approx. 11%). This result demonstrates the goodness of the proposed parametric model.

3 Conclusions

This paper presented a parametric cost model for investment casting, developed according to the method presented in the parametric estimating handbook. The elementary data used for developing the cost model was obtained from an analytic cost model developed in a previous work and validated with the cooperation of two foundries. By employing sensitivity analysis and regressions methods, the paper presented a parametric cost model for estimating the raw material cost of wax casted parts. The error in estimating the raw material cost for components whose volume is within the common range of investment casting is around 11%.

Future research, following the method used in this work, should aim to develop parametric cost models for the estimating variable (i.e.: consumable, process and setup) and fixed costs (i.e. tooling cost).

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Marco Mandolini, Federico Campi & Michele Germani

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Claudio Favi

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Mandolini, M., Campi, F., Favi, C., Cicconi, P., Germani, M., Raffaeli, R. (2021). Parametric Cost Modelling for Investment Casting. In: Roucoules, L., Paredes, M., Eynard, B., Morer Camo, P., Rizzi, C. (eds) Advances on Mechanics, Design Engineering and Manufacturing III. JCM 2020. Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70566-4_61

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Innovations in solar-powered desalination: a comprehensive review of sustainable solutions for water scarcity in the middle east and north africa (mena) region.

1. Introduction

2. background, 2.1. overview of membrane-based processes, 2.2. components of seawater desalination with ro process, 2.3. challenges associated with the ro process, 2.3.1. high energy consumption, 2.3.2. membrane fouling, 2.3.3. environmental challenges, 2.3.4. boron removal, 3. reverse osmosis technology dominance in the mena region, 4. contribution of mena countries to solar-driven ro desalination research, 5. potential for renewable energies and resources in the mena region, 5.1. solar photovoltaics, 5.2. solar thermal energy, 6. advancements in solar energy-driven ro technology deployment in the mena region, 6.1. solar photovoltaic-powered ro systems, 6.2. solar thermal-powered ro systems, 7. solar desalination challenges and opportunities in mena, 7.1. challenges in solar-powered ro desalination in mena, 7.1.1. high initial investment cost, 7.1.2. technical complexities.

• Optimizing energy capture and utilization: Developing systems capable of efficiently converting solar energy into electricity for desalination purposes is essential.
• Energy storage solutions: Implementing robust and efficient energy storage methods is critical for addressing fluctuations in solar radiation and meeting peak demand during periods of low sunlight.
• Reliability and durability: Equipment must be designed to function reliably and maintain its integrity under harsh environmental conditions, including extreme temperatures, humidity, dust, and salt corrosion.
• Variability in solar irradiance and weather patterns: System design and operation must account for variations in solar radiation levels and weather patterns, which influence the availability and intensity of solar energy.

7.1.3. Limited Funding for Research and Development

7.1.4. lack of expertise, 7.2. opportunities for navigating the challenges of ro desalination plants in the mena region, 7.2.1. technology optimization and innovation, 7.2.2. government support, financial incentives, and investment, 7.2.3. regional collaboration and knowledge sharing, 7.2.4. investment in education, training, and capacity building, 7.2.5. promotion of local manufacturing and innovation, 8. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Al-Addous, M.; Bdour, M.; Rabaiah, S.; Boubakri, A.; Schweimanns, N.; Barbana, N.; Wellmann, J. Innovations in Solar-Powered Desalination: A Comprehensive Review of Sustainable Solutions for Water Scarcity in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region. Water 2024 , 16 , 1877. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131877

Al-Addous M, Bdour M, Rabaiah S, Boubakri A, Schweimanns N, Barbana N, Wellmann J. Innovations in Solar-Powered Desalination: A Comprehensive Review of Sustainable Solutions for Water Scarcity in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region. Water . 2024; 16(13):1877. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131877

Al-Addous, Mohammad, Mathhar Bdour, Shatha Rabaiah, Ali Boubakri, Norman Schweimanns, Nesrine Barbana, and Johannes Wellmann. 2024. "Innovations in Solar-Powered Desalination: A Comprehensive Review of Sustainable Solutions for Water Scarcity in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region" Water 16, no. 13: 1877. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131877

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A modern-day avatar of Vishnu, a Hindu god, who is believed to have descended to earth to protect the world from evil forces. A modern-day avatar of Vishnu, a Hindu god, who is believed to have descended to earth to protect the world from evil forces. A modern-day avatar of Vishnu, a Hindu god, who is believed to have descended to earth to protect the world from evil forces.

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New Development in Investment Casting Process -A Review

International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research Volume 8, Issue 12, December-2017 ISSN 2229-5518 529

Ganesh Vidyarthee1, Nandita Gupta2 1.Research Scholar , Department of Foundry Technology 2.Professor,Department of Foundry Technology National Institute of Foundry & Forge Technology, Ranchi

ABSTRACT- Investment Casting is a oldest casting process, used for precision casting and near net shape. It invented in around 3500 BC .This casting process is practiced in india and all over the world for high precision casting. Its product demand is growing in india as well as around the world.The use of simulation and Rapid prototyping (RP) techniques further increases its quality and same time reduce the lead-time and cost in investment casting process.The paper describes the role of rapid prototyping in product development through Investment Casting process and the scope of investment casting in India and around the world.

1. INTRODUCTION

Investment Casting is the one of the oldest casting process and most advanced in the metallurgical arts. This process is also knows as precision casting because it eliminates parting line and machining cost. This is a process of shaping metals where ceramic mold materials are invested layer by layer around an expendable wax or other materials that is the replica of desired article; the replica is then replaced with molten metal that solidifies in the shape of the desired article. This process is as ancient as the Harappan Civilization in 3500BC where, the bronze casting of a dancing girl (fig.1) was found (1). Archaeologist have established that the bronze images of Lord Buddha at Amaravati and Lord Rama and Kartikeya in the Guntur district of India were investmentIJSER cast during the 3rd and 4th centuries AD (2). All these and many more bronze icons recovered from several places in India such as Saranath, Sirpur, Akota, Vasantagadh, Chhatarhi, Barmer and Chambi used natural bee-wax for patterns, clay for the moulds and manually operated bellows for stoking furnaces. During World War II, this technique was adapted to produce castings which could not be fabricated by other casting methods. Traditionally used for the creation of jewellery and art objects, the need for mass production of near net shape components during the 20th century led to the industrial development of the precision investment casting process. Today this ancient process is more relevant than ever, influencing and enhancing our daily lives, through leisure pursuits, air travel, medical implants, power generation, spare parts for textile, transport and other industries . In india There are about 200 industrial investment casting foundries in comparison with over 4500 sand and die-casting foundries.

IJSER © 2017 http://www.ijser.org International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research Volume 8, Issue 12, December-2017 ISSN 2229-5518 530

FigureIJSER-1 Figure-2 Figure-1 The dancing girl from Mohenjo-daro. Harappan, 2500 BC. Lost wax copper alloy casting. (Photogravure1938, National Museum Delhi)

Figure-2. The Buddha from Sultanganj, Bihar. Gupta-Pala, 5th-7th century AD. Lost wax copper hollow casting.(Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery.)

Casting production has grown in most of the investment casting foundries in compare to previous years. Investment casting business in India is increased by approximately 10- 12% in the year 2011[3]. Many of these foundries are equipped with modern wax injection machine and robotic shelling system.They are majorly manufacture industrial valves, pumps and machinery which cover approximately 44% of Indian investment casting market.In defense field turbine blades and vanes for MIG aircrafts began in India during 1960s at HAL, Koraput by investment casting process.Currently,Racing car engines and aerospace industry find huge area of application of the investment cast graphite fibre-reinforced metal matrix composites[4]. Titanium and zirconium alloys have unique properties and are effective in aerospace and high performance structures. Even nickel-based super alloys[5] are being cast by vacuum investment casting process.

IJSER © 2017 http://www.ijser.org International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research Volume 8, Issue 12, December-2017 ISSN 2229-5518 531

Figure-3.Distribution of Foundries across the world.

The distribution of nearly 1600 investment casting foundries worldwide is shown in Fig. 2[6]. Approximately, 75% of these investment casting foundries are in Asian countries. However, North America isIJSER the largest single producer of investment casting with almost 37% of the world sales while Asian countries’ sales is approximately 33% (2011 data)[6].

In investment casting, the ceramic molds are made by two different methods: the solid mold process and the ceramic shell process. The solid mold process is mainly used for dental and jewelry castings, currently has only a small role in engineering applications.The ceramic shell process has become the predominant technique for a majority of engineering applications, displacing the solid mold process. The ceramic shell process is a precision casting process, uniquely developed and adapted to produce complex-shaped castings, to near-net-shape, and in numerous alloys. Continued advancements in materials and techniques used in the process, are driven and supported by R&D on many fronts, both in the industry as well as in many schools for foundry metallurgy .

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The Basic Steps in the Investment Casting Process

Wax Injection Assembly Shell building Dewax/Burnout

IJSER Gravity Pouring Knock out Cut-off Finished Casting

2. Pattern Making Wax patterns are traditionally[7] moulded in a permanent cavity known as “die”, which generally includes the ingates. The wax is injected in the die under 5-35 kg/cm2 pressure, often (but not necessarily) through the ingate. A separating agent is used to prevent sticking. A temperature of approximately 500C is critical. If it is too cold, details will suffer; if too hot, shrinkage of the wax will be excessive and time will be lost in chilling. After a desired cooling period to form up the wax pattern, the die is opened and the wax pattern removed.Instead of using metals as die materials, non-metals like polyurethane (to yield hard moulds) or RTV (to give soft moulds) can be used to make dies. A research study[8] has shown that polyurethane dies give patterns of better surface finish and accuracy. The study has also shown that using lower pressure with higher temperature for the polyurethane die will produce an accurate pattern provided that care is taken while choosing the holding time. A short holding time will produce more accurate pattern but too short a holding time will cause distortion while removing it

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fromthe mould, as it might be too soft. Patterns suitable for investment casting can be built using RP systems such as Fused Deposition Modeling [9], Stereolithography and Thermojet [10], ZPrinter [11] and Layered Object Manufacturing [12]. In liquid-based systems, the portions of the part lying above any undercuts are supported on independent structures created along with the part (using a different material as in FDM, or the same material as in Stereolithography).

3. Pattern Materials 3.1. Pattern Waxes Waxes are mostly the preferred material for patterns, and are normally used, modified and blended with additive materials such as plastics , resins, fillers, antioxidants, and dyes, in order to improve their properties, [13]. Paraffins and micro crystalline waxes are the most widely used waxes, and are often used in combination, because their properties tend to be complementary. Paraffin waxes are available in many controlled grades, with melting points ranging from 52 to 68 °C (126 to 156 °F). They are readily available in different grades, have low cost, high lubricity and low melt viscosity. Their usage is, however, limited because of high shrinkage and brittleness.

3.2. Plastics Plastic is the most widely used pattern material, next to wax. Polystyrene is usually used, because it is economical, very stable, can be molded at high production rates on automatic equipment, and has high resistance to handling damage, even in extremely thin sections. Use of polystyrene is however limited, because of its tendency to cause shell mold cracking during pattern removal, and it requires more expensive tooling and injection equipment than for wax. However, the mostIJSER important application for polystyrene is for delicate airfoils, used in composite wax-plastic integral rotor and nozzle patterns, assembled using wax for the rest of the assembly.

3.3 Mercury pattern compounds (Mercasting, 2006) In this case frozen mercury is used as a pattern material instead of wax. Liquid mercury is poured into a mould where it freezes at low temperatures. Then it is removed and coated with cold refractory slurry to the required thickness. The refractory shell is dried at low temperature the sh parts be made using mercury. Very close tolerance obtained but it is a very expensive method.

3.4 Ice pattern compounds (Zhang, 1999) It uses pure water to make the ice pattern . At low temperature, water is sprayed through a nozzle to a selected place under the computer's precise control, and is freezed rapidly. The solid part is built from the bottom up to the top layer-by-layer. The advantages of the ice are cheap, readily availability, contractions during melting, high quality, good surface finish and the environmently friendly nature of water. The ceramic moulds were done at sub-zero temperature in favor of the ice pattern used.

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3.5. Other Pattern Materials Foamed Polystyrene has long been used for gating system components. It is also used as patterns with thin ceramic shell molds in a separate casting process known as Replicast Process. Urea- based patterns, developed in Europe, have properties similar to plastics; they are very hard, strong and require high-pressure injection machines.

3.6. RP pattern Use of Rapid prototyping (RP) techniques reduce the lead-time and cost in investment casting process. It also gives the freedom to issue new products rapidly without significant increase total development time and cost.The ideal RP pattern for investment casting is wax, such as Thermojet MJM wax and FDM ICW06 wax. However, based on Whovers’ 2008-RP-Report in Fig. 1, more than 70% of RP units produce parts that are made of thermo plastic or thermo-set [14], simply because at present the RP units purchased by companies are used for multi- functions not only for demonstration and sampling, but also for fit and run pieces.There are several RP techniques available for fabrication of investment casting patterns such as: ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) for FDM (Fuse Deposition Manufacturing) process [15], Quick CastTM photopolymer used in SLA (Stereo-Lithography) [16] and PrimeCast 100 polymer for SLS [17]. IJSER

Suitable material for investment casting A wide variety of materials such as both ferrous and non-ferrous can be used in investment casting. Any metal that can be melted in standard induction furnace or vacuum furnace can be considered for this case. Difficult to machine materials are also good candidate for investment casting. Comprehensive list of materials that can be used in investment casting are given in Table

IJSER © 2017 http://www.ijser.org International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research Volume 8, Issue 12, December-2017 ISSN 2229-5518 535

Table 1: Suitable material for investment casting[18]. Material Fluidity Shrinkage Resistance to hot Castability tearing. rating

Carbon steels

1040 (G10400) B B B B+

1050 (G10500) B B B B+

Alloy Steels

2345 (G23450) B B B A-

4130 (G41300) B B B A-

Nickel Alloys

Monel (QQ-N-288-A) A B B B+ (N04020)

Inconel 600 (AMS 5665) A B B B+ (N06600)

Cobalt Alloys

Cobalt 21 (R30021) A A B A

Cobalt 31(R30031) A A B A IJSERAluminum alloys A 356 (A13560) A A A A+

C 355 (A33550) A A A A+

Tool steels

A-2 (T30102) B B B B+

H-13 (T20813) B B B B+

Copper alloys

Gunmetal (C90500) A C A B+

Beryllium copper 10C A C A B+ (C82000)

A -Excellent; B - good; C- poor

IJSER © 2017 http://www.ijser.org International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research Volume 8, Issue 12, December-2017 ISSN 2229-5518 536

4. Modeling and simulation The use of simulation leads to increase in efficiency and decrease in the trial and error experiments in the casting process. Casting simulations involves design, visualization and optimization of the casting process before making expensive molds or patterns. During casting, thermal stresses occur in the cast parts which lead to different consequences such as distortion, crack, hot tear and residual stresses. Each one of them has detrimental effect on the quality of cast products. The simulation of thermal stress during solidification is an important way to predict the above mentioned defects in a casting. Many simulational studies have been made in the field of investment castings. Guan et al. (1994) developed a thermo-mechanical model to calculate the residual stresses upon cooling, the resulting distortions and the cracking behavior of -TiAl investment castings. It was found from their study that the calculated and the experimental results of the castings showed good agreement with each other. The work carried out by the authors is really noticeable as they could predict the residual stress occurring in the casting proximately so that necessary actions could be taken to reduce or prevent the same. However, their model could not predict the temperature range accurately at which residual stress might occur. A similar work was done by Norouzi et al. (2009), who simulated the residual stresses and hot tearing in investment castings using MAGMASOFT simulation software. It was found that the temperature range for simulating residual stress was between room temperature and coherency temperature and the same for hot tearing was between coherency temperature and solidus temperature. The results also revealed that the thermal stress concentration zone increased the hot tearing probability and consequently reduced the amount of remaining residual stress in casting parts. The work done by the researchers is appreciable.IJSER Today, several major foundries around the world have bought and are using these kinds of simulation softwares. There is, also, a significant number of engineering companies performing foundry process simulation as a consultancy service for foundries. However, the problem arises with few small scale foundries which can neither buy these softwares nor hire the services of consultancy companies.Chattopadhyay (2010) built a functional relationship between the solidification time obtained from lumped analysis and full phase complete solution of energy equation, considering heat losses from the mold wall by both convection and radiation. Afazov et al. (2011) also developed a simulation package to predict the residual stresses in the bottom core vane (BCV) component of an aero-engine subjected to equiaxed cooling, using two finite element (FE) codes (ABAQUS and ProCAST). The temperature and the residual stresses have been compared for both FE codes. The results showed that both codes were suitable for carrying out casting simulations.Several casting simulation programs are available today and quite well established: Magma (www.magmasoft.com),Pamcast/Procast(www.esigroup.com),Novasolid/Novaflw (www.novacast.se), Solidcast (www.finitesolutions.com) and a few others. They are however, rarely used by the large number of small and medium size foundries, owing to the high cost of

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the software and support involved, and difficulty in attracting and retaining the technical manpower required to run the programs.

5. Rapid Prototype Technology and Investment Casting In traditional Investment Casting the cost of tooling is higher for producing the wax pattern. As such, Investment Casting is not suitable for low volume production like rapid prototyping (RP) or specialized components productions. In rapid prototyping process 3-Dimension CAD model converting into a solid physical model directly. Taking advantages of computer hardware and software technologies, the CAD data of a three-dimensional object was sliced into multiple two- dimensional layers . RP fabricators generate a three-dimensional physical model by stacking thin layer cross-sections of the sliced part geometry from the CAD data.The first RP technique, namely sterolithography (SLA) was invented in 1986.After that,many other RP processes have been developed. First time in SriLanka, modeling of complex engine parts using by rapid prototype technique and subsequent mould making for investment casting using ceramic materials were performed.In the last few years there have been rapid developments in the accuracy, surface finish and build speed of RP parts. At present, there are almost 60 RP technology in use based on different materials and techniques for building and binding the layers .The RP technology that are used in investment casting process are Laser Stereolithography (SLA), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) , 3-D Printing (3DP) (or Direct Shell Production Casting, DSPC), Ballistic Particle Manufacturing (BPM), Sander Prototype (SPI), Laser-Engineered-Net-Shaping (LENS), and Fused Deposition Manufacturing (FDM).

The key advantageIJSER of rapid prototype technology is that it eliminates the need for tooling, reducing the lead time and make pattern quickly for a cast part.The output of rapid prototyping can be used directly as an expandable pattern or to produce investment wax patterns from rapid prototyping molds.Rapid prototyping is capable of generating thermally expandable patterns or toolings for fabricating permanent dies or molds for injections of investment wax patterns for shell investment casting.It provides a sharp tool for global competition by saving time and cost.There are several alternatives for involving rapid prototyping process in investment casting.

(a) Some rapid prototyping process is used for mold tooling for injection of investment wax patterns.

(b) Some rapid prototyping process can fabricate expandable patterns for casting.

(c) Some rapid prototyping processes can make ceramic cells directly for investment casting.

Table 2.shows the compatibility of various RP technologies with investment casting. It includes the material availability, pattern accuracy, toxicity and the transferability of pattern removal.

IJSER © 2017 http://www.ijser.org International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research Volume 8, Issue 12, December-2017 ISSN 2229-5518 538

Table-2. The compatibility of RP processes with investment casting.

RP Material Accuracy Trancferability Material Process toxicity

SLA Epoxy Excellent Thermal Expansion Yes

SLS Casting wax, Ploycarbonate Poor Material shrinkage Yes

FDM Casting wax Good Similar to Lost wax No

SPI Model Low melting Thermoplastic Excellent Negligible thermal No Maker expansion

DSPC Casting ceramic Poor Material shrinkage Yes

LOM Sheet paper Fair Residual ash Yes

Conclusion. In this article, some of the latest developments in the investment casting have been discussed and the process characteristics highlighted.The ancient investment casting process is a slow and troublesome and it makes the product costlier. India has proven capability in the ancient art of metalIJSER casting as well as the latest information technologies, but needs to combine these capabilities to surge ahead in the global race of competitive manufacturing. . One such proposed route is through computer-aided design and rapid prototyping technologies for pattern development, followed by clay-moulded (ancient) or ceramic shell (current) methods for investment casting. However, with reducing costs of the systems involved and improving efficiency of the processes, we strongly feel that the approach will gradually expand its reach. It is important for the foundries to experiment with such new routes, identify the best combination of application, geometry, material and process, and specialise in that combination to establish a niche in the global market.

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Reference: [1] Krishnan, M. V., 1976. Cire Perdue Casting in India, New Delhi: Kanak Publications. [2] Kuppuram, G., 1989. Ancient Indian Mining, Metallurgy and Metal Industries, Delhi: Ashish Singhal. [3] Dave Deepan and Tamboli Piyush, Advanced in Investment Casting – India, 13th World Conference on Investment Casting, Japan, 2012. [4] D. M. Goddard, Investment Cast Graphite Fibre- Reinforced Magnesium Composites, AFS Transactions, Volume 94, 1986, p. 667–682. [5] D. S. Reed and M. L. Jones, Investment Casting of Induction Skull Melted Titanium and Reactive Alloys, AFS Transactions, Volume 99, 1991, p. 697–700. [6] Williams Ronald and Hirst Richard, Review of World Investment Casting Markets, 13th World Conference on Investment Casting, Japan, 2012. [7] E. Hamilton, Tooling for Lost Wax Investment Castings, AFS Trans., Volume 93, 1985, p. 903–906. [8] Prasad K.D.V. Yaraladda, Teo Siang Hock, Statistical Analysis on Accuracy of Wax Patterns Used in Investment Casting Process, Journal of MaterialsProcessing Technology, 138 (2003), p. 75–81. [9] www.stratasys.com [10] www.3DSystems.com [11] www.zcorp.com [12] www.helisys.com [13] Horton, R. A. (2008). Investment Casting. Casting, ASM Handbook,, 15 [14] Wohlers Report, Rapid prototyping and tooling state of the industry, Annual Worldwide Progress Report, Terry T. Wohlers; Wohlers Associates, Inc., 2008. [15] R. Winker, InvestmentIJSER Casting, Stratasys Inc., 2008. [16] T.H. Pang, P.F. Jacobs, QuickCast TM, available online at: http://utwired.engr.utexas.edu/lff/symposium/proceedings,Archive/Manuscripts/1993/1993-19- Pang.pdf. [17] P. Jacobs, T. Mueller, Are quickcast patterns suitable forlimited production, Rapid Prototyping Journal 11 (2005)3. [18] Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed) [19]Mercasting(2006),“Engines” http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/1-506/ch3.ht [2006,Dec 13]. [20] Zhang, W, Leu, M.C,. Ji, Z and. Yan, Y (1999) “Rapid freezing prototyping with water”.J.mat.design.,(20)139-145. [21]Guan, J., Dieckhues, G.W., Sahm, P.R., 1994. Analysis of residual stresses and cracking of - TiAl castings. Intermetallics 2, 89–94. [22]Norouzi, S., Shams, A., Farhangi, H., Darvish, A., 2009. The temperature range in the simulation of residual stress and hot tearing during investment casting. In: Proceedings of the World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, vol.58, pp. 283–289.

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[23]Chattopadhyay, H., 2010. Estimation of solidification time in investment casting process. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (online). [24]Afazov, S.M., Becker, A.A., Hyde, T.H., 2011. FE prediction of residual stresses of investment casting in a bottom core vane under equiaxed cooling. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 13, 30–40. [25]www.magmasoft.com [26] www.esi-group.com [27] www.novacast.se [28]www.finitesolutions.com

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