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Human Body Essay | Essay on Human Body in Life for Students and Children in English

February 12, 2024 by sastry

Human Body Essay: Human body is truly a marvel. It is perhaps the most evolved living thing. It is, in fact, like a highly sophisticated machine.

You can read more  Essay Writing  about articles, events, people, sports, technology many more.

Short Essay on Human Body 200 Words for Kids and Students in English

Below we have given a short essay on Human Body is for Classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. This short essay on the topic is suitable for students of class 6 and below.

To prevent it from diseases and illnesses, a thorough knowledge of the human body is necessary. Medical science has unravelled many mysteries of the functions of our body. And, the more we find out, the more fascinating the human body appears to be. But there is still a lot that we don’t know or can’t explain.

The human skeleton is like a cage. It provides the necessary support to the body. It also helps in protecting our vital organs. There are 206 bones in an adult human body. These bones are made up of calcium and phosphorus. The box-like skull structure protects our brain.

The muscles constitute the flesh. There are over 600 muscles in our body. All our movements are the direct result of the contraction and expansion of these muscles.

A cell is the basic unit of the body and there are millions of cells in each human body. These cells get nourishment through food, drink and oxygen. The cell suffer wear and tear during work. But through adequate rest and food the damage to the cell is repaired.

Then, there are the circulatory, respiratory, disgestive and nervous systems in our body. They are all highly complex systems but each is wonderful in its own way. Human heart and brain must be two of the most wonderful creations ever. They are extremely complicated but also very efficient parts of our body.

For us to live and remain healthy, it is important for all these parts and systems to work well together, in harmony with each other.

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Human body systems

Author: Jana Vasković, MD • Reviewer: Nicola McLaren, MSc Last reviewed: November 03, 2023 Reading time: 24 minutes

The human body is a biological machine made of body systems; groups of organs that work together to produce and sustain life. Sometimes we get lost while studying about cells and molecules and can’t see the forest for the trees. It can be helpful to step back and look at the bigger anatomical picture.

This topic page will provide you with a quick introduction to the systems of the human body, so that every organ you learn later on will add a superstructure to the basic concept you adopt here.

Skeletal system

Muscular system, cardiovascular system.

• Respiratory system

Central nervous system

Peripheral nervous system, somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

• Digestive system

Urinary system

Endocrine system.

• Lymphatic system

Reproductive system

• Integumentary system

Related articles

The skeletal system is composed of bones and cartilages . There are two parts of the skeleton; axial and appendicular. The axial skeleton consists of the bones of the head and trunk . The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones within the limbs, as well as supporting pectoral and pelvic girdles .

There are 206 bones in an adult human body. The place at which two bones are fitted together is called the joint or articulation. Joints are supported by cartilages and reinforced with ligaments . Functions of the skeletal system are mechanical support, movement , protection, blood cell production, calcium storage and endocrine regulation.

Elements of the skeletal system are adjusted to the function of the body part they support. Thus, the anatomy of bones, joints and ligaments is studied topographically, as the bones of the; head and neck , thorax , abdomen , upper and lower limbs .

Get started with skeletal system anatomy by checking out the study unit and custom quiz below.

The muscular system consists of all the body muscles. There are three muscle types ; smooth , cardiac and skeletal muscles. Smooth muscle is found within walls of blood vessels and hollow organs such as the stomach or intestines. Cardiac muscle cells form the heart muscle, also called the false . Skeletal muscles attach to the bones of the body.Among these three, only skeletal muscles can be controlled consciously and enable us to produce body movement, while the function of other two muscle types is regulated by the autonomic nervous system and is absolutely unconscious.

Histologically, skeletal and cardiac muscle fibers are arranged in a repetitive fashion giving a striped appearance, hence are called striated muscle .

Smooth muscle does not contain repetitive sarcomeres , thus is non-striated muscle.

Learn all about the muscular system in the study unit below, or consolidate what you already learned with our fully customizable quiz.

The cardiovascular system is comprised of the heart and the circulatory system of blood vessels. The heart is composed of four chambers; two atria and two ventricles . Blood enters the heart through the upper chambers of the left and right atria and exits via the left and right ventricles. Heart valves prevent the backflow of blood.

The heart acts as a two-way pump. The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary circulation of the lungs , where the blood is reoxygenated again. While the left side of the heart simultaneously pumps oxygenated blood into the systemic circulation, distributing it to the peripheral tissues . The regular pumping, or heartbeat , is controlled by the conduction system of the heart .

The circulatory system, also called the vascular system, consists of arteries, veins and capillaries . They all comprise a continuous network of vessels which act to carry blood around the body. Blood leaves the heart via arteries , these progressively reduce in size to continue as smaller arterial vessels called arterioles . Arterioles end in a web of even smaller vessels called capillaries . The exchange of gases and nutrients occurs through the capillary walls.

Small veins, called venules , leave from capillaries and gradually increase their lumen on the way to the heart to end as veins . There is a certain histological difference between arteries and veins , but their main functional difference reflects the direction in which they conduct blood: the arteries convey blood from the heart to the periphery, whereas the veins convey blood from the periphery to the heart. 

There are three separate circuits to the circulatory system.

• The pulmonary circulation which carries blood between the heart and the lungs;
• The coronary circulation which supplies blood to the muscle of the heart;
• And the systemic circulation which carries blood to the rest of the body.

Major arteries within the systemic circulatory system are the aorta and its branches, while the main representatives of the veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava .

Learn everything about the heart, arteries and veins faster with our cardiovascular system diagrams, quizzes and free worksheets .

Major functions of the cardiovascular system include transportation of oxygen, nutrients and hormones throughout the body within the blood, and as well as eliminating carbon dioxide and other metabolic waste.

Learn more about the major arteries, veins and nerves of the body with Kenhub resources!

The respiratory system consists of a series of organs; the nasal cavity , pharynx , larynx , trachea , bronchi , bronchioles and lungs ( alveoli ). The nasal cavity and pharynx are together called the upper respiratory system , while the remainder of the organs comprise the lower respiratory system .

Respiratory system organs, with the exception of the alveoli, function to conduct air into the lungs aided by the muscles of respiration (mainly the diaphragm and intercostal muscles ).

Once air is in the lungs it enters alveoli (the site of gas exchange) and interacts with blood transported by the pulmonary circulation. Here carbon dioxide is removed from, and oxygen returned to, the blood. Thus the major respiratory system function is to bring oxygen into the body and expel carbon dioxide. 

Fortify your knowledge about the respiratory system with this content we have prepared for you.

• Nervous system

Nervous system controls how we interact with and respond to our environment, by controlling the function of the organs in our other body systems. The nervous system organs are the brain , spinal cord and sensory organs. These are connected by neurons , which act to transmit neural signals around the body. 

Morphologically and topographically, the nervous system is divided into the central (CNS) and peripheral (PNS) nervous systems. Whilst functionally, the nervous system is considered as two parts; the somatic (SNS) or voluntary nervous system, and the autonomic (ANS) or involuntary nervous system.

The  central nervous system definition is that it receives information from the body’s environment and generates instructions, thereby controlling all the activities of the human body. This two-way information flow into, and out of, the CNS is conveyed by the peripheral nervous system. 

The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is placed within the  neurocranium , and is formed from the cerebrum , cerebellum and brainstem ( pons and  medulla oblongata ). The central parts of the CNS are occupied by spaces called ventricles filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) . The spinal cord is placed within the vertebral column . The spinal canal extends through the central part of the spinal cord. It is also filled with CSF and it communicates with the ventricles of the brain.

The CNS is made of neurons and their processes ( axons ). Gray matter is made of neuron cell bodies, it is found in the cerebral cortex and the central portion of the spinal cord. White matter is made of axons, which combine and build neural pathways . The gray matter is where the instructions generate, while the white matter is the path through which the instructions travel toward the organs.

The peripheral nervous system definition is that it conducts information from the CNS to the target tissues, and from the target tissues to the CNS. It consists of nerves and their ganglia . Nerves that carry information from peripheral sense organs (for example eye , tongue , nasal mucosa, ear , skin ) to the CNS are called the ascending, afferent or sensory nerve fibers. Fibers that carry information from the CNS to the periphery (muscles and glands) are the descending, efferent , motor or secretory nerve fibers.

A ganglion is a cluster of neural tissue outside of the CNS, made of neuronal cell bodies. Ganglia can be both sensory and autonomic. Sensory ganglia are associated with spinal nerves and some cranial nerves ( V , VII , IX , X ). 

Peripheral nerves emerge from the CNS. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves which arise from the brain, and 31 pairs of spinal nerves which extend from the spinal cord. Cranial nerves are named I to XII, determined by their skull exit location (anterior to posterior). Spinal nerves are divided into 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral and 1 coccygeal nerve , depending on vertebral level from which they arise. In certain areas of the body peripheral nerves interconnect, creating neural networks called plexuses . Notable plexuses are the:

• Cervical plexus (C1-C4) – innervates the back of the head , some  neck muscles , pericardium and diaphragm via great auricular, transverse cervical nerve , lesser occipital, supraclavicular, and phrenic nerves .
• Brachial plexus (C5-T1) – innervates the upper limb with nerves such as median , ulnar , radial , musculocutaneous  and  axillary nerve .
• Lumbar plexus (L1-L4) – innervates the muscles and the skin of the abdomen and pelvis , as well as thigh muscles via iliohypogastric, ilioinguinal, genitofemoral , lateral femoral cutaneous, obturator, femoral nerves .
• Sacral plexus (S1-S4, with branches from L4, L5) – innervates the muscles and skin of parts of the pelvis, posterior thigh , lower leg and foot via the following nerves; gluteal, sciatic , posterior femoral cutaneous, pudendal, nerve to piriformis, nerve to obturator internus , and nerve to quadratus femoris . 

The somatic nervous system (SNS) and autonomic nervous system (ANS) are divisions of the peripheral nervous system, with information conveyed through the cranial and spinal nerves. 

The somatic nervous system definition is that it allows voluntary control over our movements and responses. It conveys sensory and motor information between the skin, sensory organs, skeletal muscles and the CNS; establishing communication of the human body with its environment and response to outside stimuli. Major somatic peripheral nerves include the median nerve, sciatic nerve and femoral nerve. 

The autonomic nervous system definition is that it controls all the internal organs unconsciously, through the associated smooth muscle and glands . Functionally, the ANS is divided into sympathetic   (SANS) and parasympathetic   (PANS) autonomic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system definition is informally known as producing the „flight or fight“ state as it is the part of the ANS which is mostly active during stress.PANS dominates during rest, and is more active in „rest and digest“ or „feed and breed“ activities. The centers of SANS and PANS are within the brainstem and spinal cord, and they communicate with SANS and PANS ganglia located throughout the body. Note that there isn’t any pure SANS or pure PANS nerve, instead their fibers are added to the specific somatic nerves, making them mixed.

The digestive system function is to degrade food into smaller and smaller compounds, until they can be absorbed into the body and used as energy. It consists of a series of gastrointestinal tract organs and accessory digestive organs.

The digestive system organs spread from the mouth to the anal canal. So it’s actually a tube consisting of the mouth , pharynx , esophagus , stomach , small intestine , large intestine , and anal canal . Accessory digestive organs assist with the mechanical and chemical food breakdown, these are the tongue, salivary glands , pancreas , liver and gallbladder .

Master the digestive system anatomy starting with this study unit and custom quiz:

Urinary system is a body drainage system comprised of the group of organs that produce and excrete urine. It consists of the kidneys, ureters , urinary bladder and urethra .

Kidneys  are paired bean-shaped organs placed retroperitoneally. The kidneys have a rich blood supply provided by the renal artery . Nephrons within the kidneys filter the blood that passes through their web of capillaries ( glomerulus ). The blood filtrate then passes through a series of tubules and collecting ducts, eventually forming the final ultrafiltrate, urine . Urine passes into the ureters , tubes of smooth muscle that convey urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder . The bladder is a hollow muscular organ that collects and stores urine before disposal by urination (micturition). Functions of the urinary system include; elimination of body waste, regulation of blood volume and blood pressure, regulation of electrolyte levels and blood pH.

Get started with the urinary system with these resources:

The endocrine system is a collection of specialised organs (endocrine glands) scattered throughout the body that act to produce hormones. The main organs of the endocrine system can be seen in the diagram below.

With regards to the endocrine system function; hormones produced by the endocrine system act to regulate a wide variety of bodily functions, such as triiodothyronine which regulates metabolism, or estrogen and progesterone which regulate the menstrual cycle. Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system to regulate the function of distant target organs. 

We have you covered with everything you need to know about the endocrine system here.

The  lymphatic system  is a network of lymphatic vessels that drains excess tissue fluid (lymph) from the intercellular fluid compartment, filters it through lymph nodes, exposes it to lymphocytes (white blood cells) of the immune system and returns the fluid to the circulatory system. The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymphatic plexuses, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and lymphoid organs. The lymphatic system function is to; convey and eliminate toxins and waste from the body; recirculate proteins; and defend the body from microorganisms.

Lymph is a watery tissue fluid with a similar consistency to blood plasma. It starts as interstitial fluid which occupies the spaces between cells. Excess fluid is picked up by lymphatic capillaries and transported through lymphatic plexuses into lymphatic vessels , filtering through lymph nodes along its journey. Superficial lymphatic vessels are found in the subcutaneous tissue alongside veins. They drain into deep lymphatic vessels that follow the arteries. Lymphatic vessels empty into larger lymphatic trunks, which unite to form one of the two main collecting ducts; the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct .

The thoracic duct begins at the cisterna chyli , collecting lymph from the left side of head, neck and thorax, left upper limb, abdomen and both lower limbs and draining it into the left venous angle (junction of the left internal jugular and left subclavian veins). The right lymphatic duct drains the rest of the body and empties into the right venous angle. From the venous angles, cleaned lymph is returned to the circulatory system, rejoining with the fluid of the blood. Note that the central nervous system was previously thought to have no lymphatic vessels. However, recent research has shown its lymph is drained by lymph vessel-like structures found in the meninges.

Lymphatic system organs are divided into primary and secondary organs. Primary lymphatic organs produce lymphocytes and release them into lymphatic vessels. The two primary lymphoid organs are the thymus and red bone marrow . Secondary lymphatic organs include lymph nodes, tonsils , appendix and spleen . Lymph nodes are masses of lymphocyte containing lymphoid tissues, attached to lymphoid vessels. Lymph nodes function to filter cellular debris, foreign pathogens, excess tissue fluid, and leaked plasma proteins. There are aggregations of lymph nodes at key points around the body (cervical, axillary , tracheal, inguinal, femoral, and deep nodes related to the aorta).

The reproductive system, or genital system, is a system of internal and external sex organs which work together to contribute towards the reproduction process. Unlike other systems of organs, the genital system has significant differences among sexes.

The external female sex organs , also known as the genitals, are the organs of the vulva (the labia, clitoris, and vaginal opening). The internal sex organs are the ovaries , fallopian tubes , uterus and vagina . The vulva provides an entry to, and protection, for the vagina and uterus, as well as the proper warmth and moisture that aids in its sexual and reproductive functions. In addition, it is important for the sexual arousal and orgasm in females.

The vagina is the canal leading from the outside of the body to the cervix (neck) of the uterus. Ovaries secrete hormones and produce egg cells, which are transported to the uterus fallopian tubes . The uterus provides protection, nutrition, and waste removal for the developing embryo and fetus. In addition, contractions in the muscular wall of the uterus contribute to pushing out the fetus at the time of birth.

The external male sex organs are the testes and penis , while the internal are the epididymis, ductus deferens and accessory glands. Functionally, they can be grouped into three categories.The first category is for sperm production (the testes ), and storage ( epididymis ). The second category organs produce ejaculatory fluid; the ductus deferens and the accessory glands ( seminal vesicles and prostate ). The final category is those used for copulation and deposition of the sperm, these include the penis , urethra and ductus deferens.

The integumentary system is the set of organs that forms the external covering of the body. It includes the skin, skin appendages , sweat glands and sensory receptors.

The skin is the largest organ of the body. It has three layers; epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. The epidermis is a thick keratinized epithelium made of multiple cell layers. Underneath the epidermis is the dermis , a layer of connective tissue that contains blood vessels and nerves that supply the skin. The underlying fascia, also called the hypodermis , consists of fat , connective tissue and skin appendages (hair, nails, sebaceous and sweat glands).The integumentary system functions are various. It forms a continuous layer that protects the body from various damaging events, such as external injuries, loss of water and heat, and the carcinogenic effects of UV rays. It also excretes waste, contains sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure, and temperature, and provides for vitamin D synthesis.

Go through these resources to reinforce your knowledge of the skin:

References: 

• Haines, D. E., Mihailoff, G. A. (2018). Fundamental neuroscience for basic and clinical applications. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier.
• Moore, K. L., Dalley, A. F., & Agur, A. M. R. (2014). Clinically Oriented Anatomy (7th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
• Netter, F. (2019). Atlas of Human Anatomy (7th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
• Standring, S. (2016). Gray's Anatomy (41st ed.). Edinburgh: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone.
• Tamura, R., Yoshida, K., & Toda, M. (2019). Current understanding of lymphatic vessels in the central nervous system. Neurosurgical Review, 43(4), 1055–1064. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10143...

Article, review and layout:

• Jana Vaskovic
• Nicola McLaren

Illustrations:

• Digestive system (anterior view) - Begoña Rodriguez
• Skeletal system (an overview) - Irina Münstermann
• Cardiovascular system (a diagram) - Begoña Rodriguez
• Respiratory system (a diagram) - Begoña Rodriguez
• Nervous system (an overview) - Begoña Rodriguez
• Cranial nerves (a diagram) - Paul Kim
• Digestive system (a diagram) - Begoña Rodriguez
• Organs of the endocrine system (a diagram) - Begoña Rodriguez
• Lymphatic system (a diagram) - Begoña Rodriguez
• Integumentary system (a diagram) - Paul Kim

Articles within this topic:

• Anatomy of breathing
• Autonomic nervous system
• Central nervous system and brain lymphatics
• Circulatory (cardiovascular) system
• Clinical case: Schwannoma of the nasal cavity
• Development of the central nervous system
• Development of the digestive system
• Digestive system quizzes and free learning tools
• Embryology: 3rd week of development
• Endocrine system: Quiz questions, diagrams and study tools
• How many bones can you find in the human body?
• Hyperthyroidism
• Learn the bones of the body with skeletal system quizzes
• Lymph nodes of the head, neck and arm
• Main bones, joints and muscles of the body
• Musculoskeletal system
• Nervous system anatomy practice: Quizzes and more!
• Organs of the endocrine system
• Parasympathetic nervous system
• Respiratory system and lung development
• Respiratory system quizzes and labeled diagrams
• Subcutaneous tissue
• Think you know the integumentary system? Quiz yourself!
• What is a nerve?

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The Anatomy of the Human Body Essay

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Introduction

The Institute of Human Anatomy’s YouTube video, “ The Anatomy of Pain ,” visually explores the structures involved in pain’s transmission and processing. The video was selected because it provides an excellent illustration of the physical basis for pain. The new knowledge acquired is that there are two facets to every person’s experience of pain, and they work together to make the experience unique (“Institute of Human”, 2021). One is a specific, localized feeling in a section of the body, while the other is a more generalized, unpleasant quality of varied intensity that is typically accompanied by actions meant to alleviate or end the experience.

Most directly related to the video was a concept from the unit’s textbook readings on developmental psychology: a complicated matrix of peripheral and visceral neurons, the central nervous system, and the brain serve the perception of pain. While pain is the leading cause of patient visits to the doctor, it defies precise categorization since only the person experiencing it can fully understand and articulate it (Santrock, 2022). Pain is characterized by a combination of a noxious sensory experience and an unpleasant physiochemical and emotional response. Either way, it is meant to alert the person to the impending danger. It is the clinician’s responsibility to both identify and address the origins of the patient’s discomfort.

To explain the link further, various modifying elements within the neural system influence pain transmission. Many factors contribute to pain perception, including chemical modulation, the additive effects of inflammatory byproducts, and the inhibitory impact of large-diameter sensory afferent fibers. Pain is a multifaceted, biopsychosocial experience involving a wide range of neural circuits, neurochemicals, mental operations, and emotional responses (Santrock, 2022). The brain does not only take in pain signals from the body; it actively controls sensory output by descending extensions from the medulla that sway the spinal dorsal horn.

Institute of Human Anatomy. (2021). The anatomy of pain [Video]. YouTube. Web.

Santrock, J. W. (2022). A topical approach to life-span development (11 th ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

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TOPIC SENTENCE/ In his numerous writings, Marx critiques capitalism by identifying its flaws. ANALYSIS OF EVIDENCE/ By critiquing the political economy and capitalism, Marx implores his reader to think critically about their position in society and restores awareness in the proletariat class. EVIDENCE/ To Marx, capitalism is a system characterized by the “exploitation of the many by the few,” in which workers accept the exploitation of their labor and receive only harm of “alienation,” rather than true benefits ( MER 487). He writes that “labour produces for the rich wonderful things – but for the worker it produces privation. It produces palaces—but for the worker, hovels. It produces beauty—but for the worker, deformity” (MER 73). Marx argues capitalism is a system in which the laborer is repeatedly harmed and estranged from himself, his labor, and other people, while the owner of his labor – the capitalist – receives the benefits ( MER 74). And while industry progresses, the worker “sinks deeper and deeper below the conditions of existence of his own class” ( MER 483).  ANALYSIS OF EVIDENCE/ But while Marx critiques the political economy, he does not explicitly say “capitalism is wrong.” Rather, his close examination of the system makes its flaws obvious. Only once the working class realizes the flaws of the system, Marx believes, will they - must they - rise up against their bourgeois masters and achieve the necessary and inevitable communist revolution.

Not every paragraph will be structured exactly like this one, of course. But as you draft your own paragraphs, look for all three of these elements: topic sentence, evidence, and analysis.

• picture_as_pdf Anatomy Of a Body Paragraph

What are the systems of the body? Fast facts about the human body and how it works

Learn all about the human body's many systems and some of its individual organs, both vital and vestigial.

The human body is a complex network of systems that work together to keep life-sustaining processes running smoothly. These systems break down food for fuel, clear away waste, repair damaged tissues and DNA, fight infectious germs and monitor the outside world so we can move through it safely. 

Many scientists spend their days working to understand how each bodily system performs its jobs, how the systems interact, and what can happen when one or more of them falter. Such malfunctions can stem from aging or disease, for instance, and through medical care, doctors aim to get derailed systems back on track. 

Here's a quick rundown of the systems of the human body, its vital organs and its "vestigial" organs, as well as a few fascinating facts about how the body works.

What are the different systems of the human body? 

Our bodies consist of a number of biological systems that carry out specific functions necessary for everyday living. Some organs and tissues play roles in multiple systems at once.

Related: Strange, two-faced brain cells confirmed to exist, and they may play a role in schizophrenia  

Circulatory : The job of the circulatory system is to move blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and hormones around the body. It consists of the heart, blood, blood vessels, arteries and veins. According to the Cleveland Clinic , the adult human body's network of blood vessels is more than 60,000 miles (around 100,000 kilometers) long. 

Digestive: The digestive system consists of a series of connected organs that together allow the body to break down and absorb nutrients from food and remove waste. It includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine , large intestine, rectum and anus. The large intestine is home to microorganisms that are collectively called the gut microbiome and influence our health in various ways . The liver and pancreas also have roles in the digestive system because they produce digestive juices filled with enzymes to break down the components of food, such as carbohydrates , fats and proteins , according to the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases .

Endocrine: The endocrine system consists of a network of glands that secrete hormones — long-range chemical messengers that regulate how cells and tissue function — into the blood. These hormones, in turn, travel to different tissues and regulate many bodily functions, such as metabolism , growth and sexual function, according to Johns Hopkins Medicine . For example, the pancreas releases the hormones insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar . Conditions like diabetes and insulin resistance arise from the body having too little insulin or not responding to it adequately. 

Related: Meet the 'exclusome': A mini-organ just discovered in cells that defends the genome from attack

Immune: The immune system is the body's defense against bacteria , viruses and other pathogens that may be harmful. Components of the system include the lymph nodes , which contain infection-fighting cells called lymphocytes. These lymphocytes are one of many types of leukocyte , or white blood cell. The immune system also includes the spleen , the bone marrow and a gland called the thymus . The immune system can learn to recognize antigens — proteins on the surface of bacteria, fungi and viruses — and alert the body to their presence. Some immune cells make proteins called antibodies that attach to these antigens and mark invaders for destruction. 

Lymphatic: The lymphatic system includes the lymph nodes, lymph ducts and lymph vessels and is considered part of the immune system. Its main job is to make and move lymph , a clear fluid that contains white blood cells. The lymphatic system also removes excess lymph fluid from the body's tissues and returns it to the blood.

Nervous: The nervous system controls both voluntary actions, such as conscious movements, and involuntary actions,like breathing, and it sends signals to and detects signals from different parts of the body. Conscious actions are controlled by the somatic nervous system, while involuntary actions are controlled by the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system dictates whether we're in " rest and digest " or " fight or flight " mode. The nervous system can further be split up into the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, or the nerves connecting the CNS to every other part of the body.

Muscular: The body's muscular system consists of hundreds of muscles that aid movement, blood flow and other bodily functions, according to the Library of Congress . There are three types of muscle: skeletal, which is connected to bone and helps with voluntary movement; smooth, which is found inside organs and helps to move substances through them; and cardiac, which is found in the heart. The body's largest muscle by mass is the gluteus maximus, but the two latissimus dorsi are the largest in terms of surface area.

Related: Why is it harder for some people to build muscle than others?

Reproductive: The reproductive system allows humans to produce offspring. The male reproductive system includes the penis and the testes , which produce sperm. The female reproductive system includes the vagina, uterus and ovaries, which produce eggs. During fertilization, a sperm cell will fuse with an egg cell that, in a successful pregnancy, will then implant in the uterus. The fertilized egg will then mature into what's called a blastocyst, then an embryo and, finally, a fetus. A placenta forms to support this process. 

Skeletal: Our bodies are supported by the skeletal system , which contains between 206 and 213 bones in an adult human body, due to slight variations in people's anatomy, according to the medical resource StatPearls . These bones are connected by tissues called tendons, ligaments and cartilage. As infants, humans have about 300 bones , but some fuse together as the child grows. The skeleton not only helps us move but is  also involved in the production of blood cells and the storage of calcium. The teeth are also part of the skeletal system, but they aren't considered bones . The smallest bones in the body are found in the ear, and the largest is the femur, or thigh bone, which is also one of the heaviest body parts .

Respiratory: The respiratory system allows us to take in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide through breathing. It includes the lungs ; trachea, or windpipe; and the diaphragm, a muscle that pulls air into and pushes air out of the lungs.

Urinary: The urinary system helps eliminate a waste product called urea, which is produced when certain foods are broken down. The system includes the two kidneys; two ureters, or tubes leaving the kidneys; the bladder; two sphincter muscles; and the urethra. The kidneys filter blood in the body to make urine that then travels down the ureters to the bladder and exits the body through the urethra.

Integumentary: The skin, hair and nails make up the integumentary system. Skin is the body's largest organ . It protects our innards from the outside world, serving as our first defense against bacteria, viruses and other pathogens, for instance. Our skin also helps regulate body temperature and eliminate waste through perspiration, or sweat. 

Related: Scientists discover new way humans feel touch  

What are the body's vital organs?

Click the purple circles to learn about the body's vital organs, including the brain, lungs, heart, liver and kidneys. They're considered vital because you need a functioning brain, heart, liver, at least one kidney and at least one lung to survive. That said, there are medical devices and treatments that can make up for a loss of function in these organs, at least temporarily — for example, ECMO machines can do the work of the heart and lungs, and dialysis can filter the blood of people with kidney failure.

• The average adult male body contains about 36 trillion cells , the average adult female body contains 28 trillion cells and a 10-year-old has about 17 trillion. 
• It's often said that there are 78 organs in the human body , but the number actually differs depending on whom you ask. 
• There's a popular idea that the body replaces itself every seven years . But that's not really true, because tissues renew themselves at different rates. 
• Oxygen is the most common element in the human body , followed by carbon. 
• The average adult body contains about 1.2 to 1.5 gallons (4.5 to 5.5 liters) of blood . 
• Humans' average body temperature has fallen slightly over time, so it's no longer 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37 degrees Celsius). 
• The most detailed map of the human brain to date contains more than 3,300 types of brain cells . 

What are vestigial organs?

There are arguably some parts of the human body that don't serve any useful purpose, such as the male nipple. That said, the usefulness of some organs is still up for debate , as scientists have often judged the worth of body parts before discovering their purposes. 

Broadly speaking, vestigial body parts are defined as those that have lost their original physiological significance to humans over the course of evolutionary history. The idea is that, while we inherited them from an ancient ancestor, we could really do without them in the modern day. 

— Scientists just discovered a new way cells control their genes — it's called 'backtracking'

— New part of the body found hiding in the lungs

— Scientists stumble upon a new part of a cell in one of the most studied animals on Earth  

Wisdom teeth are held up as one example of a vestigial body part, as the modern human jaw is often too small to accommodate a third set of molars. Some people also carry remnants of a vomeronasal organ that is largely thought to be nonfunctional in humans; animals use equivalent organs to detect each other's pheromones. 

Some scientists consider the human tailbone, or coccyx, vestigial because it's no longer a full-blown tail. But it's far from useless, as it still anchors many muscles, ligaments and tendons. And the appendix has gotten a bad rap for supposedly being both vestigial and useless, but more recently, scientists have uncovered possible functions for the long-maligned body part. 

Ever wonder why some people build muscle more easily than others or why freckles come out in the sun ? Send us your questions about how the human body works to [email protected] with the subject line "Health Desk Q," and you may see your question answered on the website!

Editor's note: This page was last updated on April 5, 2024.

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Rachael is a Live Science contributor, and was a former channel editor and senior writer for Live Science between 2010 and 2022. She has a master's degree in journalism from New York University's Science, Health and Environmental Reporting Program. She also holds a B.S. in molecular biology and an M.S. in biology from the University of California, San Diego. Her work has appeared in Scienceline, The Washington Post and Scientific American.

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Introduction to the Human Body

The human body is a complex, highly organized structure made up of unique cells that work together to accomplish the specific functions necessary for sustaining life.

The biology of the human body includes

Physiology (how the body functions)

Anatomy (how the body is structured)

Anatomy is organized by levels, from the smallest components of cells to tissues and organs and to organ systems .

Gross anatomy is the study of the body's organs as seen with the naked eye during visual inspection and when the body is cut open for examination (dissection).

Cellular anatomy is the study of cells and their components, which can be observed only with the use of special techniques and special instruments such as microscopes.

Molecular anatomy (often called molecular biology) is the study of the smallest components of cells at the biochemical level.

Anatomy and physiology change remarkably between fertilization and birth. After birth, the rate of anatomic and physiologic changes slows, but childhood is still a time of remarkable growth and development ( see Physical Growth of Infants and Children ). Some anatomic changes occur past adulthood, but the physiologic changes in the body's cells and organs are what contribute most to what we experience as aging ( see Changes in the Body With Aging ).

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Essay on My Body

Students are often asked to write an essay on My Body in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on My Body

Introduction.

My body is a complex system that allows me to live, learn, and grow. It is made up of many different parts, all working together to keep me healthy.

Parts of My Body

The main parts of my body are the head, trunk, and limbs. My head houses my brain, eyes, and mouth. The trunk includes my chest and abdomen, containing vital organs. My limbs help me move around.

Importance of My Body

My body is important because it helps me interact with the world. It allows me to see, hear, touch, taste, and smell. It’s also my responsibility to keep it healthy.

Understanding my body helps me appreciate how amazing it is. It’s a wonderful system that deserves care and respect.

250 Words Essay on My Body

The human body, a complex and intricate system, is the physical manifestation of our existence. It’s a marvel of biological engineering, housing billions of cells working in perfect harmony to ensure our survival and well-being.

The Body as a Biological Masterpiece

Our bodies are a collection of systems, each playing a vital role. The circulatory system, for instance, ensures oxygen and nutrients reach every cell. The nervous system, a network of nerves and neurons, serves as our communication hub, while the immune system protects us from foreign invaders.

Body and Mind Connection

The body is not just a physical entity but also an extension of our mind. The mind-body connection is a profound concept, where emotions and thoughts can influence our physical health. Stress, for instance, can trigger physical symptoms like headaches or stomach issues.

Body Autonomy and Respect

Body autonomy, the right to control one’s body, is a fundamental human right. It’s essential to respect our bodies, acknowledging their capabilities and limitations. This includes maintaining a healthy lifestyle and making informed choices about our bodies.

In conclusion, our bodies are more than just physical structures. They are a testament to nature’s ingenuity, a bridge connecting us to our minds, and a personal domain demanding respect and care. Recognizing this multifaceted nature of our bodies can help us better appreciate and take care of them.

500 Words Essay on My Body

Introduction: the marvel of the human body, the body as a system of systems.

The body is made up of multiple systems, each with a specific role. The nervous system acts as the body’s command center, sending and receiving signals to and from different parts of the body. The circulatory system, with the heart as its key player, ensures the efficient distribution of oxygen and nutrients throughout the body. The respiratory system, comprising the lungs, takes in oxygen and expels carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism. The digestive system breaks down food into simpler substances that the body can use for energy, growth, and cell repair. The skeletal and muscular systems provide structure and mobility, while the endocrine system regulates the body’s metabolism and energy levels.

Cells: The Building Blocks of the Body

At the microscopic level, the body is composed of trillions of cells, each performing specific functions. Cells are the basic building blocks of life, and their collective action ensures the smooth functioning of the body. They are responsible for everything from absorbing nutrients and producing energy to fighting off infections and healing wounds.

The Body’s Adaptability and Resilience

The importance of taking care of our body.

Our body is our most precious asset, and it is essential to take care of it. A healthy lifestyle, including a balanced diet, regular exercise, adequate sleep, and stress management, can enhance the body’s functioning and longevity. Regular medical check-ups can help detect potential problems early and keep the body in optimal condition.

Conclusion: The Body as a Reflection of Self

In conclusion, the human body is not just a biological entity; it is a reflection of who we are. It embodies our experiences, our actions, and our choices. It is a testament to the miracle of life and the complexity of nature. By understanding and appreciating our body, we can develop a more profound sense of self-awareness and respect for our own existence.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

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Frontiers for Young Minds

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The Importance of Anatomy

Anatomy is the knowledge about the structure of the bodies of animals and people. This includes information about blood vessels, organs, the skeleton, and nerves. But have you ever wondered where the anatomical information in science books and websites comes from? When did our fascination with the body begin and why do people still study it now? Who teaches doctors, nurses, veterinary surgeons, and other health professionals about the body? How has anatomy inspired art, and vice versa? This paper looks at the amazing world of anatomy: what anatomy is; why it is needed; why it is important; who studies, teaches, and researches anatomy; and what the future holds for this fascinating science.

What is Anatomy?

Anatomy is the study of the body’s structure. It is a branch of science that investigates organs, bones, structures, and cells that exist in animals and people. There is a related scientific discipline called physiology , which helps us to understand the functions of different parts of the body, but understanding anatomy is essential for physiology.

Anatomy is often split into two parts: gross anatomy , which involves investigating larger structures of the body, and histology (sometimes called microanatomy), which helps us understand the finer details of cells and smaller structures of the body. Equipment, such as microscopes ( Figures 1A,B ) are used for histology. Anatomy looks at embryos as well as both young and old animals and people. There are over 200 types of cells, with more still being discovered, and the average human body has 37.2 trillion cells. The human body also has around 640 named muscles, but this depends on how they are classified, so actually the total can be a lot more. Adults typically have 206–208 named bones and 100,000 miles worth of blood vessels (roughly the distance around the Earth four times). Children have 60,000 miles of blood vessels 1 . The body is very intricate and there is still much to study and learn about.

• Figure 1 - (A) Microscopes are used to look at cells and tissues.
• (B) Real heart cells as viewed under a microscope. (C) Anatomists study bones and reassemble skeletons. (D) A real pygmy (mini) hippo skeleton. (E) Computed tomography (often called a CAT scan) is used to see inside animals and people. (F) Guinea-pig bones examined using computed tomography.

The Ten Body Systems

Anatomists (researchers of anatomy) often split the body up into ten basic systems to help describe what different parts of the body do.

• Skeletal—The bones, cartilage, and joints.
• Muscular—The muscles, which helps the body move and breathe.
• Nervous—The brain, spinal cord, and cells called nerves that relay electrical impulses between the brain/spinal cord and the rest of the body.
• Respiratory—The lungs, nose, trachea, and other cells and tubes related to breathing.
• Cardiovascular—The heart, blood vessels, and blood, which provide oxygen and nutrients to the body and remove waste products.
• Lymphatic—Tubes called lymph vessels and several organs and cell types that drain away fluids and protect the body.
• Endocrine—Organs, such as the pancreas, liver, testes, and ovaries, and glands that produce/regulate hormones and other chemical signals.
• Male and Female Reproductive Systems—Organs involved in reproduction, including the uterus, clitoris, and penis.
• Urinary—The kidneys and bladder, which filter the blood, remove waste products, and produce and excrete urine.
• Digestive—Organs, such as the mouth, stomach, intestines, and anus, which digest and absorb food and dispose of waste products.

Researching Anatomy

Throughout history there have been many great anatomists. It is hard to believe that we once did not know what the heart did or that red blood cells carry oxygen around the body. Even today we do not know or understand every part of the body. Anatomists play important roles in developing new technologies and techniques for looking at bodies.

Historically, the best way of seeing inside the body was by dissection —cutting open the body to reveal its contents, a practice that is still done today. For example, if someone dies, a pathologist may need to discover the cause of death by looking inside the body, and surgeons need to cut open the body of the patient when they are doing surgery. The first well-known anatomists relied on dissection too. Although anatomy has been practiced for thousands of years, we are still learning more every day. New bones, muscles, blood vessels, cells, and functions are still being discovered by anatomists.

If you have been to a natural history museum, you may have seen skeletons prepared by skilled anatomists ( Figures 1C,D , 2A ). You may also have seen 3D models of the blood and/or lymph vessels in the body ( Figure 2B ). Models are also made of the entire body or certain body parts ( Figure 2C ), to help others understand anatomy.

• Figure 2 - Anatomy is often studied and taught using (A) skeletons, (B) models of blood vessels, and (C) organs, to help students research and understand the body and how it works.
• (D) X-rays can also be used to look inside the body. (E) Anatomists often work alongside other types of scientists to investigate how the body works.

By the 1600s, microscopes were used to magnify organs and cells, giving even greater insight into what they look like and how they work. As technology advanced, more powerful microscopes were developed. We can now see objects thousands of times larger than their actual size.

By using modern technologies, such as computed tomography (also called CAT scans; Figures 1E,F ), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) , and X-rays ( Figure 2D ), we can see inside the bodies of both living and dead organisms. These technologies reveal the inner body without the need to physically cut the body open 2 . These techniques not only help anatomists learn about the body, but they also help doctors to diagnose illness and understand a multitude of other medical problems.

Anatomists often use additional techniques to understand the function of the body. For example, they need to understand how genes work and how each cell and organ functions ( Figure 2E ). Anatomists often work with other scientists and doctors to understand how medicines and different diseases affect the body, which can help identify treatments and cures for diseases. They also work with pathologists, with forensic scientists who use science to help solve crimes, with paleontologists who look at fossils, and with archaeologists trying to uncover reasons for death or extinction.

Teaching Anatomy

There are many types of people who teach anatomy and also many people who need to learn it. Learning about the body often begins at nursery and school. Songs, such as “heads, shoulders, knees, and toes” help young children to learn the names of their body parts. We also learn about organs, such as the brain and heart and how to maintain a healthy lifestyle to keep our bodies fit and active. School science teachers often teach anatomy. You can even take a university/college degree in anatomy. If you are studying biology, medicine, veterinary medicine, nursing, midwifery, physiotherapy, or several other health-related fields, you will be taught anatomy. After all, no one can do surgery without knowing where all the organs, bloods vessels, muscles, and other parts of the body are located. Top athletes, their coaches, those who give massages, and sports therapists also need to learn the parts of the body and how they work. If you take sports qualifications at school, you will probably learn about the bones and muscles involved in athletics.

Famous Anatomists and the Arts

Throughout history, the body has been a source of inspiration not only for science but also for the arts. How many paintings, books, photographs, and sculptures have you seen of humans and animals? Even the very first cave people drew human bodies. Ancient Egyptians were working on the heart and blood vessels in 1600 BC. Around 400 BC, a Greek man named Hippocrates became known as the father of medicine and a founder of anatomy ( Figure 3A ). Herophilus, who was also Greek but worked much of his life in Egypt, became known as the father of anatomy and was one of the first people known to dissect humans. A school of anatomy was set up in 300 BC in Alexandria, Egypt [ 4 ]. The first documented woman practicing anatomy and pathology was Alessandra Giliani in the 1300s, but it is likely there were many before her ( Figure 3B ). Women have long been doctors and midwives, even when it was banned or seen as outrageous. Likewise, many women have studied anatomy despite the views of society. In 1847, Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell was the first woman to attend medical school in the United States, and in 1864 Dr. Rebecca Lee Crumpler became the first African-American woman doctor. In the UK, in the 1860s, Dr. Elizabeth Garrett Anderson was the first openly female doctor, but before that Dr. James Barry also practiced medicine but she had to dress as a man and have a male name in order to do so. Luckily, today many anatomists and doctors are female.

• Figure 3 - (A) Hippocrates, called the father of medicine, and Herophilus, who is called the founder of anatomy and who carried out the first recorded dissection, worked in ancient Greece around 400 BC.
• (B) Sculptor Anna Morandi Manzolini worked in Italy in the 1700s, creating wax models and writing about organs and teaching in her home laboratory. The picture also shows Alessandra Giliani, who practiced anatomy in the 1300s and is famous for dissection. (C) Leonardo da Vinci was brilliant in many areas, but is well-known for being an anatomist, teacher, researcher, and artist. He had a great interest in the heart and blood vessels.

Some anatomists have been artists, too. Leonardo Da Vinci combined art and science to help show what was inside the body, by creating brilliant pieces of art ( Figure 3C ). Anna Morandi Manzolini was another Italian anatomist and sculptor ( Figure 3B ). In the 1700s, she worked in her home laboratory, writing about the organs, teaching, and creating detailed wax models [ 5 ]. Florence Rena Sabin and many other anatomists followed her example and taught using models. Today, anatomists worldwide use models and 3D animations to help guide students.

Some people have also studied a little anatomy to create art pieces. For example, Mary Shelley wrote her brilliant novel “Frankenstein” at the age of just 18, back in the 1800s when it was seen as shocking for women to even wonder about how the body worked.

Conclusions

Today, we can visit museums and marvel at skeletons and wax models, learning science and appreciating the beauty of the human body. Anatomy is taught to most people at school and is not only important in medicine and sports, but is also an inspiration for art and literature worldwide. Today’s anatomists combine many technologies and techniques to discover more about animals and humans, thus advancing the field of medicine.

Physiology : ↑ The study of how normal living organisms function and work. For example how the human body and its organs functions.

Gross Anatomy : ↑ Looking at structures/anatomy where you can see the objects using eyesight only, a microscope is not required.

Histology : ↑ The study of cells and the body using a microscope.

Dissection : ↑ Separating something into pieces, for example opening up a body or organ to see inside it.

Pathologist : ↑ A person who studies the causes and effects of diseases, often using bodies to diagnose illness or understand cause of death.

Computed Tomography : ↑ Also called CAT scan; a technique in which an object, person, or animal is imaged using many X-rays and the images are processed using computers.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) : ↑ Scanners use magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed 3D anatomical images (and images of other objects) without cutting the body open or using x-rays.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Anatomical Society for helping to fund this work through a Public Engagement and Outreach grant to Catrin titled Anatomy for ALL—Making Anatomy Accessible. We would also like to thank the British Science Association and University of Nottingham for awarding Catrin with a BSA Media Fellowship 2019.

1. ↑ For more information on blood vessels see our paper “Blood Vessels Under the Microscope” [ 1 ].

2. ↑ If you want to see what guinea-pig bones look like using computed tomography, see our paper looking at bone growth and structure [ 2 ]. We have also done work using MRI to investigate how bones are involved with lameness in cattle [ 3 ].

[1] ↑ Machado, M., Mitchell, C., Franklin, J., Thorpe, A., and Rutland, C. 2020. Blood vessels under the microscope. Front. Young Minds 8:151. doi: 10.3389/frym.2019.00151

[2] ↑ Witkowska, A., Alibhai, A., Hughes, C., Price, J., Klisch, K., Sturrock, C. J., et al. 2014. Computed tomography analysis of guinea pig bone: architecture, bone thickness and dimensions throughout development. Peerj 2:e615. doi: 10.7717/peerj.615

[3] ↑ Newsome, R., Green, M. J., Bell, N. J., Chagunda, M. G. G., Mason, C. S., Rutland, C. S., et al. 2016. Linking bone development on the caudal aspect of the distal phalanx with lameness during life. J. Dairy Sci. 99:4512–25. doi: 10.3168/jds.2015-10202

[4] ↑ Pearce, J. M. S. 2019. Early contribution of Alexandria medical school to the anatomy, physiology and pathology of the nervous system. Rev. Neurol. 175:119–25. doi: 10.1016/j.neurol.2018.04.011

[5] ↑ Ferry, G. 2018. A woman’s place Anna Morandi: anatomist of enlightenment Bologna. Lancet 392:375. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31661-1

Home — Essay Samples — Psychology — Body Image — The beauty of the human body

The Beauty of The Human Body

• Categories: Body Image

About this sample

Words: 1544 |

Published: Sep 12, 2018

Words: 1544 | Pages: 3 | 8 min read

Works Cited

• Brazier, Y. (2017). The media's influence on body image disturbance and eating disorders: We've reviled them, now can we rehabilitate them? Journal of Eating Disorders, 5(1), 1-7.
• Brown University. (n.d.). Body image and the media. Retrieved from https://www.brown.edu/campus-life/health/services/promotion/nutrition-eating-concerns/eating-concerns/body-image-and-media
• Conway, K. (2013). Media and body image. The Prevention Researcher, 20(3), 8-11.
• Fardouly, J., & Vartanian, L. R. (2016). Social media and body image concerns: Current research and future directions. Current Opinion in Psychology, 9, 1-5.
• GoodTherapy.org. (n.d.). Body image and the media. Retrieved from https://www.goodtherapy.org/learn-about-therapy/issues/body-image-media
• Jowett, S., Jarvie, I. C., & Fuller, J. (1969). The media and socialization. In S. Jowett & L. O'Donnell (Eds.), Propaganda and persuasion (pp. 109-126). Sage Publications.
• Kirsh, S. J. (2010). Media and youth: A developmental perspective. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 1(2), 162-171.
• Sparhawk, K. (2003). Cognitive influences on body image dissatisfaction: A review of theory and research. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22(2), 138-156.
• Starker, S. (1989). Ideologies of the image of the body in film. Cultural Studies, 3(3), 381-398.
• University of Minnesota. (n.d.). Body image and the media. Retrieved from https://www.cehd.umn.edu/fsos/projects/bodyimage/effects/

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• How to write the body of an essay | Drafting & redrafting

How to Write the Body of an Essay | Drafting & Redrafting

Published on November 5, 2014 by Shane Bryson . Revised on July 23, 2023 by Shona McCombes.

The body is the longest part of an essay . This is where you lead the reader through your ideas, elaborating arguments and evidence for your thesis . The body is always divided into paragraphs .

You can work through the body in three main stages:

• Create an  outline of what you want to say and in what order.
• Write a first draft to get your main ideas down on paper.
• Write a second draft to clarify your arguments and make sure everything fits together.

This article gives you some practical tips for how to approach each stage.

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Table of contents

Start with an outline, write the first draft, write the second draft, other interesting articles.

Before you start, make a rough outline that sketches out the main points you want to make and the order you’ll make them in. This can help you remember how each part of the essay should relate to the other parts.

However, remember that  the outline isn’t set in stone – don’t be afraid to change the organization if necessary. Work on an essay’s structure begins before you start writing, but it continues as you write, and goes on even after you’ve finished writing the first draft.

While you’re writing a certain section, if you come up with an idea for something elsewhere in the essay, take a few moments to add to your outline or make notes on your organizational plans.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Your goals in the first draft are to turn your rough ideas into workable arguments, add detail to those arguments, and get a sense of what the final product will actually look like.

Write strong body paragraphs

Start wherever you want

Many writers do not begin writing at the introduction , or even the early body paragraphs. Start writing your essay where it seems most natural for you to do so.

Some writers might prefer to start with the easiest section to write, while others prefer to get the most difficult section out of the way first. Think about what material you need to clarify for yourself, and consider beginning there.

Tackle one idea at a time

Each paragraph should aim to focus on one central idea, giving evidence, explanation, and arguments that relate to that idea.

At the start of each paragraph, write a topic sentence that expresses the main point. Then elaborate and expand on the topic sentence in the rest of the paragraph.

When you’ve said everything you have to say about the idea, move onto a new paragraph.

Keep your argument flexible

You may realize as you write that some of your ideas don’t work as well as you thought they would. Don’t give up on them too easily, but be prepared to change or abandon sections if you realize they don’t make sense.

You’ll probably also come up with new ideas that you’d not yet thought of when writing the outline. Note these ideas down and incorporate them into the essay if there’s a logical place for them.

If you’re stuck on one section, move on to another part of the essay and come back to it later.

Don’t delete content

If you begin to dislike a certain section or even the whole essay, don’t scrap it in fit of rage!

If something really isn’t working, you can paste it into a separate document, but keep what you have, even if you don’t plan on using it. You may find that it contains or inspires new ideas that you can use later.

Note your sources

Students often make work for themselves by forgetting to keep track of sources when writing drafts.

You can save yourself a lot of time later and ensure you avoid plagiarism by noting down the name, year, and page number every time you quote or paraphrase from a source.

You can also use a citation generator to save a list of your sources and copy-and-paste citations when you need them.

Avoid perfectionism

When you’re writing a first draft, it’s important not to get slowed down by small details. Get your ideas down on paper now and perfect them later. If you’re unsatisfied with a word, sentence, or argument, flag it in the draft and revisit it later.

When you finish the first draft, you will know which sections and paragraphs work and which might need to be changed. It doesn’t make sense to spend time polishing something you might later cut out or revise.

Working on the second draft means assessing what you’ve got and rewriting it when necessary. You’ll likely end up cutting some parts of the essay and adding new ones.

Check your ideas against your thesis

Everything you write should be driven by your thesis . Looking at each piece of information or argumentation, ask yourself:

• Does the reader need to know this in order to understand or accept my thesis?
• Does this give evidence for my thesis?
• Does this explain the reasoning behind my thesis?
• Does this show something about the consequences or importance of my thesis?

If you can’t answer yes to any of these questions, reconsider whether it’s relevant enough to include.

If your essay has gone in a different direction than you originally planned, you might have to rework your thesis statement to more accurately reflect the argument you’ve made.

Watch out for weak points

Be critical of your arguments, and identify any potential weak points:

• Unjustified assumptions: Can you be confident that your reader shares or will accept your assumptions, or do they need to be spelled out?
• Lack of evidence:  Do you make claims without backing them up?
• Logical inconsistencies:  Do any of your points contradict each other?
• Uncertainty: Are there points where you’re unsure about your own claims or where you don’t sound confident in what you’re saying?

Fixing these issues might require some more research to clarify your position and give convincing evidence for it.

Check the organization

When you’re happy with all the main parts of your essay, take another look at the overall shape of it. You want to make sure that everything proceeds in a logical order without unnecessary repetition.

Try listing only the topic sentence of each paragraph and reading them in order. Are any of the topic sentences too similar? Each paragraph should discuss something different; if two paragraphs are about the same topic, they must approach it in different ways, and these differences should be made clear in the topic sentences.

Does the order of information make sense? Looking at only topic sentences lets you see at a glance the route your paper takes from start to finish, allowing you to spot organizational errors more easily.

Draw clear connections between your ideas

Finally, you should assess how your ideas fit together both within and between paragraphs. The connections might be clear to you, but you need to make sure they’ll also be clear to your reader.

Within each paragraph, does each sentence follow logically from the one before it? If not, you might need to add new sentences to make the connections clear. Try using transition words to clarify what you want to say.

Between one paragraph and the next, is it clear how your points relate to one another? If you are moving onto an entirely new topic, consider starting the paragraph with a transition sentence that moves from the previous topic and shows how it relates to the new one.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
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• False cause fallacy
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human muscle system

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• University of West Florida Pressbooks - Medical Terminology for Healthcare Professions - Muscular System
• Healthline - 9 Functions of the Muscular System
• InnerBody - Muscular System
• Thompson Rivers University - Introduction to the Muscular System
• PLOS Biology - Structure, function, and control of the human musculoskeletal network
• Biology LibreTexts - Introduction to the Muscular System
• Table Of Contents

• What are the main types of muscles in the human body and their functions?
• How do muscles work together to produce movement in the body?
• What is the structure of a skeletal muscle fiber, and how does it contract?
• How does the nervous system control muscle movement?
• What are some common disorders or injuries that can affect the human muscle system?
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• How do hormones influence muscle growth and development?

human muscle system , the muscles of the human body that work the skeletal system , that are under voluntary control, and that are concerned with movement, posture, and balance. Broadly considered, human muscle—like the muscles of all vertebrates—is often divided into striated muscle (or skeletal muscle), smooth muscle , and cardiac muscle . Smooth muscle is under involuntary control and is found in the walls of blood vessels and of structures such as the urinary bladder , the intestines , and the stomach . Cardiac muscle makes up the mass of the heart and is responsible for the rhythmic contractions of that vital pumping organ; it too is under involuntary control. With very few exceptions, the arrangement of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle in humans is identical to the arrangement found in other vertebrate animals.

This article is concerned with the skeletal muscles of the human body, with emphasis on muscle movements and the changes that have occurred in human skeletal musculature as a result of the long evolutionary process that involved the assumption of upright posture. Smooth muscle and cardiac muscle and the physiology of muscle contraction are treated at great length in the article muscle . For descriptions of disorders that affect the human muscle system, see muscle disease .

The muscle groups and their actions

The following sections provide a basic framework for the understanding of gross human muscular anatomy, with descriptions of the large muscle groups and their actions. The various muscle groups work in a coordinated fashion to control the movements of the human body.

The motion of the neck is described in terms of rotation, flexion, extension, and side bending (i.e., the motion used to touch the ear to the shoulder). The direction of the action can be ipsilateral, which refers to movement in the direction of the contracting muscle, or contralateral, which refers to movement away from the side of the contracting muscle.

Rotation is one of the most-important actions of the cervical (neck) spine . Rotation is accomplished primarily by the sternocleidomastoid muscle, which bends the neck to the ipsilateral side and rotates the neck contralaterally. Together, the sternocleidomastoid muscles on both sides of the neck act to flex the neck and raise the sternum to assist in forced inhalation. The anterior and middle scalene muscles, which also are located at the sides of the neck, act ipsilaterally to rotate the neck, as well as to elevate the first rib. The splenius capitis and splenius cervicis, which are located in the back of the neck, work to rotate the head.

Side bending also is an important action of the cervical spine. The sternocleidomastoid muscles are involved in cervical side bending. The posterior scalene muscles, located on the lower sides of the neck, ipsilaterally bend the neck to the side and elevate the second rib. The splenius capitis and splenius cervicis also assist in neck side bending. The erector spinae muscles (iliocostalis, longissimus, and spinalis) are large, deep muscles that extend the length of the back. All three act to ipsilaterally side bend the neck.

Neck flexion refers to the motion used to touch the chin to the chest. It is accomplished primarily by the sternocleidomastoid muscles, with assistance from the longus colli and the longus capitis, which are found in the front of the neck. Neck extension is the opposite of flexion and is accomplished by many of the same muscles that are used for other neck movements, including the splenius cervicis, splenius capitis, iliocostalis, longissimus, and spinalis muscles.

The back contains the origins of many of the muscles that are involved in the movement of the neck and shoulders . In addition, the axial skeleton that runs vertically through the back protects the spinal cord , which innervates almost all the muscles in the body.

Multiple muscles in the back function specifically in movements of the back. The erector spinae muscles, for example, extend the back (bend it backward) and side bend the back. The semispinalis dorsi and semispinalis capitis muscles also extend the back. The small muscles of the vertebrae (the multifidi and rotators) help rotate, extend, and side bend the back. The quadratus lumborum muscle in the lower back side bends the lumbar spine and aids in the inspiration of air through its stabilizing affects at its insertion at the 12th rib (the last of the floating ribs). The scapula (shoulder blade) is elevated by the trapezius muscle , which runs from the back of the neck to the middle of the back, by the rhomboid major and rhomboid minor muscles in the upper back, and by the levator scapulae muscle, which runs along the side and back of the neck.

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An essay on the Bath waters, in four parts: containing a prefatory introduction on the study of mineral waters in general. Part I. An account of their possible impregnations. Part II. The most approved means to be used for the discovery of their contents. Part III. Experiments on the Bath waters ... Part IV. On the effects of the Bath waters on the human body, and the propriety of their use in medicine ...

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Judge dismisses families’ lawsuits against Harvard over morgue scandal

Families who sued Harvard University after loved ones’ remains were allegedly stolen and sold on the black market have had their cases dismissed .

Paula Peltonovich says she was told her dad, whose body was donated to Harvard Medical School for research, is one of the victims of the  morgue scandal .

“To know somebody bought something of my father’s or multiple things of my father’s, I want that back,” Peltonovich said.

Harvard’s morgue manager, Cedric Lodge, is accused of selling body parts from donated cadavers. He faces several criminal charges in the case, as do people who trafficked in the body parts.

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Families of the victims hoped a lawsuit filed against Harvard would hold the university accountable. But a judge’s ruling Monday dismissed all  lawsuits against the school .

“How can Harvard just get away with this?” Peltonovich asked. “I just don’t understand.”

In the decision to dismiss the civil case against the school, the judge said that Harvard is immune because it acted in good faith and that it’s not liable for the alleged misconduct of its employee.

“Harvard gets basically a ‘get out of jail free” card,” said attorney Kathryn Barnett of the law firm Morgan & Morgan. “No responsibility for what happened in its morgue with the remains entrusted to it.”

Barnett is one of the attorneys representing the families.

She said Harvard turned a blind eye to what was happening in the morgue, and she said she’s profoundly disappointed in the judge’s ruling.

“To be a ruling that gives every school out there carte blanche to let criminals run wild in their morgue and so long as you don’t look, you’re scot-free,” Barnett said.

Attorneys for the families say they will appeal the decision.

Michael Rosenfield is a reporter for NBC Boston.

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