essay on false memory

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Cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying false memories: misinformation, distortion or erroneous configuration?

Antonio g lentoor.

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* Correspondence: Email: [email protected] .

Received 2023 Jul 10; Revised 2023 Aug 29; Accepted 2023 Sep 4; Collection date 2023.

This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 )

Errors can affect our memory, yet even when there are gaps in our recollection of events, memory often serves us fairly well. Memory formation involves at least three different sub-processes, that are regulated by an underlying neural structure. From a cognitive neuropsychological perspective, a complex process of encoding, consolidating, and retrieval is involved in remembering an event, and it might be hindered by one's emotional state, physiological response to the event itself, and misinformation. As a result, it is very likely that one may struggle to remember specifics of what happened which can increase our susceptibility to the formation of false memories. This has major implications for everyday functioning, as in the case when you mistakenly remember you took your pills when you never did, or where errors have led to false accusations about trauma or abuse, and wrongful convictions of crimes. Memories sometimes contain biases and inaccuracies that prevent them from accurately recalling events. The review will provide an updated overview of current research advances on the cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying inaccurate, distorted, or false memories.

Keywords: true memory, false memory, neural mechanism, mis-remember, misinformation, erroneous recall, hippocampo-neocortical circuits, anterior prefrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, neuropsychology, cognitive neuroscience

1. Introduction

Memory is one of the most essential abilities of the human brain. There is no learning without memory and without memory we are nothing more than unconscious primitive reflexes and stereotypies [1] . Humans rely on memory to perform many cognitive tasks that are basic to human behaviors. However, the process and mechanism of memory is complex and involve activation of multiple brain regions and an interconnected neural network that is not immune to deficits or impairment [2] . Various approaches have been used to understand the mechanisms underlying this process. Recent neuroscience advances including, neuroimaging, electroneurophysiological techniques, and refinement of neuropsychological testing have allowed researchers to reveal new insights into complex and dynamic associations at cellular and structural levels on the neurobiology of memory [3] . As such the pivotal question, as to whether brain activity during the initial memory encoding and consolidation or long-term retrieval differs in relation to whether items are subsequently remembered or missed, is a possibility to be explored [4] . Neuroimaging, in particular functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) [5] and neurophysiological measures such as intracranial electroencephalogram (iEEG) [6] , has allowed researchers to extend behavioral research and establish a relationship between generalized patterns of brain activity and cognitive processes that support memory formation and retrieval [7] – [9] .

Research in cognitive neuropsychology showed that memory as a reconstructive process can at times be prone to errors or distortions involving a disruption in one or more of the stages (encoding, consolidation, retrieval), and deficits in one of more brain structures, which makes people more susceptible to false memories [10] . False memory typically refers to flaws in remembering [11] . This may be when we remember events in a distorted manner or come to have memories of events that never took place [12] . Erroneous remembering can in part be a result of misinformation or from misremembering.

False memories should not be mistaken for lies nor are they intentionally produced, but it is rather due to error of omission and/or commission [13] . This could entail mixing up details from one event with details from another, or even recalling partial or whole recollections of an incident that has never happened before [14] , [15] . Thus, a complex process of encoding, consolidating, and retrieval is involved in remembering an event, and it might be hindered by one's emotional state and physiological response to the event itself and the integrity of the underlying brain structure responsible. Memory as a reconstruction process that is prone to distortion can have severe consequences in our daily lives [16] , as in the case of eyewitness testimony, or where errors have led to false accusations about trauma or abuse, all of which can result in wrongful convictions [17] . Examples in day to day lives could include mistakenly remembering taking your pills when you never did, or incorrectly remembering that you locked the car before leaving the parking bay or misremember switching off the stove when you did not do it [18] . False memory appears in our daily lives and it can have significant legal, health and social implications.

False memories have been the subjects of research for a long time. Early investigations have primarily been focused on the behavioral methods of investigations rooted in behavioral psychology. However, during the last two decades, there has been a notable increase in neuroimaging studies concerning the neural underpinning of false memory, allowing at least preliminary links to be made between behavioral and neural processes associated with memory errors. Straube [19] reviewed some of the literature on these studies available at the time. While informative, since then a notable number of fMRI studies investigating the underlying neural basis of false memories have been conducted. Considering the contribution of these neuroimaging studies to our understanding of the neural basis of false memory, a synthesis of these findings is needed. As an attempt to consolidate some of these studies, this paper will provide a narrative synthesis of the cognitive and neural underpinning of erroneous remembering (i.e. false memory).

2. Memory as adaptive-reconstructive

Memory represent an information processing system, that we often compare to a computer [20] . However, despite the analogy of human memory to a computer, evidence from neuroscience has shown that a highly complex and interconnected neural network that relies on synaptic activation and modification is involved in memory [21] . The ability to encode, consolidate, and retrieve information from sensory inputs is processed in transient buffers through several key interconnected areas of the brain involving the prefrontal cortex, cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum, and amygdala [22] . This dynamic neural process relies on synaptic plasticity for intercellular transmission and communication [23] – [25] .

One of the earliest and perhaps the most classical cases, patient HM in the 1950's, revealed the complexity of the memory system and the importance of the medial temporal lobe for the formation of conscious memory [26] . Decades later, as science methods and neuroscience technology advanced, memory was classified into conscious and unconscious categories, which has become the foundation for understanding the workings of the human memory system. Semantic memories—factual knowledge of the outside world—as well as episodic memories—memory for particular events remembered at a particular time and place—make up conscious memories. However, another type of memory not available to consciousness, often referred to as procedural memory is also important for example using a previously learned skill. Through research, we have come to understand that there must be separate mechanisms for declarative and procedural memory. The empirical data suggest that declarative memory is highly dependent on the integrity of the cerebrum and hippocampus, while the cerebellum is important for procedural memory.

Memory resources are flexible, and adaptable and can be modulated by cognitive factors [27] , individual differences, and personality characteristics [28] For example, time, age, attentional capability, emotional valance and arousal, and familiarity with the memory content are some of the many variables that might affect one's ability to recall memories accurately [12] , [29] – [32] . Time is particularly interesting and ubiquitous given the ever-changing feature of our experiences and its relevance to the memory paradigm such as learning and forgetting [27] , [33] . The available time to encode an experience seems to be important, in that, the length of time spent on encoding an experience does influence the accuracy of memory recall [34] – [36] . Aging has also been linked to increasing susceptibility to memory distortion and inaccuracies with various neural mechanisms implicated (see [37] ). This link between aging and erroneous memory can be attributed to several factors such as increased errors in misattribution of memory with aging, familiarity-based errors, imagination inflation, and misinformation. Several studies showed that attentional preference for information must be prioritized in order to be remembered [38] , [39] . People prioritize the encoding of information and this is often done so selectively if it has a higher level of importance. On the basis of one's goal and motivation the time spent on selectively rehearsing of information will determine the accuracy in remembering. In addition, compared to non-emotional stimuli, emotional stimuli are preferentially attended to and processed, increasing the likelihood of successful memory retrieval. The evidence suggests that both valence and arousal intensity of emotional stimuli are crucial in the enhancement of memory [12] . Some prior research showed that valence stimuli and emotional events tend to be better remembered than neural information. The research proposed that the explanatory mechanism underlying this is related to the rehearsal and elaborate processing involved in the enhancement of memory for emotional stimuli compared to neutral stimuli [38] . Other evidence refers to the fact that emotional stimuli can be processed automatically. The evidence therefore suggests that negatively-valence stimuli show higher levels of false recall and false recognition than neutral or positively-valences ones. Alternatively, false memory is more strongly influenced by negative positive emotions, or remembering negative events can stimulate higher levels of false memory [39] . A systematic review by Sharma and colleagues [40] , showed that anger and greater cortisol response to stress may increase susceptibility to misinformation. Memory enhancement for emotional information appears to happen due to affective processing, the amygdala, and orbitofrontal cortex modulation that facilitate encoding of sensory content and memory consolidation. Notably, the literature is in agreement that while memory is often adaptive and constructive in nature [41] , this also makes it prone to mistakes and distortions [42] .

3. Theoretical perspectives on false memory

It has been proposed that a false memory is a result of flawed memory reconstruction, excessive reliance on familiarity and gist in the absence of accurate retrieval, as well as a flaw in retrieval monitoring (see [43] . As such, researchers have investigated and shown that false memory can be easily induced experimentally in research to participants under various manipulations using variants of the Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm. In the literature, the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm [3] , is one of the earliest and most frequent behavioral psychology methods used to study false memory. Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm generates false memories based on semantic similarities across stimuli. Participants are presented with a list of words (e.g., bed, dream, nightmare, night) formulated around a critical lure, a word not appear on the list but that is semantically associated (e.g., word such as sleep). Some of the versions of the DRM paradigm used a recall test instead of a recognition test, with the latest incorporating neuroimagery and electroneurophysiological techniques [44] , [45] . Some participant endorses the lure of ‘sleep’ despite not having it in the initial list, a retrieval representing a false memory . During the recognition and recall test, the researchers simultaneously look at the neural areas that are active in conjunction with the wrong answers, i.e. false memory effect. Based on the DRM paradigm, false memory can result due to word association strength and gist. Evidence from these studies provided an understanding of key areas in the brain that appear to be activated during misremembering.

The two popular theories of the DRM that explain how and why the brain organizes information in a way that might occasionally cause memory mistakes are the Fuzzy-trace theory and the Activation-monitoring theory (see [42] . The Fuzzy-trace theory (FTT) explains the formation of false memory based on gist (the meaning of an event) or fuzzy trace connections that fuel false memory in the absence of verbatim information [43] . Based on FTT we encode and store in parallel two distinct traces of an item, the verbatim trace representing the surface form of the word, whereas the gist trace preserves the semantic features, such as the meaning of the event, for example, gist remembered sleep —to take rest, mainly at night. False recollections are based on meaning (gist), especially in the absence of verbatim information [29] . This is often referred to as a dual process approach because recollection of verbatim content suppresses false memories.

On the other hand, as per the Activation-monitoring theory (AMT), the terms “activation” (primarily happens at encoding) and “monitoring” (largely at retrieval) specifically refers to the decision-making processes that aim to identify the source of the activated concept and a stimulus that promotes the associative activation between words [46] . This theory proposed that false memory occurs when participants fail to monitor the source of the activated item, and thus mistakenly remember the critical lure that was generated externally (from the list) rather than internally (from spreading activation). Any disruption in the source monitoring has been shown to increase false memory. These theories, which suggest that memory errors may be connected to the encoding, consolidation, and/or retrieval processes, have received substantial support over the past 20 years from numerous studies that look at the underlying brain activity implicated in false memory (see [47] ).

4. Encoding and underlying neural process

The brain takes in sensory information from the world, it organizes it stores information in order to be remembered in later memory systems, a process known as encoding. This often involves multisensory information that is automatically and transiently processed, and collated with previous semantic knowledge to form episodic memories during encoding [48] The brain is able to categorize information later on using attentional processes to further prioritize it into short-term memory stores [49] . The act of pulling the knowledge out of memory and back into awareness which was encoded and stored is referred to as retrieval [27] . These different systems involved in the memory formation process have been shown to be vulnerable to errors, and distortions that can result in false memories [18] . Several studies implicate that declarative memory which is a long-term human memory system that involves recognition, encoding, and retrieval of conscious knowledge, facts, or events is particularly vulnerable to errors and distortion which has been associated with false memory formation [50] , [51] . More specifically, episodic memory compared to semantic memory (i.e. facts about the world) system has been shown to be more vulnerable to distortions [52] . These may have major implications for an individual.

In the legal context, eyewitness plays an important role in testimony that can either lead to convictions or freedom for an individual. Despite the persuasive role of eyewitnesses their memories sometimes can contain biases and inaccuracies that prevent them from accurately recalling events. Eyewitnesses tend to remember incomplete or false events, as well as particular facts incorrectly. At least in part, mechanisms that occur during encoding are to blame for erroneous recollections. The research showed that prior knowledge, mental state, emotions, and context influence memory and thus what is retrieved from memory can be significantly different from what initially was encoded [50] , [53] , [54] . Thus, false memories are widely acknowledged to be a significant unintentional result of elaborate semantic and visual encoding processes.

Neuroimaging evidence suggests that processes like imagery, self-referential coding, or spreading activation may lead to false memory formation during encoding [55] . The involvement of different neural structures [10] , including occipital and parietal structures, is particularly relevant in the formation bias in memory. Some evidence suggests that similarities between imagined and perceived events encoded may cause errors that result in confusion at retrieval and may induce memory bias or false memories types, this is particularly associated with activation predominately in the occipital and inferior parietal regions, such as the precuneus [48] . Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies involving the processing of self-referential stimuli showed that the cortical midline structures (CMS), specifically the anterior cingulate cortex (aCC), middle temporal gyrus (mTG), anterior/dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (a/dlPFC) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) are involved in formation erroneous memory or false memories at encoding [56] , [57] . The a/dlPFC), vmPFC and more specifically, the hippocampus are believed to be responsible for associative memory, specifically binding memory. Particularly, the hippocampus appears to be critically involved in the misinformation effect. As such, associative decline linked to reduced a/dlPFC and vlPFC activation has been shown to enhance susceptibility to false memories. Current evidence suggests that in part the vulnerability to the formation of false memory is linked to binding failures during encoding which can lead to the loss of distinctive memory sources that contribute to misattribution between different memories due to misinformation. These neural structures are thought to work in concert during to formation of false memories [10] , [58] .

5. Consolidation and underlying neural process

Existing research showed that new memories must be interleaved within a large network of relevant pre-existing knowledge. New consolidated memory therefore could be erased during memory re-organisation to incorporate new learning. Integrating new with old information is a process that involves an ever-evolving organization of experience. After learning, information is susceptible to interference for some time. As memories consolidate (stored), they may become distorted as a result of new information, sleep or lack thereof, or both. For those distortions, various mechanisms have been hypothesized to be relevant. For example, sleep has been shown to play an important role in the consolidation of declarative memory. However, sleep may influence the creation of false memories [29] through semantic generalization through active reorganization of memory traces in the post-learning sleep period. New incoming information may be prone to distortion during consolidation due to retroactive interference (i.e. when memory is changed by new incoming information at consolidation). This might lead to the retrieval of incorrect information that was introduced after the occurrence as if it had truly occurred, which is known as the misinformation effect [59] , [60] . Newly acquired information is highly labile and susceptible to the influence of external factors that may enhance or impair long-term retention.

Sleep plays an important role in memory due to its influence on how the brain functions. Disturbances in memory consolation as well as retrieval have been shown to be strongly associated with sleep deprivation and the same mechanism may be responsible for false memory formation [19] . Sleep deprivation seems to be associated with misinformation because of memory trace impairment. Notwithstanding, some evidence showed that sleep, relative to lack of sleep, enhances accurate and false recollections [61] , [62] . Moreover, when misleading information is presented before consolidation, sleep may integrate misleading information into memory for real events, increasing distortion. It is well recognized that sleep creates the ideal neurobiological environment for consolidating memories for long-term storage, but sleep deprivation can severely hinder memory retrieval. Furthermore, loss of sleep or sleep deprivation reduces the amount of information we can store in our working memory, may impair one ability to learn, and negatively affects cognition. A study by [63] found sleep deprivation increased false memories in a misinformation task when participants were sleep-deprived during event encoding, but did not have a significant effect when the deprivation occurred after event encoding. Neuroimaging evidence showed that sleep seems to boost systems level consolidation of memories in the hippocampo-neocortical circuits that are ultimately linked to both correct and false memories rather than specifically enhancing false memories [34] , [64] , [65] .

6. Retrieval and underlying neural process

Not only are memories vulnerable to incorrect encoding and forgetting, but memory retrieval is also very susceptible to errors [66] , [67] . Reconstruction determines how accurately we remember. Therefore, understanding how false memories occur requires knowing the reconstruction process in retrieval [3] . Due to its reconstructive nature, memory is susceptible to misattribution, which occurs when a specific memory is binding to the wrong moment, location, or subject. Reconstruction of memories during retrieval is based on the source monitoring framework [44] , which allows for the introduction of numerous defects, such as aspects of comparable events or imagined events that interact to create an erroneous recollection. When events are remembered with great sensory detail and falsely believed to have actually happened, inaccurate memory may be the result of a failure in reality monitoring.

Previous research has connected a failure in reality monitoring to inaccurate memory, which happens when experiences are remembered with great sensory detail but incorrectly believed to have truly occurred [12] . This is partially explained by a brain function that involves mental imagery and may be related to perception. Therefore, it is conceivable that the overlap may lead to imagined occurrences being mistakenly taken for real, and this susceptibility to mistaken attribution could be heightened by suggestive and false information [17] . False memories can result from incorrectly attributing incorrect information to the original event, which lowers the possibility that true memory retrieval will occur [52] . The evidence showed that even the subtlest forms of incorrect or misleading information can significantly alter memory for past events [68] . Memory distortions due to misinformation have been linked to faulty reconstructive processes during memory retrieval and the reactivations of brain regions involved in the initial encoding of misleading details (cortical reinstatement). This does not appear to differ for a subgroup of individuals with Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM), who have recently been revealed in the scientific literature to possess a remarkable and exceptional ability to recall details with astounding accuracy [69] . Notably, despite prior research [60] showing enhanced behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms for consolidating and retrieving episodic autobiographical information [70] – [72] , people with HSAM are still likely to be susceptible to fallible reconstruction processes when presented with misinformation. They are therefore as likely the typical person to remember false memories [60] . In line with theory, misinformation errors may be due to the faulty reconstructive nature of memory retrieval, in that misleading information is retrieved from memory and misattributed to original source information. This failure in source monitoring results in inaccurate details about an event being reactivated during retrieval [47] .

A number of studies over the last two decades have explored the misinformation effect (see review [59] . Misinformation comes in many forms and it has significant clinical and legal implications. Everyday life could be influenced by misinformation. According to the existing evidence age [73] and personality [28] are some of the mediating factors for a person's susceptibility to misinformation effect. Understanding how the brain changes with age and how these changes affect memory, recollection, and false memories has garnered a lot of attention recently. This body of research suggests that associative binding and strategic monitoring are significantly affected by age-related decreases in the medial temporal and prefrontal brain regions, as well as other age-related changes [37] . Misinformation effect is a phenomenon that commonly occurs in eyewitness testimonies, for example, memory errors caused by incorrect information between the original event, such as crime, and later memory, such as an interview lineup or day in court. This can lead to inaccurate memories and in some situations result in the formation of false memories. This is particularly true after exposure to misleading or erroneous information. For example, researchers have shown that questions asked after witnessing an event can actually influence a person's memory of that event, especially of the question contains misleading information which can distort the memory of the event or even remember an entire event that did not actually happened (see [59] , [74] , [75] ).

A recent meta-analysis furthermore showed that fMRI is useful for discriminating between deception and false memory, which is important given the reliance on eyewitness testimony in legal proceedings [5] . In their research on the misinformation effect, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Loftus and colleagues demonstrated that misleading information can actually overwrite the original memory of an event. People are more susceptible to distortions in their recollection after exposure to misleading information [56] and with increasing age, this vulnerability is heightened. Some of the evidence showed that errors in encoding of original events may be misplaced by misleading information to fill in gaps in memory and thus make an individual susceptible to recalling false memories. In line with previous studies, Zhuang and colleagues recently showed that during retrieval new information could be updated from the current context which provides additional cues to recall target memories. However, the integration of new information during retrieval might generate mismatched contextual memories, thereby producing false memories in recall.

The current research showed that neural processes associated with different prefrontal cortical regions are differently involved with memory retrieval, according to previous neuroimaging research using positron emission tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging. The research suggests that, in addition to its long-standing involvement in accurate recall, the medial temporal lobe (MTL), and specifically the hippocampus appears to be a critical factor in misinformation formation and recall [10] , [18] . Studies have shown that the MTL is important for memory reconstruction and for discriminating true memory from false memory [76] . Other research revealed that during false recognition, brain activity increased in the medial and lateral frontal cortex [3] . In the posterior sections of the parahippocampal gyrus and the occipital visual regions, activity for real memories was greater than for false memories, according to a study by [56] while the left precentral gyrus, medial superior frontal gyrus, and left inferior parietal cortex were more active for false memories retrievals than for true memories [47] .

7. Conclusions

Collectively, the evidence showed that memory is a malleable reconstructive process with dynamic and intricate underlying neural mechanisms. The review showed that memory formation involves at least three sub-neurocognitive processes, each of which is susceptible to particular biases, distortions, or errors that could lead to erroneous recollections. Notably, neural correlate studies to date support theories that explain false memories, including the fuzzy trace theory, which considers gist-like signals, and the spreading activation, which holds that false memories are caused by a difference in the strength of signals between encoding and retrieval. The most consistent conclusion based on existing fMRI studies suggests that false memory may be related to the lateral prefrontal, medial prefrontal, and medial temporal lobes, including the hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus.

The real-life implication of distortions or erroneous memories is that they can affect our present-day perception and how we react to the past as well as our judgments and preferences for the future. It can lead to errors and bias that can result in wrongful convictions, in the case when having to give eyewitness accounts to crimes, with negative life implications affecting everyday functioning.

Recent brain imaging and neurophysiological studies have attempted to provide novel ways of investigating memory which has allowed for new insight into the underlying neural mechanisms and cognitive processes of false memory formation and retrieval, and the correlating neuroanatomical substrates. By building on earlier studies on false memory [19] , these researchers [3] , [77] , [78] and other cognitive neuroscientists have been able to use state-of-the-art imaging techniques to understand false memory development. These findings, if anything, add to behavioral research and advance use close to figuring out whether there are brain circuits that may be able to recognize false memories and how this process works. Due to advancements in neuroimaging, this topic is now being studied more in-depth. Future studies could include more cost-effective and feasible brain imagery techniques such as functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) during DRM paradigm tasks. Even though these findings mark a significant advancement in our understanding of the neural processes underlying false memory, further research is necessary before we can draw any clear conclusions.

Acknowledgments

A.G Lentoor is a professor of clinical psychology and a recipient of the National Research Foundation Thuthuka Grant, Biological Psychiatry Early-mid career Development Grant and SMU Capacity Development Grant. This work has been submitted as part of a Master in Applied Neuroscience. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7838-2721

Abbreviations

functional magnetic resonance imaging

intracranial electroencephalogram

anterior cingulate cortex

ventromedial prefrontal cortex

cortical midline structures

anterior/dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

Conflict of interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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False Memory In Psychology: Examples & More

Ayesh Perera

B.A, MTS, Harvard University

Ayesh Perera, a Harvard graduate, has worked as a researcher in psychology and neuroscience under Dr. Kevin Majeres at Harvard Medical School.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

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On This Page:

In psychology, a false memory refers to a mental experience that’s remembered as factual but is either entirely false or significantly different from what actually occurred. These can be small details, like misremembering the color of a car, or more substantial, like entirely fabricated events. They can be influenced by suggestion, misattribution, or other cognitive distortions.

Key Takeaways

• False memory is a psychological phenomenon whereby an individual recalls an actual occurrence substantially differently from how it transpired or an event that never even happened.
• Interference, leading questions, obsessive-compulsive disorder, false memory syndrome, and sleep deprivation can cause false memories.
• Pioneered by the work of Sigmund Freud and Pierre Janet , research on false memory has immensely benefitted from the contributions of the American cognitive psychologist Elizabeth F. Lotus.
• False memory has manifold real-world implications ranging from false convictions in court proceedings to accidental manslaughter.

False memory is a psychological phenomenon whereby an individual recalls an event that never happened, or an actual occurrence substantially differently from the way it transpired.

In other words, a false memory could either be an entirely imaginary fabrication or a distorted recollection of an actual event. Moreover, false memories are distinct from simple errors in recollection.

Firstly, an individual who holds a false memory maintains some certitude in the veracity of the memory.  Secondly, a false memory deals not with forgetting something that actually happened but with remembering what had never taken place.

Instances of this phenomenon may range from the mundane—such as remembering that you ate breakfast when you actually did not, to the serious—such as falsely recalling that your boss assaulted you.

Examples of False Memory

• Recalling a childhood trip to Disneyland that never actually happened.
• Remembering being lost in a mall as a child, even if this event didn’t occur.
• Misremembering the details of a crime scene after being influenced by leading questions or post-event information.
• Believing that you locked the door before leaving home when you didn’t.
• Remembering a word or item from a list that was never presented because it was similar to the presented items.
• Confusing the source of information, such as believing a dream event happened in reality.
• Remembering that a news event was reported on one channel when it was actually reported on a different one.

Mandela Effect

The Mandela Effect is a phenomenon where a large group of people remembers an event or detail one way, but it actually occurred differently.

It’s named after the instance where many people falsely remembered that Nelson Mandela died in prison in the 1980s, while he actually passed away in 2013.

This collective misremembering is an example of false memory, highlighting how memory isn’t perfect and can be influenced by societal factors, misinformation, or misconceptions.

Causes of False Memories

False memories can stem from a variety of sources. Following are some of them.

Interference

The distortion of the memory of the original event by the new information can be described as retroactive interference (Robinson-Riegler & Robinson-Riegler, 2004).

In other words, the new information interferes with the ability to preserve the formerly encoded information. The effect of misinformation, which has been a subject of investigation since the 1970s, demonstrates two significant shortfalls of memory (Saudners & MacLeod, 2002).

Firstly, the weakness of suggestibility reveals how others’ expectations can shape our memory. Secondly, the drawback of misattribution unveils how the memory can misidentify the origin of a recollection.

These findings have raised serious concerns about the reliability and permanence of memory.

Leading Questions

Misleading information is incorrect information given to the witness, usually after the event. It can have many sources, for example, the use of leading questions in police interviews, or it can be acquired by post-event discussion with other witnesses or other people (Weiten, 2010).

When the eyewitnesses of an event are questioned immediately following the pertinent incident, the memorial representation of what had just transpired could be significantly altered (Loftus, 1975).

Leading questions are questions that are asked in such a way as to suggest an expected answer. For example: Did you see the man crossing the road?

The word “the” suggests that there was a man crossing the road. A non-leading question in this case could have been, “Did you see anybody crossing the road?”

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

It is possible for individuals suffering from obsessive-compulsive disorder ( OCD ) to have memory deficits or poor confidence in their memories (Robinson, 2020).

This disorder, which can stem from the abnormal responses of certain brain regions to serotonin , is a condition characterized by irrational and excessive urges to act in certain ways as well as give into repetitive and unwanted thoughts.

Because individuals with this condition are less likely to have confidence in their own memories, they are more likely to create false memories, which in turn, lead to compulsive and repetitive behaviors.

False Memory Syndrome

False memory syndrome is a condition in which an individual’s identity and relationships are influenced by factually incorrect recollections which are, nonetheless, strongly believed (McHugh, 2008; Schacter, 2002).

This condition may result from the controversial recovered memory therapy, which utilizes various interviewing techniques such as hypnosis, sedative-hypnotic drugs, and guided imagery to supposedly help patients recover forgotten memories that are purportedly buried in their subconscious minds.

Sleep Deprivation

Sleep is considered to provide the optimum neurobiological conditions conducive to the consolidation of long-term memories (Diekelmann, Landolt, Lahl, Born & Wagner, 2008).

Moreover, sleep deprivation is known to acutely impair the retrieval of stored recollections.

One study tested whether false memories could be invented based on a consolidation-related reorganization of new memory representations over post-learning sleep or as an acute retrieval-associated phenomenon induced by sleep deprivation during memory testing.

The results suggested that sleep deprivation at retrieval could enhance false memories. However, the administration of caffeine prior to retrieval was found to offset this effect.

This may imply that adenosinergic mechanisms could help generate false memories, which are associated with sleep deprivation.

The initial research on false memory was pioneered by Sigmund Freud and Pierre Janet (Gleaves, Smith, Butler & Spiegel, 2006). Even though Freud’s assertions on psychoanalysis have been discredited by many, his emphasis on memory continues to elicit attention (Knafo, 2009).

Moreover, Janet Pierre’s discussion of memory retrieval via hypnosis and dissociation continues play a foundational role in the field of false memory (Zongwill, 2019). The most significant contributions to the research on false memory, however, seemed to have begun with the work of the American cognitive psychologist Elizabeth F. Lotus.

In 1974, Elizabeth Loftus and John C. Palmer conducted two experiments in which the participants viewed videos of automobile accidents and answered follow-up questions (Loftus & Palmer, 1974).

The question inquiring how fast the automobiles were moving when they ‘smashed’ into each other procured higher estimates of speed than the queries that employed verbs such as ‘bumped,’ ‘contacted,’ ‘collided,’ or ‘hit,’ instead of ‘smashed.’

Furthermore, a week later, the subjects who had received the question containing ‘smashed’ were more likely to indicate that they had also seen broken glass in the scene, although the video did not show any broken glass. These results seemed to imply that the questions asked following an event could add falsity to one’s memory of that event.

Another research study conducted more recently by Kathryn Braun, Rhiannon Ellis, and Elizabeth Loftus explored whether autobiographical advertising used by marketers to induce nostalgia for products could cause people eventually believe that they themselves had had the experiences demonstrated in the advertisements (Braun, Ellis & Loftus, 2002).

In the study, the subjects viewed advertisements suggesting that they had shaken hands with either Mickey Mouse or some imaginary character. In both instances, the ads seemed to enhance the confidence of the subjects that they had actually shaken hands with these characters.

While the encounter with Mickey Mouse could be true, the experience with the imaginary character could not be true [since the character had been invented solely for the study]. These results seemed to demonstrate that autobiographical referencing, especially in advertisements, could create distorted or false memories in the minds of the viewers.

Another study examined the links among the techniques and procedures to which false memory describes outcomes (Bernstein, Scoboria, Desjarlais & Soucie, 2018).

These procedures and techniques include subscribing to the belief that the false event transpired, accepting the misinformation following the event, and recognizing the crucial lures in the DRM (Deese-Roediger-McDermott) procedure.

The results seemed to suggest that a statistically reliable yet weak correlation may be present between the suggestion of the false event and misinformation following the event and between the DRM intrusions and the misinformation following the event.

The correlation between the suggestion of the false event and the DRM intrusions, however, seemed inconsistent as well as weak.

The outcome of the study implies that the abovementioned effects are shaped by underlying independent mechanisms, and that the term false memory wants precision and needs qualification.

Real-World Implications

Despite the obvious shortfalls of memory, people often assume that recollections of stressful and violent events are encoded well enough for effective and accurate retrieval (Lacy & Stark, 2013).

However, evidence from neuroscience studies and psychological research demonstrate that memory embodies a reconstructive process which is vulnerable to distortion. Consequently, common misunderstandings—such as, that memory is more reliable than it actually is, can lead to serious consequences especially in courtroom settings.

The case Ramona v. Isabella , for instance, dealt with a supposedly false memory implanted by two therapists in their patient, Holly Ramona (La Ganga, 1994).

Her father, Gary Ramona, successfully sued the two psychiatrists whom he accused of having implanted memories of incestual abuse into his daughter following the administration of sodium amytal (a hypnotic drug).

In 1994, the jury voted 10-2 in favor of the father, who was also awarded $500 000 corresponding to the damages and losses he had suffered following the false allegation that he sexually abused his daughter.

In another incident, a woman named Lyn Balfour was charged with second-degree murder, child abuse, felony, and neglect for leaving Bryce, her nine-month-old son, to die in a hot car (Balfour, 2012).

Following a thorough investigation, however, the jury determined that Balfour was not guilty of murder.

Conversely, it was concluded that she had had the false memory of dropping off her son at the babysitter’s, which she was in the habit of doing as part of her routine.

Learning Check

Which of the following is most likely to be a false memory?

• Remembering that you brushed your teeth this morning. (Unlikely)
• Recalling the exact words of a conversation you had a year ago. (Possible)
• Remembering the color of your childhood friend’s bicycle. (Possible)
• Recalling being abducted by aliens when you were a child. (Most Likely)
• Remembering the taste of the cake at your birthday party last week. (Unlikely)

The correct answer would be “Recalling being abducted by aliens when you were a child,” as it’s the most likely to be a false memory due to its extraordinary and improbable nature.

Balfour, Lyn (20 Jan. 2012) “Experience: My Baby Died in a Hot Car.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/jan/20/my-baby-died-in-hot-car.

Bernstein, D. M., Scoboria, A., Desjarlais, L., & Soucie, K. (2018). “False memory” is a linguistic convenience. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 5 (2), 161.

Braun, K. A., Ellis, R., & Loftus, E. F. (2002). Make my memory: How advertising can change our memories of the past . Psychology & Marketing, 19 (1), 1-23.

Diekelmann, S., Landolt, H. P., Lahl, O., Born, J., & Wagner, U. (2008). Sleep loss produces false memories. PloS one, 3 (10), e3512.

Gleaves, D. H., Smith, S. M., Butler, L. D., & Spiegel, D. (2004). False and recovered memories in the laboratory and clinic: A review of experimental and clinical evidence. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11 (1), 3-28.

Knafo, D. (2009). Freud’s memory erased. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 26 (2), 171–190.

La Ganga, Maria L. (1994-05-14). “Father Wins Suit in “False Memory” Case”. Los Angeles Times.

Lacy, J. W., & Stark, C. E. (2013). The neuroscience of memory: implications for the courtroom. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14 (9), 649-658.

Loftus, E. F. (1975). Leading questions and the eyewitness report . Cognitive psychology, 7 (4), 560-572.

Loftus, E. F., & Palmer, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction : An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior, 13 (5), 585-589.

McHugh, P. R (2008). Try to remember: Psychiatry’s clash over meaning, memory and mind . Dana Press.

Robinson, Dana (20 Mar. 2020). “Everything You Want to Know About OCD.” Healthline, Healthline Media, www.healthline.com/health/ocd/social-signs.

Robinson-Riegler, B., & Robinson-Riegler, G. (2016). Cognitive psychology: Applying the science of the mind . Pearson.

Saunders, J., & MacLeod, M. D. (2002). New evidence on the suggestibility of memory: The role of retrieval-induced forgetting in misinformation effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8 (2), 127.

Schacter, D. L. (2002). The Seven Sins of Memory: How the Mind Forgets and Remembers . Houghton: Mifflin Harcourt

Weiten, W. (2010). Psychology: Themes and Variations: Themes and Variations . Cengage Learning.

Further Information

Loftus, E. F. (1997). Creating false memories. Scientific American, 277 (3), 70-75.

Loftus, E. F., & Pickrell, J. E. (1995). The formation of false memories.

False Memories

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

Although memories seem to be a solid, straightforward sum of who people are, strong evidence suggests that memories are much more quite complex, highly subject to change, and often simply unreliable. Memories of past events can be reconstructed as people age or as their worldview changes. People regularly recall childhood events falsely, and through effective suggestions and other methods, it's been proven that they can even create new false memories.

• Why False Memories Are Common
• Why Memories Matter
• How Misinformation Is Easily Spread
• How to Spot Fake News

A person’s malleable memories often involve the mundane, such as when we second-guess whether the stove really is off or on. But they can often be far more consequential, such as unreliable eyewitness recollections of a crime .

Human memory is pliable and easy to manipulate. A distorted memory or the introduction of later, false information can affect how we recall events we experienced firsthand. A person's existing knowledge can impede and obstructs their own memory, leading to a newly formed, cobbled-together recollection that does not accurately reflect reality. Also, under certain circumstances, a person can be given false information and be convinced to believe that an event that never occurred actually did.

Given that our recovered memories may be genuine or false, or a combination of the two, it is legitimate to question just how much of what you remember is real and how much is a misperception.

Without material evidence, it’s hard to know for sure whether a memory is real or imagined. Even if you feel high conviction that a recollection is true, there is a high chance that the memory is flawed , by a little or a lot.

Just as a recollection can be altered into a false memory, it can be reversed as well. If you return to the memory and think closely about its details, you may be able to recreate the event over time. Through such a process, you reroute the false memory to a true one.

A malleable memory can have especially dire consequences, particularly in legal settings when children are used as eyewitnesses. Research has found that a child may be especially susceptible to the implanting of false memories by parents or other authority figures. This becomes highly problematic when a case involves alleged sexual abuse or relies on the correct identification of a suspect by a child. But adults can also be tricked into remembering events that never happened, or changing the details of things that really did happen.

Presented with incomplete information, the brain seeks to fill in the blanks. If you see a photo of a person you have never met, for example, and mutual friends have shared descriptive details on time spent with the person, you may start to believe that you have in fact met the individual.

Psychologist Elizabeth Loftus of the University of California at Irvine, an influential researcher on memory who has consulted on many high-profile legal cases involving disputed memories, including the McMartin preschool sexual abuse allegations, notes that everyone embellishes or adds to their memories during recall or recounting. Over time those changes, accurate or not, become part of the memory in the mind. Loftus warns that human memory is not a recording device, but more like a Wikipedia page: You can change it, but others can, too.

Most people struggle to recall events before the age of about 3 or 4, a phenomenon called childhood amnesia . In the first few years of life, a child’s body undergoes the process of neurogenesis, or the growth and development of nervous tissue. New nerve cells develop, and old cells get recycled or reformed, taking childhood memories away with them.

On the internet, almost anyone claiming objectivity or impartiality can disseminate false memories through the dissemination of specious information. Misinformation, or "fake news," has become ubiquitous through media such as doctored videos and photoshopped images as well as fabricated text. Such misinformation is especially persuasive with audiences who already harbor biases endorsed by the inaccurate messages.

Several recent events have proven that memory can become weaponized , often quite effectively. Once misinformation taken hold in a target's mind, that new, false recollection hinders his or her ability to make informed decisions about policy and politicians. Fake news drives social discord and character assassination, and even corrupts crucial personal choices about health and well-being.

Biased thinking molds the way we remember. We all employ bias when perceiving, interpreting, and remembering information and events. This effect extends to the ways in which we tap our memories for information about fake news .

In a study, researchers doctored images of well-known events and found that indeed a person’s recollection of even universally known, iconic events can be altered.

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Cognitive misinterpretation and belief in deliberate falsehoods can strongly influence eyewitness evidence in criminal justice and in the creation of myths outside that realm.

False memory manipulation is a tactic used to control abuse victims and foster dependence. Recognizing how memory functions is key to combatting influence and maintaining autonomy.

How your emotions, imagination, social circle, and media influence and alter your memories—and strategies to preserve them.

A Personal Perspective: Without clear video evidence, why can no one be certain whether a memory accurately represents what has occurred?

Parents with mentally ill adult children suffer with ongoing feelings of worry and guilt. They may be especially worried and guilt-ridden if their child cuts off contact.

Our memory reflects our motives and is subject to external influences and manipulation. The fallibility of our memory is magnified exponentially in the social media era.

A recent paper discusses the biases involved in how perpetrators, victims, and witnesses recall and explain aggressive behaviors.

An interview with neuroscientist Daniela Schiller about the mechanisms underlying trauma and how trauma experiences can differ.

An interview with neuroscientist Daniela Schiller about how current neuroscience research relates to psychotherapy and the close connection between memory and narrative.

Many have experienced the "Mandela Effect." Some believe that the past has been subtly changed or that we live in a divergent reality. Here's what psychology has to say.

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How False Memories Are Formed in Your Brain

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Shaheen Lakhan, MD, PhD, is an award-winning physician-scientist and clinical development specialist.

A false memory is a fabricated or distorted recollection of an event. Such memories may be entirely false and imaginary. In other cases, they may contain elements of fact that have been distorted by interfering information or other memory distortions.

Memory Mistakes Are Quite Common

People often think of memory as something like a video recorder, accurately documenting and storing everything that happens with perfect accuracy and clarity. In reality, memory is very prone to fallacy. People can feel completely confident that their memory is accurate, but this confidence is no guarantee that a particular memory is correct.

Examples of this phenomenon can range from the fairly mundane, such as incorrectly recalling that you locked the front door, to the much more serious, such as falsely remembering details of an accident you witnessed.

Learn more about how psychologists define false memories, how these memories form, and the impact that such memories can have.

Definitions of False Memory

How do psychologists define false memory? How do they distinguish it from other forms of memory fallibility? Some common elements of false memory include:

• Mental experiences that people believe are accurate representations of past events
• Trivial details (believing you put your keys on the table when you got home) to much more serious (believing you saw someone at the scene of a crime)

False memory differs from simple memory errors. While we are all prone to memory fallibility false memory is more than a simple mistake; it involves a level of certitude in the validity of the memory.

Everyone experiences memory failures from time to time, false memories are unique in that they represent a distinct recollection of something that did not actually happen. It is not about forgetting or mixing up details of things that we experienced; it is about remembering things that we never experienced in the first place.

What Causes False Memory?

So why do false memories happen? Factors that can influence false memory include misinformation and misattribution of the original source of the information. Existing knowledge and other memories can also interfere with the formation of a new memory, causing the recollection of an event to be mistaken or entirely false.

The Power of Suggestion

Memory researcher Elizabeth Loftus has demonstrated through her research that it is possible to induce false memories through suggestion. She has also shown that these memories can become stronger and more vivid as time goes on.

Over time, memories become distorted and begin to change. In some cases, the original memory may be changed in order to incorporate new information or experiences.

The Potential Impact of False Memories

While we are all familiar with the fallibility of memory (who hasn't forgotten an important bit of information), many people do not realize just how common false memory really is. False memories may even play a role in contributing to a larger Mandela effect . People are remarkably susceptible to suggestion, which can create memories of events and things that didn't really happen to us.

Most of the time these false memories are fairly inconsequential - a memory that you brought the keys in the house and hung them up in the kitchen, when in reality you left them out in the car, for example.

In other instances, false memories can have serious implications . Researchers have found that false memories are one of the leading causes of false convictions, usually through the false identification of a suspect or false recollections during police interrogations.

Who Is Affected by False Memories?

Loftus's groundbreaking research has shown just how easily and readily false memories can form.

In one study, participants watched video of an automobile accident and were then asked some questions about what they saw in the film. Some participants were asked 'How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?' while others were asked the same question but the words 'smashed into' were replaced with 'hit.'

When the participants were given a memory test pertaining to the accident a week later, those who had been asked the 'smashed into' question were more likely to have a false memory of seeing broken glass in the film.

The Influence of Time

Loftus has suggested that false memories form more readily when enough time has passed that the original memory has faded. In eyewitness testimony, for example, the length of time between the incident and being interviewed about the event plays a role in how suggestible people are to false memory.

If interviewed immediately after an event, when the details are still vivid, people are less likely to be influenced by misinformation. If, however, an interview is delayed for a period of time, people are more likely to be affected by potential false information.

A Word From Verywell

While it might be difficult for many people to believe, everyone has false memories. Our memories are generally not as reliable as we think and false memories can form quite easily, even among people who typically have very good memories.

Brainerd, CJ., & Reyna, VF. The Science of False Memory. New York: Oxford University Press; 2005.

Johnson, MK. False Memories, Psychology of . In J.D. Wright (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, Elsevier; 2001.

Loftus, EF, Miller, DG, & Burns, HJ. Semantic Integration of Verbal Information Into a Visual Memory . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory. 1978; 4:  19-31.

Loftus, EF.  Creating False Memories . Scientific American. 1997; 277:  70-75.

Loftus, EF & Pickrell, JE. The Formation of False Memories . Psychiatric Annals.1995;25: 720-725.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section False Memory

Introduction, general overviews.

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• False Memories for Words
• Early Research on False Memories for Childhood Events
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• Implausible and Impossible False Memories
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• Emotion and False Memory
• Consequences of False Memories
• Meta- and Mega-Analyses
• Criminal Justice Applications
• Case Studies
• Theoretical Explanations
• Critiques and Responses
• False Memories in Children
• Non-Believed False Memories
• Beliefs about False Memories and Ethics of Implanting False Memories

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False Memory by Cara Laney Thede , Elizabeth Loftus LAST REVIEWED: 27 June 2018 LAST MODIFIED: 27 June 2018 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0216

Memory accuracy and memory distortion have been studied for well over a century, but it is only in the last few decades that researchers have actively implanted memories for events that did not happen at all. This research area arose out of a need to explain consequential memories that were appearing in courtrooms and implausible memories that were appearing in therapists’ offices—some of these issues are addressed in this bibliography. In the intervening years, researchers have implanted complex, detailed, and emotional memories for event, including implausible and even impossible events. Techniques vary from presentation of thematic word lists to falsified feedback and images to repeated interrogation. Research has addressed who is likely to develop false memories and under what circumstances. Recent research has focused on the cognitive neuroscience of false memory and various factors that could potentially distinguish between true and false memories.

For those desiring to familiarize themselves with the research on false memory, there are several good options. Bornstein 2017 gives an extremely readable background on the historical context of false memory research, including repression and hypnotically induced memories, as well as recent research findings. Newman and Lindsay 2009 provides an argument for why false memories exist and how they relate to the overall functioning of human memory. Neuschatz, et al. 2007 and Newman and Garry 2013 are two different perspectives on the historical context and broad research findings in edited volumes intended for academic audiences (see also Books for Academic Audiences ). Laney and Loftus 2013 focuses on current directions in false memory research.

Bornstein, B. H. 2017. Popular myths about memory: Media representations versus scientific evidence . Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.

Chapter 3 (“An Unholy Tetrad”) covers the history of and ongoing issues with the popular concepts of repression and recovered memories, and the related scientific evidence.

Laney, C., and E. F. Loftus. 2013. Recent advances in false memory research. South African Journal of Psychology 43:137–146.

DOI: 10.1177/0081246313484236

Describes relatively recent research on false memories, including their consequentiality and emotional content.

Neuschatz, J. S., J. M. Lampinen, M. P. Toglia, D. G. Payne, and E. Cisneros. 2007. False memory research: History, theory, and applied implications. In The handbook of eyewitness psychology . Vol. 1, Memory for events . Edited by M. P. Toglia, J. D. Read, D. F. Ross, and R. C. L. Lindsay, 239–260. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Deep and thorough treatment of the history of research on false memory and related phenomena, implications of the research, and techniques that may help mitigate the effects of false memories.

Newman, E. J., and M. Garry. 2013. False memory. In The SAGE handbook of applied memory . Edited by T. J. Perfect and D. S. Lindsay, 110–126. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Clear and helpful overview of the misinformation effect and false memories for complete events. Addresses many of the issues covered in this bibliography, including theoretical issues, plausibility, images, and imagination.

Newman, E. J., and D. S. Lindsay. 2009. False memories: What the hell are they for? Applied Cognitive Psychology 23:1105–1121.

DOI: 10.1002/acp.1613

Describes how memory errors, including false memories, can be explained as byproducts and sometimes even features of a powerful memory system.

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5 A Neurobiological Account of False Memories

• Published: October 2017
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This chapter discusses human functional neuroimaging findings about how the brain creates true and false memories. These studies have shown that different brain systems contribute to the creation and retrieval of false memories, including systems for sensory perception, executive functioning and cognitive control, and the medial temporal lobe, which has long been associated with episodic and autobiographical memory formation. Many neuroimaging findings provide support for an associative account of false memories, which proposes that false memories arise from associating unrelated mental experiences in memory. At the same time, other neuroimaging findings suggest that false memory creation may depend on states of brain activity during memory encoding. Finally, the chapter briefly provides cautionary notes about using functional neuroimaging as a tool to assess private mental states in individual cases in the courtroom.

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