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IELTS Writing Task 1 and Task 2 – Linking Words (with PDF)

Just how important are linkers for IELTS? When it comes to Writing Task 1 and Writing Task 2, connecting words for IELTS are incredibly important. Overall, they’ll have a significant impact on your band descriptor—in other words, on your IELTS scores. So how do you use IELTS writing linking words well? I’ll show you how in this IELTS linking words PDF!

IELTS Linking Words PDF

Once you’ve downloaded the IELTS linking words PDF , come back to this post to read on. In this post, we’ll look at linkers for IELTS and how you can use connecting words for IELTS tasks to boost your score.

Table of Contents

How to use linking words for ielts writing task 1, how to use linking words for ielts writing task 2, connecting words for both ielts tasks.

• Comparison/Opposition
• Consequence/Result
• Practice with Linking Words for Writing Task 1

Practice with Linking Words for Writing Task 2

Using the ielts linking words pdf, the function of linking words in ielts writing.

The IELTS Writing exam is marked on four criteria : grammar and sentence structure; vocabulary usage; answering the task response; and coherence and cohesion. Each makes up 25% of the overall score. Often, when I read an essay by an ESL student, I’m impressed by their range of vocabulary and their expert grammar use, but disappointed about how incoherently one sentence flows to the next.

In other words? They need more connecting words for IELTS’s higher band descriptors!

To develop coherence and cohesion, we need to use a variety of phrases to link one idea to the next, so that the reader can follow your thinking. How you’ll do this should vary according to the task type that you’re approaching. Take a look at IELTS band descriptors 1 and 2 , then see how to use linkers for IELTS below!

On IELTS Task 1 , you’ll write a report based on two visuals (think: charts and graphs ). You’ll need connecting words for IELTS Task 1 to:

• Transition from a description of one visual to a description of the other
• Compare and contrast key features of the visuals
• Point out and highlight data or details of the visuals

For IELTS Task 2 , you’ll write an extended response to a prompt. In this case, you’ll need linkers for IELTS Task 2 to:

• Present your opinion
• Move between paragraphs
• Provide reasons
• Give examples
• Explain conditions and consequences of different scenarios

Even though the two IELTS Writing tasks are very different, you’ll still need to structure your responses with an introduction in either case. And a conclusion could potentially be used in both tasks as well, although conclusions are optional in IELTS Academic Writing Task 1. (See our article on Writing Task 1 Academic paragraph structure for details.) Because of this, IELTS Writing linking words that will help you on both tasks are those that:

• Connect your introduction to your summary of the visuals
• Move from your main discussion to your conclusion.

Categories of Linkers for IELTS Writing

With all of that in mind, let’s take a look at several series of linking words to help you on test day! You can also download these in the IELTS linking words PDF to return to for reinforcement.

While most of these words can be used in either task, I’ve put asterisks (*) by different words that are particularly good for Task 1 or Task 2. Here’s the key:

* Especially good linking words for IELTS Writing Task 1 (Academic) ** Especially good IELTS Writing Task 2 linking words (Note, however, that any of these phrase categories can be pretty useful in either essay!)

• I think/feel/believe that…
• Personally, I feel that…
• As far as I am concerned…
• From my point of view…
• I admit that….
• I concur that…
• I agree that….
• Furthermore,…
• In addition,…
• Additionally,…
• On top of that,…
• Especially,…
• In particular,…
• Particularly,…
• Without a doubt,…
• Obviously,…
• Importantly,…

Comparison/Opposition*

• In contrast,…
• By contrast…
• In comparison,…
• Meanwhile,…
• On the other hand,…
• Alternatively,…
• Nevertheless,…

Condition**

• Unless…
• On the condition that…
• Provided that…
• As long as…
• Supposing that…

Concession**

• Admittedly,…
• Even though…
• In spite of…
• For instance,…
• For example,…
• A very good example is…
• The best example is…
• To illustrate,…
• First of all,…
• To start with…
• Thirdly/fourthly/etc.,…

Consequence/Result**

• As a result,…
• As a consequence,…
• Consequently,…
• Accordingly,…
• Therefore,…
• On that account,…
• For that reason,…

Conclusion**

• In conclusion,…
• To conclude,…
• In the end,…
• To summarize,…
• To sum up,…

Ready to put your knowledge from the IELTS linking words PDF to the test? Here are some exercises you can use to practice using linkers for IELTS!

Practice with IELTS Linking Words for Writing Task 1

You can find the prompt for this question here !

These graphics highlight several key trends. (1) ________, in general terms, slightly more than half the population owned computers in 2002. (2) ________, that number rose to roughly 75% over the next eight years. (3)________, these numbers varied by group. (4)________, postgraduates were always ahead of the general population: roughly three-quarters of postgraduates owned computers in 2002, that figure rose to nearly 95% by 2010. (5)________, those who had not finished high school began with only a 15% computer ownership rate, which increased to about 45% after eight years.

(1) Firstly/First of all/To start with

(2) However/But/Nevertheless

(3) On the other hand/However/But/Nevertheless

(4) Any example linking word would work here except “such as,” because this is the beginning of a sentence.

(1)________, young people need freedom to make choices, especially when it comes to their careers. Deep down, some parents may want their children to choose prestigious careers, or jobs that will impact society in some way. These wishes are normal and not necessarily harmful. (2)________, it can be problematic if these desires turn into firm expectations. (3)________, offering a child freedom does not imply that parents should be absent. Parents should strive to foster open communication about career decisions. (4)_______, if Tim’s aspirations do not line up with his parents’ wishes, he may, (5) _______ fear that approaching them could lead to judgement and confrontation.

(1) Any opinion linking word or phrase would work here except for “I concur that” or “I agree that,” because this is the first idea introduced in the essay.

(2) Admittedly,

(3) However,/But/On the other hand,/Nevertheless,

The best way to improve your use of IELTS Writing linking words is to practice repeatedly, checking your work thoroughly each time. With the IELTS Linking Words PDF, we’ve made this easy for you!

In the IELTS linking words PDF, you’ll find the key information from this post. This includes the lists of linking words, which task(s) each word is best for, and practice using linking words using the exercises below!

Incorporating IELTS Writing linking words into your practice by using the PDF regularly will help you achieve greater fluency for test day–and help you boost your band score. Make it a regular part of your practice! And be sure to read up on the whole IELTS Writing section, so you can study for the test effectively. Magoosh has a complete guide to IELTS Writing that can help.

Eliot Friesen-Meyers is the Senior Curriculum Manager for Magoosh IELTS and TOEFL. He attended Goshen College (B.A.), New York University (M.A.), and Harvard University (M.T.S.), gaining experience and skills in curriculum development, ESOL instruction, online teaching and learning, and IELTS and TOEFL test prep education. Eliot’s teaching career started with Literacy Americorps in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and later, taught ESL programs at Northeastern University, University of California-Irvine, and Harold Washington College. Eliot was also a speaker at the 2019 TESOL International Conference . With over 10 years of experience, he understands the challenges students face and loves helping them overcome those challenges. Come join Eliot on Youtube , Facebook , and Instagram . Recent blog posts Complete Guide to IELTS Writing Task 1 Complete Guide to IELTS Writing Task 2

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11 responses to “IELTS Writing Task 1 and Task 2 – Linking Words (with PDF)”

Hi, Thanks a million. It is very useful.

I wrote IELTS for getting Canadian PR however I got less in “Writing”. My score was “6.5” and “7” in “listening”. My overall band was “7” and the total score as 370. Could anyone share a few tips? Initially I strongly believed that IELTS apart from being a competitive exam, was a source of business as well as they deliberately made us fail but I slowly started feeling that perhaps I could have done errors. Anyways encapsulating my words, “Any tips”?

Thank you. I really found this post useful because I have been struggling to start my body paragraph and have no idea what to write.

Glad you enjoyed it, Gigi!

Hallo there

Is it possible to know one type of writting an easy so it can cover deffrent subject and deferent varaity of topic ensteed I read each topic and subject endevsoual. Best regards Khleed

I’m sorry, but I don’t understand what you are trying to ask here! Can you please ask in a different way or provide some more details or an example of what you are looking for? Thanks!

Yeay 👏 it’s so helpful ❤️

Yeay 👏 it’s so helpful and now I’ll prepare using your ideas

So glad to hear it! 😀

I believe that this will help me to achieve what I really want to claim in my life….. I HOPE SO.

Hi Malakpreet,

We hope so too! Best of luck to you! 😀

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B2+ Formal Linkers

A new worksheet for B2+ students to help them add more cohesion to their writing through the use of formal linkers and connectors. Download the handout and key below:

Lead students through the worksheet. Encourage creativity in the final activity. Set students an FCE or CAE part 1 essay for homework.

Label the groups of linkers (A, B, C, D) with the titles in the box based on their function.

• ____________________
• One of the main benefits of research into green energy is the impact it can have on the environment. Furthermore, by switching to renewable energy sources, we can reduce our dependence on fossil fuels such as oil.
• The project failed to live up to the expectations of the management team. What is more, it was €100,000 over budget.
• Construction of the solar farm was finished on time. Moreover, workers were able to increase power output by 15% in the first month.
• Many parts of the world are being ravaged by extreme weather conditions due to/owing to the impact of climate change.
• Emissions of harmful greenhouse gases have increased owing to/due to the fact that the world’s population keeps growing.
• Further research is needed in order to push the boundaries of our scientific knowledge.
• Governments should provide more funding for green energy projects so as to increase their efficiency.
• More charging stations for electric cars should be installed so that there are enough to meet demand.
• Space exploration is undoubtedly an exciting area of research. Even so, is it really the most pressing issue humankind is facing right now?
• In spite of/Despite recent technological advancements we have seen, we still know very little about the universe.
• In spite of/Despite the fact that time is running out, we must not give up and accept our fate.
• Much progress has been made in this field. Nevertheless, there is still a lot to be done.
• Unless we take steps to combat climate change now, we may be too late.
• Even if we manage to reduce emissions considerably, there is no guarantee that it will be enough.
• We are still not sure whether or not we are alone in the universe.

Sentence Structure Rules

• What do you notice about the way all 4 linkers are used?

Look at the sentences and choose the correct alternative:

• Due to/owing to + a noun // a clause (subject + verb + object)
• Due to/owing to the fact that + a noun // a clause (subject + verb + object)
• In order to + a verb // a clause
• So as to + a verb // a clause
• So that + a verb // a clause
• What do “even so” and “nevertheless” have in common?
• In spite of/Despite + a noun // a clause (subject + verb + object)
• In spite of/Despite the fact that + a noun // a clause (subject + verb + object)

Look at the linkers in group D and match them to their meaning

• “it doesn’t matter if”
• “If we don’t”
• “If or not”

Complete the sentences with a linker from the previous exercise, more than one answer might be possible.

• They brought in extra seats …………. everyone could sit down.
• ………… you were the only man in the world, I still wouldn’t go out with you.
• They planted trees in the garden …………… attract more wildlife.
• His CV is impressive. ………….., I’m still not sure if he’s the right candidate.
• …………. all their hard work, they weren’t able to complete the project on time.
• I was unable to attend the meeting ……………. the heavy snowfall.
• Many people have chosen to move out of the city ……………….. house prices have fallen in the countryside.
• One benefit of city life is the superior health facilities. ……………….., there are many more job opportunities.
• It seems like a very tempting offer. ……………….., I feel I must reject it.
• ……………….. we run, we’re going to miss the last train.
• I’m still not sure ……………….. we made the right decision.
• He cancelled all his morning appointments ……………….. spend time with his family.

Creative Practice

Use linkers to upgrade these sentences for use in a C1 essay. You can also upgrade the language in the sentences.

• Shopping in shops is good, but shopping online is better.
• We should build more parks because they’re good for people.
• People got sad because the pandemic was bad.
• It doesn’t matter if you recycle, big companies are bad for the planet.
• There are too many cars, that’s why there’s lots of pollution.
• We should make drivers pay more to make them take the bus.
• Veganism is good but I don’t think I could do it.
• Books are good because they help you learn words and you imagine things.

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Linking Words – Full List, Examples & Worksheet

| Candace Osmond

Candace Osmond

Candace Osmond studied Advanced Writing & Editing Essentials at MHC. She’s been an International and USA TODAY Bestselling Author for over a decade. And she’s worked as an Editor for several mid-sized publications. Candace has a keen eye for content editing and a high degree of expertise in Fiction.

Worried that your essay lacks structure and coherence? Perhaps you should use linking words, transition words, or connectors to give it a boost.

Linking words join separate sentences to improve writing flow. You can also find them mid-sentence to connect clauses.

Read on as I show you the definition and types of linking words in English. I also list examples of linking words under every category, and I whipped up a helpful worksheet to test your skills.

What Are Linking Words?

Linking words, transition words, or connecting words in the English language help connect ideas and sentences when speaking or writing.

Linking words and phrases are connectors or transitional phrases. They are also part of formal language, so you’ll find them in academic writing, opinion writing, critical essays, dialectic essays , journalism, and business documents.

Some linking verbs link clauses within a sentence, such as although, in case, and whatever. That means you can find them in the middle of sentences from time to time. Others link two complete sentences, such as besides, as a result, and however.

List of Transition Words

Now that you know the meaning of transition words, let’s look at the usage of transition words in sentences and clauses. Don’t worry, I’ll break it all down for you!

Below, I’ve got a list of linking words and phrases to serve as alternative choices for connecting ideas in writing. Note that there are several types of transition words which we will discuss later.

Agreement/Addition/Similarity

Linking words may help the reader understand additional comments or ideas in a statement. They may also express agreement or similarities. These words are also called additive transition words, commonly found in expository essays and narrative essays.

• In the first place
• As a matter of fact
• In like manner
• In addition
• Not only, but also
• Coupled with
• In the same way
• In the same manner
• First, second, third
• Not to mention
• In the light of
• By the same token
• Additionally
• Correspondingly
• Furthermore
• Comparatively
• At the same time
• Together with
• Identically

Here are some examples of additive linking words in a sentence.

• The group found that a constructivist approach leads to higher test scores. Moreover, essay examinations show higher levels of learning.
• The resort has tennis courts. Furthermore, it has an Olympic pool.

Negative Ideas

Some linking words come in pairs to join negative ideas.

• Not, neither
• Neither, nor

Here are sentence examples of linking words showing negative ideas.

• I haven’t seen Lory, neither have I talked to her friend.
• I neither drink nor smoke.

Opposition/Limitation/Contradiction

Whereas some linking words show an extra idea, these transition phrases and words express contrasting ideas in writing.

• Although this may be true
• In contrast
• (and) still
• Notwithstanding
• Different from
• Of course…, but
• On the other hand
• On the contrary
• Be that as it may
• Nonetheless
• Even so/though
• Nevertheless
• In spite of

Here are some sentences with linking words of opposition.

• The short story can be analyzed using a functionalist lens. However, its historical theme is better understood with a critical perspective.
• As much as I want to go, I must take care of my sister.

Some linking words show relationships between ideas by accepting an idea with reservation instead of showing complete opposition. Here are some examples.

• All the same
• Regardless of this
• Up to a point

Here are some sentence examples.

• Many citizens opposed this unfair policy, which the president nevertheless enacted.
• I like him even if we have different views in life.

Cause/Condition/Purpose

You may also use linking words in your writing piece to show conditions and purpose for a logical flow of ideas. Words like reason get the reader ready to understand why. These words are commonly found in hypothesis essays.

• In the event that
• Granted (that)
• Provided that
• On (the) condition (that)
• For the purpose of
• With this intention
• With this in mind
• In the hope that
• Inasmuch as
• To the end that
• For fear that
• In order to
• Seeing/being that
• The researchers used this method so that the results would be valid, reliable, and aligned with the objectives.
• I will not be attending the seminar due to a high fever.

Examples/Support/Emphasis

You can also use transition words in your piece of writing that show examples or support of an idea.

• In other words
• To put it differently
• For one thing
• In particular
• As an illustration
• In this case
• For example
• For instance
• For this reason
• To put it another way
• To demonstrate
• That is to say
• With attention to
• By all means
• To emphasize
• To enumerate
• Particularly
• Significantly
• Specifically
• Surprisingly
• Important to realize
• Another key point
• On the negative side
• First thing to remember
• Must be remembered
• To point out
• Point often overlooked
• She visited several cities, namely Portland, Jacksonville, Charleston, and Hartford.
• Transition words improve writing flow. For instance, we use further to add extra ideas related to the previous statement.

Effect/Consequence/Result

You might also spot transitional devices for essays that show consequences, results, and effects.

• As a result
• In that case
• Under those circumstances
• Accordingly
• Consequently

Consider the examples below.

• We watered the plant for seven days. In effect, it grew three inches taller.
• Because she didn’t study for the test, Anna failed and had to retake it.

Conclusion/Summary/Restatement

These words and phrases show transitions between sentences to show conclusions. You’ll find these words in essay conclusions of different essay types.

• In simple language
• In explanation
• In lay terms
• In a nutshell
• As can be seen
• In simple terms
• Generally speaking
• All things considered
• As shown above
• In the final analysis
• In the long run
• In either case
• Given these points
• As has been noted
• In any event
• On the whole
• By and large
• For the most part
• In conclusion
• To summarize

Note that in lay terms and in explanation are formal alternative choices to “ in a nutshell.”

Here are some examples.

• Matter is a material that occupies space and has mass. In simple language, it is any physical substance.
• I don’t want to climb the corporate ladder. After all, money isn’t everything.

Time/Chronology/Sequence

Linking words’ other role in writing is to show sequence or chronology. Under the time category, these phrases add a meaning of time. You can find these words in an essay introduction when the writer explains how the paper is structured.

• In due time
• From time to time
• At the present time
• Sooner or later
• Up to the present time
• To begin with
• Straightaway
• In the meantime
• In a moment
• Without delay
• All of a sudden
• At this instant
• First, second
• By the time
• Immediately
• Occasionally
• I watched the movie on television. Eventually, I fell asleep.
• First, fill the pan with water. Then, bring it to a boil.

Space/Location/Place

The following transition words are famous adverbial expressions that limit or modify space. Some of these words and phrases are also transition words of time.

• In the middle of
• To the left/right
• In front of
• On this side
• In the distance
• In the foreground
• In the background
• In the center of
• Adjacent to
• Opposite to

Below are sentence examples using transition words of space.

• My house is located behind the building.
• To the left of the supermarket is a flower shop.

Common Mistakes With Transition Words

Transition words help you create a flow of arguments for readers to understand what you’re saying. But misused transition words and phrases will make your writing unclear. Avoid these mistakes to give your readers a better experience.

Starting a Sentence With So, And, and Also

Both so and and are coordinating conjunctions, which means they can start independent clauses that stand on their own. But it’s not recommended to use these words and also as sentence starters in formal writing. For example:

• Incorrect: Also, there are unauthorized charges on my credit card account.
• Correct: Furthermore, there are unauthorized charges on my credit card account.

Combination of Transition Words And/Or

When writing an essay, avoid English transition words and/or because it makes your paper look messy. Instead, consider whether you need both connectors or only one of them. If you need them both, try this alternative.

• Incorrect: boat and/or plane.
• Correct: boat, plane, or both.

Using As Well As as Alternative to And

As well as has a different meaning from the transition word and. And means you’re listing something of equal importance. Meanwhile, as well as is for additional, less essential information. Here’s an example.

• Incorrect: In this paper, I discuss my movie analysis as well as provide recommendations for improvement.
• Correct: In this paper, I discuss my movie analysis and provide recommendations for improvement.

Archaic Words

Your writing may not make any sense to readers if you overuse archaic transition words like therewith .

For example, hereby means as a result. We can replace it with more modern and explicit phrasing expressing how the current statement is connected to the previous statement.

Linking Words Summary

A linking word is a term that connects different ideas in your text, whether they are contrasting, supporting, or adding. They can improve your writing and help it flow better, I promise!

Regardless of the style of writing, every piece of writing contains linking words to show perfect transitions. I hope my guide on the definition and list of transitions helps you use these words and phrases correctly. Memorize each category, and don’t overuse them in essays.

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Breakout English

Linking words – How to improve your writing

Linking words, also known as linkers, cohesive devices, connectors and transition words, are a vital part of writing. Often when we teach English, we feed vocabulary and phrases to students which, if we’re not careful, can start sounding forced. For me, linking words are the exception to that. I find that a solid lesson with these special words can almost certainly help improve a students writing regardless of the level. It’s not just because it appears in writing marking scales for every official exam there is, it’s because they actually work. Without linking words, texts can feel dull and disconnected. That’s definitely not the image we want to give when trying to prove our level of English.

What are linking words?

There are linking words and phrases for different purposes. You can find exhaustive lists of linking words examples all over the web, but the important thing is using them to good effect.

If your writing was like the human body, the content words would be the flesh and the paragraph structure would be the skeleton. Linkers are like the joints of your writing. They help to connect the different parts together and interact with each other. An essay with good cohesive devices will flow and be easy to read. In fact, it’s practically impossible to write without them. You can do a fun writing activity with a consequences game in another post .

Linking words at different levels

Let’s use Cambridge writing scales as a guide for what we should be using at different levels. At B1 Preliminary (PET) candidates are expected to use basic linking words. Basic linking words are essentially and , so , but and because . At B2 First (FCE) level, a variety of linking words should be used. While by C1 Advanced (CAE), candidates are using cohesive devices to generally good effect.

Although the terminology shifts between levels, the concept is the same. An exam candidate’s writing should be connected together in a way that makes it flow from one section to another using words that help to achieve said outcome. Notice that it’s not until C2 Proficiency (CPE) level that candidates should be able to use cohesive devices with flexibility.

For more information about how Cambridge writing is marked, check out the different scales here .

If you’re looking to improve your writing for the Cambridge Advanced exam, consider our book Cambridge Advanced Writing Plus .

Linking words examples

There are so many transition words you can use in your writing, but having a ridiculously long list isn’t the best option in this case (and I’m normally a big fan of lists). When I teach writing, I tend to focus on a selection of common and useful linking words. These can be associated with their purpose. Words similar to and are used to add additional information. Words similar to but are used to contrast ideas. Words similar to so provide result and those similar to because develop reason.

This list is not exhaustive, but it’s enough for 90% of learners who are using linking words in English. These are good cohesive devices for an essay, a formal letter or a report. They can be used in a wide range of styles and contexts. Keep in mind that linking words and phrases are also a strong indication of formality in a text, but they aren’t the only factor.

The other essential factor to consider with linkers is how to use them in a sentence. Different ones need different grammatical structures surrounding them. This is what the activity below focusses on in detail.

Linking Words And Phrases In English (List With Examples)

In this study guide, you will learn how to use linking words in English. You will discover the meaning of common linking words and learn how to use them in a sentence. Examples are provided to show you the sentence position and use of common linking words in English. Check out the exercises at the end to test your understanding!

What are linking words?

• Meanings & uses
• List with examples

What you will learn:

Discourse markers (‘linkers’) are words or phrases that we use to make links between words in a sentence. These discourse markers are used in both spoken and written English.

Here we will focus on discourse markers in writing and formal spoken English – commonly known as ‘linking words’. Linkers are a way of making connections between ideas and sentences.

Formal and informal linkers

Informal linking words are used in spoken English. You can link your ideas with words and phrases like: I mean , honestly , after all , besides and in any case . It is useful to learn which linking words are most appropriate in formal and informal situations. In an email, you might choose linking words such as so , but , and because . These should already be familiar.

In an essay, you are more likely to choose formal linkers, such as therefore , however , consequently, on the contrary and moreover . There are some linking words that are so formal that you may choose not to use them at all in your writing. Examples include: thus , hence and nonetheless .

Linking words and sentence position

Many linking words are used at the beginning of a sentence, while others can be used in the middle or at the end. Words and phrases connected with sequencing and structure appear at the start of a sentence. Examples include: first , secondly , finally and in conclusion . Adverbs, which express the writer’s opinion, also occur at the start of a sentence, for example evidently and obviously .

Linking words can be used between clauses, in the middle of the sentence. Examples include: words that contrast ideas ( however , although), show consequence ( therefore, as a result), and phrases that add more information ( moreover, furthermore) . A few linking words can be placed at the end of the sentence. Look at the following example: Learning a second language is motivating. It can be very difficult, however .

Punctuation

The use of punctuation with some linking words and phrases is important. Some grammar books provide you with specific rules about punctuation and clauses in a sentence. The most important reason for using punctuation in a sentence is so the reader can understand your intended meaning.

Punctuation, particularly commas , should help the reader to identify clauses in your writing and lead to a clearer understanding of the text. Look at these two example sentences – which is easier to understand?

A: To conclude the cars of the future are likely to be more environmentally friendly however this change may take many years to implement and moreover will require the support of the general public.

B: To conclude, the cars of the future are likely to be more environmentally friendly, however, this change may take many years to implement and, moreover, will require the support of the general public.

Linking words are very important in written texts. Without them, your writing may be disconnected and difficult to read. In English examinations, students are often graded on their ability to write cohesive sentences. Therefore, learning how to use linking words correctly is an important skill in learning English as a second language. The examples below will help you to understand the meaning of linking words in written texts and to improve your own linking skills!  

Linking words: meanings and uses

Conjunctions are a familiar group of linking words, which join two clauses in a sentence, such as but , because or however.  In fact, linking words have many different functions in a sentence and range from single words to phrases of up to four words. The categories below show the most common types of linking words.

Sequencing First, secondly, subsequently, finally

Words like first , second and finally appear at the start of a sentence. They help the reader to navigate their way through the text. They are used in essays but also in instructions, for example recipes.

Adding information In addition, also, furthermore, what is more

These linking words are used to give additional information or to strengthen our argument.

Comparison Similarly, equally, likewise

We use these linking words to add further examples or to make connections between ideas.

Giving examples For example, for instance, e.g., such as

Use these linking words to give examples.

Consequence Consequently, therefore, as a result, hence

These linking words can be used to describe how one idea logically follows another.

Generalisation On the whole, generally, in general

These linking words are usually positioned at the start of a sentence. They are used before a general statement.

Summing up To sum up, in summary, to summarise, to conclude, in conclusion

These types of phrases are commonly used to start the final section of an essay. They are also used in formal spoken English, for example a speech or the TV news, to signal to the listener that the speech is coming to an end.

Contrasting However, on the other hand, conversely, in contrast, rather, while, whereas

These linking words are used to introduce an idea or argument that contrasts with what has been said before. In an essay, they are useful for introducing, for example, the disadvantages in an advantages and disadvantages essay. The use of rather in this context is very formal.

Stating fact In fact, as a matter of fact, actually

These types of linking words can be used to signal to the reader that the writer’s meaning is different to what the reader expects.

Concession Although, despite, in spite of, even though

These linking words are used to show that we acknowledge another person’s opinion, even if we may not agree with it.  

A-Z List of common linking words with examples

The list below includes all the commonly used linking words in written English. Example sentences are also provided to help you understand them in context.  

Additionally Additionally , students should complete at least 3 hours of homework per week.  

As a result In recent years, few students have studied languages at school. As a result , the number of people taking language courses at degree level has decreased.  

But It is important to adjust your mirrors, but do not do this while driving your car.

Consequently John did not study hard for his exams. Consequently , his grades was disappointing.

Conversely People who have no savings often have trouble when applying for bank loans. Conversely , those who already have savings find it much easier to get credit.

Equally Studying languages face-to-face has a positive impact on learning. Equally , online learning can allow students to progress quickly.

Firstly, secondly, etc. Firstly , we’d like to say a warm welcome to all our new undergrads. Secondly , we’d like to remind you that students should attend all lectures on time for the duration of the semester.

For example You should wear suitable clothing for this trip. For example , a waterproof coat and a warm hat.  

For instance You can substitute some ingredients in this recipe. For instance , honey can be used instead of sugar.

Furthermore In my opinion, the government should provide adequate guidance on physical exercise. Furthermore , I believe it has a duty to advise the public on health and diet.

Generally (speaking) Generally , working from home is less stressful and more productive than working in a noisy office.

Hence Mark had inherited a lot of money from his grandmother; hence the large house.  

However Sports facilities, such as gyms and swimming pools, help people to keep fit. However , people also need motivation to help them improve their health.

In addition As a community, we should do more to improve our wellbeing. In addition , the government should start a new advertising campaign to promote health and fitness nationwide.

In conclusion In conclusion , the advantages of tourism outweigh the disadvantages.

In contrast Working from home can save time and money. In contrast , commuting long distances to work every day can be time-consuming and expensive.  

In fact We didn’t enjoy the film. In fact , it was pretty terrible!

In general In general , working from home is more convenient than travelling to the office.

In particular Young children are influenced by the people around them, in particular their parents.  

In spite of this Tony was not offered a place at his chosen university. In spite of this , he achieved a first class degree and went on to have a successful career.

Likewise Squirrels feed on hard grains and nuts, using their sharp front cutting teeth to break up their food. Likewise , rats are able to gnaw through hard materials.

Moreover Children from less affluent households were reported to read less. Moreover , children who did not have books in the house were found to be much more likely to have a low reading age.

Nevertheless You should try to eat five portions of fruit and vegetables a day and reduce your fat intake. Nevertheless , any changes you can make to your diet will have a positive effect.  

Nonetheless The disadvantages of living in a city include noise and pollution. Nonetheless , the majority of people still choose to live in urban areas.

On the contrary On the contrary , many students chose universities that showed a good standard of teaching rather than a high ranking.

On the other hand Tourism can have a positive effect on the wealth of a country. On the other hand , it can also have a negative impact on the environment.

On the whole On the whole , most students prefer informal tutorial groups to large group lectures.  

Rather Rob wasn’t successful in the interview, rather he was given some advice on improving his application.

So I really love Spanish culture, so I’m looking forward to my trip to Madrid next month.

Such as Stringed instruments, such as the violin and the cello, are among the most difficult to learn.

Therefore Sue broke her leg. Therefore , she was unable to attend work for a month.

Thus The availability of high-sugar and high-fat foods has had an impact on people’s health; thus , the rate of obesity is increasing.

To conclude To conclude , a child’s home background has a dramatic effect on their educational achievement.

To summarise To summarise , consumer habits are changing: there has been a marked increase in the amount of clothing and technology sold online during the pandemic.

To sum up To sum up , learning a new skill, like a language, can be challenging, but it is also rewarding.

Similarly Similarly , increasing the price of fuel and raising parking charges may discourage people from driving into city centres.

Still Digital technology has made working from home easier. Still , many people prefer the social contact of going to their workplace.

What is more Too much screen time may affect children’s activity levels. What is more , extended time spent using electronic devices may have a negative impact on their eyesight.

Whereas Boys tend to develop physical skills, such as jumping, at a young age, whereas girls tend to develop fine motor skills.

While While men still make up the largest proportion of students on science courses, the number of women is steadily increasing.

Yet The penalties for breaking the law are high, yet some people continue to commit crimes.  

Linking words: exercises

• Which of these groups of linking words show consequence? a. however, although, but b. therefore, so, as a result c. for example, such as d. to conclude, in summary, to sum up
• Which of these groups of linking words are used to contrast ideas? a. however, although, but b. therefore, so, as a result c. for example, such as d. to conclude, in summary, to sum up
• Which linking word does not belong in this group? a. on the whole b. in general c. as a result d. generally
• Which statement is correct? a. Linking words can be positioned at the start, middle or end of a sentence. b. Linking words can be positioned at the start or end of a sentence. c. There are no rules about where linking words can be positioned in a sentence. d. Linking words can be positioned at the middle or end of a sentence.
• Which word is spelled incorrectly ? a. nonethemless b. consequently c. similarly d. likewise
• Which word has a similar meaning to ‘sum up’? a. in conclusion          b. in addition          c. in contrast
• I eat lots of vegetables, _______________ carrots, broccoli and peppers. a. such as b. similarly          c. therefore
• Jason’s income has decreased in recent months, ________ he needs to be careful with money. a. although b. therefore          c. however
• The weather here reaches around -10ºC in winter, ________ the summer is quite warm. a. whereas    b. so c. in addition
• _____________ measure the dry ingredients and put them in a bowl. a. in spite of this      b. first          c. hence
• You can use a paper dictionary to check vocabulary. _________, you can use an electronic dictionary. a. in any case b. subsequently c. equally d. for instance
• Eating healthy food can have an impact on your weight and your health. ____________, you should try to limit your consumption of fatty food. a. rather b. in particular c. despite this d. while
• There are many ways to read a book electronically. _________, many people still choose to buy paperback books. a. to sum up          b. yet      c. for example        d. what is more
• Many people like the convenience of working solo from home. _____________, working with other people can be more motivating. a. for instance      b. therefore        c. nonetheless        d. conversely
• Which word does not fit in this group of linking words? a . on the other hand b. nevertheless c. however      d. finally
• Which word does not fit in this group of linking words? a. as a matter of fact b. in fact    c. whereas    d. actually  
• Which linking words are used to add information? a. similarly, equally, likewise b. to conclude, in conclusion, in summary c. on the other hand, whereas, however d. in addition, furthermore, what is more
• Which linking words are used to make comparisons? a. similarly, equally, likewise b. to conclude, in conclusion, in summary c. on the other hand, whereas, however d. in addition, furthermore, what is more
• Which linking words are used for summing up? a. similarly, equally, likewise b. to conclude, in conclusion, in summary c. on the other hand, whereas, however d. in addition, furthermore, what is more
• Which linking words are used to contrast ideas? a. similarly, equally, likewise b. to conclude, in conclusion, in summary c. on the other hand, whereas, however d. in addition, furthermore, what is more

————————————————————————————————————–

• nonetheless

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Why the Pandemic Probably Started in a Lab, in 5 Key Points

By Alina Chan

Dr. Chan is a molecular biologist at the Broad Institute of M.I.T. and Harvard, and a co-author of “Viral: The Search for the Origin of Covid-19.”

This article has been updated to reflect news developments.

On Monday, Dr. Anthony Fauci returned to the halls of Congress and testified before the House subcommittee investigating the Covid-19 pandemic. He was questioned about several topics related to the government’s handling of Covid-19, including how the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, which he directed until retiring in 2022, supported risky virus work at a Chinese institute whose research may have caused the pandemic.

For more than four years, reflexive partisan politics have derailed the search for the truth about a catastrophe that has touched us all. It has been estimated that at least 25 million people around the world have died because of Covid-19, with over a million of those deaths in the United States.

Although how the pandemic started has been hotly debated, a growing volume of evidence — gleaned from public records released under the Freedom of Information Act, digital sleuthing through online databases, scientific papers analyzing the virus and its spread, and leaks from within the U.S. government — suggests that the pandemic most likely occurred because a virus escaped from a research lab in Wuhan, China. If so, it would be the most costly accident in the history of science.

Here’s what we now know:

1 The SARS-like virus that caused the pandemic emerged in Wuhan, the city where the world’s foremost research lab for SARS-like viruses is located.

• At the Wuhan Institute of Virology, a team of scientists had been hunting for SARS-like viruses for over a decade, led by Shi Zhengli.
• Their research showed that the viruses most similar to SARS‑CoV‑2, the virus that caused the pandemic, circulate in bats that live r oughly 1,000 miles away from Wuhan. Scientists from Dr. Shi’s team traveled repeatedly to Yunnan province to collect these viruses and had expanded their search to Southeast Asia. Bats in other parts of China have not been found to carry viruses that are as closely related to SARS-CoV-2.

The closest known relatives to SARS-CoV-2 were found in southwestern China and in Laos.

Large cities

Mine in Yunnan province

Cave in Laos

South China Sea

The closest known relatives to SARS-CoV-2

were found in southwestern China and in Laos.

philippines

The closest known relatives to SARS-CoV-2 were found

in southwestern China and Laos.

Sources: Sarah Temmam et al., Nature; SimpleMaps

Note: Cities shown have a population of at least 200,000.

There are hundreds of large cities in China and Southeast Asia.

There are hundreds of large cities in China

and Southeast Asia.

The pandemic started roughly 1,000 miles away, in Wuhan, home to the world’s foremost SARS-like virus research lab.

The pandemic started roughly 1,000 miles away,

in Wuhan, home to the world’s foremost SARS-like virus research lab.

The pandemic started roughly 1,000 miles away, in Wuhan,

home to the world’s foremost SARS-like virus research lab.

• Even at hot spots where these viruses exist naturally near the cave bats of southwestern China and Southeast Asia, the scientists argued, as recently as 2019 , that bat coronavirus spillover into humans is rare .
• When the Covid-19 outbreak was detected, Dr. Shi initially wondered if the novel coronavirus had come from her laboratory , saying she had never expected such an outbreak to occur in Wuhan.
• The SARS‑CoV‑2 virus is exceptionally contagious and can jump from species to species like wildfire . Yet it left no known trace of infection at its source or anywhere along what would have been a thousand-mile journey before emerging in Wuhan.

2 The year before the outbreak, the Wuhan institute, working with U.S. partners, had proposed creating viruses with SARS‑CoV‑2’s defining feature.

• Dr. Shi’s group was fascinated by how coronaviruses jump from species to species. To find viruses, they took samples from bats and other animals , as well as from sick people living near animals carrying these viruses or associated with the wildlife trade. Much of this work was conducted in partnership with the EcoHealth Alliance, a U.S.-based scientific organization that, since 2002, has been awarded over $80 million in federal funding to research the risks of emerging infectious diseases.
• The laboratory pursued risky research that resulted in viruses becoming more infectious : Coronaviruses were grown from samples from infected animals and genetically reconstructed and recombined to create new viruses unknown in nature. These new viruses were passed through cells from bats, pigs, primates and humans and were used to infect civets and humanized mice (mice modified with human genes). In essence, this process forced these viruses to adapt to new host species, and the viruses with mutations that allowed them to thrive emerged as victors.
• By 2019, Dr. Shi’s group had published a database describing more than 22,000 collected wildlife samples. But external access was shut off in the fall of 2019, and the database was not shared with American collaborators even after the pandemic started , when such a rich virus collection would have been most useful in tracking the origin of SARS‑CoV‑2. It remains unclear whether the Wuhan institute possessed a precursor of the pandemic virus.
• In 2021, The Intercept published a leaked 2018 grant proposal for a research project named Defuse , which had been written as a collaboration between EcoHealth, the Wuhan institute and Ralph Baric at the University of North Carolina, who had been on the cutting edge of coronavirus research for years. The proposal described plans to create viruses strikingly similar to SARS‑CoV‑2.
• Coronaviruses bear their name because their surface is studded with protein spikes, like a spiky crown, which they use to enter animal cells. T he Defuse project proposed to search for and create SARS-like viruses carrying spikes with a unique feature: a furin cleavage site — the same feature that enhances SARS‑CoV‑2’s infectiousness in humans, making it capable of causing a pandemic. Defuse was never funded by the United States . However, in his testimony on Monday, Dr. Fauci explained that the Wuhan institute would not need to rely on U.S. funding to pursue research independently.

The Wuhan lab ran risky experiments to learn about how SARS-like viruses might infect humans.

1. Collect SARS-like viruses from bats and other wild animals, as well as from people exposed to them.

2. Identify high-risk viruses by screening for spike proteins that facilitate infection of human cells.

2. Identify high-risk viruses by screening for spike proteins that facilitate infection of

human cells.

In Defuse, the scientists proposed to add a furin cleavage site to the spike protein.

3. Create new coronaviruses by inserting spike proteins or other features that could make the viruses more infectious in humans.

4. Infect human cells, civets and humanized mice with the new coronaviruses, to determine how dangerous they might be.

• While it’s possible that the furin cleavage site could have evolved naturally (as seen in some distantly related coronaviruses), out of the hundreds of SARS-like viruses cataloged by scientists, SARS‑CoV‑2 is the only one known to possess a furin cleavage site in its spike. And the genetic data suggest that the virus had only recently gained the furin cleavage site before it started the pandemic.
• Ultimately, a never-before-seen SARS-like virus with a newly introduced furin cleavage site, matching the description in the Wuhan institute’s Defuse proposal, caused an outbreak in Wuhan less than two years after the proposal was drafted.
• When the Wuhan scientists published their seminal paper about Covid-19 as the pandemic roared to life in 2020, they did not mention the virus’s furin cleavage site — a feature they should have been on the lookout for, according to their own grant proposal, and a feature quickly recognized by other scientists.
• Worse still, as the pandemic raged, their American collaborators failed to publicly reveal the existence of the Defuse proposal. The president of EcoHealth, Peter Daszak, recently admitted to Congress that he doesn’t know about virus samples collected by the Wuhan institute after 2015 and never asked the lab’s scientists if they had started the work described in Defuse. In May, citing failures in EcoHealth’s monitoring of risky experiments conducted at the Wuhan lab, the Biden administration suspended all federal funding for the organization and Dr. Daszak, and initiated proceedings to bar them from receiving future grants. In his testimony on Monday, Dr. Fauci said that he supported the decision to suspend and bar EcoHealth.
• Separately, Dr. Baric described the competitive dynamic between his research group and the institute when he told Congress that the Wuhan scientists would probably not have shared their most interesting newly discovered viruses with him . Documents and email correspondence between the institute and Dr. Baric are still being withheld from the public while their release is fiercely contested in litigation.
• In the end, American partners very likely knew of only a fraction of the research done in Wuhan. According to U.S. intelligence sources, some of the institute’s virus research was classified or conducted with or on behalf of the Chinese military . In the congressional hearing on Monday, Dr. Fauci repeatedly acknowledged the lack of visibility into experiments conducted at the Wuhan institute, saying, “None of us can know everything that’s going on in China, or in Wuhan, or what have you. And that’s the reason why — I say today, and I’ve said at the T.I.,” referring to his transcribed interview with the subcommittee, “I keep an open mind as to what the origin is.”

3 The Wuhan lab pursued this type of work under low biosafety conditions that could not have contained an airborne virus as infectious as SARS‑CoV‑2.

• Labs working with live viruses generally operate at one of four biosafety levels (known in ascending order of stringency as BSL-1, 2, 3 and 4) that describe the work practices that are considered sufficiently safe depending on the characteristics of each pathogen. The Wuhan institute’s scientists worked with SARS-like viruses under inappropriately low biosafety conditions .

In the United States, virologists generally use stricter Biosafety Level 3 protocols when working with SARS-like viruses.

Biosafety cabinets prevent

viral particles from escaping.

Viral particles

Personal respirators provide

a second layer of defense against breathing in the virus.

DIRECT CONTACT

Gloves prevent skin contact.

Disposable wraparound

gowns cover much of the rest of the body.

Personal respirators provide a second layer of defense against breathing in the virus.

Disposable wraparound gowns

cover much of the rest of the body.

Note: ​​Biosafety levels are not internationally standardized, and some countries use more permissive protocols than others.

The Wuhan lab had been regularly working with SARS-like viruses under Biosafety Level 2 conditions, which could not prevent a highly infectious virus like SARS-CoV-2 from escaping.

Some work is done in the open air, and masks are not required.

Less protective equipment provides more opportunities

for contamination.

Some work is done in the open air,

and masks are not required.

Less protective equipment provides more opportunities for contamination.

• In one experiment, Dr. Shi’s group genetically engineered an unexpectedly deadly SARS-like virus (not closely related to SARS‑CoV‑2) that exhibited a 10,000-fold increase in the quantity of virus in the lungs and brains of humanized mice . Wuhan institute scientists handled these live viruses at low biosafet y levels , including BSL-2.
• Even the much more stringent containment at BSL-3 cannot fully prevent SARS‑CoV‑2 from escaping . Two years into the pandemic, the virus infected a scientist in a BSL-3 laboratory in Taiwan, which was, at the time, a zero-Covid country. The scientist had been vaccinated and was tested only after losing the sense of smell. By then, more than 100 close contacts had been exposed. Human error is a source of exposure even at the highest biosafety levels , and the risks are much greater for scientists working with infectious pathogens at low biosafety.
• An early draft of the Defuse proposal stated that the Wuhan lab would do their virus work at BSL-2 to make it “highly cost-effective.” Dr. Baric added a note to the draft highlighting the importance of using BSL-3 to contain SARS-like viruses that could infect human cells, writing that “U.S. researchers will likely freak out.” Years later, after SARS‑CoV‑2 had killed millions, Dr. Baric wrote to Dr. Daszak : “I have no doubt that they followed state determined rules and did the work under BSL-2. Yes China has the right to set their own policy. You believe this was appropriate containment if you want but don’t expect me to believe it. Moreover, don’t insult my intelligence by trying to feed me this load of BS.”
• SARS‑CoV‑2 is a stealthy virus that transmits effectively through the air, causes a range of symptoms similar to those of other common respiratory diseases and can be spread by infected people before symptoms even appear. If the virus had escaped from a BSL-2 laboratory in 2019, the leak most likely would have gone undetected until too late.
• One alarming detail — leaked to The Wall Street Journal and confirmed by current and former U.S. government officials — is that scientists on Dr. Shi’s team fell ill with Covid-like symptoms in the fall of 2019 . One of the scientists had been named in the Defuse proposal as the person in charge of virus discovery work. The scientists denied having been sick .

4 The hypothesis that Covid-19 came from an animal at the Huanan Seafood Market in Wuhan is not supported by strong evidence.

• In December 2019, Chinese investigators assumed the outbreak had started at a centrally located market frequented by thousands of visitors daily. This bias in their search for early cases meant that cases unlinked to or located far away from the market would very likely have been missed. To make things worse, the Chinese authorities blocked the reporting of early cases not linked to the market and, claiming biosafety precautions, ordered the destruction of patient samples on January 3, 2020, making it nearly impossible to see the complete picture of the earliest Covid-19 cases. Information about dozens of early cases from November and December 2019 remains inaccessible.
• A pair of papers published in Science in 2022 made the best case for SARS‑CoV‑2 having emerged naturally from human-animal contact at the Wuhan market by focusing on a map of the early cases and asserting that the virus had jumped from animals into humans twice at the market in 2019. More recently, the two papers have been countered by other virologists and scientists who convincingly demonstrate that the available market evidence does not distinguish between a human superspreader event and a natural spillover at the market.
• Furthermore, the existing genetic and early case data show that all known Covid-19 cases probably stem from a single introduction of SARS‑CoV‑2 into people, and the outbreak at the Wuhan market probably happened after the virus had already been circulating in humans.

An analysis of SARS-CoV-2’s evolutionary tree shows how the virus evolved as it started to spread through humans.

SARS-COV-2 Viruses closest

to bat coronaviruses

more mutations

Source: Lv et al., Virus Evolution (2024) , as reproduced by Jesse Bloom

The viruses that infected people linked to the market were most likely not the earliest form of the virus that started the pandemic.

• Not a single infected animal has ever been confirmed at the market or in its supply chain. Without good evidence that the pandemic started at the Huanan Seafood Market, the fact that the virus emerged in Wuhan points squarely at its unique SARS-like virus laboratory.

5 Key evidence that would be expected if the virus had emerged from the wildlife trade is still missing.

In previous outbreaks of coronaviruses, scientists were able to demonstrate natural origin by collecting multiple pieces of evidence linking infected humans to infected animals.

Infected animals

Earliest known

cases exposed to

live animals

Antibody evidence

of animals and

animal traders having

been infected

Ancestral variants

of the virus found in

Documented trade

of host animals

between the area

where bats carry

closely related viruses

and the outbreak site

Infected animals found

Earliest known cases exposed to live animals

Antibody evidence of animals and animal

traders having been infected

Ancestral variants of the virus found in animals

Documented trade of host animals

between the area where bats carry closely

related viruses and the outbreak site

For SARS-CoV-2, these same key pieces of evidence are still missing , more than four years after the virus emerged.

For SARS-CoV-2, these same key pieces of evidence are still missing ,

more than four years after the virus emerged.

• Despite the intense search trained on the animal trade and people linked to the market, investigators have not reported finding any animals infected with SARS‑CoV‑2 that had not been infected by humans. Yet, infected animal sources and other connective pieces of evidence were found for the earlier SARS and MERS outbreaks as quickly as within a few days, despite the less advanced viral forensic technologies of two decades ago.
• Even though Wuhan is the home base of virus hunters with world-leading expertise in tracking novel SARS-like viruses, investigators have either failed to collect or report key evidence that would be expected if Covid-19 emerged from the wildlife trade . For example, investigators have not determined that the earliest known cases had exposure to intermediate host animals before falling ill. No antibody evidence shows that animal traders in Wuhan are regularly exposed to SARS-like viruses, as would be expected in such situations.
• With today’s technology, scientists can detect how respiratory viruses — including SARS, MERS and the flu — circulate in animals while making repeated attempts to jump across species . Thankfully, these variants usually fail to transmit well after crossing over to a new species and tend to die off after a small number of infections. In contrast, virologists and other scientists agree that SARS‑CoV‑2 required little to no adaptation to spread rapidly in humans and other animals . The virus appears to have succeeded in causing a pandemic upon its only detected jump into humans.

The pandemic could have been caused by any of hundreds of virus species, at any of tens of thousands of wildlife markets, in any of thousands of cities, and in any year. But it was a SARS-like coronavirus with a unique furin cleavage site that emerged in Wuhan, less than two years after scientists, sometimes working under inadequate biosafety conditions, proposed collecting and creating viruses of that same design.

While several natural spillover scenarios remain plausible, and we still don’t know enough about the full extent of virus research conducted at the Wuhan institute by Dr. Shi’s team and other researchers, a laboratory accident is the most parsimonious explanation of how the pandemic began.

Given what we now know, investigators should follow their strongest leads and subpoena all exchanges between the Wuhan scientists and their international partners, including unpublished research proposals, manuscripts, data and commercial orders. In particular, exchanges from 2018 and 2019 — the critical two years before the emergence of Covid-19 — are very likely to be illuminating (and require no cooperation from the Chinese government to acquire), yet they remain beyond the public’s view more than four years after the pandemic began.

Whether the pandemic started on a lab bench or in a market stall, it is undeniable that U.S. federal funding helped to build an unprecedented collection of SARS-like viruses at the Wuhan institute, as well as contributing to research that enhanced them . Advocates and funders of the institute’s research, including Dr. Fauci, should cooperate with the investigation to help identify and close the loopholes that allowed such dangerous work to occur. The world must not continue to bear the intolerable risks of research with the potential to cause pandemics .

A successful investigation of the pandemic’s root cause would have the power to break a decades-long scientific impasse on pathogen research safety, determining how governments will spend billions of dollars to prevent future pandemics. A credible investigation would also deter future acts of negligence and deceit by demonstrating that it is indeed possible to be held accountable for causing a viral pandemic. Last but not least, people of all nations need to see their leaders — and especially, their scientists — heading the charge to find out what caused this world-shaking event. Restoring public trust in science and government leadership requires it.

A thorough investigation by the U.S. government could unearth more evidence while spurring whistleblowers to find their courage and seek their moment of opportunity. It would also show the world that U.S. leaders and scientists are not afraid of what the truth behind the pandemic may be.

More on how the pandemic may have started

Where Did the Coronavirus Come From? What We Already Know Is Troubling.

Even if the coronavirus did not emerge from a lab, the groundwork for a potential disaster had been laid for years, and learning its lessons is essential to preventing others.

By Zeynep Tufekci

Why Does Bad Science on Covid’s Origin Get Hyped?

If the raccoon dog was a smoking gun, it fired blanks.

By David Wallace-Wells

A Plea for Making Virus Research Safer

A way forward for lab safety.

By Jesse Bloom

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Alina Chan ( @ayjchan ) is a molecular biologist at the Broad Institute of M.I.T. and Harvard, and a co-author of “ Viral : The Search for the Origin of Covid-19.” She was a member of the Pathogens Project , which the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists organized to generate new thinking on responsible, high-risk pathogen research.

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