definition of methodology in teaching

Teaching Methods and Strategies: The Complete Guide

You’ve completed your coursework. Student teaching has ended. You’ve donned the cap and gown, crossed the stage, smiled with your diploma and went home to fill out application after application.

Suddenly you are standing in what will be your classroom for the next year and after the excitement of decorating it wears off and you begin lesson planning, you start to notice all of your lessons are executed the same way, just with different material. But that is what you know and what you’ve been taught, so you go with it.

After a while, your students are bored, and so are you. There must be something wrong because this isn’t what you envisioned teaching to be like. There is.

Figuring out the best ways you can deliver information to students can sometimes be even harder than what students go through in discovering how they learn best. The reason is because every single teacher needs a variety of different teaching methods in their theoretical teaching bag to pull from depending on the lesson, the students, and things as seemingly minute as the time the class is and the subject.

Using these different teaching methods, which are rooted in theory of different teaching styles, will not only help teachers reach their full potential, but more importantly engage, motivate and reach the students in their classes, whether in person or online.

Teaching Methods

Teaching methods, or methodology, is a narrower topic because it’s founded in theories and educational psychology. If you have a degree in teaching, you most likely have heard of names like Skinner, Vygotsky , Gardner, Piaget , and Bloom . If their names don’t ring a bell, you should definitely recognize their theories that have become teaching methods. The following are the most common teaching theories.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is the theory that every learner is essentially a “clean slate” to start off and shaped by emotions. People react to stimuli, reactions as well as positive and negative reinforcement, the site states.

Learning Theories names the most popular theorists who ascribed to this theory were Ivan Pavlov, who many people may know with his experiments with dogs. He performed an experiment with dogs that when he rang a bell, the dogs responded to the stimuli; then he applied the idea to humans.

Other popular educational theorists who were part of behaviorism was B.F. Skinner and Albert Bandura .

Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Theory is typically spoken about at the early childhood level because it has to do with critical thinking with the biggest concept being the idea of play, according to Edwin Peel writing for Encyclopedia Britannica . Though Bandura and Lev Vygotsky also contributed to cognitive theory, according to Dr. Norman Herr with California State University , the most popular and first theorist of cognitivism is Piaget.

There are four stages to Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development that he created in 1918. Each stage correlates with a child’s development from infancy to their teenage years.

The first stage is called the Sensorimotor Stage which occurs from birth to 18 months. The reason this is considered cognitive development is because the brain is literally growing through exploration, like squeaking horns, discovering themselves in mirrors or spinning things that click on their floor mats or walkers; creating habits like sleeping with a certain blanket; having reflexes like rubbing their eyes when tired or thumb sucking; and beginning to decipher vocal tones.

The second stage, or the Preoperational Stage, occurs from ages 2 to 7 when toddlers begin to understand and correlate symbols around them, ask a lot of questions, and start forming sentences and conversations, but they haven’t developed perspective yet so empathy does not quite exist yet, the website states. This is the stage when children tend to blurt out honest statements, usually embarrassing their parents, because they don’t understand censoring themselves either.

From ages 7 to 11, children are beginning to problem solve, can have conversations about things they are interested in, are more aware of logic and develop empathy during the Concrete Operational Stage.

The final stage, called the Formal Operational Stage, though by definition ends at age 16, can continue beyond. It involves deeper thinking and abstract thoughts as well as questioning not only what things are but why the way they are is popular, the site states. Many times people entering new stages of their lives like high school, college, or even marriage go through elements of Piaget’s theory, which is why the strategies that come from this method are applicable across all levels of education.

The Multiple Intelligences Theory

The Multiple Intelligences Theory states that people don’t need to be smart in every single discipline to be considered intelligent on paper tests, but that people excel in various disciplines, making them exceptional.

Created in 1983, the former principal in the Scranton School District in Scranton, PA, created eight different intelligences, though since then two others have been debated of whether to be added but have not yet officially, according to the site.

The original eight are musical, spatial, linguistic, mathematical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic and most people have a predominant intelligence followed by others. For those who are musically-inclined either via instruments, vocals, has perfect pitch, can read sheet music or can easily create music has Musical Intelligence.

Being able to see something and rearrange it or imagine it differently is Spatial Intelligence, while being talented with language, writing or avid readers have Linguistic Intelligence. Kinesthetic Intelligence refers to understanding how the body works either anatomically or athletically and Naturalistic Intelligence is having an understanding of nature and elements of the ecosystem.

The final intelligences have to do with personal interactions. Intrapersonal Intelligence is a matter of knowing oneself, one’s limits, and their inner selves while Interpersonal Intelligence is knowing how to handle a variety of other people without conflict or knowing how to resolve it, the site states. There is still an elementary school in Scranton, PA named after their once-principal.

Constructivism

Constructivism is another theory created by Piaget which is used as a foundation for many other educational theories and strategies because constructivism is focused on how people learn. Piaget states in this theory that people learn from their experiences. They learn best through active learning , connect it to their prior knowledge and then digest this information their own way. This theory has created the ideas of student-centered learning in education versus teacher-centered learning.

Universal Design for Learning

The final method is the Universal Design for Learning which has redefined the educational community since its inception in the mid-1980s by David H. Rose. This theory focuses on how teachers need to design their curriculum for their students. This theory really gained traction in the United States in 2004 when it was presented at an international conference and he explained that this theory is based on neuroscience and how the brain processes information, perform tasks and get excited about education.

The theory, known as UDL, advocates for presenting information in multiple ways to enable a variety of learners to understand the information; presenting multiple assessments for students to show what they have learned; and learn and utilize a student’s own interests to motivate them to learn, the site states. This theory also discussed incorporating technology in the classroom and ways to educate students in the digital age.

Teaching Styles

From each of the educational theories, teachers extract and develop a plethora of different teaching styles, or strategies. Instructors must have a large and varied arsenal of strategies to use weekly and even daily in order to build rapport, keep students engaged and even keep instructors from getting bored with their own material. These can be applicable to all teaching levels, but adaptations must be made based on the student’s age and level of development.

Differentiated instruction is one of the most popular teaching strategies, which means that teachers adjust the curriculum for a lesson, unit or even entire term in a way that engages all learners in various ways, according to Chapter 2 of the book Instructional Process and Concepts in Theory and Practice by Celal Akdeniz . This means changing one’s teaching styles constantly to fit not only the material but more importantly, the students based on their learning styles.

Learning styles are the ways in which students learn best. The most popular types are visual, audio, kinesthetic and read/write , though others include global as another type of learner, according to Akdeniz . For some, they may seem self-explanatory. Visual learners learn best by watching the instruction or a demonstration; audio learners need to hear a lesson; kinesthetic learners learn by doing, or are hands-on learners; read/write learners to best by reading textbooks and writing notes; and global learners need material to be applied to their real lives, according to The Library of Congress .

There are many activities available to instructors that enable their students to find out what kind of learner they are. Typically students have a main style with a close runner-up, which enables them to learn best a certain way but they can also learn material in an additional way.

When an instructor knows their students and what types of learners are in their classroom, instructors are able to then differentiate their instruction and assignments to those learning types, according to Akdeniz and The Library of Congress. Learn more about different learning styles.

When teaching new material to any type of learner, is it important to utilize a strategy called scaffolding . Scaffolding is based on a student’s prior knowledge and building a lesson, unit or course from the most foundational pieces and with each step make the information more complicated, according to an article by Jerry Webster .

To scaffold well, a teacher must take a personal interest in their students to learn not only what their prior knowledge is but their strengths as well. This will enable an instructor to base new information around their strengths and use positive reinforcement when mistakes are made with the new material.

There is an unfortunate concept in teaching called “teach to the middle” where instructors target their lessons to the average ability of the students in their classroom, leaving slower students frustrated and confused, and above average students frustrated and bored. This often results in the lower- and higher-level students scoring poorly and a teacher with no idea why.

The remedy for this is a strategy called blended learning where differentiated instruction is occurring simultaneously in the classroom to target all learners, according to author and educator Juliana Finegan . In order to be successful at blended learning, teachers once again need to know their students, how they learn and their strengths and weaknesses, according to Finegan.

Blended learning can include combining several learning styles into one lesson like lecturing from a PowerPoint – not reading the information on the slides — that includes cartoons and music associations while the students have the print-outs. The lecture can include real-life examples and stories of what the instructor encountered and what the students may encounter. That example incorporates four learning styles and misses kinesthetic, but the activity afterwards can be solely kinesthetic.

A huge component of blended learning is technology. Technology enables students to set their own pace and access the resources they want and need based on their level of understanding, according to The Library of Congress . It can be used three different ways in education which include face-to-face, synchronously or asynchronously . Technology used with the student in the classroom where the teacher can answer questions while being in the student’s physical presence is known as face-to-face.

Synchronous learning is when students are learning information online and have a teacher live with them online at the same time, but through a live chat or video conferencing program, like Skype, or Zoom, according to The Library of Congress.

Finally, asynchronous learning is when students take a course or element of a course online, like a test or assignment, as it fits into their own schedule, but a teacher is not online with them at the time they are completing or submitting the work. Teachers are still accessible through asynchronous learning but typically via email or a scheduled chat meeting, states the Library of Congress.

The final strategy to be discussed actually incorporates a few teaching strategies, so it’s almost like blended teaching. It starts with a concept that has numerous labels such as student-centered learning, learner-centered pedagogy, and teacher-as-tutor but all mean that an instructor revolves lessons around the students and ensures that students take a participatory role in the learning process, known as active learning, according to the Learning Portal .

In this model, a teacher is just a facilitator, meaning that they have created the lesson as well as the structure for learning, but the students themselves become the teachers or create their own knowledge, the Learning Portal says. As this is occurring, the instructor is circulating the room working as a one-on-one resource, tutor or guide, according to author Sara Sanchez Alonso from Yale’s Center for Teaching and Learning. For this to work well and instructors be successful one-on-one and planning these lessons, it’s essential that they have taken the time to know their students’ history and prior knowledge, otherwise it can end up to be an exercise in futility, Alonso said.

Some activities teachers can use are by putting students in groups and assigning each student a role within the group, creating reading buddies or literature circles, making games out of the material with individual white boards, create different stations within the classroom for different skill levels or interest in a lesson or find ways to get students to get up out of their seats and moving, offers Fortheteachers.org .

There are so many different methodologies and strategies that go into becoming an effective instructor. A consistent theme throughout all of these is for a teacher to take the time to know their students because they care, not because they have to. When an instructor knows the stories behind the students, they are able to design lessons that are more fun, more meaningful, and more effective because they were designed with the students’ best interests in mind.

There are plenty of pre-made lessons, activities and tests available online and from textbook publishers that any teacher could use. But you need to decide if you want to be the original teacher who makes a significant impact on your students, or a pre-made teacher a student needs to get through.

Read Also: – Blended Learning Guide – Collaborative Learning Guide – Flipped Classroom Guide – Game Based Learning Guide – Gamification in Education Guide – Holistic Education Guide – Maker Education Guide – Personalized Learning Guide – Place-Based Education Guide – Project-Based Learning Guide – Scaffolding in Education Guide – Social-Emotional Learning Guide

[2023] What Is Your Teaching Methodology? A Comprehensive Guide

August 4, 2023
Instructional Coaching

Quick Answer: Your teaching methodology refers to the strategies and techniques you use to deliver instruction and facilitate learning in the classroom. It encompasses your approach to lesson planning, classroom management, assessment, and student engagement. The most effective teaching methodologies are those that are student-centered, promote critical thinking, and cater to diverse learning styles. Developing a well-rounded teaching methodology is essential for creating a positive and productive learning environment for your students.

Table of Contents

Quick Answer

Quick Tips and Facts

Definitions.

Direct Instruction
Inquiry-Based Learning
Cooperative Learning
Differentiated Instruction
Project-Based Learning
Flipped Classroom

The Role of Teaching Methodologies in Society

The role of institutions in shaping teaching methodologies, factors of educational success, education studies, history of teaching methodologies, what is your teaching methodology examples, what is your teaching methodology answer, which teaching methodology is best, what is your learning methodology, how do teaching methodologies impact student learning outcomes, recommended links, reference links.

Your teaching methodology plays a crucial role in student learning and engagement.
Effective teaching methodologies are student-centered and promote critical thinking.
It is important to adapt your teaching methodology to cater to diverse learning styles.
Incorporating various teaching methodologies can enhance student understanding and retention.
Continuous professional development can help you stay updated with the latest teaching methodologies.

Teaching Methodology: The strategies and techniques used by educators to deliver instruction and facilitate learning in the classroom.

Pedagogy: The theory and practice of teaching, including the principles, methods, and techniques used to educate students.

Andragogy: The theory and practice of teaching adult learners, focusing on self-directed learning and problem-solving.

Types of Teaching Methodologies

1. Direct Instruction

Direct instruction is a teacher-centered approach that involves explicit teaching of knowledge and skills. It typically includes lectures, demonstrations, and guided practice. This methodology is effective for introducing new concepts and building foundational knowledge.

Provides clear and structured instruction.
Allows for efficient delivery of content.
Suitable for large class sizes.
May not cater to individual learning styles.
Limited opportunities for student engagement.
Relies heavily on teacher-led activities.

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2. Inquiry-Based Learning

Inquiry-based learning encourages students to explore and discover knowledge through questioning, investigation, and problem-solving. It promotes critical thinking, collaboration, and independent learning.

Fosters curiosity and a love for learning.
Develops critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
Encourages student engagement and ownership of learning.
Requires careful planning and facilitation.
May take longer to cover content.
Students may need guidance in developing effective inquiry skills.

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3. Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning involves students working together in small groups to achieve shared learning goals. It promotes collaboration, communication, and the development of social skills.

Encourages teamwork and cooperation.
Enhances communication and social skills.
Provides opportunities for peer learning and support.
Requires effective group management strategies.
Individual accountability may be a challenge.
May require additional time for group work.

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4. Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated instruction involves tailoring instruction to meet the diverse needs of students. It recognizes that learners have different learning styles, abilities, and interests, and aims to provide targeted support and challenge.

Addresses individual student needs and learning styles.
Promotes inclusivity and equity in the classroom.
Enhances student engagement and motivation.
Requires careful planning and preparation.
May require additional resources and materials.
Assessing and tracking individual progress can be challenging.

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5. Project-Based Learning

Project-based learning involves students working on extended projects that require them to apply knowledge and skills to real-world problems or challenges. It promotes collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity.

Engages students in authentic and meaningful learning experiences.
Encourages creativity and innovation.
Requires careful planning and scaffolding.
May require additional time for project completion.
Assessing individual contributions can be challenging.

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6. Flipped Classroom

The flipped classroom model involves students learning new content independently outside of class through videos or readings, and using class time for collaborative activities, discussions, and application of knowledge.

Allows for personalized and self-paced learning.
Maximizes class time for active learning and application.
Facilitates student-centered and inquiry-based approaches.
Requires access to technology and resources outside of class.
May require additional planning and preparation.
Students may need guidance in navigating self-directed learning.

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Teaching methodologies play a crucial role in shaping the future of society by equipping students with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes they need to succeed. They contribute to the development of critical thinking, problem-solving, creativity, and collaboration skills, which are essential for individuals to thrive in an ever-changing world.

Effective teaching methodologies also foster a love for learning, promote social and emotional development, and help students become responsible and engaged citizens. By incorporating student-centered approaches, teaching methodologies empower learners to take ownership of their education and become lifelong learners.

Educational institutions, such as schools and universities, play a significant role in shaping teaching methodologies. They establish guidelines, curricula, and assessment frameworks that influence teaching practices. Institutions also provide professional development opportunities for educators to enhance their teaching skills and stay updated with current research and best practices.

It is important for institutions to create a supportive and collaborative environment that encourages innovation and experimentation with teaching methodologies. By embracing diverse teaching approaches, institutions can cater to the unique needs of their students and promote inclusive and effective education.

Several factors contribute to educational success, and teaching methodologies are a crucial component. Here are some key factors that influence student learning outcomes:

Effective Instruction : Well-planned and engaging instruction that aligns with learning objectives and incorporates research-based teaching strategies.
Teacher-Student Relationship : Positive and supportive relationships between teachers and students that foster trust, motivation, and a sense of belonging.
Classroom Environment : A safe, inclusive, and well-managed classroom environment that promotes active engagement and collaboration.
Student Engagement : Active participation and involvement in learning activities that stimulate curiosity and promote deep understanding.
Assessment and Feedback : Regular and meaningful assessment practices that provide feedback to students and inform instructional decisions.
Parental Involvement : Collaborative partnerships between teachers, parents, and families that support student learning and well-being.

By considering these factors and implementing effective teaching methodologies, educators can create an optimal learning environment that maximizes student success.

Education studies encompass research and scholarly work on various aspects of teaching and learning. They explore the effectiveness of different teaching methodologies, the impact of educational policies, and the factors that influence student achievement.

Education studies provide valuable insights into the best practices and strategies for effective teaching. Educators can benefit from staying informed about current research in the field to continuously improve their teaching methodologies and enhance student learning outcomes.

Teaching methodologies have evolved over time in response to changing educational philosophies, societal needs, and advancements in technology. Here is a brief overview of the history of teaching methodologies:

Traditional Methods : In the early years of formal education, teaching was often based on rote memorization and direct instruction.
Progressive Education : In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, progressive educators like John Dewey advocated for student-centered approaches that focused on hands-on learning and real-world experiences.
Behaviorism : In the mid-20th century, behaviorism influenced teaching methodologies, emphasizing the use of rewards and punishments to shape student behavior.
Cognitive Revolution : In the 1960s and 1970s, cognitive psychology led to a shift towards constructivist approaches that emphasized active learning, problem-solving, and critical thinking.
21st Century Approaches : In recent years, teaching methodologies have embraced technology-enhanced learning, personalized instruction, and the integration of 21st-century skills.

Today, educators draw from a diverse range of teaching methodologies to meet the needs of their students and create engaging and effective learning experiences.

is your teaching methodology Teacher Strategies

Teaching methodologies can vary based on the subject, grade level, and individual teaching style. Here are some examples of teaching methodologies:

Direct Instruction : Lectures, demonstrations, and guided practice.
Inquiry-Based Learning : Questioning, investigation, and problem-solving.
Cooperative Learning : Group work and collaboration.
Differentiated Instruction : Tailoring instruction to meet individual student needs.
Project-Based Learning : Extended projects that apply knowledge to real-world problems.
Flipped Classroom : Independent learning outside of class and collaborative activities in class.

As educators, our teaching methodology is a combination of various approaches that cater to the diverse learning needs of our students. We believe in creating a student-centered learning environment that promotes critical thinking, collaboration, and active engagement. Our methodology includes elements of inquiry-based learning, cooperative learning, and differentiated instruction to foster a love for learning and empower students to become lifelong learners.

There is no one-size-fits-all answer to this question, as the best teaching methodology depends on various factors such as the subject, grade level, and individual student needs. However, effective teaching methodologies are those that are student-centered, promote critical thinking, and cater to diverse learning styles. It is important for educators to adapt their teaching methodologies based on the specific needs of their students and the learning outcomes they aim to achieve.

Our learning methodology is centered around active engagement, critical thinking, and collaboration. We believe in providing students with opportunities to explore, question, and discover knowledge through hands-on activities, discussions, and problem-solving. Our methodology encourages students to take ownership of their learning, develop 21st-century skills, and become lifelong learners.

Teaching methodologies have a significant impact on student learning outcomes. Effective teaching methodologies promote student engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills, which are essential for deep understanding and knowledge retention. By catering to diverse learning styles and providing opportunities for active learning, teaching methodologies enhance student motivation, confidence, and overall academic achievement.

Developing a well-rounded teaching methodology is essential for creating a positive and productive learning environment for your students. By incorporating student-centered approaches, promoting critical thinking, and catering to diverse learning styles, you can enhance student engagement, foster a love for learning, and empower students to succeed academically and beyond. Remember to continuously explore and adapt your teaching methodologies to meet the evolving needs of your students and stay updated with the latest research and best practices.

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https://www.edutopia.org/
https://www.teachthought.com/
https://www.learning-theories.com/
https://www.researchgate.net/

Marti is a seasoned educator and strategist with a passion for fostering inclusive learning environments and empowering students through tailored educational experiences. With her roots as a university tutor—a position she landed during her undergraduate years—Marti has always been driven by the joy of facilitating others' learning journeys.

Holding a Bachelor's degree in Communication alongside a degree in Social Work, she has mastered the art of empathetic communication, enabling her to connect with students on a profound level. Marti’s unique educational background allows her to incorporate holistic approaches into her teaching, addressing not just the academic, but also the emotional and social needs of her students.

Throughout her career, Marti has developed and implemented innovative teaching strategies that cater to diverse learning styles, believing firmly that education should be accessible and engaging for all. Her work on the Teacher Strategies site encapsulates her extensive experience and dedication to education, offering readers insights into effective teaching methods, classroom management techniques, and strategies for fostering inclusive and supportive learning environments.

As an advocate for lifelong learning, Marti continuously seeks to expand her knowledge and skills, ensuring her teaching methods are both evidence-based and cutting edge. Whether through her blog articles on Teacher Strategies or her direct engagement with students, Marti remains committed to enhancing educational outcomes and inspiring the next generation of learners and educators alike.

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A teaching methodology is essentially the way in which a teacher chooses to explain or teach material to students so they can learn the material. There are many different methodologies that can be utilized by a teacher, and the methods chosen often depend on the educational philosophy and preferences of a teacher. It is also not uncommon for a teacher to utilize multiple methods within a single lesson or over the course of several lessons. A methodology of teaching can include the use of lecturing, group or small group discussion activities, and engaging students as teachers for their peers.

It is important to understand that a teaching methodology is not the same as an educational philosophy for a teacher, though they can often be related. The philosophy a teacher chooses usually indicates how the teacher believes students can best learn new material, and the ways in which students and teachers should relate and interact in the classroom. This philosophy often impacts the choices a teacher can make regarding which teaching methodology or methodologies he or she chooses to use, but they are not necessarily directly connected. Teachers commonly refer to their preferred teaching methods and philosophies together, to give other teachers or students an understanding of their approach to education.

While a number of different methodologies can be used by a teacher, one common and traditional teaching method is often referred to as lecturing or explaining. This is essentially an approach to education that regards the teacher as an expert on a subject, and he or she provides information to students who are expected to absorb and understand the material. Sometimes derisively referred to as a “sage on the stage” approach, this teaching methodology has lost favor in recent years with many instructors. Even those teachers who do still use this method often supplement it with other methodologies.

Some increasingly popular methodologies focus on the importance of the student in the learning process. One such teaching methodology utilizes group discussions with an entire classroom, or smaller group discussions with numerous small groups at once. Students are encouraged to take responsibility for their education and to be active participants in the learning process.

This can also be utilized with a teaching methodology in which students take on the role of teacher to instruct other students in the class. Small group discussions, for example, are often followed by larger group discussions in which each group presents what they learned or discussed to the rest of the class. Similarly, individual students may be charged with researching a particular subject, and then teaching that material to the other students in the class.

How Do I Choose the Best Teaching Materials?
What Are the Different Types of Teaching Models?

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Teaching Methods Overview

The Faculty Center promotes research-based instructional strategies and classroom techniques that improve student performance and learning. Because instruction at UCF takes place in many formats, environments, and class sizes, there is no single most effective teaching method for all contexts. However, research does support a practical range of methods that can be adapted to the various circumstances in which we teach. These strategies fall somewhere on the continuum illustrated below between teacher- and student-directed. We hope the resources on these pages will help you develop a repertoire of evidence-based instructional strategies that meet your and your students’ needs. Refer also to our Learning Spaces pages for strategies and techniques to implement active learning in various classroom configurations . Finally, a synopsis of teaching and learning principles from various sources helps frame some beneficial strategies to improve student learning.

We have provided short descriptions and links to more information for best practice for some popular teaching methods below. They are presented in order from more teacher-directed to more student-directed. For a video discussion of the above, please view the following brief video:

Lecture—Showing/Telling

Direct instruction is a widely used and effective instructional strategy that is strongly supported by research. In direct instruction, the teacher

models an interaction with the subject, demonstrates an approach to an issue, or shows example solutions to problems,
provides opportunities for guided practice, often assigning small group work in class with an emphasis on constructive feedback, and
assigns independent practice with an emphasis on mastery learning.

Lecture can help students organize extensive readings, but it should not be used to simply duplicate those readings. Because learning results from what students do, lectures should be crafted so that students are intentionally active as much as is reasonable. Direct instruction can be easily combined with other teaching methods and can be transferred to online teaching by using videos for the modeling stage and discussion groups for the guided practice stage.

Worked Examples

Worked examples are step-by-step demonstrations of how to complete a problem or perform a task. Concepts are first introduced in their simplest form, then the teacher gradually progresses from simple to complex procedures. Worked examples are a way to impart information. Therefore, the process is considered a form of lecturing. Worked examples are particularly useful in STEM fields, and are most effective when learners are not already familiar with the processes being presented. Students must actually work their way through the examples, rather than skip over them to homework problems, in order to see real benefit.

This sample video from Khan Academy gives a sense of how worked examples play out in practice.

Interactive Lecture

Many instructors build their lectures around questions that students, individually or in small groups, can answer using colored flashcards or polling technologies like clickers or BYOD apps. The advantage to using polling technologies is their scalability, ease of providing collective feedback on student performance, and integration with the online gradebook for uploading participation or quiz points. Other interactive techniques involve short writing exercises, quick pairings or small group discussions, individual or collaborative problem solving, or drawing for understanding. We also have a list of suggested interactive techniques .

View the following video for some ideas about good practices for lecturing:

Flipped Classroom

In the basic structure of a “flipped classroom,” the students first engage the content online (through readings, video lectures, or podcasts), then come to class for the guided practice. It requires explicit communication of learning objectives, procedures, roles, and assessment criteria. It requires a detailed curriculum design organized around scaffolding learning toward mastery. Some critics equate direct instruction with just lecturing; however, here the term is used as “directing” student learning. In direct instruction, the role of the teacher is similar to that of a coach.

Many faculty opt to create video lectures using PowerPoint. The steps are simple: after the slides are ready, click the Slide Show tab and locate the “Record” icon near the middle. The slideshow will start, and audio will be captured for each slide. Upon completion, click File-SaveAs and switch the filetype from .pptx to .mwv or .mp4. After the video file is created, many faculty upload the video to YouTube for maximum accessibility, and link to it (or embed) from Webcourses.

For a basic introduction and resources on flipped classrooms, see https://www.edutopia.org/topic/flipped-classroom . For a more theory-based introduction, see Vanderbilt University’s discussion . Finally, please view our brief video:

Socratic Questioning

Socratic questioning involves the teacher’s facilitation of critical thinking in students by dint of carefully designed questions. The classic Greek philosopher, Socrates, believed that thoughtful questioning enabled students to examine questions logically. His technique was to profess ignorance of the topic in order to promote student knowledge. R. W. Paul has suggested six categories of Socratic questions: questions for clarification, questions that probe assumptions, questions that probe evidence and reasoning, questions about viewpoints and perspectives, questions that probe implications and consequences, and questions about the question.

See Intel.com’s article on the topic for a good overview of Socratic questioning, and view our following video:

Discussion-Based Learning

One of the primary purposes of discussion-based learning is to facilitate students’ meaningful transition into the extended conversation that is each academic discipline. Discussions allow students to practice applying their learning and developing their critical-thinking skills in real-time interactions with other viewpoints. Often, the challenge for the teacher is to get students to engage in discussions as opportunities to practice reasoning skills rather than simply exchanging opinions. One tip for addressing this challenge is to create a rubric for assessing the discussion and to assign certain students to act as evaluators who provide feedback at the end of the discussion. Students rotate into this role throughout the semester, which also benefits their development of metacognitive skills.

See the Tip Sheets at Harvard’s Bok Center for practice ideas on discussion questions and discussion leading.

The Faculty Center also offers the following brief video on discussion-based learning:

Case-Based Learning

Case-based learning is used widely across many disciplines, and collections of validated cases are available online, often bundled with handouts, readings, assessments, and tips for the teacher. Cases range from scenarios that can be addressed in a single setting, sometimes within minutes, to sequential or iterative cases that require multiple settings and multiple learning activities to arrive at multiple valid outcomes. They can be taught in a one-to-many format using polling technologies or in small teams with group reports. Ideally, all cases should be debriefed in plenary discussion to help students synthesize their learning.

For discipline-specific case studies repositories, check out the following:

National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (Science topics) http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/
Online based-based biology for community colleges (Biology/Ecology topics) http://bioquest.org/lifelines/cases_ecoenviro.html
Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media (History topics) http://chnm.gmu.edu/worldhistorysources/whmteaching.html
Science Case Net (Sciences) http://sciencecasenet.org/resources/
NASPAA Publicases repository (Public Administration, Public Policy topics) https://www.publicases.org/listing/

Collaborative Learning

Learning in groups is common practice across all levels of education. The value of learning in groups is well supported by research and is required in many disciplines. It has strong benefits for at-risk students, especially in STEM subjects. In more structured group assignments, students are often given roles that allow them to focus on specific tasks and then cycle through those roles in subsequent activities. Common classroom activities for groups include: “think-pair-share”, fishbowl debates, case studies, problem solving, jigsaw.

Center for Teaching at Vanderbilt University website

Inquiry-Based Learning

Inquiry-based learning encompasses a range of question-driven approaches that seek to increase students’ self-direction in their development of critical-thinking and problem-solving skills. As students gain expertise, the instructor decreases guidance and direction and students take on greater responsibility for operations. Effective teaching in this mode requires accurate assessment of prior knowledge and motivation to determine the scaffolding interventions needed to compensate for the increased cognitive demands on novices. This scaffolding can be provided by the instructor through worked scenarios, process worksheets, opportunities for learner-reflection, and consultations with individuals or small groups. Students are generally allowed to practice and fail with subsequent opportunities to revise and improve performance based on feedback from peers and/or the instructor.

For a basic definition and tips about inquiry-based learning, see Teach-nology.com’s resources.

Problem-Based Learning

Often referred to as PBL, this method is similar to the case study method, except the intention is generally to keep the problem, the process, and the outcomes more ambiguous than is comfortable for students. PBL asks students to experience and struggle with radical uncertainty. Your role as the teacher is to create an intentionally ill-structured problem and a deadline for a deliverable, assign small groups (with or without defined roles), optionally offer some preparation, and resist giving clear, comfortable assessment guidance.

To learn more about problem-based learning, go here: https://citl.illinois.edu/citl-101/teaching-learning/resources/teaching-strategies/problem-based-learning-(pbl)

Project-Based Learning

Project-based learning is similar to problem-based learning, and both can be referred to as PBL, but in project-based learning, the student comes up with the problem or question to research. Often, the project’s deliverable is a creative product, which can increase student engagement and long-term learning, but it can also result in the student investing more time and resources into creative production at the expense of the academic content. When assigning projects to groups that include novice students, you should emphasize the need for equitable contributions to the assignment. Assessments should address differences in effort and allow students to contribute to the evaluations of their peers.

Learn more about project-based learning here: http://www.bu.edu/ctl/guides/project-based-learning/

Office of Curriculum, Assessment and Teaching Transformation >
Teaching at UB >
Course Development >
Design Your Course >

Teaching Methods

Choosing optimal methods to support learning outcomes.

Learning outcome: Solve a complex math equation.
Learning environment: An in person, upper-level math course with 20 students.
Teaching method: Guided instruction. First, the instructor facilitates learning by modeling and scaffolding. Students take time to ask questions and receive clarifications. Next, students practice applying these skills together and then independently. The instructor uses formative assessment to check for understanding.

This example demonstrates alignment of what the instructor wants students to do, and how they are supported in these tasks. If the instructor choses a different teaching method, such as a traditional lecture, students would need to process the lecture’s content and apply principles simultaneously. This is very difficult to do and would lead to less successful outcomes.

Choosing the appropriate teaching method brings instruction to life while encouraging students to actively engage with content and develop their knowledge and skills.

The chart below provides a number of teaching methods to choose from. Teaching methods vary in their approach, some are more student-centered while others are more instructor centered, and you will see this reflected in the chart. Choose methods that will best guide your students to achieve the learning outcomes you’ve set and remember that your teaching approach, teaching methods and activities all work together.

Table adapted from: Nilson (2016)

Choose Your Methods

Using the Course Design Template explore the aspects that will likely affect your course.

Step 1: Review your learning outcomes.
Step 2: Identify the teaching methods that best align to these learning outcomes and fill in the appropriate column.
Step 3: Consider possible activities which will next be examined in further detail.

Now that you’ve reviewed a variety of teaching methods and considered which ones align with your learning outcomes, the next step is to consider activities.

Nilson, L. B. (2016). Teaching at Its Best: A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors (Fourth). John Wiley & Sons.

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Teaching Learning Methods

Open Access
First Online: 23 November 2019

Cite this chapter

You have full access to this open access chapter

Ane Landøy ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8589-2789 4 ,
Daniela Popa ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4538-7136 5 &
Angela Repanovici ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8748-5332 6

Part of the book series: Springer Texts in Education ((SPTE))

3 Citations

After completing this learning unit, you will be able to:

Identify the characteristics of each method;

Differentiate between types of teaching and learning methods;

Argue the necessity of the adequacy of a didactic method to the proposed learning approach.

You have full access to this open access chapter, Download chapter PDF

Active-participatory teaching methods
Graphical viewing methods
Metacognition facilitation methods

Problem solving methods

In this chapter we present an overview of pedagogical perspective from which we interpreted teaching information literacy. In order to achieve an effective teaching, we combined the techniques and methods considered classic with the modern ones (Blummer 2009 ). But the literature highlights that not only the technical aspects of a training determine the achievement of educational goals (Mackey and Jacobson 2007 ; Harkins et al. 2011 ). The human resource is a very important factor. Thus we believe that team teaching (teacher and librarian), creating a curriculum designed by a team of specialists information literacy, librarians and experts in teaching and learning are essential to achieve effective teaching learning. This belief was the basis of the collaboration between the authors of this book, combining the different areas of expertise to produce a product that can be considered, hopefully, a useful help to the trainer.

The way we teach is influenced by the way we perceive learning. Learning theories are closely related to IQ theories. The latter highlights the existence of a general intelligence that determines the level of development of learning capacity (Muijs and Reynolds 2017 ) as well as the existence of multiple intelligences (Gardner 1987 ).

One of the most popular classifications of learning theories has as a main criterion the historical period in which these theories and paradigms of psychology emerged. From this point of view, we group the theories of learning into: behavioural, cognitive, humanistic, and constructivist.

The functions that these theories fulfil are:

Informational, referential , giving an overview of the described reality;

Explanatory trying to answer the question of why the phenomenon of learning occurs;

Predictive or anticipatory through which can be predicted phenomena that cannot be explained in themselves;

Systematisers summarising a substantial amount of information in order to make theoretical generalisations; and

Praxiological, normative and prescriptive allowing practitioners to use certain methodological guidelines (Panţuru 2010 ).

Learning patterns are derived from learning theories. The most discussed are: behavioural models, the direct training model, models centred on information processing, person-centred models, models centred on a social dimension, the mastery learning model, and the modular approach model.

Training models guide the manner of implementing of teaching strategies. Didactical or Educational Strategies are those that designate the manner of pedagogical action, in order to achieve predetermined goals. Depending on the scope of the concept, we find the existence of two types of strategies: the macro type (developed for medium and long time periods) and the micro type (built for short time periods).

Structurally, teaching strategies consist of:

Models of learning experiences;

Learners’ learning styles;

Learner motivation for learning;

Methods and training procedures used in the didactic approach ;

The resources available for education;

Specific information content;

Particularities of learning tasks;

Forms of organising the teaching activity; and

Type of assessment considered (Bocos and Jucan 2008 ).

10.1 Teaching Strategies

Teaching strategies become appropriate to an educational approach by choosing them according to certain criteria such as:

The pedagogical conception of the teacher dependent on the paradigms on which he bases his opinions;

The pedagogical conception of the historical period to which reference is made, the trends in pedagogical practice;

Didactic principles that delineate the educational process;

Competencies to be developed;

Age and pupil’s level of schooling;

Informational specific of the specialised discipline;

Psychosocial characteristics of the group or class of students;

The time set for achieving the objectives; and

The specificity of the school unit to which the class or group of students belongs.

By degree of generality :

General strategies (used in multiple learning situations or school disciplines); and

Particular strategies (specific to less generalisable approaches, to specific disciplines);

According to the field of predominant instructional activities and the nature of operational objectives (Iucu 2005 ):

Cognitive strategies;

Psychomotor or action strategies;

Emotional strategies; and

Mixed strategies;

By the logic and strategies of student’s thinking (Cerghit 2002 ):

Inductive strategies;

Deductive strategies (axiomatic);

Analogue strategies;

Transductive strategies; and

By the level of directive/non-directive of learning :

Algorithmic/prescriptive strategies :

Explanatory-reproductive (expositive);

Explanatory-intuitive (demonstrative);

Algorithmic; and

Programmed;

Heuristic/non-algorithmic strategies :

Explanatory-investigatory (semi-disciplined discovery);

Conversation-heuristic;

Independent discovery;

Problematised;

Investigative observation;

Inductive-experimental; and

Mixed strategies (Bocos and Jucan 2008 )

Algoritmico-heuristic.

10.2 Methods and Training Procedures

The methods and the training procedures used in the didactic approach are elements of a didactic strategy. Although many other structural elements of educational strategy are equally important, field practitioners tend to focus especially on didactic methods as the visible part of the didactic iceberg. We intended to invite the reader of this paper to reflection, presenting very briefly some of the most well-known didactic strategies to discover the importance and interdependence of each element of the strategy with the others.

The method is a term of Greek origin “methodos” (“metha” translating to through and “odos” meaning direction, road ), namely it can be translated by the phrase “the way to”. The didactic method is a way through which the teacher conducts and organises the training of the trainees.

We define the method as “the assembly or the system of processes or modes of execution of the operations involved in the learning process, integrated into a single flow of action, in order to achieve the objectives proposed” (Cerghit 2006 , p. 46). The degree of freedom and of directing depends on the pedagogical conception at the core of the pedagogical approach.

It is recommended that the choice of teaching-learning methods to be made according to training objectives, the skills of the trainees and trainer and the information content to be mastered.

At present, pedagogues prefer less structured approaches, ambiguous contexts that allow students to discover by themselves the most appropriate way to introduce new information into their own knowledge systems. Although this orientation is predominant, the student-centered curriculum, literature is abundant in studies that still call into question a student centered approach (Garrett 2008 ; Sawant and Rizvi 2015 ; Jacobs et al. 2016 ).

The functions which teaching-learning methods carry out are:

The cognitive function , representing the way of access to knowledge, and information, necessary for its plenary development;

The formative-educational function through exercising skills, certain motor and psychic functions at the same time as discovering scientific facts;

The motivational function inspiring the student, transforming the learning activity into an attractive, stimulating activity;

The instrumental function allows the method to be positioned between the objectives and the results of the didactic activity, being a working tool, a means to efficiently achieve the plan and achieve the intended purpose; and

The normative function of optimising action is highlighted by the prescriptions, rules and phases that the method brings in achieving the objective (Cerghit 2006 ).

10.2.1 The Relationship Between the Method and Procedure

Some of the constituent elements of the methods are training procedures. These are required operations chained into a hierarchical and logical structure to ensure the effectiveness of the teaching method. Between the method and procedure there are subordinate relationships, with structural and functional connotations. Sometimes a method can become a procedure if it is used for a short period of time. A relevant example is that of the explanation method. Rarely, the method is used as the main approach of a lesson, but often, regardless of the method used, we use explanation in a training process.

10.3 Classifications of Teaching—Learning Methods

There are various classifications in the literature according to different criteria. Due to the multiple functions that methods can perform as well as the different variants they may have, the rankings in certain categories are relative. Thus, a method may belong to different categories, depending on classification criteria. The most popular classifications have as main criteria: the person/persons on whom the teaching activity is centered, the type of training/lesson, the type of activity predominantly targeted, the degree of activism/passivity of the pupils, the preponderant means of communication (oral, written).

We continue by presenting a classification of teaching and learning methods, which contains examples of methods in certain categories, without claiming to be exhaustive.

By the criterion of the persons on whom the teaching activity is centered or by degree of student activity:

Centred on the teacher—expository methods :

Lecture/exposure;

Story telling;

Explanation; or

Instruction.

Focused on the interaction between teacher and student

Conversation;

Collective discussion;

Problem solving;

Troubleshooting;

Demonstration;

Case analysis or study; or

Didactic game.

Student centred or active-participatory methods :

Methods of organising information and graphic visualisation:

Cube method;

Method of mosaic or reciprocal teaching;

Conceptual map;

Diagrams; or

Training on simulator.

Methods of stimulating creativity:

Brainstorming;

Philips 6–6;

6/3/5 Technique;

SINECTICA; or

Panel discussions.

Methods to facilitate metacognition:

The Know/Want/Learn method;

Reflective reading;

Walking through the pictures; or

The Learning Log.

10.4 Descriptions of the Methods Used in the Examples in Previous Chapters

Expository Methods :

It is considered a traditional, verbal, and exponential didactic method. Although some authors treat the lecture differently from exposure, the great similarities between them lead us to treat them together. Pedagogical practice highlights several forms of lecture according to the age of educators, their life experience, exposure time and scientific discipline: school lecture story, explanation, university lecture, lecture with opponent, and lecture—debate.

Except for the lecture with an opponent, the method involves passing a consistent volume of information in a verbal form in a monologue from the teacher to the students. As it generates a high degree of passivity among students, exposure methods have been strongly criticised but have also experienced improvements following these criticisms.

The school lecture requires the presentation of a series of ideas, theories, interpretations of scientific aspects, allowing the formation of a coherent image of the designated reality.

The story is used predominantly in educational contexts where trainees have limited life experience. It consists in presenting the information in a narrative form, respecting a sequence of events.

The explanation is an presentation in which rational logical reasoning is obvious, clarifying blocks of information such as theorems, or scientific laws.

The university lecture focuses more on descriptive—explanatory presentation of the results of recent scientific research, due to the fact that the particularities of the age and the level of education of the participants is different. The time allocated to it is longer than for the other exposure methods.

Lecture with an opponent involves the intervention of another teacher or a well-informed student by asking questions or requesting additional information. It creates an effect as in a role play that ensures dynamism of presentation.

The lecture—the debate is based on the teacher’s presentation of essential information and its deepening through debate with the students. The success of the method is requires that the target audience should have a minimum knowledge in advance.

In an attempt to reduce its limits, several conditions have been observed to achieve a high level of efficiency:

Information content should be logically connected, essentialised, without redundant information;

The quantity of information is appropriate to the psycho-pedagogical peculiarities of the educated;

Use examples to connect theory to practice;

Use language appropriate to the audience’s competency, explaining less-known scientific terms;

Maintaining an optimal verbal rhythm (approximately 60–70 words per minute) and an intensity adapted to the particularities of the audience;

Increased attention to expressive elements of verbal and nonverbal communication;

Maintaining visual contact with the public, adjusting speech according to their reactions;

Use of means of scientific expression to help communication (diagrams, schemes, or semantic maps);

Providing recapitulative loops to maintain the logical connection of ideas; and

Providing breaks or alternating scientific discourse with less formal or fun aspects that allow defocusing and refocusing the audience’s attention.

Advantages of a lecture :

A consistent amount of knowledge can be transmitted within a relatively short time frame;

Stimulates curiosity and stimulates pupils’ interest in the subject;

It presents a coherent presentation model and manner to systematise a theme and organise information;

Pupils know modalities to express and express themselves; and

Students can receive additional information that helps explain the interpretation of a scientific reality.

Disadvantages of lecture :

Presents fewer formative and more informative links;

Generates passivity among students;

Mild loss of attention and boredom;

Does not allow individualising the pedagogical discourse;

Induces a high degree of uniformity in behaviour; and

Few opportunities to check understanding of the discourse.

Conversation

Conversation consists in the didactic use of the questions through in-depth examination of a theme, capitalising on pupils’ answers in order to develop the logical reasoning of thinking. The conversation has several forms including: heuristic, examiner, collective discussion, and debate.

In its application, it is necessary to observe several conditions for the method to be considered effective. Thus, the teacher must ensure a socio-emotional climate appropriate to the conversation that will follow, to raise interest in the subject to be debated, to manage the number of participants in the discussion (maximum 20 people are considered optimal), and to allow each member to express their opinion. If the number of participants is higher, it is recommended to build several smaller discussion groups. The teacher will pay attention to the ergonomics of the space, facilitating the settlement of people in a way that they can communicate easily. The arrangement of the participants in a circle is preferable. Also, the teacher will assign the role of discussion moderator, will temper the tendencies of some to monopolise discussions and stimulate the involvement of the more reserved. Students will know the topic under discussion, they will be taught to present ideas in a smooth, appropriate way and allow others to express themselves. The teacher will also give importance to time, so that all the topics proposed are discussed.

Requirements for Formulating Questions :

To be correctly expressed, logically and grammatically;

The question contains limited content in need of clarifications, to be precise;

Questions can be varied: some claiming data, names, definitions, explanations, others expressing problematic situations;

Giving the necessary thinking time, depending on the difficulty of the questions; and

Students will be stimulated to ask questions that require complex answers, avoiding those which suggest the answer or have closed answers (yes/no).

Response Form Requirements :

Be grammatically and logically correct, regardless of the school discipline in which it is formulated;

The answer is as complete as possible and appropriate to the question; and

Avoid fragmented, or vague responses.

The heuristic , Socratic, mauvetic conversation was designed to lead to the “discovery” of something new for the learner. Presumes related series of questions and answers at the end of which to shape out, as a conclusion, new scientific facts for the student. Essential in this method is combining questions and answers in compact structures, each new question having as its origin or starting point the answer to the previous question. A disadvantage in its application is the conditioning of a pupil’s knowledge experience, which allows the formulation of answers necessary to the questions that are addressed to him.

Advantages of using the method :

Flexibility of logical operations, hypothetical-deductive reasoning of thinking;

Developing the vocabulary, organising ideas in elevated communication structures;

Forming a personal communication style.

Disadvantages of using the method :

It is dependent on the student’s previous knowledge and experience;

Lack of interest on certain topics may generate passivism or negativity;

Difficulty in involving all participants;

Some important aspects may remain undiscussed.

Methods of Direct and Indirect Exploration

Exercise Method

The method aims to obtain a high level of skill in the use of algorithms, to form or to strengthen a skill or ability. It can apply to any school discipline. The method consists of performing a repetitive and conscious action to learn a performance model or to automate the steps required to achieve high performance.

Depending on the form criterion of the exercise, they may be: oral, written or practical. Given their purpose and complexity, one can distinguish between exercises: introductory (done with the teacher), to consolidate a model of reasoning or movement (performed under the supervision of the teacher or independently), exercises with the role of integrating information, skills and abilities into ever larger systems, creative exercises or heuristics.

In order to achieve the optimal exercise, it is necessary to comply with certain conditions such as:

Conscious and correct assimilation of the model;

Using exercises that vary in form, to avoid negative emotions and stiffness;

Observing the didactic principle of grading the difficulty as far as mastering the previous levels;

(Self) applying corrective feed back immediately; and

Use an optimal number of exercises.

Advantages of using the method

The method allows the formation of skills or their consolidation in the shortest possible time, avoiding learning by trial and error. It produces positive emotional states due to satisfaction through success. Generates growth at a motivational level. It may be the basis for the formation of perseverance and will.

Disadvantages of using the method

It can generate rigidity in learning behaviour, stagnation in learning. If different forms of exercise are not used, it will cause fatigue, the impossibility of identifying similar structures that require the same type of exercises. Not scheduling learning can lead to adverse effects on the maintenance of new information, knowledge or formed skills.

Demonstration

The method consists in condensing the information that the student receives into a concrete object, a concrete action, or the substitution of objects, actions or phenomena.

Demonstration with objects involves the use of natural materials (rocks, plants, chemicals) in an appropriate educational context (used in a laboratory or natural environment). This type of demonstration is extremely convincing due to the direct, unmediated character of the lesson.

Demonstration with actions consists of a concrete example, not “mimed” by the teacher, along with the teacher’s explanations, followed by student practice.

Demonstration with substitutes (maps, casts, sheets, three-dimensional materials) is required when the object, the phenomenon we want to explain, is not directly accessible.

Combined demonstration —demonstration through experiences (combination of the above). One form of combined demonstration is that of a didactic drawing, combining the demonstration with action with that with a substitute.

Demonstration by technical means using multimedia, audio-visual means, highlighting aspects impossible or difficult to reproduce in another context and that can be repeated many times.

The method requires certain conditions for organising the space where the demonstrations take place (such as opaque curtains, lab, or niche.); special training for the teacher in maintaining the equipment, devices, materials used for this purpose.

Access to concrete objects or phenomena that cannot be accessed within limits of time and space;

Using substitutes simplifies, through visualising or schematising, the understanding of the composition of objects or phenomena;

Can be used for a long time;

The use of substitutes or technical means is less expensive than originals; and

Some aspects of reality cannot be reduced to be explained in a teaching environment.

The lack of correlation of this method with the modeling and the exercise may lead to didactic inefficiency;

Requires special technical equipment;

Students receive ready-made knowledge, thus not practising independent thinking;

Use of complicated procedures and pretentious language can distract the student from the essence of the activity.

This method can be used to deliver effective models (a simplified reproduction of the original) of action or thought. Uses several procedures:

Changing the dimensions of natural aspects to a usable scale (models, casts);

Concretising abstract notions (use of objects or forms to understand the figures);

Abstraction (rendering by numerical and/ or letter formulas of certain categories of objects, actions); and

Analogy (creating a new object comparable to the structure or functionality of a similar object).

Using the model involves activating/energising the student; and

Allows an efficient way of action.

Can form rigid behaviours; and

Insufficient practice of divergent thinking.

The Cube Method

The cube model is ideal for exercising students’ analysis capabilities and exploring multiple dimensions of a subject’s interpretation. It is based on an algorithm with the following sequences: description, comparison, analysis, association, application and discussion. It is ideal for usage by sub-groups or pairs of students.

It is done on a cube that on each of whose faces one of the following operations can be written: describes, compares, analyses, associates, applies, or discusses. It is recommended that the sides of the cube are covered in the above mentioned order, following the steps from simple to complex. If the method is applied to groups of students experienced in the use of such methods, each subgroup, team, or pair may receive a random assignment from the ones listed above.

The topic of the lesson or the issue to be analysed is announced. Six activity teams are formed, the activity procedure will be explained. Specify the task of each team, starting from the subject under consideration, the study material shared by all groups. The order of the stages will be kept, therefore: the first team will describe the subject matter in question; the second will compare the subject with that previously learned; the third will associate the central concept with the other; the fourth will analyse the phenomenon, the discussed subject matter, insisting on highlighting the details; the fifth team will highlight the applicability of the theme; and the sixth will discuss cons or pros.

The teams will present the results of their work, they will fill in new details that come up after the discussions. A variation of the method requires that the presentation of the contents of each team to be done within six minutes, giving one minute for each face of the cube. The results are displayed or recorded on the board to be commented by all participants (Fig. 10.1 ).

The advantages of this method are the demand for attention and thought, giving students the opportunity to develop the skills needed for a complex and integrative approach. Individual work, working in teams or the participation of the whole class in meeting the requirements of the cube is a challenge and results in a race to prove correct and complete assimilation of knowledge.

Requires more rigorous and lengthy training; may not be used in any lessons; information content is smaller; requires increased attention of students; and their ability to make connections and find the answers themselves.

The Mosaic Method

The method is based on group cooperative learning and teaching the acquisition of each team member to each other (intertwining individual and team learning). The mosaic is a method that builds confidence in the participants’ own strengths; develops communication skills (listening and speaking); reflection; creative thinking; problem solving; and cooperation.

Steps in engaging the activity

The teacher asks for the formation of teams of four students. Each team member receives a number from one to four. Students are grouped according to the received numbers. They are cautioned not to forget the composition of the original groups. Newly formed teams receive personalised cards that contain parts of larger material (the material has as many parts as the groups are formed). The teacher explains the topic to be addressed. Expert groups analyse the material received, consult each other and decide how to present the information to the members of the original groups.

Experts return to the initial teams and teach the information to others. If, until this stage, the teacher has only the role of monitoring the work of the groups, he can now intervene, clarifying unclear aspects. Teaching will be done in the logical order of material distribution that must coincide with scientific logic. At the end of the activity, a systematisation of the acquired knowledge will be presented before all the groups. The teacher can ask questions to discover the level of understanding the information studied.

All students contribute to the task. Students practise active listening and cooperate in solving requests. They are also encouraged to discover the most appropriate means of transmitting information and explaining to colleagues. Students are trained in the efficient organisation of working time. Students have freedom to choose their method of learning and teaching colleagues.

One of the biggest drawbacks of the method is the high cost of time. There is a risk that some groups may not finish their tasks in a timely manner and slow the activity of the whole group. It is also possible to generate formalism with pupils being superficially involved in didactic activity.

The best-known methods in this category are questioning, problem solving, and learning through discovery. They are based on the creation of a situation, or structures with insufficient data that give rise either to a socio-cognitive conflict, or a cognitive dissonance where the knowledge previously acquired by the student is insufficient or incomplete to solve the difficulty or a problem situation in which the student must apply his knowledge under new conditions. The problem-solving approach is a context in which the student learns something new.

In order for students to become consciously and positively involved in a problematic situation, they must be trained gradually in this educational approach. The teacher is responsible for explaining the problematic situation and providing guidance in solving it. Students, in their problem solving effort: analyse the problem’s data; select significant details; find correlations between data; use creative imagination; build solutions; and choose the right solution.

Stimulates students’ interest;

Exercises the operating schemes of thinking; and

Stimulates creativity.

Problems may be inadequate for the level of cognitive development and level of student knowledge, thus causing students to withdraw from such situations.

Methods of Information Management and Graphics Visualization :

Conceptual Map

Being able to make connections between acquired knowledge, to organise it in a well-defined structure is just as important as having a lot of complex information. Conceptual maps or cognitive maps are graphical renderings of an information system or concepts in a hierarchical or logical order. They can be used in all three processes: teaching, learning, or evaluation. Depending on the particularities of the trainees and the specificity of the educational discipline, the conceptual maps may be different. For conceptual schematics, circles, stars, and cottages can be used. Single or bidirectional arrows or lines can represent connections. A conceptual map contains at most one or two main themes, 10–15 subtopics, and tertiary subtitles, if there are significant details supporting the structure or relevant examples. The first concepts that are plotted, as well as the relationships between them, are the main ones, then the secondary ones are drawn. If needed, the tertiary ones are drawn. Then the relationships are drawn between them, and words can be used to explain relationships (they are written on the arrows).

It is important to get students to work with them because their construction involves the practice of cognitive operations such as: analysis, synthesis, comparison, systematisation, classification, hierarchy, argumentation, and evaluation. By building these maps, the student actively participates in their own training, seizing the structures that further develop the strength of the links between knowledge, and learning much more easily. Conceptual maps facilitate easy updating of information systems.

In evaluating conceptual charts, account will be taken of the correctness of concepts, the relevance of those identified and the relationships established between them.

Facilitates the storage and updating of information systems;

Visual memory is exercised;

The imagination, and creativity is exercised;

Forms logical thinking;

Usable in several school subjects;

Can be a pleasant and coherent way of systematisation, and consolidation of knowledge; and

Are flexible structures that can undergo improvements, and enrichments.

Requires a high degree of activism and involvement of student’s in their training;

May require mental effort too demanding for some students; and

Those with a visual learning style are advantaged.

Venn Diagram

This method calls for students’ analysis and comparison capabilities, asking for the graphical organisation of information in two partially superimposed circles, which represent two notions, aspects, ideas, processes, or facts to be debated (Marzano 2015 ). In the overlapping area, the common attributes of the analysed concepts are placed, and in the free parts will be placed the aspects specific only to each concept. They are useful in all stages of the learning process: teaching, learning, and evaluation. Two types of Venn diagrams are commonly used: linear and stack.

Venn linear :

See Fig. 10.2 .

Venn linear

Venn in stack :

See Fig. 10.3 .

Develops the ability to hierarchise concepts;

Practice ability to grasp relationships between related issues; and

Exercises the ability to reason.

The Grape Bunches Method

“The grape bunches” method aims to integrate past knowledge and fill it with new information. It is a method that can be used both individually and in groups. It is also a technique that allows connections to be made between concepts. It is useful in recapitulative tasks or knowledge building lessons, in summative assessment of a unit of learning but also in teaching new content, because it allows students to think freely. It can be combined with other techniques or become a technique in another method.

The method involves several distinct steps:

Students are informed that they will use the bunch method and how to use it;

Groups will be formed, if it is a group activity;

The group designates the member who will build the clusters or if the activity is carried out individually, each one will draw the diagram;

If the activity is from the front, then the teacher will draw the diagram on the blackboard;

The teacher presents the key concept that will be analysed. He presents the chosen way of work, either by free expression or by updating previous contents. The teacher asks students to make connections between the concepts, phrases or ideas produced by the key term or central issue through lines or arrows, thus building up the cluster structure;

If it is a pairactivity, desk mates or teams will consult and work out the result of their work; and

The final results are discussed in front of the class, a question mark is added to incorrect concepts, necessary explanations are given and the final result is corrected. Also, trainees are invited to create new connections with aspects not taken into discussion.

The role of the teacher is to organise, monitor and support students’ work, to synthesise the information they receive, to ask questions and request additional information and to stimulate the production of new links between concepts or new ideas.

Developing cognitive capabilities for interpretation, identification, classification and definition;

Develop reflection, evaluation and self-assessment capabilities;

The method encourages the participation of all students;

Evaluate each student’s way of thinking;

Stimulates students to make connections between concepts;

It is a flexible method because it can be used successfully to evaluate a content unit, but also during teaching;

Stimulates student’s logical thinking;

Increases learning efficiency (students can learn from each other); and

The method helps the teacher to assess the extent to where students are relative to curriculum standards (Fig. 10.4 ).

Bunch method

Students can deviate from the topic discussed since it is a method that is based on creativity;

The method takes a long time to process ideas; and

There is a possibility for each student not to actively participate.

Tree Schemes

These may be horizontal or vertical. Among the horizontal ones we mention: horizontal cause—effect type; situation—problem—explanation type; and classification type. Some of the best-known vertical tree schemes are Tree of Ideas and Concept Tree.

Starbursting

The method is considered a method of information management and graphic visualisation. It is a useful method in problem solving and one to stimulate the creativity of the trainers, similar to brainstorming. The difference is in the organisation of known information according to some key questions.

Write the issue or concept that will be debated on a whiteboard or flip chart and frame in a star. The teacher adds as many questions as possible to that concept. Each question will be framed in one star. Initial questions used will be essential questions, such as: who; what; when; where; and why; which may then give rise to other complex questions (Fig. 10.5 ).

Starbursting method

Proposing the problem, and the concept;

Organising the class in several subgroups, each of them stating the problem on a sheet of paper;

The elaboration in each group of a list of various questions related to the issue to be discussed;

Communicating the results of the group activity; and

Highlighting the most interesting questions and appreciating teamwork.

This is a method considered by students to be relaxing and enjoyable;

Stimulates individual and group creativity, the manifestation of spontaneity;

It is easy to apply, suitable for many types of student groups with different psychoindividual characteristics;

It develops the spirit of cooperation;

It creates the possibility of contagion of ideas;

Develops teamwork skills;

Stimulation of all participants in the discussion; and

There is no need for elaborate explanations, as it is very easy to understand by all students.

It takes a long time for application; and

Lack of involvement from some students.

Methods to Facilitate Metacognition :

The “I Know/I Want to Know/I Learned” method

The method consists in valuing previous experience of the subject matter and discussing the prerequisites. The premise behind this method is to reconsider students’ previous or pre-requisite knowledge when introducing new insights. It can also be an excellent formative assessment of the lesson, an instrument for stimulating metacognition, but also a means for the teacher to get feedback on the understanding of new knowledge by students.

Method of implementation:

Presentation of the theme of the activity;

Dividing the class of students into sub-groups;

The teacher distributes the support sheets and asks students to inventory everything they know about the subject;

Students fill in the columns “KNOWN” and “WANT TO KNOW” of the worksheet table. In the column “KNOWN”, students will add all known aspects related to the subject matter under discussion. In the column “WANT TO KNOW”, those questions that arise in relation to the subject under consideration will be passed. Questions are identified as having an important role in guiding and personalising reading;

Individual reading of the text;

Fill in the column “LEARNED” in close connection with previously asked questions, highlighting those who receive such an answer;

In the next step, students will compare the results of the three analysis fields; and

Final discussions and drawing conclusions in a plenary.

Active reading from students;

Development and exercise categorisation capacity;

Increasing the motivation of students to engage in activity;

Stimulating students’ creativity; and

Good retention of the information presented during the course.

Difficulties can arise in formulating proper questions about the topic being debated;

The teacher must exercise the roles of organizer and facilitator in order for the activity to be accomplished and to achieve its objectives; and

May be demanding and tiring for younger participants.

Methods of Stimulating Creativity :

Brainstorming

The method stimulates students’ productivity and creativity. The basic principle of the method is “quantity generates quality”. By using this method students are encouraged and requested to participate actively avoiding the beaten path. Brainstorming facilitates exercising capabilities to critically analyse real situations, a random association that allows discovering unpredictable sources of inspiration, and making decisions about choosing the most appropriate solutions. This way, creativity is practised and allows a person to express himself genuinely. It has a beneficial effect on interpersonal relationships among the group of students.

The method’s steps:

The theme is chosen and the task is announced;

Students are asked to express as quickly, as concisely as possible all ideas as they come to their mind in solving a problem situation. They can associate with the ideas of their colleagues; they can take over, complete or transform their ideas. Any kind of criticism is prohibited, not to inhibit creative effort. The principle governing activity is “quantity generates quality”;

All ideas are recorded;

Leave a few minutes to “settle” ideas that were given and received;

The ideas issued are repeated, and students build criteria to assemble concepts given by categories, and key words;

The class of students is divided into subgroups, according to ideas, for debate. A variation at this stage is a debate in a large group, critically analysing and evaluating ideas; and

The results of each subgroup are communicated in varied and original forms such as: schemes, verbal constructions, images, songs, mosaic, and role-plays.

It stimulates creativity;

The development of critical thinking and the ability to argue;

The development communication skills;

Active participation of all students/learners;

Low application costs, broad applicability;

Enhancing the self-confidence and the spirit of initiative of a student; and

The development of a positive educational climate.

Time-consuming;

Success of the method depends on the moderator’s ability to lead the discussion in the desired direction;

It can be tedious and demanding for the participants; and

It proposes possible solutions to solve the problem, not an effective solution.

Applications/Exercises

Write a short essay on the subject: Didactic methods between normality and creativity .

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Landøy, A., Popa, D., Repanovici, A. (2020). Teaching Learning Methods. In: Collaboration in Designing a Pedagogical Approach in Information Literacy. Springer Texts in Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34258-6_10

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Teaching Research Methodologies in Education: Teachers’ Pedagogical Practices in Portugal

Despite the several mismatches of methodological understanding between teachers and students in higher education, research methodologies in education are a relatively common pedagogical practice in most European advanced courses in education. However, only some studies have shown what pedagogical practices are mobilised by the teachers with their specific scientific conceptions. This article presents and discusses the results of an extensive research study conducted in Portugal with all the teachers involved in teaching research methodologies on master’s and doctoral programmes in education. The results show the personal and professional characteristics of the teachers involved in this teaching and the type of senses, decisions, and challenges experienced when teaching research methodologies. The study identifies and characterises the research culture generated by the different pedagogical practices in this scientific field. Based on the results, we argue that the teachers’ scientific conceptions and pedagogical practices may be developed by a “peer authorial construction of research understanding,” aiming to provide appropriate educational experiences to students in research methodologies courses in advanced studies in education.

1 Introduction

The higher education teachers’ pedagogical practices on research methodologies are an emerging issue. However, few research contributions identify and reflect its characterisation. In a world in constant transformation through machine learning processes (e.g. data production via ChatGPT, net e-research, and data analysis software), higher education teachers’ pedagogical practices become implicated. Pedagogical practices in Portuguese higher education have been under solid epistemological and methodological reflections impacted by governance reforms since 2007 (Magalhães & Veiga, 2023 ). Despite being part of this scenario, the scientific area of research methodologies in education (RME) has been on the second plan of this challenge’s priorities (Matos, Piedade, Freitas, Pedro, & Dorotea, 2023 ). Understanding the pedagogical practices of teaching research methodologies is fundamental to the composition of a larger higher education scenario, involving students’ experiences, institutions’ organisational culture, and the rational development of the field itself.

Literature has indicated that no matter how strong the intention of professional development for teachers of research methodology is, several gaps still persist that inhibit the improvement of teaching methods. Talbott and Lee ( 2020 ) show that a lack of a common language persists, shared by those who teach it and those who learn it about the key concepts of RME. In Portugal, there are no specific continuing education courses to teach RME; therefore, teachers act as self-taught professionals. This lack weakens teachers’ pedagogical skills. According to Ross and Call-Cummings ( 2020 ), the isolation of teachers’ practices and the uncertainty that such situation generates is another crucial gap – teachers’ practices are based on their own autonomous experiences. It is essential to understand whether this isolation scenario means limited space for sharing and reflection with peers and other professionals or if it is a choice assumed by the teachers. When this fragmented, fragile scenario is considered as a whole, the gap increases because it becomes clear that teaching RME is permeated by pedagogical misunderstandings that lie on a limited reflection basis (Nind, 2020 ). In this complex scenario of pedagogical practices of teachers responsible/involved in teaching methodologies in education, it is essential to identify and characterise pedagogical practices. The Research Methods in Advanced Studies in Education project was initiated in January 2022, aiming to identify and provide research-based principles and guidelines for designing research method courses in education that was put together as a framework. This report is part of that commitment.

This article aims to identify and characterise the scientific conceptions and pedagogical practices of teachers involved or responsible for teaching RME in advanced studies in Portugal (master and doctoral education programmes). The main research question addressed in this article is: What are the epistemological/methodological/ontological perceptions and pedagogical practices of teachers responsible or involved in teaching RME?

This article is organised into four major sections. Section 2 refers to the state of the art that informs trends in pedagogical practices for teaching RME. The report is based on the dimensions under analysis (scientific rationale, research design, and scientific writing). Section 3 refers to the methodology of the project, where the implemented phases for collecting and analysing information are described, highlighting and justifying the processes that were considered. Section 4 presents the research results addressing the research question operationalised through specific questions (personal and professional characteristics of the participants, pedagogical and scientific conceptions, and the type of pedagogical culture generated). Section 5 of this article concerns the interpretation and discussion of the results and ends with the conclusion in Section 6.

2 Teaching RME: Pedagogical Practices based on the Dimensions of Scientific Rationale, Research Design, and Scientific Writing

The state-of-the-art that sets up the theoretical context to present and discuss in this article is based on three dimensions of teaching RME. The first is the scientific rationale, detailed as dispositions for understanding methodological knowledge. The second dimension concerns research designs and their epistemological formulations, highlighting operational challenges, disputes, and disagreements. The third and last dimension that makes up the state-of-the-art is scientific writing, with its varieties of type and form, according to the dissemination aim of scientific knowledge. The three dimensions are correlated as they operate within the same logic to the same objective: to engage and develop fundamental principles in a pedagogical culture aiming to understand and undertake research (Matos, Freitas, Estrela, Galego C & Piedade, 2023 ).

The scientific rationale is one of the pillars of teaching and learning RME; however, the literature needs to include more methodological knowledge. According to Wagner, Garner, and Kawulich ( 2011 ), the misunderstandings began with the literature giving insufficient attention to the theoretical aspects of methodological knowledge. One way to provide conditions to start acknowledging this issue is by tailoring research questions and creating opportunities to understand research focused on methodological knowledge in ways that undertake research design layaway for writing and future dissemination (Aguado, 2009 ). The literature shows that to achieve this guiding sequence of teaching and learning RME, the reflection should be aimed at teachers’ pedagogical practices. Encouraging reflection on teaching through practices of reflective language processes promotes a deeper knowledge of methodologies (Lewthwaite & Nind, 2016 ). According to Lewthwaite and Nind ( 2016 ), creating opportunities to reflect on research questions is a crucial way to understand that scientific rationale is not a static and perfect state that needs to be undertaken without the researcher. Therefore, to understand scientific knowledge, it is necessary to consider the researcher’s intervention through reflective processes on their research questions. Teachers of RME are responsible for this understanding. Through their pedagogical practices, they promote students’ learning and professional development (Nind & Lewthwaite, 2018 ). According to Saeed, Al-Ahdal, and Al Qunayeer (2021), this broad concept of scientific rationale is better understood as a research issue in teaching and learning RME when teachers promote pedagogical practices interested in mentoring students. However, students tend to strictly follow instructions given on research methodologies without questioning them (Rich, 2014 ). In this case, pedagogical practices of mentoring students to understand scientific rationale should be aligned with the idea that students may be unable to produce knowledge independently.

The scientific rationale of RME courses is complex in itself. Associated with this complexity is the “claim of hardness” of quantitative methodologies, provoking anxiety and the “depreciation of the credibility” of qualitative methodologies Matos et al. ( 2023 ). This complexity increases when teachers’ pedagogical practices are focused on predetermined modes that do not foster student-centred learning encounters. According to Knipe, Miles, and Bottrell ( 2018 , p. 53), students have difficulty understanding the transference of scientific rationale “[…] to the complex and often very disciplined specific terminologies and nuances of methodology identified by various approaches to educational research.” Saeed and Al Qunayeer ( 2021 ) state that the most difficult pedagogical challenge when teaching RME is simplifying abstract information about scientific rationale in methodological knowledge and making it understandable, learnable, and applicable to students through hands-on investigative practice. From research questions as a guiding element to research designs, it is considered that pedagogical practices should address epistemological formulations, highlighting operational challenges, disputes, and disagreements. This is the second dimension that can be identified in the state of the art for teaching RME.

The research design emerges as a crucial dimension in teachers’ pedagogical practices in research methodologies based on the “desirable” pedagogical environment created and the research skills to be taught. A student criticism that translates into students’ wishes is the organisation of teaching research methodologies through hands-on strategies. According to Luo ( 2017 ), teachers’ pedagogical practices on research methodologies are not practical enough, focusing more on the scientific rationale than on its applied aspects. Nind ( 2020 ) found out that the degree of application of research methods differs between teachers, more committed to teaching quantitative and those who teach essentially qualitative methodologies, indicating that teachers of quantitative methodologies employ more of these operational practices. This result does not imply that teachers of qualitative methodologies mobilise less of these strategies in their pedagogical practices. According to Nind ( 2020 ), what is at stake is the perception of what hands-on practices are since teachers of qualitative methodologies mostly emphasise the processes of reflective encounters of the investigative practice. According to Ekmekci, Hancock, and Swayze ( 2012 ), one guiding question for teachers’ pedagogical practices can be elaborated on to create a shared sense: Is my communication clear? Adopting pedagogical strategies that are hands-on and student-centred and therefore organised to be understood and undertaken by the receiver promotes this encounter. Besides the encounter between teacher and students, another identified trend in the literature that promotes a better understanding of research design is through co-teaching strategies (Fabregas & González, 2008 ) and student peer collaboration (Alharbi & Alqefari, 2021 ). When this “desirable” pedagogical environment makes up the teaching scenario, research design, as an issue in teachers’ pedagogical practices, amplifies the possibilities for understanding the scientific rationale and operationalise it. Ultimately, we refer to the teachers’ pedagogical practices that engage students in practices that include a variety of learning opportunities organised through training, reflection, and doing (Nind, Holmes, Insenga, Lewthwaite, & Sutton, 2019 ).

The research skills to be taught to undertake research from this scenario can be organised into three particular aspects of teaching. The literature shows that teaching research design, as the second major dimension constituting teachers’ pedagogical practices, emerges mainly from (i) online activities and their pedagogical added value, (ii) by recognising students’ prior skills and experiences, and (iii) by involving students in ongoing research projects with real data.

The use of online resources for data collection (e.g. online survey), for its analysis (e.g. support software), or even for scientific writing itself (e.g. simultaneous activity documents) is highlighted as opportunities to develop research skills (Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2021 ). However, studies point to the need for customisation and adaptability of digital resources for specific learning according to student’s needs (Rich, 2014 ). Some disadvantages are considered, such as frustration for not knowing how to operate the digital resources, generating confusion of methodological understanding (Secret, Bryant, & Cummings, 2017 ), and the absence of a more empathetic interaction between who learns and who teaches (Ivankova, 2010 ). These results make room for the discussion that such constraints may be associated with the fact that the previously presented premise about the teaching scenario being learner-centred was not put into practice. According to Ivankova and Plano Clark ( 2018 ), these results can be interpreted from the inadequacy of choices for teaching by the promotion of learning strategies for a specific learning environment (online) that may be a simplistic replication of the most common and general one (face-to-face). This is a clear indication that the needs of the students are at the centre of the teacher’s pedagogical practice.

The literature indicates that pedagogical practices in teaching methodologies should consider knowing the students’ background, whether in terms of personal interests or academic experiences (Nind & Lewthwaite, 2018 ). According to Luo ( 2017 ), one way to realise this premise in teaching RME is to understand students’ interests in different research topics (scientific rationale, research design, and other subjects deemed pertinent by the teacher). From the results of such inquiries developed by teachers, it was understood that students need to be involved in research practices integrated into research projects as team members, acting as research assistants or volunteers in training. It is considered that hands-on learning activities using real-world examples allow students to understand how different research methods can be used to solve practical problems in the professional domain (Luo, 2017 ; Nind & Lewthwaite, 2018 ). Through these pedagogical opportunities, scientific rationale is understood within methodological issues emerging from practice within a variety of research designs and dissemination objectives.

As the last nuclear dimension in teaching RME, scientific writing appears as a new and current challenge, implied by the traditional logic of publishing or perishing. Writing and publishing students’ research articles can be a challenge, with a focus on teachers’ (un)confidence about the reliability of the work produced (Alharbi & Alqefari, 2021 ). The issue is that students are “authors” in academic training. According to Alharbi and Alqefari ( 2021 ), students may be involved in writing and participating in the authorship of articles when scientific supervision is provided. This issue impacts teachers’ pedagogical practices in different ways, whether it is within master’s education programmes or doctoral programmes. A debate emerges from this: it is a fact that most of the RME students will not become future researchers as professional practitioners, but all of them should be consumers and, in some cases, producers of scientific knowledge. How do we balance these challenges that impact teachers’ pedagogical practices? The results of this study may contribute to this understanding.

3 Methodological Approach

This article is part of a project under development named Research Methods in Advanced Studies in Education (ReMASE). The research inherent in the development of this article is framed within the principles of the interpretive and pragmatic paradigm (Creswell, 2010 ) and operationalised in a study that makes extensive use of quantitative data. The research methodology is developed considering the different objectives and operationalised by the guiding questions (Creswell, 2014 ).

In order to identify and characterise scientific conceptions and pedagogical practices in this area of education extensively, the population of this study is constituted of all the teachers who are responsible or involved in teaching RME in all higher education institutions in Portugal. This article focuses on the empirical results of the ReMASE project. Data were collected from July to October 2022.

Project ReMASE used a database to identify the respondents to the questionnaire survey. The eligibility criteria for constructing the database and the respective information extraction followed a sequential process in three phases. First, all master’s and doctoral programmes in education and teaching in Portugal were identified through the agency that evaluates and accredits the programmes (A3ES [1] ). In the second phase, those programmes that include courses on RME were identified among the active and functioning programmes. In the third phase, we collected information about the specific course syllabus on research methodologies, as well as institutional direct contacts with the program coordinators and teachers responsible or involved in the teaching of RME.

3.1 Objective and Research Question

This study aims to identify and characterise scientific conceptions and pedagogical practices of teachers responsible/involved in teaching RME in advanced studies in education in Portugal. The main research question that this article wants to address is: What are the epistemo/metho/ontological perceptions and pedagogical practices of teachers responsible/involved in teaching RME? Three specific questions were developed to operationalise better and answer the main research problem: (1) What are the personal and professional characteristics of teachers responsible/involved in teaching RME? (2) What are the teachers’ pedagogical senses, decisions, and challenges in teaching RME? (3) What kind of investigative culture is generated in RME courses from different pedagogical practices?

3.2 Methods: Survey-Questionnaire

The operationalisation of the research design was based on the construction, validation, and application of a survey-questionnaire as an instrument to gather data (Creswell, 2010 ). The construction of the survey-questionnaire items responds to the specificities of the surveyed population: teachers responsible/involved in teaching RME. The first validation of the data collection instrument was based on actions to verify its relevance, reliability, and consistency in its different dimensions among research team members.

The survey-questionnaire was constructed and organised around two main elements of identification and characterisation: elements of personal (age and gender) and professional identification (highest degree and professional position and scientific area of the department) and elements of perceptions’ characterisation of professional practices, with relevance for pedagogical and scientific practices, in the teaching of RME.

The elements for characterising perceptions of teachers’ professional practices are more robust and, therefore, more precise. These elements of characterisation are distributed into two major groups. The elements are related to general professional characterisation and characterisation of pedagogical and scientific practice and culture, including the autonomous experience with higher education institutions, colleagues, and students in teaching RME. It also includes characterisation elements related to pedagogical and scientific culture on scientific rational thinking, research designs, and scientific writing ( Table 1 ).

Elements of general professional characterisation and characterisation of pedagogical and scientific practice and culture in survey-questionnaire

The survey-questionnaire is mostly formatted for closed-response questions, using scales and multiple-choice item selection. The survey-questionnaire also includes open-response questions. The scales used in the construction and organisation of the questionnaires are standardised in their specifics of agreement and frequency from 1 to 10, with 1 being strongly/very strongly disagree and 10 being strongly/very strongly agree.

The survey-questionnaire begins with a brief contextualisation of the ReMASE project, highlighting the specific objective of this data collection, indicating the conditions of guaranteed security (anonymity and confidentiality) to the participant, namely in the data treatment carried out. In the final part, the research team contacts are given for any additional information that the participants may request. After confirming the terms described, the participant consents to his/her participation in the study.

The survey-questionnaire was validated post facto using appropriate statistical tests, with Cronbach’s alpha values above 0.8.

3.3 Data Collection and Analysis

The protocol for the instrument’s application involved the participation of people as volunteers for the research. The ethical principles associated with the development of the study were followed in accordance with international guidelines (e.g. Ethical Standards of the British Educational Research Association) for the development of research in social sciences and humanities. To the processing of the data obtained, all the provisions laid down in the legislation were applied, namely in Articles 13–22 of the General Data Protection Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 (RGPD), transposed to the national level by Law no. 58/2019, of 8 August. No ethical issues were identified, as all data collected are anonymous and confidential. The instrument was applied with the explicit consent of the participants.

The participants in data collection are teachers responsible/involved in teaching RME. Out of an identified population of 170 teachers, 85 responded to the questionnaire applied via an online platform. An invitation to participate was sent to the direct institutional contact of the participant.

The analysis of data collected followed a quantitative methodology, using data organisation and transformation strategies and using statistical descriptive analysis. The data analysis followed a quantitative methodology, using data organisation and transformation strategies and statistical descriptive analysis using measures of central tendency (e.g. mean and standard deviation). The frequency of responses to each item was also analysed to better understand the results.

This section is structured by the three research questions. Accordingly, the results are organised into three main groups. The first concerns the personal and professional characteristics of teachers responsible/involved in teaching RME, the second group refers to the scientific conceptions that impact pedagogical decisions for this teaching, and the third group relates to the investigative culture generated in RME courses from different pedagogical practices.

4.1 What Are the Personal and Professional Characteristics of Teachers Responsible/Involved in Teaching RME?

The personal characteristics of the 85 teachers regarding their age and gender can be disclosed by informing that 55 teachers are female (64% of them are 45 years old or more) and 30 teachers are male (84% of them are 45 years old or more). In Figure 1 , these results are detailed.

Age and gender of participants.

According to the professional identification of the participants, results show that all teachers ( N = 85) have completed doctoral degree. The three major scientific areas of the doctoral degree are education ( N = 47), representing 56% of the total. Psychology is the second scientific area with the highest number of occurrences ( N = 10; 12%). The third main scientific area of the teachers’ doctoral degree is sociology ( N = 4; 5%). Other scientific areas include sports, philosophy, mathematics, biology, arts, literature, and informatics ( N = 24), representing 27% of the total.

Most of the participants are in the first level of the academic teaching career (university or polytechnic). Thirty-eight teachers (45%) are Assistant Professors, and four teachers (5%) are Assistants with Habilitation. Regarding the second level of the academic teaching career (in the same model organisation), 23 are Associate Professors, representing 27% of the total. The other 20 teacher participants (23%) are at a higher level of the academic teaching career (Full Professor with Habilitation).

The main scientific area of the department where the teachers work is education/educational sciences ( N = 37). The second main scientific area of the departments is teaching/didactics/teacher education ( N = 24). The other scientific areas include sports, philosophy, mathematics, biology, arts, literature, and informatics ( N = 24). Understandably, teachers belong predominantly to scientific departments, whose primary area is closely related to education ( N = 61), representing 72% of the total.

Most of the participants work in higher education institutions located in the north of Portugal ( N = 32) and the Lisbon metropolitan area ( N = 30). At the centre of Portugal, there are 13 teachers, 7 teachers in the south, and 3 teachers in higher education institutions in the Autonomous Region of Madeira.

The professional characterisation of the 85 participants is now presented through their experience as teachers in higher education and teaching RME, detailing the master's and doctoral programs where they teach. The results section ends by presenting teachers’ education or training in teaching RME courses.

The majority of the teachers began their teaching career in higher education in the 1990s ( N = 28). The second large temporal group (decade) of teachers started their teaching activity in the 2000s ( N = 22). The teachers with more years of experience teaching in higher education ( N = 20) began in the 1980s. Since 2010, 14 teachers have experience in teaching in higher education. Of the participants, one answer is missing.

Regarding the first year of teachers responsible/involved in teaching RME, the results show that most of the teachers began in 2000 until the present year ( N = 72): 36 teachers from 2000 to 2009 and 36 teachers from 2010 to the present year. In the 1980s, 2 teachers were already involved in teaching this domain, and in the 1990s, 10 teachers began teaching RME courses. Particularly concerning the temporal categories, it is possible to reveal that since 2007, 48 teachers began teaching RME courses, representing 56% of the total. Therefore, more than half of the teachers started teaching RME courses in the last 15 years.

The teaching experiences of the participants vary according to the type of programme (master’s or doctoral). In the case of master programmes, the results show that 53 teachers teach in one or two master programmes, representing 62% of the total. Twenty-seven teachers are responsible for teaching three or more RME courses in master programmes, representing 32% of the total. Regarding the doctoral programmes, 36 teachers do not teach at this level, 40 teach in one doctoral programme, and 9 teach in two or three doctoral programmes.

The teachers were inquired about whether they had specific academic education/training to teach RME courses. The results are clear and directional, allowing for the realisation that 50 teachers (59%) do not have specific education/training and that 34 teachers (40%) have specific education/training in teaching RME courses. However, as there is no advanced programme in RME in Portugal, we cannot conclude about the type, duration, and quality of the training declared by those 34 teachers.

4.2 What Are the Teachers’ Pedagogical Senses, Decisions, and Challenges in Teaching RME?

This second section of results presents the participants’ personal experiences in teaching RME courses. The results are organised and presented in two main groups: the sense of belonging to the academic and scientific community and the pedagogic culture of research in their professional activity as teachers in higher education with responsibilities/involvements with teaching RME.

On a scale of agreement (1 – strongly disagree; 6 – strongly agree), most teachers agree that the higher education institution’s directory board recognises their work ( M = 4.1, SD = 1.3). Similar values are identified regarding the results of recognition of the work by the academic community ( M = 4.2, SD = 1.3). Regarding the statement “I have a strong sense of belonging to the academic and scientific community,” most of the teachers agree ( M = 4.7, SD = 1.2). These results are detailed, by agreement of the teachers, observed in Figure 2 .

Sense of belonging to the scientific community.

From each teacher’s autonomous experience, the three major challenges involved in teaching RME courses are the “students’ attitudes and motivations” ( N = 63), the “lack of specific education/training” ( N = 41), and the “complex syllabus” be taught ( N = 37). Concomitantly, the highest number of teachers’ professional activities are “student orientation and task-working” ( N = 79), “researching specific information about this domain” ( N = 84), and “teaching the course” ( N = 80).

Concerning teachers’ experience with higher education institutions and their colleagues, the three significant challenges involved in teaching RME courses are “development of scientific projects” ( N = 58), “teamwork in research projects” ( N = 54), and “research group management” ( N = 48). In contrast with the previous results (regarding the autonomous experience), where the challenges are intrinsic to pedagogical challenges, in this result regarding experience with institutions and colleagues, the challenges are located to research issues.

Regarding teachers’ experience with students, the three significant challenges identified are “interpretation of results of scientific papers” ( N = 52), “quality/reliability of knowledge produced by students” ( N = 52), and “students’ opinions and (pre)concepts” ( N = 47). In these results, the challenges involved in teaching RME courses are closely related to pedagogical and research issues.

The pedagogical culture of research in teaching RME courses is shown through the results obtained by agreement degrees on statements related to the teachers’ pedagogical senses and decisions.

Regarding the statement “I encourage students to become agents of social change,” most teachers agree ( M = 5.1, SD = 1.1). Teachers are less likely to agree with the statement “I prepare students for scientific employment” ( M = 4.2, SD = 1.3). In the statement “I provide emotional development of students,” the mean agreement lies at 4.3 values out of 6 with a standard deviation of 1.4. Regarding the statement “I promote students’ writing skills,” teachers are more agreeable ( M = 5.0, SD = 0.9) ( Figure 3 ).

Agreement degrees regarding teachers’ pedagogical senses and decisions (1/2).

Regarding the statement “I create opportunities for integrating students in research projects,” the agreement average is 4.2 out of 6, and the standard deviation is 1.4. Most teachers disagree with the statement, “I take pedagogical risks for potential scientific gains” ( M = 3.7, SD = 1.6). The statement where teachers show the lowest degree of agreement is “I consider that research is overvalued in teachers’ professional practice” ( M = 2.8, SD = 1.7). The two statements with the highest degree of agreement are “I value the teaching of qualitative methodologies” ( M = 4.9, SD = 1.3) and “I promote the development of scientific activities in my Higher Education Institution” ( M = 4.9, SD = 1.2). These results are shown in Figure 4 .

Agreement degrees regarding teachers’ pedagogical senses and decisions (2/2).

It was relevant to present the results that inform what the main specific and transversal competencies that students should learn from the RME course. The three main specific competencies are matching methods to research objectives ( N = 82), accounting for 97% in total; applying research techniques ( N = 82), with the same percentage incidence in teacher perceptions; and producing scientific knowledge ( N = 67), accounting for 79% in total. Figure 5 shows the complete results.

Specific competencies that students learn with RME.

Regarding those considered to be the transversal competencies required, the teachers highlighted three. The first, with the highest number of occurrences, is the structuring of the thesis/academic report ( N = 83), representing 98%. The second highest identified competence is reading and interpreting scientific literature ( N = 76), with 89%. The third and last competence elaborated and considered necessary as transversal to student learning with research methodologies is database use ( N = 72), with 85%.

4.3 What Kind of Investigative Culture is Generated in RME Courses from Different Pedagogical Practices?

To disclose what kind of investigative culture is generated in RME courses from different pedagogical practices, results concerning scientific activities and pedagogical activities will be highlighted, aiming to foresee how teachers teach (pedagogical strategies) and what they teach (pedagogical content decision).

The frequency of teachers undertaking the different tasks of their professional activity is presented concerning the three-task composition. Regarding meeting with students to discuss research interests, most teachers consider it a widespread activity ( M = 4.3, SD = 1.3). The second most frequent task performed by teachers is writing and publishing in scientific journals with students ( M = 3.9, SD = 1.5). The third task performed is meeting with students to discuss research interests ( M = 3.8, SD = 1.5).

Following the same organisation, another group of five tasks of teachers’ professional activities and their specific frequency in their daily duties is now presented ( Figure 6 ).

Frequency of teachers performing the different tasks of their professional activity.

Of the tasks performed most frequently, to the tasks performed with less frequency in the professional activities of teachers, it is possible to organise them in the following order: scientific meetings; institutional representation at scientific meetings; internal partnerships and collaborations; pedagogical meetings; and external missions/mobilities.

Data collection allowed the identification of the following three major trends in teaching RME: (i) experimental activities/fieldwork improve research skills ( M = 5.5, SD = 0.6); (ii) the dynamisation of group discussions among students promotes the learning of research methodologies/methods/techniques ( M = 5.4, SD = 0.8); and (iii) digital resources stimulate learning of research methodologies/methods/techniques ( M = 5.0, SD = 1.0). The characteristic with lower average agreement is the content exposition as the most used pedagogical strategy ( M = 3.2, SD = 1.5). Figure 7 shows the complete set of results for the characteristics described.

Agreement degrees regarding the teachers’ experiences with students.

Among the five frequently employed working methods in professional practice, the most commonly used are presented in descending order: theoretical–practical ( M = 5.2, SD = 0.9), tutorial ( M = 4.6, SD = 1.3), seminar ( M = 4.4, SD = 1.6), theoretical ( M = 3.4, SD = 1.5), and laboratory ( M = 2.2, SD = 1.5).

Regarding the teaching methods, following a similar selection criterion, the most frequently utilised are presented in descending order: in-class debates and discussions ( M = 5.4, SD = 0.8), project design ( M = 4.9, SD = 1.2), critical analysis of texts ( M = 4.8, SD = 1.0), guest speakers ( M = 3.4, SD = 1.5), exposition of contents ( M = 3.9, SD = 1.4), and virtual communities ( M = 2.7, SD = 1.7).

Concerning the different learning activities in professional practice, the following are the most frequently employed: presentation of papers ( M = 5.2, SD = 1.1), peer/group assignments ( M = 5.0, SD = 1.3), debates ( M = 4.6, SD = 1.3), individual assignments ( M = 4.5, SD = 1.4), and fieldwork ( M = 4.0, SD = 1.5).

From a selection of five assessment methodologies commonly employed in professional practice, the most frequently used are presented in descending order: individual project submission ( M = 5.0, SD = 1.4), individual project presentation ( M = 4.8, SD = 1.6), class participation ( M = 4.7, SD = 1.3), test ( M = 2.3, SD = 1.8), and final exam ( M = 1.8, SD = 1.4).

Concerning the different types of references in professional activity, the most frequently used are scientific papers ( M = 5.5, SD = 0.8), books ( M = 5.0, SD = 1.2), research textbooks/handbooks ( M = 4.8, SD = 1.4), and congress proceedings ( M = 3.5, SD = 1.7).

Regarding data illustrating what teachers teach in RME courses in advanced education programmes, the results can be organised by main methodological themes, primary ontological issues, main methodological paradigms, main research methods, main research techniques, and main writing styles and structures.

The main methodological themes that are taught are qualitative/quantitative approaches ( N = 80), corresponding to 94%; validity and reliability of data collected ( N = 77), meaning 91%; and multi-method approaches (mixed methods), corresponding to 67% ( N = 57); and other methodological themes ( N = 2), 2.4%.

Concerning the primary ontological issues taught, the results indicate that 84% of the participants instruct on the ethical dilemmas of being a researcher ( N = 71), 67% cover researchers’ social responsibility ( N = 57), 48% delve into legal issues related to research in education ( N = 41), 2% do not include ontological themes in their teaching ( N = 2), and 4% of the teachers address other ontological issues ( N = 3).

Regarding the main methodological paradigms, the findings reveal socio-critical ( N = 52, 61%), phenomenological ( N = 48, 57%), naturalistic ( N = 48, 57%), narrative/life stories ( N = 45, 53%), positivist ( N = 33, 39%), symbolic interactionism ( N = 22, 26%), other methodological paradigms ( N = 7, 8%), and 6% do not incorporate methodological paradigms in their teaching ( N = 4).

In terms of the primary teaching research methods, the results show that 91% teach case study ( N = 77); 88% cover action research ( N = 75); 68% include documental research ( N = 58); 61% instruct on descriptive, exploratory, and correlational studies ( N = 52); 52% teach narrative/biographical method ( N = 44); 41% include experimental, quasi-experimental method ( N = 35); 39% of the teachers incorporate ethnography ( N = 33); and 2% of the participants cover other research methods ( N = 2).

Concerning the main research techniques taught, the results are as follows: individual interview ( N = 81, 95%), participant observation ( N = 74, 87%), focus group ( N = 74, 87%), questionnaire ( N = 72, 85%), photovoice and similar ( N = 12, 14%), other research techniques ( N = 1, 1%), and 1% do not include research techniques in their teaching ( N = 1).

Regarding the main writing style forms, the results reveal that the authorial, original, and critical form of style corresponds to 71% of teachers’ practices ( N = 60); institutional, procedural, and bureaucratic form of style corresponds to 31% ( N = 26); and 22% of teachers do not teach writing forms of styles ( N = 19). Regarding the writing structures that are taught, the results are as follows: dissertation/thesis ( N = 78, 92%), scientific article ( N = 66, 78%), report ( N = 64, 75%), poster ( N = 32, 38%), other writing structures ( N = 3, 4%), and 1% of teachers do not teach writing structures ( N = 1).

5 Discussion

The group of participants of this study has extensive expertise in teaching RME courses at an advanced level within the field of education. This expertise is underscored by their substantial years of teaching experience in higher education and specific training and teaching involvement in RME. The majority of the teachers have more than 30 years of experience ( N = 48). Given that the study is contextualised within the transformative period of 2007 – a pivotal year marked by significant changes in higher education in Portugal due to the Bologna Agreement – the results take a unique significance. Notably, 21 teachers started their careers within this era of substantial educational reforms in higher education, constituting 25% of the participants.

Given the considerable tenure of these educators, it becomes imperative to focus the discussion on aspects that offer a comprehensive understanding of their extensive pedagogical practices in RME. This entails a nuanced exploration of their scientific perspectives and insights into their challenges. The ensuing discussion will delve into the sense of belonging and the pedagogical and scientific culture inherent in RME courses, elucidating specific elements. The discussion will culminate in examining the pedagogical decisions made in response to the encountered challenges.

The results show high levels of the teachers’ sense of belonging to the academic and scientific community. Most of the teachers believe that their work is recognised by different educational agents, such as the board directory of higher education institutions, peers, and students. From the 85 participants, 61 teachers assume that their work is recognised by the scientific community (72%). The other 24 participants present values of slightly ( N = 15) to moderately disagreement ( N = 7). In fact, the literature shows understandings of what can be described as the pedagogical implications beyond this recognition. Nind and Lewthwaite ( 2018 ) report that from the scientific community, especially from students, one implication of recognising the teacher’s work is based on the “new demands.” The cultural and social context of students as a core element while teaching RME courses Matos et al. ( 2023 ) is highlighted here. It is considered that from teachers’ work recognition, they must continually endeavour to use the student’s prior knowledge and experiences (Nind & Lewthwaite, 2018 ).

The results of the study reveal that almost all the teachers considered that they must continually invest in teaching towards environments that favour using real data. However, most of them agree that this work needs to be undertaken in a responsible and ethical learning scenario. These results are in line with the literature. The study by Nind ( 2020 ) shows that through active learning centred on the student, the teaching of RME is increased. Using real data and reinforcing ethical practices as a strategic pedagogical activity increase student learning (Nind, 2020 ). The type of sense of belonging to the scientific community that is generated seems to be interconnected with the scientific community’s own production.

The participants’ peers also reinforce the sense of belonging to the scientific community. Most of the teachers have great personal satisfaction in collaborating with their peers (88%). This result aligns with the number of teachers who do not teach RME alone ( N = 44). The literature shows that co-teaching or peer collaboration in the teaching of RME courses is considered a valuable learning experience for students (Alharbi & Alqefari, 2021 ). A similar value is recognisable in teachers’ professional development, when they teach together, rather than self-teaching (Fabregas & González, 2008 ). This interpretation is better understood when it is taken into account a specific result from the applied survey to teachers. Most of the participants reveal that, based on the students’ main interests, authorial work contributes to knowledge construction in RME courses. It becomes clear that between the directory board of higher education institutions, teachers’ peers and students, teachers’ sense of belonging is based on the “peer authorial construction of research understanding” aiming to provide appropriate educational experiences to students in RME courses in advanced studies in education.

The other fundamental set of results necessary to promote the reflection on the characterisation of teachers’ extensive pedagogical practices in RME is the pedagogical and scientific culture that is neutered within these courses. The results show two major dimensions of this culture. The first dimension is practical in nature and concerns to research operationalities. The other dimension is more concerned with epistemological issues of being a researcher. From the 85 teachers in our study, 79 participants agreed that they promote a pedagogical and scientific culture through research competencies of writing, and 77 teachers agreed that they encourage students to become agents of social change. These two dimensions can be, respectively, associated with research undertaking and research understanding. Although not statistically significant, the dimensions less nourished in the culture by the teachers are the encouragement of students to find future scientific professional roles ( N = 24) and the promotion of opportunities for students to engage in research projects ( N = 29).

These four detailed results allow the understanding of a culture generated in a way that favours practical and critical research activity towards the future, however, in some way disconnected from research as a job. The literature is yet limited in discussing teachers’ views on research employment. However, according to the literature, the pedagogical context is at stake in this scenario (Lewthwaite & Nind, 2016 ). Therefore, students are in training and teachers are more focused on acquiring knowledge and transformative skills integrated into an educational process with a beginning, middle, and end in sight (Aguado, 2009 ). This understanding becomes clearer with our study results. According to 33 teachers of the 85 study participants, they do not take pedagogical risks in favour of scientific gains. This is a relevant topic for further studies. The study results also allow the specification of scientific and pedagogical elements constituting the culture generated in RME courses.

The specific scientific elements nurtured in the generated scientific and pedagogical culture are more concerned with research application to the detriment of research interpretation. The application of data collection techniques ( N = 82) is the element most implicated in the teaching of RME. The element with the lowest number of teacher mentions is regarding the critical research interpretation ( N = 57). According to Lewthwaite and Nind ( 2016 ), this issue in teaching and learning RME must be counteracted through teachers’ engagement in valuing the importance of the researcher intervention in the research. Centring on the researcher’s intervention enhances the understanding of science beyond its mere application. One appropriate way to start to implement this in the scientific and pedagogical culture generated in RME courses, is by highlighting the definition of research questions – which implies the undertaking and the understanding of research (Lewthwaite & Nind, 2016 ). What can be understood from the survey results is that this type of work with students can be achieved. From the 85 participants, 64 teachers referred to meet regularly with students to discuss their research interests.

Regarding the specific pedagogical elements that can be presented as constitutive of the scientific and pedagogical culture generated in RME courses, it can be organised by the one with more teachers’ reference and the one with less reference from teachers. The pedagogical element that permeates the culture throughout the teachers’ investment of their time is the search for information. The pedagogical element with less impact on the culture constitution is project participation. This result is further detailed by highlighting that one of the least frequent activities in teachers’ professional practice, affecting the creation of this culture, is external missions or mobility. From the participants in this study, half of them do not enrol in mobility actions. These results align with the previous one regarding the understanding of a culture that is generated in a way that favours students’ connection with research, however, apart from research as an integral activity based on a “collaborative research project” (see Matos et al. ( 2023 )). This fragmentation has already been partly understood in the Portuguese context by analysing the RME course syllabus Matos et al. ( 2023 ).

The results of our study also provide insights into the teachers’ pedagogical decisions taken within RME courses in the face of their experienced challenges over the years. It becomes clear that most of the teachers developed their teaching according to decisions based on scientific reflection of different modes of understanding and undertaking research. For most of the participants in our study, the decision to teach epistemological themes tends to favour the debate of scientific paradigms as well as to favour both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Teaching ontological themes, teachers favour the ethical dilemma of being a researcher. The results also allow us to understand that teachers in general favour the authorial, original, and critical form of scientific writing, taking the dissertation in the case of master programmes, or the thesis in the case of doctoral programmes, as the main writing structure that teachers favour in their pedagogical decisions. The main research paradigms, methods, and techniques taught can be highlighted. The main research paradigms taught are socio-critical and naturalistic, together with the phenomenological paradigm. The main research methods taught in RME courses are the case study and action research. The main research techniques taught are the interview and participant observation, together with the focus group. This trend in the teachers’ pedagogical decisions aligns with the literature that shows the importance of teachers increasing the reflection on the different ways to understand research. Based on the study of Knipe et al. ( 2018 ), these teachers’ pedagogical decisions contribute to reducing the negative impact on students’ learning experiences with RME. However, the diversity could be increased. For example, in the paradigms taught, only 26% of the teachers indicated teaching symbolic interactionism, and 39% referred to teaching positivist paradigms. In teaching methods, 39% of the teachers were revealed to teach ethnography, and 41% were revealed to teach experimental and quasi-experimental methods. The research techniques less taught is the photovoice or similar techniques.

The development of RME teaching faces some challenges. According to the study participants, these challenges are mostly related to the students’ attitudes towards RME courses and the research extension of the teachers’ activities.

From the autonomous experience of the 85 study participants, 75% reveal that students’ attitudes and motivations are the major challenges while they teach RME courses. Another major challenge emerges from the teacher’s experience with the higher education institution where they undertake their teaching. About two thirds of the teachers indicate that developing scientific projects becomes a challenge for teaching. From the experience with students, 61% of the teachers considered that quality and reliability of students’ knowledge production is a major challenge for their teaching and the students’ capacity to interpret scientific studies. Those results suggest that the pedagogical recommended practices in the literature for teaching and learning RME based on student learning-centred approaches are not being fulfilled. For this change to happen, should the responsibility of students be reinforced in teachers’ practices, or should it be considered as normal that students show high levels of learning difficulties that limit the teaching of RME courses?

It would be rather relevant to study students’ perceptions of these results. What the literature reveals, in a comprehensive way, is that when students are faced with RME courses that involve them in personal, social, and cultural terms, through active learning strategies with direct and real contact with investigative practice, their scientific skills in understanding and undertaking research increase exponentially (Knipe et al., 2018 ; Luo, 2017 ; Nind & Lewthwaite, 2018 ; Nind et al., 2019 ). This issue can be further addressed by understanding how these senses, decisions, and pedagogical challenges can be overcome. The literature shows ways to make it happen, such as playful strategies (Knipe et al., 2018 ) or online activities (Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2021 ). The results of our study make room for the design and development of new research questions on teachers’ pedagogical decisions towards teaching RME.

6 Conclusion

This article provides research-based insight into scientific conceptions and pedagogical practices towards teaching research methods in RME courses. The article aims to identify and characterise these conceptions and practices. Regarding the teachers’ scientific conceptions, the main conclusion is that teachers think and act towards research closely to other researchers, but not necessarily with ongoing research projects. The results show that teachers’ scientific conceptions are built in tandem with peers (mainly in internal environments such as the higher education institution’s colleagues). Another dimension that characterises the teachers’ scientific conceptions is the autonomous research practice that these teachers pursue in their daily activities (and therefore more closely related to their own research interests), such as students’ mentoring and their research issues to be undertaken. The main conclusion regarding the pedagogical practices, which implies the teachers’ scientific conceptions, relates to what they teach. Based on these results, it became relevant to understand how they teach (with its specific scientific and pedagogical strategies along the RME course) in further studies. Most of the teachers dedicate their teaching to diverse and collaborative types of understanding and undertaking research. Despite this result, innovative approaches are still not implemented in teachers’ pedagogical practices. The main dimension of the teaching is regarding students’ needs towards the mandatory learning outcomes of the RME courses. Understandably, teachers favour pedagogical practices that inform the necessary epistemological paradigms to be reflected, the main method to be applied in a unidirectional and focused pedagogical framework for writing and publishing a dissertation/thesis. It can be understood that, in the specific and limited time and space of the RME course in the master or doctoral programme, the integration of the students’ interests and the possibilities for reflection on the construction of scientific knowledge are fragmented. What is at stake is the one-dimensionality and focus of what students will develop as research themes in their dissertation/thesis. An important question that emerges is the need to understand whether the research themes are also developed by students based on the teacher’s pedagogical offer. How do teachers include students’ interests in their teaching practices, and how do they meet these particularities in their teaching plan every year (with different students every year)?

The main conclusions of this study suggest further studies with detailed research guidelines. Results show that the main teachers’ epistemological, methodological, and ontological perceptions and practices are more qualitative-oriented. However, the quantitative approaches are referred to as taking part in teachers’ practices suggesting some contradictions in practice. This can be observed in the research paradigms that they teach, in the research methods that are taught and also in the research techniques. In general, the teachers’ scientific conceptions and pedagogical practices are closely connected with their peers and students through understanding research and undertaking research issues. It is also possible to argue that, based on these results, the teachers’ scientific conceptions and pedagogical practices may be developed by a peer authorial construction of research understanding, aiming to provide appropriate educational experiences to students in RME courses in advanced studies in education.

The results of this study also show that teachers (mostly female) come from different backgrounds (regarding their workplace location as well as their doctoral scientific area) and are highly experienced in higher education teaching. Many of the study participants have had teaching experiences since the 1980s, but most of them started teaching RME from 2000 in general with no specific training in research methods.

The study shows that teachers have a sense of their work being recognised by educational agents and the scientific community. The main challenges are distributed by teachers’ autonomous experience and experience with students and higher education institutions. The transversal dimensions in these three experiences reveal challenges with students’ understanding and undertaking of research and scientific knowledge of the ongoing research projects and the different stages and dimensions of doing research. In these scenarios, it is understood that teachers focus on students’ pedagogical engagements with research methods towards their development with research understanding and undertaking.

Finally, regarding the research culture generated within RME courses, the study suggests the involvement of students in fieldwork research within theoretical–practical contexts of teaching and learning experiences, where debates, peer discussion, and project designs to be undertaken are encouraged. It is understood that the type of culture generated in the RME courses highlights hands-on pedagogical approaches focused on students’ learning outcomes, specifically the writing research. The idea that the scientific component needs to be more implicated in the generated culture of teaching and learning RME courses is coherent with the literature. Results show a slightly pedagogical emergence of formulation of a research culture. However, creating and sustaining a research culture (encouraging teachers and students to undertake research with real data from ongoing research projects) should be aimed. The complexity of training students in research methods in education should be preserved, avoiding simplistic solutions that do not take into account the contextual reality and the aims of the master and doctoral programmes.

Acknowledgments

A thank you to the ReMASE project coordination and all team members for their contributions and work throughout the project, as well as to the teachers of various Portuguese higher education institutions for their participation in the empirical work conducted.

Funding information: The article s publication was financed by national funds—F.C.T. (Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, I.P.), in the scope of the project EXPL/CED-EDG/1130/2021.

Author contributions: Conceptualization, A.F. and J.F.M.; methodology, A.F., J.F.M., J.P. V.D.T. and R.S.D.; software, V.D.T.; validation, J.F.M., and J.P.; formal analysis, A.F., J.F.M.; investigation, A.F., J.F.M., J.P., V.D.T. and R.S.D.; resources, A.F., J.F.M., J.P. V.D.T. and R.S.D.; data curation, A.F.; writing—original draft preparation, A.F.; writing—review and editing, A.F., J.F.M. and J.P.; visualization, A.F., J.F.M., J.P. V.D.T. and R.S.D.; supervision, J.F.M.; project administration, J.F.M.; funding acquisition, J.F.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Teaching Methods: Definition, Types, Best Teaching Methods For All Levels

Teaching methods, as it pertains to education, are the techniques and strategies teachers use to help students succeed. Teaching methods can be classified into three categories: instructional design (teacher-led), student-centered (learner-directed), and collaborative/cooperative (group-oriented).

Learning is a process that can be assisted by various methods and techniques. The most common and best method of teaching and learning is the lectures method. Lectures are one of the many different teaching methods used to teach students about the course content. This blog post will discuss what teaching methods are, how they work, and other various types of teaching methods!

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What is a Teaching Method?

The teaching method is the strategy used to convey information for students to learn, it involves careful educational evaluation and assessments in ensuring the right knowledge is passed on to the pupils. Teaching methods can vary from institution to institution, but lectures are a standard method used in the classroom. The best method of teaching focuses on the best way to convey information for students of all different types. However, lectures are one of the more effective ways to do this because they allow instructors to use the best teaching method possible by covering a lot of ground for their lessons to be clearly understood!

A teaching method is a specific way in which teachers teach students. There are many different types and styles of education that teachers use when they interact with students. These methods may be used by either private or public school educators depending on their personal preference or state requirements for teacher certification. The type of education title you obtain will also depend upon your choice of educational style since there are several titles associated with each particular method. However, there are certain vital factors that you should consider before selecting your favorite technique for pedagogy, such as:

What age group will be studying?
What level of education does everyone have?
Are they beginners or experts in their field already?
How much time do I have to work with them, and how long can my attention span last when working individually/in groups?
Do I want more information about the topic than just the basics. So, is it an educational experience, or do I need something fun and entertaining for people who don’t know anything about the subject matter at hand?

9 Types of Teaching Methods

1. lecture mode.

Lecture learning is one of the most common methods for teaching and learning in higher institutions of seminar. This method involves a teacher standing in front of students and talking about course content they need to know or understand. Some benefits of lectures include: students can ask questions if they do not understand something, teachers have complete control over what information gets shared with students during this type of instruction, and sometimes allow time so students can take notes on important concepts taught by the instructor. However, some challenges are associated with lecture learning, including how it may be boring for students who prefer more hands-on activities and lack engagement between instructors and their learners.

The lecture method help to break the topic into different segments and present them in smaller chunks. Instructors can use PowerPoint slides, videos, or online resources to help teach students about the course content. In addition, lecture methods are best used when instructors need more time to prepare for their lessons . Lectures can also be best used when instructors need to cover a lot of material in the shortest amount of time possible!

How Do Lectures Work?

Lectures work best when instructors have a lot of material to cover in the classroom. This method is best used when there isn’t enough time for students to engage with their course content from other perspectives, such as through group projects, small group activities, or hands-on learning. Lecture methods are best taught by teachers who can keep students’ attention and clearly share information so everyone can understand what is being said.

2. Problem Solving

This method of teaching involves having students work on specific problems or challenges directly related to course content being taught in class. Some benefits include increased engagement, students learning more deeply about the material, and allowing for more hands-on activities with instructors who may be standing at a whiteboard working through solutions together with their learners. However, there are some cons associated with this form, including the time needed for preparation if not familiarized beforehand with the topic/concepts covered during instruction. It can also be challenging to monitor all learners’ progress.

How Does Problem Solving Work?

Problem-solving involves the instructor presenting a problem or challenge to the students and then breaking up into small groups to work together on finding solutions. This method of teaching best suits visual, auditory, or kinesthetic learners because it allows students to engage with the material in different ways. During this type of instruction, teachers should closely monitor student progress, so all individuals make significant contributions and stay on task. They should also be engaged throughout each lesson period.

3. Role Playing

This teaching method involves having students dress up as characters and act out different situations/scenarios related to the material being taught at hand. Some benefits include increased engagement, allowing for hands-on activities with instructors who may participate, and opportunities for student practice before applying these newly learned skills outside their classroom. However, role-playing challenges include the time needed for preparation if not familiarized beforehand with the topic/concepts covered during instruction.

How Does Role-Playing Work?

The best way that role-playing can work is by allowing the instructor to present topics or concepts covered during the lecture time frame while also incorporating small groups into acting out scenarios related to these lessons. During this type of instruction, teachers should monitor student progress closely, so all individuals make significant contributions and everyone stays on task.

4. Group Work

Group work involves having students work with their classmates cooperatively on different assignments related to the material they are being taught at hand. Some benefits include increased engagement and learning more deeply about concepts through collaboration. However, there are drawbacks associated with group work, including the time needed for students’ preparation if not familiarized beforehand with the topic/concepts.

How does group work functions best in a learning environment?

First, students must be familiarized beforehand with the concepts and content they will learn. Then instructors must give their students specific instructions on how best to complete an assignment or project so that each student can best participate and contribute to the overall group effort. Students should also be given time for individual learning before applying these newly learned skills during group work.

5. Games Method of Teaching

Another type of teaching method includes games or activities. It involves having students participate in interactive elements such as board games related to the concepts being taught. Some benefits include increased engagement, learning more deeply about the material through hands-on activities with instructors who may actively participate, and shortening lesson times.

Games can be used to reinforce material that students have already learned. For example, after a lecture has been given on the French Revolution and its causes, instructors may choose to play Jeopardy with their classes using terms like “monarchy,” “revolution,” and other concepts discussed in the lecture. It helps students review and retain information from a previous lesson while encouraging them to participate with one another.

How Does The Game Method of Teaching Work?

In this teaching approach, students are divided into groups. Each group has a different task in the game that they must complete before receiving points or “credits” to move on in their games. For example, one group might have to identify specific countries or continents on the board in a geography course while another has to list capital cities. Instructors can incorporate concepts into these games by rewarding groups who correctly answer questions with more credits than other teams.

6. Flipped Classroom

How does flipped classroom work.

The flipped classroom method of teaching has allowed students to familiarize themselves with course materials outside of class time to participate more actively during classroom lectures. Several benefits come along with this form of learning, including increased student engagement and instructor feedback during the lesson itself. This method also provides students more opportunities for practice before applying what they have learned to other tasks outside their classroom environment. However, there are some difficulties associated with using the flipped class model as well. One major drawback is that instructors may not have enough time to prepare for their lectures because they are limited by the amount of preparation they can do before students come into class. Additionally, students may not be as closely monitored by their instructors because they now have the responsibility of completing homework assignments on their own.

7. Self-Paced Learning

In a self-paced learning environment, there is no set time when the class meets. When using this method, students take responsibility for their learning.

In these environments, instructors offer little to no guidance or feedback during instruction, allowing students to learn independently. Some benefits include increased engagement and student independence in terms of doing coursework. It can also be seen as giving self-study opportunities that previously would not have been available due to lack of instructor availability/time. However, some challenges are associated with this form, including less time spent together outside class which could lead to feelings of isolation or loneliness. Students may not always understand the concepts and may have to take time out of their day to seek help from peers. Many examples of student projects completed using self-paced learning include research papers, science fairs, presentations, art projects, etc.

How Does Self-Paced Learning Work?

Instructors create self-paced learning courses to help students complete coursework on their own time. Students work at their own pace and meet with an instructor when they need assistance understanding a concept or completing a major assignment/project.

Self-paced learning is unique in that it doesn’t rely on meetings or set times for students and instructors to meet. Students are responsible for working independently, making this method different from other methods where the instructor schedules classes. This teaching method also allows students with busy schedules more flexibility, as they can work on coursework at their own pace without having to miss class due to conflicting work/school schedules.

8. Student-Centered Learning

Finally, there is another approach called “Student-Centered Learning”. In this environment, instructors are more hands-off during lectures, allowing students to discuss topics at hand. Some benefits include increased engagement among classmates as it creates a classroom community feeling where everyone feels comfortable being themselves. However, some challenges are associated with this form. They include a lack of structure, which can also be seen as overwhelming by some learners who prefer clear guidelines on what needs completing throughout the semester. Also, students may feel as though they have not been given clear instructions on what to do, which may lead them to feelings of confusion or lack of motivation.

How Does Student-Centered Learning Work?

Some instructors may be highly involved in lecture sessions, while others give students more opportunities to work together or ask questions. The latter is generally the case when teaching introductory courses, which require less guidance than advanced topics. In this type of learning environment, students are expected to be active members in learning. The instructor needs to ensure that each student has an equal opportunity to master course content.

9. Montessori Teaching Method

This is the new cool for elementary schools. That is from pre-school to nursery and down to primary school level. It is now the most adopted method of teaching practiced amongst educationists. This method of teaching involves using creative tools that physically and mentally help kids to easily understand and memorize what is being taught. Montessori teachers are highly trained tutors who know how to impart knowledge into the kids using the Montessori teaching materials. Amongst all the teaching methods for Nursery and Primary school level, the Montessori method of teaching is the best.

A typical Montessori class room.

Having defined Teaching method, listed and explained in full, the types of teaching method, we can deduce from above the best method of teaching.

What is Best Method of Teaching?

The best method depends on various factors and circumstances. all teaching methods listed above depends on the institutional grade which in-turn has a direct relationship with the mental capacity of the students or pupils being taught. For example, for nursery and primary school level otherwise known as the elementary of foundational level, the Montessori method of teaching is the best due to the level of assimilation.

Gaming method is another practical method of teaching that best suits primary and secondary school level. The lecture mode of teaching is best suitable for a larger crowd because its conveys the lecturer’s message and students jot down. Lectures are one of the best methods of teaching for higher institution because they allow instructors to convey information quickly and efficiently. There is no better way to explain something than by doing it yourself! Having an instructor explain course content firsthand is beneficial for students who may be visual learners, auditory learners, or any other type of learner.

As said earlier, choosing the best teaching method is relative and it depends on the circumstance and environment that best suits convey seamlessly the message being passed to the students.

Various teaching methods can be used when instructing students at all levels of education, including elementary school through university or college-level courses. We can use lectures, games, activities, demonstrations, and many other teaching methods in the classroom to teach students about concepts and ideas that will hopefully remain for a long time. In addition to these traditional methods, exploring top masterclass courses can offer students a unique opportunity to learn from leading experts in various fields, further enriching their educational journey.

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Derived forms.

ˌmethodoˈlogically , adverb
ˌmethodˈologist , noun
methodological , adjective

Other Words From

meth·od·o·log·i·cal [ meth-, uh, -dl-, oj, -i-k, uh, l ] , adjective
meth·od·ol·o·gist noun

Word History and Origins

Origin of methodology 1

Example Sentences

In the global race for a Covid vaccine, different researchers are trying a variety of methodologies and platforms.

The issue, he added, is that there isn’t a clear methodology or adjudication system for publishers or platforms to dispute Chrome’s decision making over what constitutes a “heavy” ad.

Firefox has been an aggressive champion of consumer privacy and not necessarily a friend to digital marketers, most of whom would have preferred to keep third-party cookies and existing tracking and targeting methodologies intact.

Before you dive in, it may help to read our summary of the state of the race, or at least skim our very detailed methodology guide.

We work with Google to find the most advanced and highest impact advertising strategies, as well as new advertising features, and we reveal some of our new methodologies which we normally do not share.

Geisbert was also quick to mention how the methodology of the study could be affecting the current results.

Germane and relevant in their way, but wielding a different methodology.

The UN methodology affords its team a little more flexibility.

“Food Chains” shows how the CIW is using a completely new methodology—contract law—to make a difference in the growing fields.

Alt cert critics often argue that there are flaws in the methodology of some of these studies.

The next two Partes contain a discussion of the methodology of note-taking and are not directly bibliographical in nature.

I bring together here different studies relating more or less directly to questions of scientific methodology.

Some expense for the development of computer systems and computer systems methods is justifiable as an investment in methodology.

The arguments used by these despisers of methodology are strong enough in all appearance.

The study of these processes of historical construction forms the second half of Methodology.

Related Words

Teaching knowledge database
Teaching Knowledge database I-M

Methodology

Methodology is a system of practices and procedures that a teacher uses to teach.

It will be based on beliefs about the nature of language, and how it is learnt (known as 'Approach').

Example Grammar Translation, the Audiolingual Method and the Direct Method are clear methodologies, with associated practices and procedures, and are each based on different interpretations of the nature of language and language learning.

In the classroom Many teachers base their lessons on a mixture of methods and approaches to meet the different needs of learners and the different aims of lessons or courses. Factors in deciding how to teach include the age and experience of learners, lesson and course objectives, expectations and resources.

Further links:

https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/scott-thornbury-british-council-armenia

https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/methods-post-method-m%C3%A9todos

https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/starter-teachers-a-methodology-course-classroom

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methodology

Definition of methodology

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Methodology and Science

The methodology employed in an experiment is essential to its success, and bad methodology has spoiled thousands of research projects. So whenever a piece of research is published in a scientific or medical journal, the researchers always carefully describe their methodology; otherwise, other scientists couldn't possibly judge the quality of what they've done.

Examples of methodology in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'methodology.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

New Latin methodologia , from Latin methodus + -logia -logy

1800, in the meaning defined at sense 1

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“Methodology.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/methodology. Accessed 28 May. 2024.

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8 methodologies that every 21st century teacher should know

New teaching methodologies are changing the educational environments around the world and driving better academic performance among students. We go over some of the main innovative approaches that educators have forged over the last few years and that every 21st century teacher should be acquainted with.

Flipped Classroom

One of the modern methodologies that has gained more popularity in recent years, Flipped Classroom is a pedagogical approach in which the traditional elements of the lesson taught by the teacher are reversed – the primary educational materials are studied by the students at home and, then, worked on in the classroom.

The main objective of this methodology is to optimize time in class by dedicating it, for example, to meet the special needs of each individual student, develop cooperative projects or work on specific tasks.

Project-Based Learning

With the arrival of new information and communication technologies to schools, both new teaching methodologies as well as new versions of existing methodologies , now revised and updated for the digital generation, have emerged. One of the most used in class at present is Project-Based Learning (PBL).

In its essence, PBL allows students to acquire key knowledge and skills through the development of projects that respond to real-life problems.

The teaching based on projects or integrated tasks, is today the best didactic guarantee for an effective development of key skills while also acquiring the knowledge of the curriculum’s content.

Starting from a concrete problem, instead of the traditional theoretical and abstract model, sees notable improvements in students’ ability to retain knowledge as well as the opportunity to develop complex competencies such as critical thinking, communication, collaboration or the problem solving.

Cooperative Learning

“Stronger together”. This concept in a simple way cooperative learning, a methodology that teachers use to group students together and, thus, impact on learning in a positive way.

The proponents of this model theorize that working in a group improves the attention, involvement and acquisition of knowledge by students.

The final goal is always group-oriented and will be achieved if each of the members successfully perform their tasks.

The main characteristic is that it is structured based on the formation of groups of 3-6 people, where each member has a specific role and to reach the objectives it is necessary to interact and work in a coordinated manner.

In a cooperative learning context, the final goal is always common and will be achieved if each of the members successfully performs their tasks. On the other hand, individual learning has students focusing on achieving their objectives without having to depend on the rest of their classmates.

Gamification

The integration of game mechanics and dynamics in non-ludic environments, or gamification, has been practiced for a long time. Over the past few years, however, and particularly due to the evolution of videogames, the phenomenon has gathered unprecedented dimension, and is one of the most talked about as a current and future trend of the EdTech industry.

Since, in the 80’s, games with an international vocation such as the “Carmen Sandiego” series or “Reader Rabbit” (see infographic below) have gained worldwide popularity, the development of educational titles has increased consistently. Not only those aimed at the general public but, ever more often, those specifically designed for students and particular courses.

This trend was consolidated with the increasing inclusion of gamification in school curricula and it is estimated that this inclusion will continue to grow in the future.

4th Survey on the Use of Technology in Education

Problem-Based Learning

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a cyclic learning process composed of many different stages, starting with asking questions and acquiring knowledge that, in turn, leads to more questions in a growing complexity cycle.

Putting this methodology into practice does not only mean the exercise of inquiry by students, but convert it into useful data and information. According to several educators , the four great advantages observed with the use of this methodology are:

The development of critical thinking and creative skills
The improvement of problem solving abilities
Increased student motivation
Better knowledge sharing in challenging situations

Design Thinking

Education has always been a prolific space for innovation. Teachers all over the world are constantly coming up with new ideas and methodologies to introduce in the classroom making the best of the tools at their disposal.

Design Thinking (DT) applied stems from industrial designers and their unique method to solve problems and satisfy the needs of their clients. Applied to education, this model makes possible to identify with greater accuracy the individual problems of each student and generate in their educational experience the creation and innovation towards the satisfaction of others, which then becomes symbiotic.

Thinking-Based Learning

Beyond the debate around the effectiveness of learning by memorizing facts and data when discussing education, one of the most talked about aspects is the need to show students how to work with the information they receive at school. Teach them to contextualize, analyze, relate, argue… In short, convert information into knowledge.

This is the goal of Thinking-Based Learning (TBL), developing thinking skills beyond memorization and, in doing so, developing effective thinking on part of the students.

Competency-Based Learning

By definition, all learning methodologies have the acquisition of knowledge, the development of skills and the establishment of work habits as their main goals. Competency-Based Learning (CBL) represents a set of strategies to achieve this.

Through assessment tools such as rubrics, teachers can go through the academic curriculum without significant deviations but focusing it in a different way, putting into practice real examples and, thus, transmitting to their students a more tangible dimension of the lessons.

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Teaching Research Methodologies in Education: Teachers’ Pedagogical Practices in Portugal

1 Introduction

2 Teaching RME: Pedagogical Practices based on the Dimensions of Scientific Rationale, Research Design, and Scientific Writing

3 Methodological Approach

3.1 Objective and Research Question

3.2 Methods: Survey-Questionnaire

3.3 Data Collection and Analysis

4.1 What Are the Personal and Professional Characteristics of Teachers Responsible/Involved in Teaching RME?

4.2 What Are the Teachers’ Pedagogical Senses, Decisions, and Challenges in Teaching RME?

4.3 What Kind of Investigative Culture is Generated in RME Courses from Different Pedagogical Practices?

5 Discussion

6 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Supplementary Materials

Journal and Issue

Teaching Methods: Definition, Types, Best Teaching Methods For All Levels

What is a Teaching Method?