decision making case study sample

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Effective Decision-Making: A Case Study

Effective decision-making:, leading an organization through timely and impactful action.

Senior leaders at a top New England insurance provider need to develop the skills and behaviors for better, faster decision-making. This virtually delivered program spans four half-day sessions and includes individual assignments, facilitator-led presentations, and simulation decision-making. Over the past two months, this program touched over 100 leaders, providing them with actionable models and frameworks to use back on the job.

For one of New England’s most iconic insurers, senior leaders are challenged to make timely, effective decisions. These leaders face decisions on three levels: ones they translate to their teams, ones they make themselves, and ones they influence. But in a quickly changing, highly regulated market, risk aversion can lead to slow and ineffective decisions. How can senior leaders practice in a safe environment the quick, yet informed, decision-making necessary for the job while simultaneously learning new models and techniques — and without the learning experience burdening their precious time?

The Effective Decision-Making program was artfully designed to immerse senior leaders in 16 hours of hands-on experience, including reflection and feedback activities, applicable exercises, supporting content, and participation in a business simulation to practice the core content of the program. Participants work together in small groups to complete these activities within a limited time frame, replicating the work environment in which these leaders must succeed. Continuous reflection and group discussion around results create real-time learning for leaders. Application exercises then facilitate the simulation experience and their work back on the job. The program employs a variety of learning methodologies, including:

• Individual assignments that incorporate content and frameworks designed to develop effective decision-making skills.
• Guided reflection activities to encourage self-awareness and commitments for action.
• Large group conversations — live discussions focused on peer input around key learning points.
• Small group activities, including virtual role plays designed to build critical interpersonal and leadership skills.
• A dynamic business simulation in which participants are charged with translating, making, and influencing difficult decisions.
• Facilitator-led discussions and presentations.

Learning Objectives

Participants develop and improve skills to:

• Cultivate a leadership mindset that empowers, inspires, and challenges others.
• Translate decisions for stronger team alignment and performance.
• Make better decisions under pressure.
• Influence individuals across the organization.
• Better understand how one’s leadership actions impact business results

Design Highlights

Program agenda.

As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and the need for social distancing, this program was delivered virtually. However, this didn't preclude the need to give leaders an opportunity to connect with, and learn from, one another. In response to those needs, Insight Experience developed a fully remote, yet highly interactive, offering delivered over four half-day sessions.

Interactive Virtual Learning Format

Effective Decision-Making was designed to promote both individual and group activities and reflection. Participants access the program via a video-conferencing platform that allows them to work together both in large and small groups. Learning content and group discussions are done as one large group, enabling consistency in learning and opportunities to hear from all participants. The business simulation decision-making and reflection activities are conducted in small groups, allowing teams to develop deeper connections and conversations.

Simulation Overview

Participants assume the role of a General Manager for InfoMaster, a message management provider. Their leadership challenge as the GM is to translate the broader IIC organizational goals into strategy for their business, support that strategy though the development of organizational capabilities and product offerings, manage multiple divisions and stakeholders, and consider their contribution and responsibility to the broader organization of which they are a part. 

Success in the simulation is based on how well teams:

• Understand and translate organizational strategy into goals and plans for their business unit.
• Align organizational initiatives and product development with broader strategies.
• Develop employee capabilities required to execute strategic goals.
• Hold stakeholders accountable to commitments and results.
• Communicate with stakeholders and involve others in plans and decision-making.
• Develop their network and their influence within IIC to help support initiatives for the organization

History and Results

Effective Decision-Making was developed in 2020 as an experience for senior-level leaders. After a successful pilot, the program was then rolled out to two more cohorts in 2021 and 2022. The senior-level leaders who participated in the program then requested we offer the same program to their direct reports. After some small adjustments to make the program more appropriate for director-level leaders, the program was launched in 2022 for approximately 100 directors.

Here is what some participants have said about this program:

• “ One of the better programs we've done here at [our organization]. Pace was very quick but content was excellent and approach made it fun .”
• “ Loved the content and the flow. Very nicely organized and managed. Thank you! ”
• “ Really enjoyed the collaborative nature of the simulation.”
• “ It was wonderful and I felt it is a great opportunity. Learnt and reinforced leadership training and what it would take to be successful.”
• “One of the best I've experienced — especially appreciated how the reality of [our organization] was incorporated and it was with similarly situated peers.”
• “This program was great! It gave good insight into how to enhance my skills as leader by adopting the leadership mindset.”
• “Loved the fast pace, having a sim group that had various backgrounds in the company and seeing the results of our decisions at the corporate level.”
• “Great program — I love the concepts highlighted during these sessions.”

Looking for results like these?

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• 14 min read

Data-Driven Decision-Making Case Studies: Insights from Real-World Examples

Data has become crucial for making informed decisions in today's fast-paced and ever-changing business environment. Companies use data to gain valuable insights, improve processes, and foster innovation. By studying successful examples of data-driven decision-making, we can gain valuable insights and comprehend the impact of data-driven strategies on business outcomes.

Define Data-Driven Decision Making (DDDM)

Are you tired of making business decisions based on gut instincts and guesswork? It's time to adopt Data-Driven Decision Making (DDDM). DDDM is a strategic approach that leverages collected data to inform and guide your business decisions. You can gain insights by identifying patterns and making informed choices using relevant and accurate data. "This can enhance the precision and efficiency of your decision-making procedure." allowing you to optimize outcomes, mitigate risks, and adapt more dynamically to changing circumstances in today's data-rich environment. Switch to DDDM and give your business the competitive edge it needs!

Importance of DDDM in Modern Businesses

In today's fast-paced and competitive business world, making informed and accurate decisions is more critical than ever. Data-Driven Decision Making (DDDM) is a powerful tool to help modern businesses achieve this goal. By using data and insights to inform business decisions rather than relying on guesswork, companies "Businesses that strategically position themselves to gain a competitive advantage are more likely to achieve success." With DDDM, businesses can make data-backed decisions, leading to better outcomes and tremendous success. So, if you want to stay ahead of your competition and make helpful decisions that drive success, embracing DDDM is the way to go!

Brief Overview of the Success Stories to be Discussed

Discover the success stories showcasing how businesses leverage advanced technologies to drive growth and profitability. Join me for an engaging and thought-provoking session where we will delve into the intricacies of these fascinating case studies. Your active participation will help us uncover valuable insights and unlock new perspectives that can benefit your work. "Make the most of this valuable opportunity to enhance your knowledge and skills!"

1. Netflix's Personalized Recommendations

2. Amazon's Supply Chain Optimization

3. Starbucks Location Analytics

4. American Express Fraud Detection

5. Zara's Fast Fashion Foresight.

You can benefit greatly from this unique opportunity to learn from some of the most innovative companies in the industry. Ensure you take advantage of this chance to expand your knowledge and skills!

Case Study 1: Netflix's Personalized Recommendation

Overview of netflix's challenges in content delivery.

Netflix faced challenges delivering content due to the diverse viewer preferences and vast content library. However, the company has been working hard to address these challenges and ensure users can discover content that aligns with their tastes. By doing so, Netflix aims to improve user satisfaction and retention rates.

How Netflix Used Viewer Data to Tailor Recommendations

By leveraging extensive viewer data, Netflix confidently tackled the challenge of recommending relevant content to its users. The platform thoroughly analyzed user behavior, viewing history, and preferences to create highly sophisticated algorithms. These algorithms were based on machine learning and could personalize content recommendations for each user. This approach significantly increased the likelihood of viewers engaging with content that resonated with their interests.

The Impact on Customer Retention and Satisfaction

The personalized content recommendations profoundly affected customer retention and satisfaction rates. Netflix enhanced the value of its service by providing users with content that closely matched their preferences. This created a stronger bond between users and the platform, leading to longer subscription durations and increased satisfaction.

Lessons Learned and Key Takeaways

Data is a Strategic Asset: Netflix's strategic use of data has wholly revolutionized content delivery. By utilizing excellent viewer data, they have successfully met the needs and preferences of each viewer in an incredibly effective manner.

Personalization Enhances Customer Experience: Personalized recommendations are essential to enhancing the overall customer experience. They can increase engagement, satisfaction, loyalty, and retention. Make no mistake - if you want to take your business to new heights, personalized recommendations are a must!

Continuous Adaptation is Crucial: It is crucial to adapt to achieve success, as Netflix continuously demonstrates. With the ever-evolving preferences of viewers, it is imperative to perform ongoing analysis and make necessary adjustments to algorithms to ensure that recommendations stay consistently relevant.

Balancing Privacy and Personalization: When utilizing viewer data, it is crucial to hit the right balance between personalization and privacy. Netflix has accomplished this by delivering highly personalized recommendations without compromising user privacy.

Netflix's approach to content delivery serves as an inspiration for the transformative power of data-driven decision-making. The personalized recommendations derived from customer data have proven to be a game changer regarding customer retention and satisfaction. The significance of adaptability, strategic use of data, and the balance between personalization and privacy, as highlighted by Netflix's success, can serve as a guide for other businesses looking to impact their customers positively.

Case study 2: amazon's supply chain optimization.

Understanding Amazon's Complex Supply Chain

Amazon has a complex supply chain involves various stages, from sourcing the products to delivering them to customers. The company manages a vast network of fulfillment centers, distribution hubs, and transportation systems. The complexity arises due to the need to manage different types of products, fluctuating demand, and the commitment to fast and efficient delivery.

Implementation of Predictive Analytics for Inventory Management

Using predictive analytics, Amazon has optimized inventory management by accurately forecasting future demand by analyzing historical data, current market trends, and seasonality. This has helped them prevent stockouts and overstock situations, improving their overall business efficiency and customer satisfaction.

Results Achieved in Cost Savings and Delivery Times

Anticipating the future, the implementation of predictive analytics is expected to yield significant results. Amazon will likely achieve cost savings by minimizing excess inventory and improving warehouse efficiency. Additionally, streamlined inventory management contributes to faster order fulfillment, which reduces delivery times and enhances the customer experience. We can expect a boost in efficiency and a better customer experience shortly.

Insights Gained and How Businesses Can Apply Similar Strategies 

Data-Driven Decision-Making: In today's business landscape, data-driven decision-making has become the cornerstone of success. If you want your business to thrive, you must leverage advanced analytics to gain actionable insights into your supply chains. This will enable you to make proactive and strategic decisions to enhance your projects. Don't fall behind the competition - take charge and start leveraging the power of data-driven decision-making now.

Dynamic Inventory Optimization: Incorporating a dynamic approach to inventory management that relies on predictive analytics is "Businesses must prioritize their competitive edge and remain ahead of the industry. This is crucial to ensure success and longevity.". It helps them to quickly adjust to changing market conditions and meet the ever-evolving demands of consumers. This not only optimizes the utilization of resources but also reduces wastage, making it a sound strategy crucial for any business that wishes to survive in today's competitive market landscape.

Focus on Customer-Centric Logistics: To improve customer satisfaction, businesses can focus on optimizing logistics and reducing delivery times. Amazon's customer-centric approach demonstrates the importance of fast and reliable delivery. Companies can boost customer loyalty and drive growth by enhancing the customer experience.

Investment in Technology: To stay ahead in supply chain optimization, businesses must adopt cutting-edge technologies like AI and machine learning. Amazon's supply chain success is a testament to the power of continuous investment in technology. So, if you want to thrive in today's competitive market, it's high time you leverage these technologies to your advantage.

Amazon's journey toward optimizing its supply chain through predictive analytics has tremendously impacted cost savings and delivery times. Other businesses can achieve similar results by utilizing data-driven decision-making, implementing dynamic inventory management, prioritizing customer-centric logistics, and investing in advanced technologies.

Case study 3: starbucks location analytics.

The Problem with Traditional Site Selection

The traditional approach to retail site selection, which relied on broad demographic data and market trends, must be improved in identifying optimal locations. Adopting a more precise approach that considers specific local factors influencing consumer behavior and store performance is imperative to ensure success.

How Starbucks Leveraged Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

Starbucks has transformed its approach to selecting store locations by leveraging Geographic Information Systems (GIS). This innovative technology has enabled Starbucks to systematically evaluate and visualize location-specific data, such as foot traffic patterns, nearby businesses, demographics, and local economic factors. By conducting this comprehensive analysis, Starbucks can gain a more nuanced understanding of potential store locations and make informed decisions.

Outcomes in Terms of New Store Performance and Sales

Starbucks, the renowned coffeehouse chain, has achieved notable success in its site selection strategy by implementing a Geographic Information System (GIS). GIS technology has enabled Starbucks to strategically place its new stores in locations that cater to the preferences and traffic patterns of the local population. As a result, the company has witnessed a significant improvement in the performance of its new stores, surpassing the sales of those selected through traditional methods. The successful implementation of GIS in site selection has contributed to optimizing location decisions, leading to a more efficient and effective expansion strategy for Starbucks.

Broader Implications for Retail Location Decision-Making

Precision in Site Selection: Geographic Information System (GIS) technology has opened new doors for retailers to make informed decisions. By leveraging GIS, businesses can analyze and interpret specific geographic data to optimize their site selection process. This helps them understand local nuances and customer behavior more precisely, allowing them to make data-driven decisions that lead to better business outcomes.

Adaptability to Local Factors: To establish a closer relationship with their customers, retailers must consider various local factors such as competition, demographics, and cultural preferences. By doing so, they can customize their offerings and marketing strategies to fit the local communities' specific needs and preferences. This approach can lead to better customer engagement and loyalty and, ultimately, higher sales for the retailer.

Cost Efficiency: Regarding retail businesses, selecting the right location for a store is crucial for success. Optimal site selection can significantly reduce the risk of underperforming stores and minimize the financial impact of poor location decisions. Retail businesses can enhance their overall cost efficiency and profitability by doing so. This is why it is essential for companies to carefully analyze and consider factors before making any site selection decisions.

Strategic Expansion: Geographic Information System (GIS) provides retailers with a powerful tool to make informed decisions about expanding their business. By leveraging location-based data, retailers can discover new markets and potential locations for growth. This data-driven approach helps retailers create a more sustainable and prosperous expansion plan, resulting in long-term prosperity for the business.

Enhanced Customer Experience: Retailers can improve the shopping experience for their customers by strategically selecting store locations that cater to their preferences and habits. Retailers can attract more foot traffic and enhance customer satisfaction by offering conveniently located stores. In this case, it can increase sales and customer loyalty.

To make it more understandable, Starbucks has been using fantastic GIS technology to help them pick the best locations for their stores. It's like a digital map that allows them to look at much different information, like how many people live nearby, how much traffic there is, and what other businesses are in the area. By using this technology, Starbucks can make better choices about where to put their stores and how they can be successful. Other businesses can also use GIS to make better decisions about where to open new stores and how to compete in the changing world of retail.

Case study 4: american express fraud detection.

Rise in Credit Card Fraud and the Challenge for Card Issuers

As more and more people turn to digital transactions and online commerce, it's essential to be aware of the increased incidence of credit card fraud. Protect yourself and others from financial crimes by staying informed and proactively safeguarding your financial information. Thus, posing a significant challenge for card issuers. Fraudsters are constantly devising new and innovative tactics to steal sensitive information and exploit vulnerabilities in payment systems. This makes it imperative for financial institutions to stay ahead of the game in detecting and preventing fraudulent activities. Today, with advanced technologies like machine learning and artificial intelligence, card issuers can analyze big data that can identify patterns and anomalies and indicate fraudulent behavior. By adopting a proactive approach to fraud detection and prevention, financial institutions can safeguard their customers' personal information and financial assets, thus building trust and loyalty among their clients.

American Express's Use of Machine Learning for Early Detection

American Express always prioritizes the security of its customers' financial transactions. The company has employed advanced machine-learning algorithms to analyze vast amounts of real-time transaction data to achieve this. These algorithms can identify patterns, anomalies, and behavioral indicators typically associated with fraudulent activities. By continuously learning from new data, the system adapts to evolving fraud tactics and enhances its ability to detect irregularities early on. This advanced technology is a critical component of American Express's fraud prevention strategy, and it helps the company safeguard its customers against potential financial losses.

Effectiveness in Preventing Fraud and Protecting Customers

American Express utilizes an advanced fraud detection system powered by machine learning that has demonstrated exceptional efficacy in preventing fraudulent activities and safeguarding customers. By detecting fraudulent transactions early, the company can promptly take necessary measures, such as notifying customers of suspicious activities or blocking them altogether, thus reinforcing trust in the company's commitment to security and ensuring customer satisfaction.

What Companies Can Learn About Proactive Data Monitoring

Invest in Advanced Analytics: Advanced analytics, such as machine learning, helps companies proactively monitor data for potential fraud indicators and unusual patterns. It identifies issues before they become significant problems, saving the company millions. It also identifies new business opportunities, market trends, and operational inefficiencies, enhancing customer satisfaction and the bottom line.

Real-Time Analysis: Real-time data analysis is a powerful tool for detecting and responding to suspicious activities. By monitoring data in real-time, organizations can quickly "Identify possible threats and take prompt action to reduce their impact." we can overcome any challenges that come our way and pave the path to success. This approach reduces the window of vulnerability and enhances the effectiveness of fraud prevention measures. Therefore, real-time data analysis can help organizations prevent fraudsters from exploiting them. It's important to stay vigilant and proactive in protecting yourself and your finances from potential threats. Please take action now and don't give them the chance to cause any harm. Remember, it's better to be safe than sorry. their interests.

Continuous Learning Systems: Adopting systems that can learn and adapt to new fraud patterns is highly recommended. This approach ensures that the monitoring mechanisms remain up-to-date and effective despite the constantly evolving threats. Embracing such systems can protect businesses. The objective is to safeguard individuals and organizations against financial losses and reputational harm resulting from fraudulent activities.

Customer Communication: Implementing solid and effective communication methods is essential to inform customers of any potential fraud promptly. Through transparent communication, customers can be informed of the situation and take immediate action, building trust between them and the organization.

Collaboration with Industry Partners: Collaborating with industry partners and sharing insights on emerging fraud trends is essential. By working together, we can enhance our ability to combat fraud and protect the entire ecosystem. We can stay informed and better equipped to prevent fraudulent activities through a collective effort.

Balancing Security and User Experience: It's crucial to balance strong security measures with a seamless user experience for online platform security. While taking all necessary steps to prevent fraud and unauthorized access to your system is critical, ensuring that your legitimate customers don't face any inconvenience or dissatisfaction due to stringent security protocols is equally essential. Therefore, adopting a multi-layered approach to security is recommended to shield your system from potential threats without making the user experience cumbersome or frustrating. This may involve utilizing two-factor and risk-based authentication and real-time fraud detection. Furthermore, educating users on secure online practices and equipping them with the necessary tools and resources to protect their personal information and transactions is essential.

American Express has implemented machine learning techniques to detect and prevent fraud at an early stage. This is an excellent example for businesses seeking to improve their proactive data monitoring capabilities. By adopting advanced analytical tools, real-time analysis, continuous learning systems, and effective communication, companies can establish a solid and proactive strategy to combat emerging threats in the digital realm.

Case study 5: zara's fast fashion foresight.

Fast Fashion Industry Challenges in Demand Forecasting

The fast fashion industry, known for producing trendy and affordable clothing rapidly, faces significant challenges in accurately predicting consumer demand. One of the main reasons for this is the constantly changing nature of fashion trends. What is popular today may be out of fashion tomorrow, making it difficult for companies to plan their production processes effectively.

Additionally, fast fashion products have short life cycles, meaning they are only in style for a limited time. As a result, companies need to be able to respond to market shifts and adjust their production accordingly quickly. This can be challenging, as traditional forecasting methods rely on historical data, which may need to be more relevant in a fast-changing market.

To overcome these challenges, the fast fashion industry needs innovative and agile forecasting methods to keep up with the dynamic nature of consumer preferences. This may involve leveraging data analytics and machine learning algorithms to identify emerging trends and predict future demand. Companies can enhance efficiency, reduce waste, and provide excellent customer value.

Zara's Integration of Real-Time Sales Data into Production Decisions

Zara, one of the world's leading fashion retailers, has redefined the fashion industry by leveraging real-time sales data. Zara has integrated real-time sales data into its production decisions, allowing the company to stay ahead of the competition. Zara's vertically integrated supply chain and responsive production model enable it to capture up-to-the-minute sales data from its stores worldwide. This data is then fed back to the design and production teams, who use it to rapidly adjust inventory levels and introduce new designs based on current demand trends. Using real-time sales data, Zara can create a customer-centric approach, ensuring its customers always have access to the latest and most stylish designs.

Benefits Seen in Reduced Waste and Increased Sales

Zara has adopted a real-time analytics approach that has proven to be highly beneficial. The company's production is now closely aligned with actual customer demand, which results in a significant reduction in overstock and markdowns. This approach has minimized the environmental impact of excessive inventory. In addition, the quick response to emerging trends and consumer preferences has led to an increase in full-price sales, boosting revenue and profitability for Zara.

Strategies for Incorporating Real-Time Analytics into Product Development

Connected Supply Chain: Establishing a connected and transparent supply chain that enables seamless real-time data flow from sales channels to production and design teams is imperative. This will ensure that all the teams are on the same page and can make quick, informed decisions based on accurate, up-to-date information. Failure to do so can result in costly delays, inefficiencies, and missed opportunities. So, let's prioritize this and set up a robust supply chain that works for us!

Agile Production Processes: To maintain a competitive edge, it is crucial to adopt constructive and flexible production processes that can quickly respond to changes in demand. This involves embracing shorter production cycles and smaller batch sizes, which makes us more efficient and proactive in meeting customer needs.

Advanced Data Analytics: To optimize your sales strategies, you can use advanced data analytics tools to process and analyze real-time sales data efficiently. You can accurately forecast demand and make data-driven decisions by implementing predictive modeling and machine learning algorithms.

Cross-Functional Collaboration: Promoting collaboration among different organizational departments is crucial to ensure the sales, marketing, design, and production teams have a unified interpretation of real-time data. This way, they can collectively make informed decisions that are in the company's best interest. The organization can improve its efficiency, productivity, and profitability by promoting open communication and collaboration between departments.

Customer Feedback Integration: One way to enhance the accuracy of real-time analytics is to consider customer feedback and preferences. Social media listening and direct customer interactions can provide valuable insights into emerging trends and demands.

Technology Integration: As we look towards the future, it's becoming increasingly clear that investing in technologies that facilitate real-time data collection and processing will be crucial. With the rise of automation and the growing need for instant information, businesses that have point-of-sale systems, inventory management software, and communication tools that streamline information flow will be better equipped to thrive in the fast-paced and ever-changing world of tomorrow. So, it's never too soon to start thinking about how you can integrate these technologies into your business strategy.

Zara's outstanding achievement in the fast fashion industry is a remarkable example of how incorporating real-time sales data into production decisions can lead to immense success. By reducing waste, swiftly responding to market trends, and utilizing advanced analytics, Zara has set a benchmark for other companies in integrating real-time insights into their product development strategies. This approach enhances efficiency and competitiveness in the highly dynamic and ever-evolving fashion industry.

In the constantly shifting business realm, the adage' knowledge is power' has never been more accurate, particularly about tangible, data-derived knowledge. data-driven decision making (dddm) presents an approach where critical business decisions are made not on intuition or experience alone, but on deep dives into data analysis. empirical evidence garnered through this method provides actionable insights leading to strategic, evidence-based decisions..

The stories of Netflix, Amazon, Starbucks, American Express, and Zara demonstrate the immense potential of Data-Driven Decision Making (DDDM). By analyzing vast data points and leveraging advanced analytics, these companies transformed their businesses and achieved unparalleled success.

For instance, Netflix utilized DDDM to create tailor-made recommendations, engaging existing users and attracting new ones. Amazon used data analytics to optimize its supply chain, lowering costs and accelerating shipping times. Starbucks leveraged location analytics to predict the profitability of new store locations with impressive accuracy. American Express used machine learning algorithms to identify frauds faster than ever, saving millions in potential losses. Lastly, Zara demonstrated agility in the competitive fast fashion market by adapting its production and supply chain to meet real-time demand.

As seen in these success stories, data-driven decision-making can powerfully impact business, from customer engagement to trend forecasting. They underscore the importance of meticulous data analysis in navigating the present and forecasting an ever-changing future, paving the way for unparalleled business success. Companies can draw inspiration from these cases and embark on their DDDM journey to achieve similar outcomes.

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Do Your Students Know How to Analyze a Case—Really?

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• Case Teaching
• Student Engagement

J ust as actors, athletes, and musicians spend thousands of hours practicing their craft, business students benefit from practicing their critical-thinking and decision-making skills. Students, however, often have limited exposure to real-world problem-solving scenarios; they need more opportunities to practice tackling tough business problems and deciding on—and executing—the best solutions.

To ensure students have ample opportunity to develop these critical-thinking and decision-making skills, we believe business faculty should shift from teaching mostly principles and ideas to mostly applications and practices. And in doing so, they should emphasize the case method, which simulates real-world management challenges and opportunities for students.

To help educators facilitate this shift and help students get the most out of case-based learning, we have developed a framework for analyzing cases. We call it PACADI (Problem, Alternatives, Criteria, Analysis, Decision, Implementation); it can improve learning outcomes by helping students better solve and analyze business problems, make decisions, and develop and implement strategy. Here, we’ll explain why we developed this framework, how it works, and what makes it an effective learning tool.

The Case for Cases: Helping Students Think Critically

Business students must develop critical-thinking and analytical skills, which are essential to their ability to make good decisions in functional areas such as marketing, finance, operations, and information technology, as well as to understand the relationships among these functions. For example, the decisions a marketing manager must make include strategic planning (segments, products, and channels); execution (digital messaging, media, branding, budgets, and pricing); and operations (integrated communications and technologies), as well as how to implement decisions across functional areas.

Faculty can use many types of cases to help students develop these skills. These include the prototypical “paper cases”; live cases , which feature guest lecturers such as entrepreneurs or corporate leaders and on-site visits; and multimedia cases , which immerse students into real situations. Most cases feature an explicit or implicit decision that a protagonist—whether it is an individual, a group, or an organization—must make.

For students new to learning by the case method—and even for those with case experience—some common issues can emerge; these issues can sometimes be a barrier for educators looking to ensure the best possible outcomes in their case classrooms. Unsure of how to dig into case analysis on their own, students may turn to the internet or rely on former students for “answers” to assigned cases. Or, when assigned to provide answers to assignment questions in teams, students might take a divide-and-conquer approach but not take the time to regroup and provide answers that are consistent with one other.

To help address these issues, which we commonly experienced in our classes, we wanted to provide our students with a more structured approach for how they analyze cases—and to really think about making decisions from the protagonists’ point of view. We developed the PACADI framework to address this need.

PACADI: A Six-Step Decision-Making Approach

The PACADI framework is a six-step decision-making approach that can be used in lieu of traditional end-of-case questions. It offers a structured, integrated, and iterative process that requires students to analyze case information, apply business concepts to derive valuable insights, and develop recommendations based on these insights.

Prior to beginning a PACADI assessment, which we’ll outline here, students should first prepare a two-paragraph summary—a situation analysis—that highlights the key case facts. Then, we task students with providing a five-page PACADI case analysis (excluding appendices) based on the following six steps.

Step 1: Problem definition. What is the major challenge, problem, opportunity, or decision that has to be made? If there is more than one problem, choose the most important one. Often when solving the key problem, other issues will surface and be addressed. The problem statement may be framed as a question; for example, How can brand X improve market share among millennials in Canada? Usually the problem statement has to be re-written several times during the analysis of a case as students peel back the layers of symptoms or causation.

Step 2: Alternatives. Identify in detail the strategic alternatives to address the problem; three to five options generally work best. Alternatives should be mutually exclusive, realistic, creative, and feasible given the constraints of the situation. Doing nothing or delaying the decision to a later date are not considered acceptable alternatives.

Step 3: Criteria. What are the key decision criteria that will guide decision-making? In a marketing course, for example, these may include relevant marketing criteria such as segmentation, positioning, advertising and sales, distribution, and pricing. Financial criteria useful in evaluating the alternatives should be included—for example, income statement variables, customer lifetime value, payback, etc. Students must discuss their rationale for selecting the decision criteria and the weights and importance for each factor.

Step 4: Analysis. Provide an in-depth analysis of each alternative based on the criteria chosen in step three. Decision tables using criteria as columns and alternatives as rows can be helpful. The pros and cons of the various choices as well as the short- and long-term implications of each may be evaluated. Best, worst, and most likely scenarios can also be insightful.

Step 5: Decision. Students propose their solution to the problem. This decision is justified based on an in-depth analysis. Explain why the recommendation made is the best fit for the criteria.

Step 6: Implementation plan. Sound business decisions may fail due to poor execution. To enhance the likeliness of a successful project outcome, students describe the key steps (activities) to implement the recommendation, timetable, projected costs, expected competitive reaction, success metrics, and risks in the plan.

“Students note that using the PACADI framework yields ‘aha moments’—they learned something surprising in the case that led them to think differently about the problem and their proposed solution.”

PACADI’s Benefits: Meaningfully and Thoughtfully Applying Business Concepts

The PACADI framework covers all of the major elements of business decision-making, including implementation, which is often overlooked. By stepping through the whole framework, students apply relevant business concepts and solve management problems via a systematic, comprehensive approach; they’re far less likely to surface piecemeal responses.

As students explore each part of the framework, they may realize that they need to make changes to a previous step. For instance, when working on implementation, students may realize that the alternative they selected cannot be executed or will not be profitable, and thus need to rethink their decision. Or, they may discover that the criteria need to be revised since the list of decision factors they identified is incomplete (for example, the factors may explain key marketing concerns but fail to address relevant financial considerations) or is unrealistic (for example, they suggest a 25 percent increase in revenues without proposing an increased promotional budget).

In addition, the PACADI framework can be used alongside quantitative assignments, in-class exercises, and business and management simulations. The structured, multi-step decision framework encourages careful and sequential analysis to solve business problems. Incorporating PACADI as an overarching decision-making method across different projects will ultimately help students achieve desired learning outcomes. As a practical “beyond-the-classroom” tool, the PACADI framework is not a contrived course assignment; it reflects the decision-making approach that managers, executives, and entrepreneurs exercise daily. Case analysis introduces students to the real-world process of making business decisions quickly and correctly, often with limited information. This framework supplies an organized and disciplined process that students can readily defend in writing and in class discussions.

PACADI in Action: An Example

Here’s an example of how students used the PACADI framework for a recent case analysis on CVS, a large North American drugstore chain.

The CVS Prescription for Customer Value*

PACADI Stage

Summary Response

How should CVS Health evolve from the “drugstore of your neighborhood” to the “drugstore of your future”?

Alternatives

A1. Kaizen (continuous improvement)

A2. Product development

A3. Market development

A4. Personalization (micro-targeting)

Criteria (include weights)

C1. Customer value: service, quality, image, and price (40%)

C2. Customer obsession (20%)

C3. Growth through related businesses (20%)

C4. Customer retention and customer lifetime value (20%)

Each alternative was analyzed by each criterion using a Customer Value Assessment Tool

Alternative 4 (A4): Personalization was selected. This is operationalized via: segmentation—move toward segment-of-1 marketing; geodemographics and lifestyle emphasis; predictive data analysis; relationship marketing; people, principles, and supply chain management; and exceptional customer service.

Implementation

Partner with leading medical school

Curbside pick-up

Pet pharmacy

E-newsletter for customers and employees

Employee incentive program

CVS beauty days

Expand to Latin America and Caribbean

Healthier/happier corner

Holiday toy drives/community outreach

*Source: A. Weinstein, Y. Rodriguez, K. Sims, R. Vergara, “The CVS Prescription for Superior Customer Value—A Case Study,” Back to the Future: Revisiting the Foundations of Marketing from Society for Marketing Advances, West Palm Beach, FL (November 2, 2018).

Results of Using the PACADI Framework

When faculty members at our respective institutions at Nova Southeastern University (NSU) and the University of North Carolina Wilmington have used the PACADI framework, our classes have been more structured and engaging. Students vigorously debate each element of their decision and note that this framework yields an “aha moment”—they learned something surprising in the case that led them to think differently about the problem and their proposed solution.

These lively discussions enhance individual and collective learning. As one external metric of this improvement, we have observed a 2.5 percent increase in student case grade performance at NSU since this framework was introduced.

Tips to Get Started

The PACADI approach works well in in-person, online, and hybrid courses. This is particularly important as more universities have moved to remote learning options. Because students have varied educational and cultural backgrounds, work experience, and familiarity with case analysis, we recommend that faculty members have students work on their first case using this new framework in small teams (two or three students). Additional analyses should then be solo efforts.

To use PACADI effectively in your classroom, we suggest the following:

Advise your students that your course will stress critical thinking and decision-making skills, not just course concepts and theory.

Use a varied mix of case studies. As marketing professors, we often address consumer and business markets; goods, services, and digital commerce; domestic and global business; and small and large companies in a single MBA course.

As a starting point, provide a short explanation (about 20 to 30 minutes) of the PACADI framework with a focus on the conceptual elements. You can deliver this face to face or through videoconferencing.

Give students an opportunity to practice the case analysis methodology via an ungraded sample case study. Designate groups of five to seven students to discuss the case and the six steps in breakout sessions (in class or via Zoom).

Ensure case analyses are weighted heavily as a grading component. We suggest 30–50 percent of the overall course grade.

Once cases are graded, debrief with the class on what they did right and areas needing improvement (30- to 40-minute in-person or Zoom session).

Encourage faculty teams that teach common courses to build appropriate instructional materials, grading rubrics, videos, sample cases, and teaching notes.

When selecting case studies, we have found that the best ones for PACADI analyses are about 15 pages long and revolve around a focal management decision. This length provides adequate depth yet is not protracted. Some of our tested and favorite marketing cases include Brand W , Hubspot , Kraft Foods Canada , TRSB(A) , and Whiskey & Cheddar .

Art Weinstein , Ph.D., is a professor of marketing at Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, Florida. He has published more than 80 scholarly articles and papers and eight books on customer-focused marketing strategy. His latest book is Superior Customer Value—Finding and Keeping Customers in the Now Economy . Dr. Weinstein has consulted for many leading technology and service companies.

Herbert V. Brotspies , D.B.A., is an adjunct professor of marketing at Nova Southeastern University. He has over 30 years’ experience as a vice president in marketing, strategic planning, and acquisitions for Fortune 50 consumer products companies working in the United States and internationally. His research interests include return on marketing investment, consumer behavior, business-to-business strategy, and strategic planning.

John T. Gironda , Ph.D., is an assistant professor of marketing at the University of North Carolina Wilmington. His research has been published in Industrial Marketing Management, Psychology & Marketing , and Journal of Marketing Management . He has also presented at major marketing conferences including the American Marketing Association, Academy of Marketing Science, and Society for Marketing Advances.

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“How to Write Case Studies: A Comprehensive Guide”

Case studies are essential for marketing and research, offering in-depth insights into successes and problem-solving methods. This blog explains how to write case studies, including steps for creating them, tips for analysis, and case study examples. You'll also find case study templates to simplify the process. Effective case studies establish credibility, enhance marketing efforts, and provide valuable insights for future projects.

Case studies are detailed examinations of subjects like businesses, organizations, or individuals. They are used to highlight successes and problem-solving methods. They are crucial in marketing, education, and research to provide concrete examples and insights.

This blog will explain how to write case studies and their importance. We will cover different applications of case studies and a step-by-step process to create them. You’ll find tips for conducting case study analysis, along with case study examples and case study templates.

Effective case studies are vital. They showcase success stories and problem-solving skills, establishing credibility. This guide will teach you how to create a case study that engages your audience and enhances your marketing and research efforts.

What are Case Studies?

1. Definition and Purpose of a Case Study

Case studies are in-depth explorations of specific subjects to understand dynamics and outcomes. They provide detailed insights that can be generalized to broader contexts.

2. Different Types of Case Studies

• Exploratory: Investigates an area with limited information.
• Explanatory: Explains reasons behind a phenomenon.
• Descriptive: Provides a detailed account of the subject.
• Intrinsic : Focuses on a unique subject.
• Instrumental: Uses the case to understand a broader issue.

3. Benefits of Using Case Studies

Case studies offer many benefits. They provide real-world examples to illustrate theories or concepts. Businesses can demonstrate the effectiveness of their products or services. Researchers gain detailed insights into specific phenomena. Educators use them to teach through practical examples. Learning how to write case studies can enhance your marketing and research efforts.

Understanding how to create a case study involves recognizing these benefits. Case study examples show practical applications. Using case study templates can simplify the process.

5 Steps to Write a Case Study

1. Identifying the Subject or Case

Choose a subject that aligns with your objectives and offers valuable insights. Ensure the subject has a clear narrative and relevance to your audience. The subject should illustrate key points and provide substantial learning opportunities. Common subjects include successful projects, client stories, or significant business challenges.

2. Conducting Thorough Research and Data Collection

Gather comprehensive data from multiple sources. Conduct interviews with key stakeholders, such as clients, team members, or industry experts. Use surveys to collect quantitative data. Review documents, reports, and any relevant records. Ensure the information is accurate, relevant, and up-to-date. This thorough research forms the foundation for how to write case studies that are credible and informative.

3. Structuring the Case Study

Organize your case study into these sections:

• Introduction: Introduce the subject and its significance. Provide an overview of what will be covered.
• Background: Provide context and background information. Describe the subject’s history, environment, and any relevant details.
• Case Presentation: Detail the case, including the problem or challenge faced. Discuss the actions taken to address the issue.
• Analysis: Analyze the data and discuss the findings. Highlight key insights, patterns, and outcomes.
• Conclusion: Summarize the outcomes and key takeaways. Reflect on the broader implications and lessons learned.

4. Writing a Compelling Introduction

The introduction should grab the reader’s attention. Start with a hook, such as an interesting fact, quote, or question. Provide a brief overview of the subject and its importance. Explain why this case is relevant and worth studying. An engaging introduction sets the stage for how to create a case study that keeps readers interested.

5. Providing Background Information and Context

Give readers the necessary background to understand the case. Include details about the subject’s history, environment, and any relevant circumstances. Explain the context in which the case exists, such as the industry, market conditions, or organizational culture. Providing a solid foundation helps readers grasp the significance of the case and enhances the credibility of your study.

Understanding how to write a case study involves meticulous research and a clear structure. Utilizing case study examples and templates can guide you through the process, ensuring you present your findings effectively. These steps are essential for writing informative, engaging, and impactful case studies. 

How to Write Case Study Analysis

1. Analyzing the Data Collected

Examine the data to identify patterns, trends, and key findings. Use qualitative and quantitative methods to ensure a comprehensive analysis. Validate the data’s accuracy and relevance to the subject. Look for correlations and causations that can provide deeper insights.

2. Identifying Key Issues and Problems

Pinpoint the main issues or challenges faced by the subject. Determine the root causes of these problems. Use tools like SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) to get a clear picture. Prioritize the issues based on their impact and urgency.

3. Discussing Possible Solutions and Their Implementation

Explore various solutions that address the identified issues. Compare the potential effectiveness of each solution. Discuss the steps taken to implement the chosen solutions. Highlight the decision-making process and the rationale behind it. Include any obstacles faced during implementation and how they were overcome.

4. Evaluating the Results and Outcomes

Assess the outcomes of the implemented solutions. Use metrics and KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) to measure success. Compare the results with the initial objectives and expectations. Discuss any deviations and their reasons. Provide evidence to support your evaluation, such as before-and-after data or testimonials.

5. Providing Insights and Lessons Learned

Reflect on the insights gained from the case study. Discuss what worked well and what didn’t. Highlight lessons that can be applied to similar situations. Provide actionable recommendations for future projects. This section should offer valuable takeaways for the readers, helping them understand how to create a case study that is insightful and practical.

Mastering how to write case studies involves understanding each part of the analysis. Use case study examples to see how these elements are applied. Case study templates can help you structure your work. Knowing how to make a case study analysis will make your findings clear and actionable.

Case Study Examples and Templates

1. Showcasing Successful Case Studies

Georgia tech athletics increase season ticket sales by 80%.

Georgia Tech Athletics aimed to enhance their season ticket sales and engagement with fans. Their initial strategy involved multiple outbound phone calls without targeting. They partnered with Salesloft to improve their sales process with a more structured inbound approach. This allowed sales reps to target communications effectively. As a result, Georgia Tech saw an 80% increase in season ticket sales, with improved employee engagement and fan relationships​.

WeightWatchers Revamps Enterprise Sales Process with HubSpot

WeightWatchers sought to improve their sales efficiency. Their previous system lacked automation, requiring extensive manual effort. By adopting HubSpot’s CRM, WeightWatchers streamlined their sales process. The automation capabilities of HubSpot allowed them to manage customer interactions more effectively. This transition significantly enhanced their operational efficiency and sales performance​.

2. Breakdown of What Makes These Examples Effective

These case study examples are effective due to their clear structure and compelling storytelling. They:

• Identify the problem: Each case study begins by outlining the challenges faced by the client.
• Detail the solution: They explain the specific solutions implemented to address these challenges.
• Showcase the results: Quantifiable results and improvements are highlighted, demonstrating the effectiveness of the solutions.
• Use visuals and quotes: Incorporating images, charts, and client testimonials enhances engagement and credibility.

3. Providing Case Study Templates

To assist in creating your own case studies, here are some recommended case study templates:

1. General Case Study Template

• Suitable for various industries and applications.
• Includes sections for background, problem, solution, and results.
• Helps provide a structured narrative for any case study.

2. Data-Driven Case Study Template

• Focuses on presenting metrics and data.
• Ideal for showcasing quantitative achievements.
• Structured to highlight significant performance improvements and achievements.

3. Product-Specific Case Study Template

• Emphasizes customer experiences and satisfaction with a specific product.
• Highlights benefits and features of the product rather than the process.

4. Tips for Customizing Templates to Fit Your Needs

When using case study templates, tailor them to match the specific context of your study. Consider the following tips:

• Adapt the language and tone: Ensure it aligns with your brand voice and audience.
• Include relevant visuals: Add charts, graphs, and images to support your narrative.
• Personalize the content: Use specific details about the subject to make the case study unique and relatable.

Utilizing these examples and templates will guide you in how to write case studies effectively. They provide a clear framework for how to create a case study that is engaging and informative. Learning how to make a case study becomes more manageable with these resources and examples​.

Tips for Creating Compelling Case Studies

1. Using Storytelling Techniques to Engage Readers

Incorporate storytelling techniques to make your case study engaging. A compelling narrative holds the reader’s attention.

2. Including Quotes and Testimonials from Participants

Add quotes and testimonials to add credibility. Participant feedback enhances the authenticity of your study.

3. Visual Aids: Charts, Graphs, and Images to Support Your Case

Use charts, graphs, and images to illustrate key points. Visual aids help in better understanding and retention.

4. Ensuring Clarity and Conciseness in Writing

Write clearly and concisely to maintain reader interest. Avoid jargon and ensure your writing is easy to follow.

5. Highlighting the Impact and Benefits

Emphasize the positive outcomes and benefits. Show how the subject has improved or achieved success.

Understanding how to write case studies involves using effective storytelling and visuals. Case study examples show how to engage readers, and case study templates help organize your content. Learning how to make a case study ensures that it is clear and impactful.

Benefits of Using Case Studies

1. Establishing Authority and Credibility

How to write case studies can effectively establish your authority. Showcasing success stories builds credibility in your field.

2. Demonstrating Practical Applications of Your Product or Service

Case study examples demonstrate how your product or service solves real-world problems. This practical evidence is convincing for potential clients.

3. Enhancing Marketing and Sales Efforts

Use case studies to support your marketing and sales strategies. They highlight your successes and attract new customers.

4. Providing Valuable Insights for Future Projects

Case studies offer insights that can guide future projects. Learning how to create a case study helps in applying these lessons effectively.

5. Engaging and Educating Your Audience

Case studies are engaging and educational. They provide detailed examples and valuable lessons. Using case study templates can make this process easier and more effective. Understanding how to make a case study ensures you can communicate these benefits clearly.

Writing effective case studies involves thorough research, clear structure, and engaging content. By following these steps, you’ll learn how to write case studies that showcase your success stories and problem-solving skills. Use the case study examples and case study templates provided to get started. Well-crafted case studies are valuable tools for marketing, research, and education. Start learning how to make a case study today and share your success stories with the world.

What is the purpose of a case study?

A case study provides detailed insights into a subject, illustrating successes and solutions. It helps in understanding complex issues.

How do I choose a subject for my case study?

Select a subject that aligns with your objectives and offers valuable insights. Ensure it has a clear narrative.

What are the key components of a case study analysis?

A case study analysis includes data collection, identifying key issues, discussing solutions, evaluating outcomes, and providing insights.

Where can I find case study templates?

You can find downloadable case study templates online. They simplify the process of creating a case study.

How can case studies benefit my business?

Case studies establish credibility, demonstrate practical applications, enhance marketing efforts, and provide insights for future projects. Learning how to create a case study can significantly benefit your business.

I am currently pursuing my Masters in Communication and Journalism from University of Mumbai. I am the author of four self published books. I am interested inv writing for films and TV. I run a blog where I write about film reviews.

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The Ethical Leadership Case Study Collection

The Ted Rogers Leadership Centre’s Case Collection, developed in collaboration with experienced teaching faculty, seasoned executives, and alumni, provides instructors with real-life decision-making scenarios to help hone students’ critical-thinking skills and their understanding of what good leaders do. They will be able to leverage the theories, models, and processes being advanced. Students come to understand that workplace dilemmas are rarely black and white, but require them to think through and address competing claims and circumstances. Crucially, they also appreciate how they can, as new leaders and middle managers, improve decisions by creating realistic action plans based on sound stakeholder analysis and communication principles. These case studies are offered free of charge to all instructors.

Cases come in both long and short forms. The long cases provide instructors with tools for delving deeply into subjects related to a variety of decision making and organizational development issues. The short cases, or “minis,” are quick in-class exercises in leadership.

For both the long cases and the minis, teaching-method notes are provided, which include not only recommended in-class facilitation methods, but also grading rubrics, references, and student feedback.

Testimonials

“I have been invited to judge the Leadership Centre’s Annual Ethical Leadership National Case Competition since its inception. Each year, competitors are given a Centre’s case to analyze and present. These cases are like nothing else. They bring the student into the heart of the situation. To excel, students must not only be able to cogently argue the options, but also demonstrate how to implement a decision based on a clear-eyed stakeholder analysis and an understanding of the dynamics of change.” Anne Fawcett, Special Advisor, Caldwell Partners

“I have worked with the Ted Rogers Leadership Centre to both develop and pilot test case materials. Feedback consistently shows that the Centre’s cases resonate with students, providing them with valuable learning experiences.” Chris Gibbs, BComm, MBA, PhD, Associate Professor

"As a judge in the recent national Ted Rogers Ethical Leadership Case Competition, I was very impressed with the quality of the case study prepared by the Leadership Centre. It was brief but well-composed. It exposed the students to ethical quandaries, of the sort they may well face in their business careers. It not only tested their reasoning, but it challenged them to develop a plan of action when faced with incomplete information and imminent deadlines.” Lorne Salzman, Lawyer

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Please inform us of your experience by contacting Dr. Gail Cook Johnson, our mentor-in-residence, at [email protected] .

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Top 40 Most Popular Case Studies of 2021

Two cases about Hertz claimed top spots in 2021's Top 40 Most Popular Case Studies

Two cases on the uses of debt and equity at Hertz claimed top spots in the CRDT’s (Case Research and Development Team) 2021 top 40 review of cases.

Hertz (A) took the top spot. The case details the financial structure of the rental car company through the end of 2019. Hertz (B), which ranked third in CRDT’s list, describes the company’s struggles during the early part of the COVID pandemic and its eventual need to enter Chapter 11 bankruptcy. 

The success of the Hertz cases was unprecedented for the top 40 list. Usually, cases take a number of years to gain popularity, but the Hertz cases claimed top spots in their first year of release. Hertz (A) also became the first ‘cooked’ case to top the annual review, as all of the other winners had been web-based ‘raw’ cases.

Besides introducing students to the complicated financing required to maintain an enormous fleet of cars, the Hertz cases also expanded the diversity of case protagonists. Kathyrn Marinello was the CEO of Hertz during this period and the CFO, Jamere Jackson is black.

Sandwiched between the two Hertz cases, Coffee 2016, a perennial best seller, finished second. “Glory, Glory, Man United!” a case about an English football team’s IPO made a surprise move to number four.  Cases on search fund boards, the future of malls,  Norway’s Sovereign Wealth fund, Prodigy Finance, the Mayo Clinic, and Cadbury rounded out the top ten.

Other year-end data for 2021 showed:

• Online “raw” case usage remained steady as compared to 2020 with over 35K users from 170 countries and all 50 U.S. states interacting with 196 cases.
• Fifty four percent of raw case users came from outside the U.S..
• The Yale School of Management (SOM) case study directory pages received over 160K page views from 177 countries with approximately a third originating in India followed by the U.S. and the Philippines.
• Twenty-six of the cases in the list are raw cases.
• A third of the cases feature a woman protagonist.
• Orders for Yale SOM case studies increased by almost 50% compared to 2020.
• The top 40 cases were supervised by 19 different Yale SOM faculty members, several supervising multiple cases.

CRDT compiled the Top 40 list by combining data from its case store, Google Analytics, and other measures of interest and adoption.

All of this year’s Top 40 cases are available for purchase from the Yale Management Media store .

And the Top 40 cases studies of 2021 are:

1.   Hertz Global Holdings (A): Uses of Debt and Equity

2.   Coffee 2016

3.   Hertz Global Holdings (B): Uses of Debt and Equity 2020

4.   Glory, Glory Man United!

5.   Search Fund Company Boards: How CEOs Can Build Boards to Help Them Thrive

6.   The Future of Malls: Was Decline Inevitable?

7.   Strategy for Norway's Pension Fund Global

8.   Prodigy Finance

9.   Design at Mayo

10. Cadbury

11. City Hospital Emergency Room

13. Volkswagen

14. Marina Bay Sands

15. Shake Shack IPO

16. Mastercard

17. Netflix

18. Ant Financial

19. AXA: Creating the New CR Metrics

20. IBM Corporate Service Corps

21. Business Leadership in South Africa's 1994 Reforms

22. Alternative Meat Industry

23. Children's Premier

24. Khalil Tawil and Umi (A)

25. Palm Oil 2016

26. Teach For All: Designing a Global Network

27. What's Next? Search Fund Entrepreneurs Reflect on Life After Exit

28. Searching for a Search Fund Structure: A Student Takes a Tour of Various Options

30. Project Sammaan

31. Commonfund ESG

32. Polaroid

33. Connecticut Green Bank 2018: After the Raid

34. FieldFresh Foods

35. The Alibaba Group

36. 360 State Street: Real Options

37. Herman Miller

38. AgBiome

39. Nathan Cummings Foundation

40. Toyota 2010

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Case studies.

The teaching business case studies available here are narratives that facilitate class discussion about a particular business or management issue. Teaching cases are meant to spur debate among students rather than promote a particular point of view or steer students in a specific direction.  Some of the case studies in this collection highlight the decision-making process in a business or management setting. Other cases are descriptive or demonstrative in nature, showcasing something that has happened or is happening in a particular business or management environment. Whether decision-based or demonstrative, case studies give students the chance to be in the shoes of a protagonist. With the help of context and detailed data, students can analyze what they would and would not do in a particular situation, why, and how.

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Case Study Application of an Ethical Decision-Making Process for a Fragility Hip Fracture Patient

In Canada, up to 32,000 older adults experience a fragility hip fracture. In Ontario, the Ministry of Health and Long Term Care has implemented strategies to reduce surgical wait times and improve outcomes in target areas. These best practice standards advocate for immediate surgical repair, within 48 hours of admission, in order to achieve optimal recovery outcomes. The majority of patients are good candidates for surgical repair; however, for some patients, given the risks of anesthetic and trauma of the operative procedure, surgery may not be the best choice. Patients and families face a difficult and hurried decision, often with no time to voice their concerns, or with little-to-no information on which to guide their choice. Similarly, health-care providers may experience moral distress or hesitancy to articulate other options, such as palliative care. Is every fragility fracture a candidate for surgery, no matter what the outcome? When is it right to discuss other options with the patient? This article examines a case study via an application of a framework for ethical decision-making.

INTRODUCTION

Every year, over 30,000 Canadian older adults experience a fragility hip fracture. The Ministry of Health and Long Term Care of Ontario has promoted best practice recommendations which advocate for immediate surgical repair, within 48 hours of admission, in order to achieve optimal recovery outcomes. ( 1 , 2 ) The majority of patients are good candidates for surgical repair; however, given the risks of anesthetic and trauma of the operative procedure, surgery may not be the best choice for all. The patients at higher risk of poor outcomes perioperatively deserve the opportunity to explore options and articulate their values. Unfortunately, as a short pre-operative interval predicts the best outcomes, patients and families face a difficult and hurried decision, potentially with limited time to voice their concerns, and little to no information on which to guide their decision.

From a systems perspective, quality of care and health outcomes have not always incorporated the patient-centred perspective. ( 3 ) Patient-centred care is “a moral concept and philosophy, considering it to be the right thing to do when designing and delivering respectful, humane, and ethical care”. ( 4 , 5 ) Patients and families have reported in the past that they feel left out of crucial conversations and decisions surrounding care, ( 6 ) and that relevant information is not always provided. ( 7 )

To better understand the underlying ethical complexities which arise from critical decisions in the acute care setting, this paper will examine a case study to demonstrate application of the Corey et al . ( 8 ) 8-step framework (see Appendix A ) for ethical decision-making.

Ms. Jones is 93 years old and lives in a Long Term Care residence. She was admitted to hospital with a fragility hip fracture after being found on the floor in the middle of the night. Ms. Jones has dementia and is unable to make her own decisions. She has limited mobility, previously used a walker. Her two daughters are at her bedside. They state her health has been declining over the last few weeks, with increasing confusion and she now rarely leaves her room.

On admission, the team discovered a pleural effusion, taking up much of her right lung. Her pre-operative assessment also revealed a heart murmur; the resulting echocardiogram demonstrated a heart in very poor condition, with significant valve issues. Between her cardiac and pulmonary function, the surgery poses an increased risk of perioperative complications—she may never survive the surgery, or come off of the ventilator once she is intubated.

Interprofessional teams (surgery, anesthesia, nursing) are of differing opinions. The issue at hand is very difficult. The family is informed that the risk of not having surgery will likely result in death, yet in this patient’s case, proceeding with surgery carries its own risk. The family is left with an hour to think things over. Should they pursue the palliative care route or proceed with surgery?

Step 1. Identify the Problem or Dilemma

In our case study, 93 year old Ms. Jones is admitted to hospital with a fragility hip fracture. As a first step, we must recognize that there is actually an ethical dilemma; in this case, the dilemma is whether the patient should proceed with surgery or not, given her underlying medical conditions and potential for perioperative complications. We also need to acknowledge that there is an underlying assumption from all involved (staff, Ms. Jones’ family) that surgery will occur, and that health-care providers (HCPs) may not clearly articulate the option of ‘no surgical intervention’. The stakeholders who are required to proceed through the decision-making process include the patient and family, the surgical team, anesthesia, nursing staff, social work, and potentially the palliative care team and bioethics team.

Step 2. Identify the Potential Issues Involved

There are several assumptions made when a patient presents to the hospital with a fragility hip fracture: a) the fracture will be repaired; b) the patient will recover; and c) the patient will eventually go home or to rehabilitation. With a critically ill, frail, and/or previously compromised patient, this standard trajectory should be questioned. Barry and Edgman-Levitan ( 9 ) promote an ideology of patient-centredness, with the argument that an intervention should only be considered standard if there is ‘virtual unanimity amongst patients about the overall desirability… of the outcomes’.

The first potential issue is the ‘standard’ intervention of surgical repair—the assumption to proceed with the surgery, as directed by best practice recommendations. Is this standard intervention appropriate in all patients with a fragility hip fracture? A second potential issue arises with the patient and their family—the presumption that the acute medical issue will be resolved and the patient will eventually return home. Given her underlying health, this concept is in jeopardy. To add to the complexity, Ms. Jones is likely not able to articulate her wishes and values, as she has dementia. Finally, there is the potential issue of moral distress experienced by health-care providers (HCPs) who feel uncomfortable with the expectant surgical trajectory of this patient, and may feel they are not empowered to advocate for the wishes of the patient.

As health-care professionals, we are guided by moral principles in our decision-making process, namely, autonomy, non-malfeasance, beneficence, justice, fidelity, and veracity. ( 10 ) A focused examination and application of the principles to the case study will help to support potential resolutions for the identified issues.

The spirit of ‘patient-centred care’ endorses that patients should be involved at their level of choice to make an autonomous decision. ( 11 ) However, it is important to recognize that no decision is made in isolation. ( 12 ) The decision at hand is not a simple or straightforward one; literature demonstrates that patients and families have a difficult time with making decisions at time of a critical illness, identifying fear, worthlessness, and a lack of autonomy within the hospital system. ( 7 ) Differing levels of patient and family participation requires an individualized approach to convey meaningful, accurate, and timely information. ( 8 ) Older adult patients tend to take a ‘non-participative’ stance in their care. They often have limited participation in the process for decision-making for a variety of reasons, thereby increasing the risk of their inability to understand or find value within the end decision. ( 6 , 7 , 13 )

Non-malfeasance

Hospitalization can cause the patient to experience “needless mental and physical suffering” ( 14 ) in any number of ways (i.e., pain, waiting for surgery, uncertainty of outcomes, patient/family relationship stress). Evidence indicates that the number of different HCPs involved causes immense anxiety to the family, especially when they do not hear the same message from all members of the team. ( 13 , 15 ) HCPs must ensure that they are not withholding information, or are untruthful as to the options in order to expedite a decision. A study by Ekdahl, Andersson, and Friedrichsen ( 13 ) found that physicians perceive they are ‘too short’ of time for patients to participate in the decision making process, that decisions were ‘too complex’ and ‘time consuming’ to fit into the schedule. Ekdahl et al. ( 13 ) also found that physicians feel frustration with the ‘health-care production machine’, especially in those older adult patients with multiple co-morbidities.

Beneficence

Beneficence promotes wellbeing; or is an action that is carried out to benefit another. ( 8 ) The hospitalization ‘process’ promotes assessment of a patient, treatment of the illness, followed by a physical approach to recovery (allowing recovery to be measured against specific milestones), and discharge in a timely manner. ( 15 , 16 ) This ‘process’ may promote beneficence in an overarching global perspective of the system; however, on an individual level, it often falls short. On an individual level, key actions that have been found to be beneficial and meaningful are open communication and sharing of information. ( 6 , 7 , 14 , 17 )

“Practitioners have a responsibility to provide appropriate services to all clients”. ( 8 ) Older adult patients may not receive information about options available, especially if the HCPs feel that it would take too much time to thoroughly explain, or if HCPs assume that patients are too ill to participate in the decision-making process, ( 13 ) or if the assumption is made that all patients want to proceed with surgery. Focusing on each older adult’s individual health goals is time-consuming—in this case, the patient has dementia, and a family meeting would be required. The concept of patient-centred care revolves around patient and HCP partnerships, yet older adult patients face unique problems with hospitalization—a slower communication process, a decreased level of functioning, and a degree of family involvement. ( 14 ) Can we provide this type of relationship and communication effort equally for every patient? Or only for those patients who may be at higher risk of negative outcomes?

Fidelity and Veracity

Fidelity involves fulfilling ones’ professional roles, creating a trusting relationship, and veracity ensures that we are truthful and honest to the patients. How do we ensure that as a HCP we are providing an unbiased opinion? Do we take the same amount of time to present patients with the option of conservative, non-surgical treatment, including palliative care, as we take to advocate for surgery? The HCP team assumes that patients will commit to surgery; however, a patient often displays a suboptimal understanding of the risks and benefits of surgery. ( 18 ) Similarly, there is the very real risk of bias towards an argument of palliative care in those frail patients or those with dementia. HCPs must return to the voice of the patient through their family, to understand that patients’ identity, their meaning of life, and desired goals which emphasize the patients’ dignity. ( 12 )

It is important to acknowledge assumptions that the patient and family may have made upon admission to hospital—that surgery will occur and the patient will recover. Have we presented the patient and their family with as much information as they need to make a decision in a clear format (without medical jargon)? In addition to understanding risks of surgery, it is paramount that the family understands the non-surgical option may result in death or decreased function (if any functional ability returns). It is in an acute situation such as this that families require truthful and open communication with physicians, nurses, and other members of the health-care team. ( 11 )

Self Care (HCPs)

Can we consistently provide care that prioritizes a patient’s values? HCPs are not always able to preserve all of the values and interests at stake. ( 19 ) We know that the most common cause of moral distress in nursing is prolonged, aggressive treatment which we do not believe will be likely to have a positive outcome. ( 20 ) As a HCP, we must look to root causes operating within the larger system, to prevent and/or respond to feelings of moral distress. ( 19 )

From a systems perspective, does the hospital provide an avenue for exploration of patient values within a timely fashion? Is there a framework in place to enhance the HCP’s understanding of moral distress and provide strategies for coping with situations such as these (i.e., an opportunity for a team debriefing with the entire team, or opportunities for learning how to deal with situations that may cause moral distress)?

Step 3. Review the Relevant Ethics Codes

The philosophy of patient-centred care within the hospital encourages active listening, respect, and an attempt to understand individuals. The Canadian Medical Association (CMA) supports “practicing the profession of medicine in a manner that treats the patient with dignity and as a person worthy of respect”. ( 21 ) The College of Nurses of Ontario (CNO) supports the view that nurses “must use the client’s views as a starting point”. ( 22 ) Across all HCPs is the similarity of the need to listen, understand, support, and advocate for a respect of patients’ values with the expected course of treatment.

The importance of collaboration with the patient and respecting a patient’s values are highlighted within similar statements: ”…it is the patient who ultimately must make informed choices about the care he or she will receive”. ( 21 )

Step 4. Know the Applicable Laws and Regulations

In Ontario, legislation and common law require that the wishes of patients or substitute decision-makers be respected. ( 22 ) However, in many systems, health care is not truly patient-centred; rather, patients are required to adapt to the system. ( 11 ) A number of initiatives have been undertaken in the last few years in an attempt to improve the focus of patient-centredness, with the principle assertion that patients should be involved at the level of their choice. ( 11 )

Step 5. Obtain Consultation

It is important to realize that we bring our own biases to the decision-making process, making it difficult to view the current patient/family’s situation objectively. As an individual HCP, our previous experiences will have an impact on the messaging that we provide. From a systems perspective, we are likely to pose a ‘knowledge’ bias towards meeting treatment based outcomes—for example, surgery within 48 hours, immediate post-operative mobility, and the expected length of stay for this type of patient.

Inter-disciplinary consultations with patients and their families ensure review of unbiased information about the risks and benefits of proceeding with surgery, allowing for a fully informed decision. In addition to discussing the operative plan with the surgical team, there is an opportunity to provide Ms. Jones’ family with other options that may be available to her. Consultation with extended family members, clergy, social workers, or an ethics team may help the family to reflect on the patient values; what this illness means to them as a family unit, and how best to proceed. A discussion with palliative care may help the family to better understand what symptom management consists of for their mother. Social work may also be able help explore community services available to the family in this situation—for example, is the patient able to return to home with the future of wheelchair dependence? Are there any other options which may be available to this patient and her family that were not originally considered? How do we, as HCPs, ensure that the family is afforded the opportunity to obtain all the necessary information from differing disciplines to make an informed choice?

Step 6. Consider Possible and Probable Courses of Action

In order to fully understand the options, it is helpful to outline all the possible and probable courses of action that are open to Ms. Jones and her family.

• Surgical team offers a ‘purposeful pause’ to discover Ms. Jones’ core values; to discuss the consequences of a) delaying surgery, b) proceeding with surgery, and c) the non-surgical intervention. From an ethical and legal perspective, this may meet the concept of patient-centred care, but does not likely provide the patient and her family with all the information they need to make an informed choice. They may have more questions that the surgical team may not be able to answer, or they may request more time to consider. Additionally, the patient and her family would still be expected to adapt to the system in place in order to make a decision within the proposed wait time frame (admission to surgery less than 48 hours).
• Advocate for a family meeting with the primary nurse, social work, palliative care team, clergy, internal medicine, in addition to the surgical (surgeon, anesthesia) team, to fully explore both options, and to explore what the ‘non-surgical’ option would mean. From a legal and ethical perspective this embodies the concept of patient-centred care, with as many members of the health-care team at the table to help Ms. Jones’ family fully explore their options.
• Apply the current standard of care recommendations to Ms. Jones’ situation, without consideration of the patient’s needs, values, or preferences. From an ethical and legal perspective, this approach does not represent patient-centred care.

Step 7. Enumerate the Consequences of Various Decisions

With the first option, the surgical team takes a ‘purposeful pause’ to discover the patient’s core values and discusses pros and cons of a surgical intervention. Often, this may be most ‘efficient’ way to deal with the situation at hand. It may also be the preference of the patient; some patients have reported that they value this limited level of involvement—“I get a description of what is going to happen”. ( 13 ) As a consequence, there will be a number of patients who will want to have a greater sense of involvement other than a simple description of planned events. The first option does recognize the principle of autonomy, but does not follow the principle of justice; practitioners have the responsibility to provide information about other options which may be available. The principles of beneficence and non-maleficence are not completely met, as the team approaches the solution primarily to benefit the system (i.e., efficiency). The principles of fidelity and veracity are also partially met, as the surgical team provides an honest perspective, although it may be biased towards proceeding with surgery.

The second option, offering the patient and her family a meeting with all stakeholders, strongly aligns with the fidelity and veracity principles. The information offered is truthful and complete, and is in Ms. Jones’ best interest, as it attempts to discover her values that will affect the family’s final decision. Principles of beneficence and autonomy would be met with patient empowerment through information sharing, and secondly, by allowing the patient and family to arrive at their own decision with that information. As a consequence, taking the time to arrange for a family meeting with all stakeholders may not be possible for all patients, and the principles of justice and non-maleficence are brought to the forefront for future patients. A potential consequence could be harm to the patient, as the time it takes to arrange a meeting could push the time to surgery beyond the recommended 48 hours post-admission, placing the patient at greater risk of negative post-operative outcomes.

The third option is one of passive action, with a lack of communication and recognition of patient-centred care values. Ms. Jones would be placed on the operating room list, and the surgical repair will occur. Consent must legally be obtained for the surgery; however, the family may not think of key questions to ask that may be relevant in this situation. The onus remains on the HCP to provide a full explanation of all options to the family. The only benefit would be to the system, as the procedure will be carried out in a timely manner. Ms. Jones may benefit from the surgery; we cannot assume that surgery is a negative option. As a consequence of this option, HCPs do not explore patient values, and this option is against almost all of the ethical principles. Additionally, this option is likely to cause the highest moral distress amongst staff, as they are unable to meet the unique needs of Ms. Jones and her family.

Step 8. Choose what Appears to be the Best Course of Action

Virtue ethics asks us if we are doing the best action for our patients, and compels us to be conscious of our behaviours. ( 8 ) We need to take the necessary time to discover the patient’s values within the unique situation they are now experiencing. Simply stated, we need to remember that they are a person, with feelings, emotions, past experiences, future hopes/plans, and usually an element of fear and anxiety. The goal is to work with Ms. Jones and her family to decide together on the current care plan and the best plan for action (or inaction), a plan that truly aligns with the patient’s values.

From an ethical perspective, the best course of action is to hold a family meeting with all stakeholders to discover Ms. Jones’ values about a meaningful life and a meaningful death, and come to a consensus as to what the right decision is for this patient. ( 12 ) The team must ensure that the patient and the family have all the necessary tools in which to make this decision. Have we provided them with all the information required? Do they understand the information? Do they understand the consequences of their decision? From a systems perspective, we need to continue to strive towards engaging patients and family members more fully and consistently in care and decision-making processes. ( 6 ) Dissemination of lessons learned from assisting patients and families through difficult decision-making may be helpful to other health-care teams experiencing similar moral conflicts.

As a next step, the HCP team may consider development of an educational reference for future patients to assist with similar decisions, including promotion of an advanced care plan to help communicate goals and concerns to HCPs. ( 12 , 18 ) Additionally, decision aids, such as videos and brochures, can help deliver information to patients and their families. ( 9 ) The use of readily available technology, such as iPads and cellphones, means that families are better able to access these materials at any time of day. A recent Cochrane Review demonstrated that, in comparison to usual care, decision aids can increase knowledge, resulting in a higher proportion of patients choosing the option which most aligns with their values. ( 23 ) Providing patients with information that outlines potential options with risks and benefits clearly explained can also meet many of the ethical principles that are to be considered with ethical decision-making.

The in-depth review of the case study has helped us to examine the underlying issues that come into play when helping this patient and her family to make a critical decision. Although each patient is an individual, literature tells us that many perceive the concept of patient-centredness to represent an ‘involvement in their care’. The level of involvement may vary from person to person, but all patients want the care they receive to reflect their values and preferences, and to make them feel that they have been treated as a whole person. ( 24 )

Clinicians also like to believe that they deliver patient-centred care, yet the characterization of the concept will vary with the health-care provider, their relationship with the patient, and the circumstances surrounding the admission to hospital. Recognizing that there is potential for an ethical dilemma when patients present with a critical illness is important to ensure that we continue to act upon the key concept of understanding a patients’ values and proceeding to align provision of care with those values.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to acknowledge Dr. Tracy Trothen (Queen’s University) for her time and expertise as a ‘practical ethicist’.

Appendix AFramework for Ethical Decision-Making (Corey et al ., 2014)

• Identify the problem or dilemma
• Identify the potential issues involved
• Review the relevant ethics codes
• Know the applicable laws and regulations
• Obtain consultation
• Consider possible and probable courses of action
• Enumerate the consequences of various decisions
• Choose what appears to be the best course of action

CONFLICT OF INTEREST DISCLOSURES

The author declares that no conflicts of interest exist.

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Strategic Decision Making – A Case Study

Michael w. jones.

Dr. Michael W. Jones is a Professor of Strategy and Policy with the United States Naval War College in Monterey, California.  His specialty is the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars; however, for the past twenty years he has researched and written on a wide array of conflicts; examining them through the political, grand strategic, strategic, and operational levels of warfare.

Throughout history, professional military officers have studied the past to learn strategic planning and decision making. While history remains the best means to study strategy, it is problematic due to imperfect knowledge of actual events and personal biases infecting hindsight. If these are some of the problems, what are solutions to using history in a more effective manner as a tool to sharpen strategic thinking? This paper examines how practitioners can develop strategy by demonstrating a methodology for constructing alternate courses of action in a historical case study. Studying options, using information known at the time and that could have been gleaned with a greater investment in intelligence, is one of the building blocks to developing a strategically analytical mind. Gaming-out options starts with identifying the enemy’s most likely and most dangerous strategic course of action. From this point one can develop a theory of victory (TOV), meaning a concept of what conditions are necessary to defeat the enemy’s strategy, such as gaining command of the sea or winning a decisive land battle. With a theory of victory, one can then develop an overall strategy, effectively a blueprint, to accomplish it. The strategy is then honed by comparison to the enemy’s most likely response. This analysis results in alternate courses of action that are in turn honed until the most efficient and effective strategy to achieve the policy objective has been determined. The goal is to implement a history-driven process that can be carried forward to developing future strategic contingencies.

The 1904-05 Russo-Japanese War serves as our model because its historical record provides clear data of the belligerents’ policy objectives, orders of battle, their internal political structure, the geostrategic landscape, the theater’s infrastructure, and clear geographical features that dictated Japan’s lines of attack. Simplifying the exercise is that this war was a limited conventional struggle between two great powers with little to no interference by allied or third-party nations. Furthermore, the belligerents foresaw a military confrontation well before the first shots and had time to develop and resource a chosen strategy. Due to limitations of space this paper will be confined to an overview of five Russian strategic options.

Nine months prior to the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War, General Alexiev Kuropatkin, Russia’s Minister of War, toured the Far East and predicted a Japanese attack. The Russian Imperial Navy had also anticipated war with Japan and gone so far as conducting war games to assess the likelihood of victory.[i] Their foresight provides the temporal starting point to examining Russian strategic options to counter a possible Japanese offensive.

The question is: how does one build strategic options? Following Sun Tzu’s prescription to “know thyself and thy enemy” and Carl von Clausewitz’s admonition that policy is the primary determinate of the nature of war, the Russians first needed to discern Japan’s policy objective. By knowing what they sought to gain from the war, Russian leaders could then determine Japan’s optimal TOV and thereafter their strategy. Russian planners could have further dissected this strategy’s operational components, discerning Japan’s course of action by determining the strategic end state and logically discerning how the Japanese military would arrive at it. From this point, Kuropatkin could then develop Russia’s optimal strategic counter. The methodology worked in the following manner. Prior to Japan’s surprise attack on the Russian fleet based at Port Arthur (now Lushan, China), the Japanese government had publicly opposed Russian encroachment into the Korean peninsula and Manchuria. In the case of war the obvious Japanese policy would be to drive the Russian government and military permanently out of these regions and supplant their authority. Defeating Russian forces in Manchuria was their only means to accomplish the policy. This strategic end state required control of the sea to project the army ashore and then secure a land victory to break Russia’s will. Owing to Russia’s drastically larger manpower and financial resources, the Japanese recognized the need for a relatively short war that only decisive battles could deliver. Japan’s most likely strategic course of action informs analysis of Russia’s options to counter it and achieve its policy objective of retaining control of Manchuria and increasing influence in the Far East.

Strategic Naval Option 1: Decisive Naval Battle

The United States’ legendary naval theorist, Alfred Thayer Mahan, argued that Russia’s best option was to prepare for and execute a decisive naval battle using the seven battleships of its Pacific Squadron. Arguably the Russians had critical advantages over the Japanese at sea. Overall, Russia possessed a much larger fleet and if properly concentrated, as Mahan advocated, it could have traded ships with Japan and still won the war. If Russia was victorious at sea, Japan could not have landed on the Asian mainland, hence Russia would have retained Manchuria and achieved a quick, decisive victory! Because Japan could only win the war on land, Russia had the advantage of being able to risk its fleet and if defeated, fall back on the army to deny the Japanese their objective.

The key to adopting Mahan’s strategy was immediate action the moment Kuropatkin realized war was to occur in the near future. First, the Russians should have appointed their best admiral, the dynamic, charismatic and already internationally renowned Vice-Admiral Ossipovitch Makarov, to command the Russian Pacific Squadron at Port Arthur. The history of the war revealed what Russian leaders already knew of Makarov’s capabilities. In one month of command, before his ship, the Petropavlosk , struck a mine and carried him down with it, he drastically improved the sailors’ seamanship, gunnery, and morale to an extent that the Russian Pacific Squadron could challenge the Japanese navy on an equal footing. Second, Kuropatkin should have ordered and resourced a naval “intelligence preparation of the battlefield” (IPB) of the Japanese navy’s order of battle and capabilities to identify his own navy’s requirements. To win control of the sea, Russia needed overwhelming superiority of battleships, a problem Russia could have been rectified with ships idling in European waters. A reinforced fleet, with Makarov at the helm, would have been fully capable of winning decisively at sea. Seeking out the Japanese fleet for a decisive battle would have been relatively easy, because it was bound to protecting the army coming ashore. Makarov could have struck immediately after Japan fired the first shots or waited until a substantial force had come ashore and then destroyed the Japanese warships, leaving a significant portion of the army stranded in Korea. Kuropatkin’s strategic, operational, and tactical naval options would have abounded with proper preparation, which Russia was wholly capable of doing because they foresaw the coming war, possessed the world’s third largest navy, and were blessed with an excellent fighting admiral.

Strategic Naval Option 2: Commerce Raiding

If the Russians had deemed decisive naval battle too risky, a secondary naval option would have been a commerce war. Japan was particularly vulnerable to this strategic option due to its relatively small merchant marine, the refusal of neutral vessels to carry Japanese war materials, and the reality of its navy having to guard against the possibility of a Russian fleet sortie from Port Arthur. Mahan rightly assessed that Russia’s flawed disposition of its commerce raiding cruisers, deployed alongside the battleships based at Port Arthur, rather than dispersed to unguarded Vladivostok, meant it was unprepared to seize opportunity after Japan attacked. Implementing this strategy, though, would have required forethought beyond what Mahan discusses. As with the prior strategy, European based cruisers should have been shifted to Vladivostok in the ten months prior to war to have made this a viable option. Makarov could have conducted exercises, identified his ablest commanders, and used the naval IPB to discern the best operational approaches to this strategic option. Russia did none of these preparations and found itself with ad hoc commerce raiding operations which proved a dedicated strategy of this nature had much potential to change the course of the war, if it had been properly planned for and resourced. For example, three Russian cruisers sank Japanese transports carrying critical war materials such as siege guns for Port Arthur and American made locomotives Japan needed to project its army into Manchuria. Some analysts concluded that loss of the siege guns alone delayed Port Arthur’s fall by months and drastically increased casualties. With proper coordination, the Russian battleships of the Russian Pacific Squadron could have threatened the Japanese army’s sea lines of communication on the western flank of the Korean peninsula to pin Japan’s limited naval forces. If the Japanese navy hunted the commerce raiders they would have exposed the army to a sortie from the main Russian fleet. To leave the raiders unmolested could have crippled the lifeline to Japan, rendering the Japanese forces already ashore vulnerable to a Russian army riposte. Once again, Russia’s failure to explore strategic options before the war left it unprepared in another strategic dimension. Japan was able overcome Russia’s deadly commerce raiders because they were so few and the lethargy of the Russian Pacific Squadron after Makarov’s death allowed them to eventually dispatch naval forces to find and sink the Russian cruisers.

Strategic Land Option 1: Trade Space for Time + Eventual Decisive Battle

Irrespective of the naval options, Russia could have analyzed three land strategies. Kuropatkin’s chosen strategy was a limited withdrawal along the Russian line of communication – the South Manchurian Railway – to await reinforcements before shifting to the strategic offensive. Kuropatkin assessed that in the initial months of the war, Japanese forces outnumbered his men in theater; therefore, he would gain time and preserve his army’s strength by the classic method of trading space. Time would allow Russian engineers and laborers to improve the Trans-Siberian railway, Asiatic Russia’s lifeline to its European counterpart. This strategy necessitated withdrawal of all Russian forces in southern Manchuria to the city of Liaoyang, roughly 120 miles from the Yalu River. The merit of Kuropatkin’s strategy was that it accomplished his goal of buying time to increase Russian numbers over the Japanese. At the Battle of Liaoyang, the Russians possessed 158,000 soldiers and 609 guns against 125,000 Japanese and 170 guns.[ii] Yet the Russian army was defeated at this potentially decisive battle and the subsequent larger engagement at Mukden because it was an untested and poorly trained force, led by a commander who conceded every strategic, operational, and tactical initiative to his opponent!

What Kuropatkin had gained in time and men in his wholesale retreat, he lost in infrastructure (ports and railroads), key terrain (landing sites, mountain passes, and choke points), and opportunities to hone the army’s operational and tactical skill. Retreating into southern Manchuria left all amphibious landing zones throughout Korea and the Liaotung Peninsula undefended. After the Japanese came ashore they found almost every avenue of approach to Dalny, a commercial port and the most significant logistical hub of the entire war, open, with the limited exception of one regiment at Nanshan, where the Liaotung Peninsula narrows to its most defendable point. While the small Russian force fought a heroic defense, it was outnumbered 10:1. Kuropatkin had left Port Arthur’s garrison to defend itself and simply abandoned Dalny, potentially dooming the Russian Pacific Squadron. Perhaps the worst effect of Kuropatkin’s strategy was that the token resistance he did offer was fodder for Japanese victories. Russian battlefield defeats boosted Japan’s international standing, allowing it to float critical loans, unify its people, and devastate Russian morale on the home front, eventually culminating in revolution.

Strategic Land Option 2: Scorched Earth + Trade Space for Time + Eventual Decisive Battle

Assessing his army as initially too weak to fight a decisive battle, Kuropatkin could have moved his forces deeper into Manchuria, beyond Japan’s logistical reach, while destroying all infrastructure in southern Manchuria. Planning for this strategic option would have included sending the Pacific Squadron back to Europe to preserve this valuable asset and avoiding the disastrous effects on Russian morale stemming from its loss. With no fear of abandoning the fleet, Kuropatkin would have possessed a free hand to withdraw the army and destroy war resources without immense political pressure to hold ground. A scorched earth methodology would have destroyed infrastructure Japan required to project its army into southern Manchuria. For example, after capturing Dalny, Japanese General Yasukata Oku reported, “Over 100 warehouses, barracks…were found uninjured. Over 290 railway cars still usable…. Docks and piers uninjured.”[iii] Ashmead-Bartlett Ellis, a British reporter, confirmed Dalny’s value to the Japanese war effort, reporting “Every day numerous trains steam out of the station laden with troops and stores for Oyama (Field-Marshall Iwao Oyama) and his half-a-million of men.” Ellis went on to describe the docks, harbor, and breakwaters as “splendid.”[iv] Furthermore, Dalny’s rail line connected it to Port Arthur and to the South Manchurian Railroad which ran through the towns of Liaoyang and Mukden, sites of the war’s two largest battles. In his memoirs, Kuropatkin would inadvertently incriminate himself regarding leaving the infrastructure intact referencing, “the delivery of heavy howitzers [that destroyed Russian defenses] and the landing of other siege material was greatly facilitated by the existence of Dalny.”[v] Japan’s use of Dalny as a logistical hub illustrates that a scorched-earth methodology would have increased Japan’s war costs and drawn-out the war in Russia’s favor.

If the Russian army had been safely beyond Japan’s reach, Kuropatkin could have improved the Trans-Siberian Railroad while training and equipping his force for a counteroffensive. A primary factor in Japan’s preemptive strike was the recognition that steady improvements in the Trans-Siberian railroad would eventually permit Russia to deploy a force that could overwhelm their manpower and resources. At the outset of the war, the Trans-Siberian Railroad lacked 600 of the necessary 900 locomotives deemed sufficient to sustain a massive force. It had a large gap at Lake Baikal and was single tracked. Through prodigious effort, the Russian supply situation had drastically improved by March of 1905; however, by this stage Kuropatkin’s many defeats had helped spark revolt in European Russia and the army was a demoralized force.[vi] Avoiding costly human losses and husbanding material and manpower until the railroad was prepared to sustain a large army, would have allowed the Russians a transition to the offensive with overwhelming force against a foe attempting to sustain hundreds of thousands of men across too much desolated space, with its manpower and finances exhausted by a long war.

Strategic Land Option 3: Active Forward Defense + Eventual Decisive Battle

Perhaps the most daring, yet rewarding, land option would have been for Russia to conduct an active defense based on defending against Japanese amphibious landings, and waging a fighting withdrawal until reinforcements arrived from Europe to tip the military balance toward a strategic offensive. Preventing the Japanese from coming ashore in sizeable numbers would have preserved Manchuria’s infrastructure, saved the battleship fleet at Port Arthur, and provided Kuropatkin’s forces with all the advantages of the central position. Denying the Japanese easy and early victories would have bolstered the army’s morale and skill, dried up Japanese war loans, and perhaps forestalled the Russian Revolution of 1905, which denied it the option of extending the war.

In the first two months of the war, the Japanese offensive was most vulnerable because it had to conduct a risky series of complimentary amphibious operations. The Japanese First Army initially landed in central Korea, distant from Russian counterattacks, then marched north along dirt tracks, with only Korean coolies providing logistical support. These initial troops seized inlets that allowed the navy to keep advancing the army’s logistical base closer to the Yalu River, at the base of the Liaotung Peninsula. Victory at the Yalu would protect the eastern flank of the Second and Fourth Armies as they came ashore at beaches near Dalny and Port Arthur. If the Russians had contested northern Korea and defended the Yalu River, rather than Kuropatkin’s pitting of a mere 19,000 men against 42,000 Japanese, the Russians could have stalled the entire Japanese offensive, making time a weapon in their favor.

This Russian strategic option would have rested on a combination of prepared forward defenses supported by quick reaction forces (QRF). First, Russian intelligence needed to conduct an IPB of the Korean and Liaotung Peninsula’s topography to determine landing sites, lines of communications, and advantageous defensive terrain. Defending the beaches with a combination of garrison forces and QRFs would have drastically increased Japanese casualties and potentially slowed their advance along the Korean Peninsula to a crawl. On almost every beach the Japanese army was exposed coming ashore. For example, the Japanese Second Army landed in chest high water and had to wade ashore, across a long and vulnerable stretch. Their equipment continued to be offloaded on sandy beaches until the Japanese captured Dalny. If the Russians had opted to defend against amphibious landings, they may have been able to inflict a disaster similar to the British army’s debacle in World War I at Gallipoli. If driven back, the Russians could have fought from a belt of defensive positions to bleed the Japanese army and extend the war, thereby draining Japanese financial resources and exhausting their nation. The Russian army was fully capable of such a defense as it proved at the Battle of Nanshan and the siege of Port Arthur. Drastically outnumbered in both operations, the Russian defenders inflicted massive casualties on the Japanese. What would have been the strategic ramifications of such battles being fought before the Japanese had time to offload their entire army onto the continent and were bottled up on beachheads and narrow lines of communication, all the while Russian reinforcements poured in from Europe to seek the final decisive blow?

For military leaders, prognosticating a future war and predetermining strategy is extremely difficult, but if correctly anticipated, such insights provide opportunity to analyze, plan, resource, and even war game scenarios. In the 1930s, the United States Navy anticipated a naval battle similar to Midway, allowing its students, in particular Chester Nimitz, to study options to defeat the Japanese. This exercise bore fruit in perhaps America’s greatest naval victory. The Navy could not be certain of the future, but the evidence they observed allowed them to visualize realistic scenarios which were the basis of planning. Similar to Nimitz, Kuropatkin also foresaw war but unlike America’s great admiral he failed to subject his strategy to productive counter-thesis. While some may decry analyzing alternative historical strategies as smoke and mirrors, mentally exercising options not taken in the past helps develop critical skills applicable to future wars. A great challenge in the historical method is that historians tend to write on the paths taken, not hypothetical alternatives. And since historical information is the intellectual fuel for analyzing war, one must cobble together evidence and use logic to develop plausible alternatives. This methodology is hard for many analysts to internalize. How can one use strategies that did not take place? Fortunately, the Russo-Japanese War provides ample information to study a range of strategic options. Starting with the belligerents’ policy objectives and working through net assessments, strategic options begin to coalesce. In the Russo-Japanese War Kuropatkin possessed the resources to defeat Japan’s military, but he lacked a means to analyze the best strategic course of action.

[i] John W. Steinberg, Bruce W. Menning, David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, David Wolff, and Shinji Yokote, eds., The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective (Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, 2005), 59. [ii] Warner, Denis and Peggy, The Tide at Sunrise, A History of the Russo-Japanese War 1904-05, (London: Frank Cass, 1974), 354. [iii] Ashmead-Bartlett Ellis, “The Times” 04 Jun 1904, Issue Number 37412, 7. https://bit.ly/2Qgjdhk [iv] Ibid, 9-11. [v] Kuropatkin, Alexiev. 1909. The Russian Army and The Japanese War, Being Historical and Critical comments on the Military Policy and Power of Russia and on the Campaign in the Far East. Translated by Captain A.B. Lindsay. Edited by Major E.D. Swinton, vol 1. New York: E.P. Dutton and Company, 1909, 127. Kuropatkin blamed other ministers for building Dalny’s infrastructure which he neglected to defend and/or destroy!

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What is decision making?

Decisions, decisions. When was the last time you struggled with a choice? Maybe it was this morning, when you decided to hit the snooze button—again. Perhaps it was at a restaurant, with a miles-long menu and the server standing over you. Or maybe it was when you left your closet in a shambles after trying on seven different outfits before a big presentation. Often, making a decision—even a seemingly simple one—can be difficult. And people will go to great lengths—and pay serious sums of money—to avoid having to make a choice. The expensive tasting menu at the restaurant, for example. Or limiting your closet choices to black turtlenecks, à la Steve Jobs.

Get to know and directly engage with senior McKinsey experts on decision making

Aaron De Smet is a senior partner in McKinsey’s New Jersey office, Eileen Kelly Rinaudo  is McKinsey’s global director of advancing women executives and is based in the New York office, Frithjof Lund is a senior partner in the Oslo office, and Leigh Weiss is a senior adviser in the Boston office.

If you’ve ever wrestled with a decision at work, you’re definitely not alone. According to McKinsey research, executives spend a significant portion of their time— nearly 40 percent , on average—making decisions. Worse, they believe most of that time is poorly used. People struggle with decisions so much so that we actually get exhausted from having to decide too much, a phenomenon called decision fatigue.

But decision fatigue isn’t the only cost of ineffective decision making. According to a McKinsey survey of more than 1,200 global business leaders, inefficient decision making costs a typical Fortune 500 company 530,000 days  of managers’ time each year, equivalent to about $250 million in annual wages. That’s a lot of turtlenecks.

How can business leaders ease the burden of decision making and put this time and money to better use? Read on to learn the ins and outs of smart decision making—and how to put it to work.

Learn more about our People & Organizational Performance Practice .

How can organizations untangle ineffective decision-making processes?

McKinsey research has shown that agile is the ultimate solution for many organizations looking to streamline their decision making . Agile organizations are more likely to put decision making in the right hands, are faster at reacting to (or anticipating) shifts in the business environment, and often attract top talent who prefer working at companies with greater empowerment and fewer layers of management.

For organizations looking to become more agile, it’s possible to quickly boost decision-making efficiency by categorizing the type of decision to be made and adjusting the approach accordingly. In the next section, we review three types of decision making and how to optimize the process for each.

What are three keys to faster, better decisions?

Business leaders today have access to more sophisticated data than ever before. But it hasn’t necessarily made decision making any easier. For one thing, organizational dynamics—such as unclear roles, overreliance on consensus, and death by committee—can get in the way of straightforward decision making. And more data often means more decisions to be taken, which can become too much for one person, team, or department. This can make it more difficult for leaders to cleanly delegate, which in turn can lead to a decline in productivity.

Leaders are growing increasingly frustrated with broken decision-making processes, slow deliberations, and uneven decision-making outcomes. Fewer than half  of the 1,200 respondents of a McKinsey survey report that decisions are timely, and 61 percent say that at least half the time they spend making decisions is ineffective.

What’s the solution? According to McKinsey research, effective solutions center around categorizing decision types and organizing different processes to support each type. Further, each decision category should be assigned its own practice—stimulating debate, for example, or empowering employees—to yield improvements in effectiveness.

Here are the three decision categories  that matter most to senior leaders, and the standout practice that makes the biggest difference for each type of decision.

• Big-bet decisions are infrequent but high risk, such as acquisitions. These decisions carry the potential to shape the future of the company, and as a result are generally made by top leaders and the board. Spurring productive debate by assigning someone to argue the case for and against a potential decision can improve big-bet decision making.
• Cross-cutting decisions, such as pricing, can be frequent and high risk. These are usually made by business unit heads, in cross-functional forums as part of a collaborative process. These types of decisions can be improved by doubling down on process refinement. The ideal process should be one that helps clarify objectives, measures, and targets.
• Delegated decisions are frequent but low risk and are handled by an individual or working team with some input from others. Delegated decision making can be improved by ensuring that the responsibility for the decision is firmly in the hands of those closest to the work. This approach also enhances engagement and accountability.

In addition, business leaders can take the following four actions to help sustain rapid decision making :

• Focus on the game-changing decisions, ones that will help an organization create value and serve its purpose.
• Convene only necessary meetings, and eliminate lengthy reports. Turn unnecessary meetings into emails, and watch productivity bloom. For necessary meetings, provide short, well-prepared prereads to aid in decision making.
• Clarify the roles of decision makers and other voices. Who has a vote, and who has a voice?
• Push decision-making authority to the front line—and tolerate mistakes.

Introducing McKinsey Explainers : Direct answers to complex questions

How can business leaders effectively delegate decision making.

Business is more complex and dynamic than ever, meaning business leaders are faced with needing to make more decisions in less time. Decision making takes up an inordinate amount of management’s time—up to 70 percent for some executives—which leads to inefficiencies and opportunity costs.

As discussed above, organizations should treat different types of decisions differently . Decisions should be classified  according to their frequency, risk, and importance. Delegated decisions are the most mysterious for many organizations: they are the most frequent, and yet the least understood. Only about a quarter of survey respondents  report that their organizations make high-quality and speedy delegated decisions. And yet delegated decisions, because they happen so often, can have a big impact on organizational culture.

The key to better delegated decisions is to empower employees by giving them the authority and confidence to act. That means not simply telling employees which decisions they can or can’t make; it means giving employees the tools they need to make high-quality decisions and the right level of guidance as they do so.

Here’s how to support delegation and employee empowerment:

• Ensure that your organization has a well-defined, universally understood strategy. When the strategic intent of an organization is clear, empowerment is much easier because it allows teams to pull in the same direction.
• Clearly define roles and responsibilities. At the foundation of all empowerment efforts is a clear understanding of who is responsible for what, including who has input and who doesn’t.
• Invest in capability building (and coaching) up front. To help managers spend meaningful coaching time, organizations should also invest in managers’ leadership skills.
• Build an empowerment-oriented culture. Leaders should role model mindsets that promote empowerment, and managers should build the coaching skills they want to see. Managers and employees, in particular, will need to get comfortable with failure as a necessary step to success.
• Decide when to get involved. Managers should spend effort up front to decide what is worth their focused attention. They should know when it’s appropriate to provide close guidance and when not to.

How can you guard against bias in decision making?

Cognitive bias is real. We all fall prey, no matter how we try to guard ourselves against it. And cognitive and organizational bias undermines good decision making, whether you’re choosing what to have for lunch or whether to put in a bid to acquire another company.

Here are some of the most common cognitive biases and strategies for how to avoid them:

• Confirmation bias. Often, when we already believe something, our minds seek out information to support that belief—whether or not it is actually true. Confirmation bias  involves overweighting evidence that supports our belief, underweighting evidence against our belief, or even failing to search impartially for evidence in the first place. Confirmation bias is one of the most common traps organizational decision makers fall into. One famous—and painful—example of confirmation bias is when Blockbuster passed up the opportunity  to buy a fledgling Netflix for $50 million in 2000. (Actually, that’s putting it politely. Netflix executives remember being “laughed out” of Blockbuster’s offices.) Fresh off the dot-com bubble burst of 2000, Blockbuster executives likely concluded that Netflix had approached them out of desperation—not that Netflix actually had a baby unicorn on its hands.
• Herd mentality. First observed by Charles Mackay in his 1841 study of crowd psychology, herd mentality happens when information that’s available to the group is determined to be more useful than privately held knowledge. Individuals buy into this bias because there’s safety in the herd. But ignoring competing viewpoints might ultimately be costly. To counter this, try a teardown exercise , wherein two teams use scenarios, advanced analytics, and role-playing to identify how a herd might react to a decision, and to ensure they can refute public perceptions.
• Sunk-cost fallacy. Executives frequently hold onto underperforming business units or projects because of emotional or legacy attachment . Equally, business leaders hate shutting projects down . This, researchers say, is due to the ingrained belief that if everyone works hard enough, anything can be turned into gold. McKinsey research indicates two techniques for understanding when to hold on and when to let go. First, change the burden of proof from why an asset should be cut to why it should be retained. Next, categorize business investments according to whether they should be grown, maintained, or disposed of—and follow clearly differentiated investment rules  for each group.
• Ignoring unpleasant information. Researchers call this the “ostrich effect”—when people figuratively bury their heads in the sand , ignoring information that will make their lives more difficult. One study, for example, found that investors were more likely to check the value of their portfolios when the markets overall were rising, and less likely to do so when the markets were flat or falling. One way to help get around this is to engage in a readout process, where individuals or teams summarize discussions as they happen. This increases the likelihood that everyone leaves a meeting with the same understanding of what was said.
• Halo effect. Important personal and professional choices are frequently affected by people’s tendency to make specific judgments based on general impressions . Humans are tempted to use simple mental frames to understand complicated ideas, which means we frequently draw conclusions faster than we should. The halo effect is particularly common in hiring decisions. To avoid this bias, structured interviews can help mitigate the essentializing tendency. When candidates are measured against indicators, intuition is less likely to play a role.

For more common biases and how to beat them, check out McKinsey’s Bias Busters Collection .

Learn more about Strategy & Corporate Finance consulting  at McKinsey—and check out job opportunities related to decision making if you’re interested in working at McKinsey.

Articles referenced include:

• “ Bias busters: When the crowd isn’t necessarily wise ,” McKinsey Quarterly , May 23, 2022, Eileen Kelly Rinaudo , Tim Koller , and Derek Schatz
• “ Boards and decision making ,” April 8, 2021, Aaron De Smet , Frithjof Lund , Suzanne Nimocks, and Leigh Weiss
• “ To unlock better decision making, plan better meetings ,” November 9, 2020, Aaron De Smet , Simon London, and Leigh Weiss
• “ Reimagine decision making to improve speed and quality ,” September 14, 2020, Julie Hughes , J. R. Maxwell , and Leigh Weiss
• “ For smarter decisions, empower your employees ,” September 9, 2020, Aaron De Smet , Caitlin Hewes, and Leigh Weiss
• “ Bias busters: Lifting your head from the sand ,” McKinsey Quarterly , August 18, 2020, Eileen Kelly Rinaudo
• “ Decision making in uncertain times ,” March 24, 2020, Andrea Alexander, Aaron De Smet , and Leigh Weiss
• “ Bias busters: Avoiding snap judgments ,” McKinsey Quarterly , November 6, 2019, Tim Koller , Dan Lovallo, and Phil Rosenzweig
• “ Three keys to faster, better decisions ,” McKinsey Quarterly , May 1, 2019, Aaron De Smet , Gregor Jost , and Leigh Weiss
• “ Decision making in the age of urgency ,” April 30, 2019, Iskandar Aminov, Aaron De Smet , Gregor Jost , and David Mendelsohn
• “ Bias busters: Pruning projects proactively ,” McKinsey Quarterly , February 6, 2019, Tim Koller , Dan Lovallo, and Zane Williams
• “ Decision making in your organization: Cutting through the clutter ,” McKinsey Quarterly , January 16, 2018, Aaron De Smet , Simon London, and Leigh Weiss
• “ Untangling your organization’s decision making ,” McKinsey Quarterly , June 21, 2017, Aaron De Smet , Gerald Lackey, and Leigh Weiss
• “ Are you ready to decide? ,” McKinsey Quarterly , April 1, 2015, Philip Meissner, Olivier Sibony, and Torsten Wulf.

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Neuromarketing — Predicting Consumer Behavior to Drive Purchasing Decisions 

Buying decisions can be driven by unconscious choices. Learn about how neuromarketing uncovers what drives decisions to increase conversions and revenue.

Valerie Kirk

What drives a person to not only buy something, but to choose one product or service over the other? The usual answers that come to a marketer’s mind when asked that question include need, price, availability, and brand familiarity.

But what if it goes deeper than that? What if consumer decision-making is driven by biology — specifically neural activity in the brain?

This idea is the basis of neuromarketing — sometimes known as consumer neuroscience — a field of study that incorporates biology and brain activity to predict and even influence consumer behavior and purchase decisions.

The Science Behind Neuromarketing

While the term neuromarketing was first introduced in the early 2000s, consumer neuroscience began to emerge in the 1990s, when measuring brain activity using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) machines became more accessible. 

Consumer neuroscience examines fMRI scans and electroencephalogram measurements of people’s brain activity when they are given or shown stimuli, such as an advertisement, product packaging, or something to drink. It could also include verbal prompts to monitor reactions. The brain activity seen on the scans shows what a person is feeling in that moment. 

Consumer neuroscience also includes physiological tracking — measuring facial expressions, eye movements, pupil dilation, heart rate, or other physical reactions people experience when given the stimuli. With eye tracking software, marketers can use heat maps to see what consumers are most drawn to in ad campaigns or websites and the journey they take to ultimately purchase something or disengage with digital assets. 

Examples of neuromarketing research include: 

• Serving Coca-Cola and Pepsi to subjects in an fMRI machine. When the drinks weren’t identified, the researchers noted a consistent neural response. But when subjects could see the brand, the part of their brains associated with emotions, memories, and unconscious processing showed enhanced activity, demonstrating that knowledge of the brand altered how the brain perceived the beverage. 
• Scanning the brains of test subjects while they tasted three wines, each labeled with a different price. Their brains registered the wines differently, with neural signatures indicating a preference for the most expensive wine. In actuality, all three wines were the same. 

Why is Neuromarketing Important?

By understanding what people react to based on biology and not conscious choices, marketers can essentially predict consumer behavior. When marketers can predict behavior, they can take steps to market their products — from the price to packaging to product marketing campaigns — in ways that elicit emotional responses and compel consumers to buy, thus increasing sales and revenue. 

There is a truth to neuromarketing that can’t be replicated by traditional marketing research tactics like focus groups. People may not always tell the truth in focus groups, or they say things they think others want to hear. 

Neuromarketing techniques remove the human choice element in market research and expose a person’s real and unfiltered responses. This helps marketers gain a more complete understanding of consumer motivation and buying behavior, which drives marketing decisions and budget spending.

How is Neuromarketing Used in Business Today?

Businesses are turning to neuromarketing to guide critical marketing decisions. In many cases, neuromarketing techniques are replacing traditional marketing research tactics. 

Here are five ways businesses are using neuromarketing to improve their marketing efforts and drive sales. 

1. Testing Ads 

Marketers can get true, unbiased responses to ad campaigns by showing different ads to test subjects and scanning their brain activity or tracking their eye movement while they view the ads. Based on the scans and other physiological and emotional reactions, they can determine which campaign — or which campaign elements — resonate more with consumers.  

2. Improving Packaging Design

When test subjects are given early prototypes of a product packaging, brain scans can help marketing and design teams gain insights into which version people are more likely to pick up and buy. Package design includes color, images, and size and shape. 

3. Enhancing Website and App Design 

Neuromarketing can help guide website and app design. Brain scans can show which design elements are more likely to engage users and drive clicks and purchases. Facial coding can also show how people view websites and apps, which can inform where to put different pieces of content. 

4. Informing Rebranding

From start to finish, neuromarketing can guide decisions on rebranding. This includes whether a rebrand is needed, which visual elements and messages work better for the new brand, and how to use the new identity in marketing tools and other brand assets. 

5. Optimizing Conversion Rates 

It’s estimated that 95 percent of decision-making is made unconsciously. Neuromarketing can help marketers understand what drives a person to make those unconscious choices to buy or not buy a product. Brands can then adapt their marketing materials and tactics to enhance elements that inspire people to buy.

DCE Professional & Executive Development Consumer Behavior Course:

Using Neuromarketing to Predict and Influence Customers

Examples of Neuromarketing in Action

• Through neuromarketing techniques, Frito-Lay learned that matte bags with pictures of potatoes did not trigger a negative consumer response, whereas shiny bags with pictures did. Based on those insights, they changed their chip packaging design. 
• The National Cancer Institute used fMRI scans to test three anti-smoking commercials that included a telephone hotline. The subjects were heavy smokers who indicated they wanted to quit. The National Cancer Institute ran all three ads, but the ad to which the test group reacted favorably corresponded to an increased hotline call volume when it ran.
• IKEA has designed their stores in a way that showcases everything they sell before a consumer can actually leave the store, thus increasing the likelihood of a purchase. The layout was developed using neuromarketing research.
• Neuromarketing research has shown that people react favorably to movement and speed. This knowledge guided FedEx to include a hidden arrow in its logo that represents quickness, which garners favorable reactions — and subconscious brand trust — among consumers.
• People also react favorably to color. Through research on brain activity, businesses know that the color red signifies strength. It’s easy to see why red is the favored logo color of so many iconic brands, including Coca-Cola, Target, McDonald’s, and Netflix.  

The Ethics of Neuromarketing

In general, people like to think that they make purchasing decisions — and really any decision — consciously after considering all of the options and facts. Neuromarketing exposes the fact that people can be influenced on an unconscious level. This realization can lead not only to privacy concerns but also to people feeling like they are being manipulated by brands they trust, which could make them avoid those brands entirely. 

For example , in 2015, one of the main political parties in Mexico used neuromarketing to learn more about voters’ interests and reactions to campaign ads. When the information leaked, there was a backlash from Mexican citizens. The candidate apologized, but the revelation likely cost him votes. 

Since the very first advertisement, businesses have been trying to persuade people to buy products. Neuromarketing uses the technology of the time to help marketers understand their customers better and deliver a more favorable experience. Currently, brain scans and physiological responses are being performed on test subjects who all have likely signed an informed consent document.

While it may seem like a logical progression of the marketing and advertising discipline, companies that use neuromarketing techniques should have robust and ethical protocols and a crisis communication plan in place in case of public backlash.

How to Study Neuromarketing

People working across marketing disciplines could benefit from understanding what drives consumer behavior. Harvard Division of Continuing Education Professional & Executive Development offers a 2-day Consumer Behavior Course: Using Neuromarketing to Predict and Influence Customers.

The course covers a wide range of topics to help participants understand the psychology of consumer behavior and how to apply it. Participants will come away with a new set of tools for creating marketing campaigns that effectively resonate with the consumer base, capture market share, and ultimately drive profits and sales.

The program includes a discussion on corporate responsibility, marketing ethics, and specific guidelines for utilizing psychological techniques while safeguarding consumer and societal well-being.

Marketing Analytics Online Course: Strategies for Driving Business Results

Digital Marketing Strategy

Behavioral Decision Making

About the Author

Valerie Kirk is a freelance writer and corporate storyteller specializing in customer and community outreach and topics and trends in education, technology, and healthcare. Based in Maryland near the Chesapeake Bay, she spends her free time exploring nature by bike, paddle board, or on long hikes with her family.

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