Education Corner

Teaching Methods and Strategies: The Complete Guide

You’ve completed your coursework. Student teaching has ended. You’ve donned the cap and gown, crossed the stage, smiled with your diploma and went home to fill out application after application.

Suddenly you are standing in what will be your classroom for the next year and after the excitement of decorating it wears off and you begin lesson planning, you start to notice all of your lessons are executed the same way, just with different material. But that is what you know and what you’ve been taught, so you go with it.

After a while, your students are bored, and so are you. There must be something wrong because this isn’t what you envisioned teaching to be like. There is.

Figuring out the best ways you can deliver information to students can sometimes be even harder than what students go through in discovering how they learn best. The reason is because every single teacher needs a variety of different teaching methods in their theoretical teaching bag to pull from depending on the lesson, the students, and things as seemingly minute as the time the class is and the subject.

Using these different teaching methods, which are rooted in theory of different teaching styles, will not only help teachers reach their full potential, but more importantly engage, motivate and reach the students in their classes, whether in person or online.

Teaching Methods

Teaching methods, or methodology, is a narrower topic because it’s founded in theories and educational psychology. If you have a degree in teaching, you most likely have heard of names like Skinner, Vygotsky , Gardner, Piaget , and Bloom . If their names don’t ring a bell, you should definitely recognize their theories that have become teaching methods. The following are the most common teaching theories.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is the theory that every learner is essentially a “clean slate” to start off and shaped by emotions. People react to stimuli, reactions as well as positive and negative reinforcement, the site states.

Learning Theories names the most popular theorists who ascribed to this theory were Ivan Pavlov, who many people may know with his experiments with dogs. He performed an experiment with dogs that when he rang a bell, the dogs responded to the stimuli; then he applied the idea to humans.

Other popular educational theorists who were part of behaviorism was B.F. Skinner and Albert Bandura .

Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Theory is typically spoken about at the early childhood level because it has to do with critical thinking with the biggest concept being the idea of play, according to Edwin Peel writing for Encyclopedia Britannica . Though Bandura and Lev Vygotsky also contributed to cognitive theory, according to Dr. Norman Herr with California State University , the most popular and first theorist of cognitivism is Piaget.

There are four stages to Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development that he created in 1918. Each stage correlates with a child’s development from infancy to their teenage years.

The first stage is called the Sensorimotor Stage which occurs from birth to 18 months. The reason this is considered cognitive development is because the brain is literally growing through exploration, like squeaking horns, discovering themselves in mirrors or spinning things that click on their floor mats or walkers; creating habits like sleeping with a certain blanket; having reflexes like rubbing their eyes when tired or thumb sucking; and beginning to decipher vocal tones.

The second stage, or the Preoperational Stage, occurs from ages 2 to 7 when toddlers begin to understand and correlate symbols around them, ask a lot of questions, and start forming sentences and conversations, but they haven’t developed perspective yet so empathy does not quite exist yet, the website states. This is the stage when children tend to blurt out honest statements, usually embarrassing their parents, because they don’t understand censoring themselves either.

From ages 7 to 11, children are beginning to problem solve, can have conversations about things they are interested in, are more aware of logic and develop empathy during the Concrete Operational Stage.

The final stage, called the Formal Operational Stage, though by definition ends at age 16, can continue beyond. It involves deeper thinking and abstract thoughts as well as questioning not only what things are but why the way they are is popular, the site states. Many times people entering new stages of their lives like high school, college, or even marriage go through elements of Piaget’s theory, which is why the strategies that come from this method are applicable across all levels of education.

The Multiple Intelligences Theory

The Multiple Intelligences Theory states that people don’t need to be smart in every single discipline to be considered intelligent on paper tests, but that people excel in various disciplines, making them exceptional.

Created in 1983, the former principal in the Scranton School District in Scranton, PA, created eight different intelligences, though since then two others have been debated of whether to be added but have not yet officially, according to the site.

The original eight are musical, spatial, linguistic, mathematical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic and most people have a predominant intelligence followed by others. For those who are musically-inclined either via instruments, vocals, has perfect pitch, can read sheet music or can easily create music has Musical Intelligence.

Being able to see something and rearrange it or imagine it differently is Spatial Intelligence, while being talented with language, writing or avid readers have Linguistic Intelligence. Kinesthetic Intelligence refers to understanding how the body works either anatomically or athletically and Naturalistic Intelligence is having an understanding of nature and elements of the ecosystem.

The final intelligences have to do with personal interactions. Intrapersonal Intelligence is a matter of knowing oneself, one’s limits, and their inner selves while Interpersonal Intelligence is knowing how to handle a variety of other people without conflict or knowing how to resolve it, the site states. There is still an elementary school in Scranton, PA named after their once-principal.

Constructivism

Constructivism is another theory created by Piaget which is used as a foundation for many other educational theories and strategies because constructivism is focused on how people learn. Piaget states in this theory that people learn from their experiences. They learn best through active learning , connect it to their prior knowledge and then digest this information their own way. This theory has created the ideas of student-centered learning in education versus teacher-centered learning.

Universal Design for Learning

The final method is the Universal Design for Learning which has redefined the educational community since its inception in the mid-1980s by David H. Rose. This theory focuses on how teachers need to design their curriculum for their students. This theory really gained traction in the United States in 2004 when it was presented at an international conference and he explained that this theory is based on neuroscience and how the brain processes information, perform tasks and get excited about education.

The theory, known as UDL, advocates for presenting information in multiple ways to enable a variety of learners to understand the information; presenting multiple assessments for students to show what they have learned; and learn and utilize a student’s own interests to motivate them to learn, the site states. This theory also discussed incorporating technology in the classroom and ways to educate students in the digital age.

Teaching Styles

From each of the educational theories, teachers extract and develop a plethora of different teaching styles, or strategies. Instructors must have a large and varied arsenal of strategies to use weekly and even daily in order to build rapport, keep students engaged and even keep instructors from getting bored with their own material. These can be applicable to all teaching levels, but adaptations must be made based on the student’s age and level of development.

Differentiated instruction is one of the most popular teaching strategies, which means that teachers adjust the curriculum for a lesson, unit or even entire term in a way that engages all learners in various ways, according to Chapter 2 of the book Instructional Process and Concepts in Theory and Practice by Celal Akdeniz . This means changing one’s teaching styles constantly to fit not only the material but more importantly, the students based on their learning styles.

Learning styles are the ways in which students learn best. The most popular types are visual, audio, kinesthetic and read/write , though others include global as another type of learner, according to Akdeniz . For some, they may seem self-explanatory. Visual learners learn best by watching the instruction or a demonstration; audio learners need to hear a lesson; kinesthetic learners learn by doing, or are hands-on learners; read/write learners to best by reading textbooks and writing notes; and global learners need material to be applied to their real lives, according to The Library of Congress .

There are many activities available to instructors that enable their students to find out what kind of learner they are. Typically students have a main style with a close runner-up, which enables them to learn best a certain way but they can also learn material in an additional way.

When an instructor knows their students and what types of learners are in their classroom, instructors are able to then differentiate their instruction and assignments to those learning types, according to Akdeniz and The Library of Congress. Learn more about different learning styles.

When teaching new material to any type of learner, is it important to utilize a strategy called scaffolding . Scaffolding is based on a student’s prior knowledge and building a lesson, unit or course from the most foundational pieces and with each step make the information more complicated, according to an article by Jerry Webster .

To scaffold well, a teacher must take a personal interest in their students to learn not only what their prior knowledge is but their strengths as well. This will enable an instructor to base new information around their strengths and use positive reinforcement when mistakes are made with the new material.

There is an unfortunate concept in teaching called “teach to the middle” where instructors target their lessons to the average ability of the students in their classroom, leaving slower students frustrated and confused, and above average students frustrated and bored. This often results in the lower- and higher-level students scoring poorly and a teacher with no idea why.

The remedy for this is a strategy called blended learning where differentiated instruction is occurring simultaneously in the classroom to target all learners, according to author and educator Juliana Finegan . In order to be successful at blended learning, teachers once again need to know their students, how they learn and their strengths and weaknesses, according to Finegan.

Blended learning can include combining several learning styles into one lesson like lecturing from a PowerPoint – not reading the information on the slides — that includes cartoons and music associations while the students have the print-outs. The lecture can include real-life examples and stories of what the instructor encountered and what the students may encounter. That example incorporates four learning styles and misses kinesthetic, but the activity afterwards can be solely kinesthetic.

A huge component of blended learning is technology. Technology enables students to set their own pace and access the resources they want and need based on their level of understanding, according to The Library of Congress . It can be used three different ways in education which include face-to-face, synchronously or asynchronously . Technology used with the student in the classroom where the teacher can answer questions while being in the student’s physical presence is known as face-to-face.

Synchronous learning is when students are learning information online and have a teacher live with them online at the same time, but through a live chat or video conferencing program, like Skype, or Zoom, according to The Library of Congress.

Finally, asynchronous learning is when students take a course or element of a course online, like a test or assignment, as it fits into their own schedule, but a teacher is not online with them at the time they are completing or submitting the work. Teachers are still accessible through asynchronous learning but typically via email or a scheduled chat meeting, states the Library of Congress.

The final strategy to be discussed actually incorporates a few teaching strategies, so it’s almost like blended teaching. It starts with a concept that has numerous labels such as student-centered learning, learner-centered pedagogy, and teacher-as-tutor but all mean that an instructor revolves lessons around the students and ensures that students take a participatory role in the learning process, known as active learning, according to the Learning Portal .

In this model, a teacher is just a facilitator, meaning that they have created the lesson as well as the structure for learning, but the students themselves become the teachers or create their own knowledge, the Learning Portal says. As this is occurring, the instructor is circulating the room working as a one-on-one resource, tutor or guide, according to author Sara Sanchez Alonso from Yale’s Center for Teaching and Learning. For this to work well and instructors be successful one-on-one and planning these lessons, it’s essential that they have taken the time to know their students’ history and prior knowledge, otherwise it can end up to be an exercise in futility, Alonso said.

Some activities teachers can use are by putting students in groups and assigning each student a role within the group, creating reading buddies or literature circles, making games out of the material with individual white boards, create different stations within the classroom for different skill levels or interest in a lesson or find ways to get students to get up out of their seats and moving, offers Fortheteachers.org .

There are so many different methodologies and strategies that go into becoming an effective instructor. A consistent theme throughout all of these is for a teacher to take the time to know their students because they care, not because they have to. When an instructor knows the stories behind the students, they are able to design lessons that are more fun, more meaningful, and more effective because they were designed with the students’ best interests in mind.

There are plenty of pre-made lessons, activities and tests available online and from textbook publishers that any teacher could use. But you need to decide if you want to be the original teacher who makes a significant impact on your students, or a pre-made teacher a student needs to get through.

Read Also: – Blended Learning Guide – Collaborative Learning Guide – Flipped Classroom Guide – Game Based Learning Guide – Gamification in Education Guide – Holistic Education Guide – Maker Education Guide – Personalized Learning Guide – Place-Based Education Guide – Project-Based Learning Guide – Scaffolding in Education Guide – Social-Emotional Learning Guide

Similar Posts:

  • Discover Your Learning Style – Comprehensive Guide on Different Learning Styles
  • 35 of the BEST Educational Apps for Teachers (Updated 2024)
  • 15 Learning Theories in Education (A Complete Summary)

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Pedagogy - Diversifying Your Teaching Methods, Learning Activities, and Assignments

Inclusive Teaching at a PWI is in a blue rectangle at the top. Below are three green circles for Climate, Pedagogy, and Content. Pedagogy is emphasized with key points: Diversify and critically assess teaching methods, learning activities, assignments.

Definition of Pedagogy 

In the most general sense, pedagogy is all the ways that instructors and students work with the course content. The fundamental learning goal for students is to be able to do “something meaningful” with the course content. Meaningful learning typically results in students working in the middle to upper levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy . We sometimes find that novice instructors conflate course content with pedagogy. This often results in “teaching as talking” where the presentation of content by the instructor is confused with the learning of content by the students. Think of your course content as clay and pedagogy as the ways you ask students to make “something meaningful” from that clay. Pedagogy is the combination of teaching methods (what instructors do), learning activities (what instructors ask their students to do), and learning assessments (the assignments, projects, or tasks that measure student learning).

Key Idea for Pedagogy

Diversify your pedagogy by varying your teaching methods, learning activities, and assignments. Critically assess your pedagogy through the lens of BIPOC students’ experiences at a PWI . We visualize these two related practices as a cycle because they are iterative and ongoing. Diversifying your pedagogy likely means shedding some typical ways of teaching in your discipline, or the teaching practices you inherited. It likely means doing more active learning and less traditional lecturing. Transforming good pedagogy into equitable pedagogy means rethinking your pedagogy in light of the PWI context and considering the ways your pedagogy may help or hinder learning for BIPOC students. 

PWI Assumptions for Pedagogy

Understanding where students are on the spectrum of novice to expert learning in your discipline or course is a key challenge to implementing effective and inclusive pedagogy (National Research Council 2000). Instructors are typically so far removed from being a novice learner in their disciplines that they struggle to understand where students are on that spectrum. A key PWI assumption is that students understand how your disciplinary knowledge is organized and constructed . Students typically do not understand your discipline or the many other disciplines they are working in during their undergraduate years. Even graduate students may find it puzzling to explain the origins, methodologies, theories, logics, and assumptions of their disciplines. A second PWI assumption is that students are (or should be) academically prepared to learn your discipline . Students may be academically prepared for learning in some disciplines, but unless their high school experience was college preparatory and well supported, students (especially first-generation college students) are likely finding their way through a mysterious journey of different disciplinary conventions and modes of working and thinking (Nelson 1996).

A third PWI assumption is that instructors may confuse students’ academic underpreparation with their intelligence or capacity to learn . Academic preparation is typically a function of one’s high school experience including whether that high school was well resourced or under funded. Whether or not a student receives a quality high school education is usually a structural matter reflecting inequities in our K12 educational systems, not a reflection of an individual student’s ability to learn. A final PWI assumption is that students will learn well in the ways that the instructor learned well . Actually most instructors in higher education self-selected into disciplines that align with their interests, skills, academic preparation, and possibly family and community support. Our students have broader and different goals for seeking a college education and bring a range of skills to their coursework, which may or may not align with instructors’ expectations of how students learn. Inclusive teaching at a PWI means supporting the learning and career goals of our students.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge as a Core Concept

Kind and Chan (2019) propose that Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) is the synthesis of Content Knowledge (expertise about a subject area) and Pedagogical Knowledge (expertise about teaching methods, assessment, classroom management, and how students learn). Content Knowledge (CK) without Pedagogical Knowledge (PK) limits instructors’ ability to teach effectively or inclusively. Novice instructors that rely on traditional lectures likely have limited Pedagogical Knowledge and may also be replicating their own inherited teaching practices. While Kind and Chan (2019) are writing from the perspective of science education, their concepts apply across disciplines. Moreover, Kind and Chan (2019) support van Driel et al.’s assertion that:

high-quality PCK is not characterized by knowing as many strategies as possible to teach a certain topic plus all the misconceptions students may have about it but by knowing when to apply a certain strategy in recognition of students’ actual learning needs and understanding why a certain teaching approach may be useful in one situation (quoted in Kind and Chan 2019, 975). 

As we’ve stressed throughout this guide, the teaching context matters, and for inclusive pedagogy, special attention should be paid to the learning goals, instructor preparation, and students’ point of entry into course content. We also argue that the PWI context shapes what instructors might practice as CK, PK, and PCK. We recommend instructors become familiar with evidence-based pedagogy (or the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning , SoTL) in their fields. Moreover, we advise instructors to find and follow those instructors and scholars that specifically focus on inclusive teaching in their fields in order to develop an inclusive, flexible, and discipline-specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge.

Suggested Practices for Diversifying + Assessing Pedagogy

Although diversifying and critically assessing teaching methods, learning activities, and assignments will vary across disciplines, we offer a few key starting points. Diversifying your pedagogy is easier than critically assessing it through a PWI lens, but both steps are essential. In general, you can diversify your pedagogy by learning about active learning, peer learning, team-based learning, experiential learning, problem-based learning, and case-based learning, among others . There is extensive evidence-based pedagogical literature and practical guides readily available for these methods. And you can also find and follow scholars in your discipline that use these and other teaching methods.

Diversifying Your Pedagogy

Convert traditional lectures into interactive (or active) lectures.

For in-person or synchronous online courses, break a traditional lecture into “mini-lectures” of 10-15 minutes in length. After each mini-lecture, ask your students to process their learning using a discussion or problem prompt, a Classroom Assessment Technique (CAT), a Think-Pair-Share, or another brief learning activity. Read Lecturing from Center for Teaching , Vanderbilt University.

Structure small group discussions

Provide both a process and concrete questions or tasks to guide student learning (for example, provide a scenario with 3 focused tasks such as identify the problem, brainstorm possible solutions, and list the pros/cons for each solution). Read How to Hold a Better Class Discussion , The Chronicle of Higher Education .

Integrate active learning

Integrate active learning, especially into courses that are conceptual, theoretical, or otherwise historically challenging (for example, calculus, organic chemistry, statistics, philosophy). For gateway courses, draw upon the research of STEM and other education specialists on how active learning and peer learning improves student learning and reduces disparities. Read the Association of American Universities STEM Network Scholarship .  

Include authentic learning

Include authentic learning, learning activities and assignments that mirror how students will work after graduation. What does it mean to think and work like an engineer? How do project teams work together? How does one present research in an educational social media campaign? Since most students seeking a college education will not become academic researchers or faculty, what kinds of things will they do in the “real world?” Help students practice and hone those skills as they learn the course content. Read Edutopia’s PBL: What Does It Take for a Project to Be Authentic?

Vary assignments and provide options

Graded assignments should range from low to high stakes. Low stakes assignments allow students to learn from their mistakes and receive timely feedback on their learning. Options for assignments allow students to demonstrate their learning, rather than demonstrate their skill at a particular type of assessment (such as a multiple choice exam or an academic research paper). Read our guide, Create Assessments That Promote Learning for All Students .

Critically Assess Your Pedagogy

Critically assessing your pedagogy through the PWI lens with attention to how your pedagogy may affect the learning of BIPOC students is more challenging and highly contextual. Instructors will want to review and apply the concepts and principles discussed in the earlier sections of this guide on Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs), PWI Assumptions, and Class Climate. 

Reflect on patterns

Reflect on patterns of participation, progress in learning (grade distributions), and other course-related evidence. Look at your class sessions and assignments as experimental data. Who participated? What kinds of participation did you observe? Who didn’t participate? Why might that be? Are there a variety of ways for students to participate in the learning activities (individually, in groups, via discussion, via writing, synchronously/in-person, asynchronously/online)?

Respond to feedback on climate

Respond to feedback on climate from on-going check-ins and Critical Incident Questionnaires (CIQs) as discussed in the Climate Section (Ongoing Practices). Students will likely disengage from your requests for feedback if you do not respond to their feedback. Use this feedback to re-calibrate and re-think your pedagogy. 

Seek feedback on student learning

Seek feedback on student learning in the form of Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs), in-class polls, asynchronous forums, exam wrappers, and other methods.  Demonstrate that you care about your students’ learning by responding to this feedback as well. Here’s how students in previous semesters learned this material … I’m scheduling a problem-solving review session in the next class in response to the results of the exam …

Be diplomatic but clear when correcting mistakes and misconceptions

First-generation college students, many of whom may also identify as BIPOC, have typically achieved a great deal with few resources and significant barriers (Yosso 2005). However, they may be more likely to internalize their learning mistakes as signs that they don’t belong at the university. When correcting, be sure to normalize mistakes as part of the learning process. The correct answer is X, but I can see why you thought it was Y. Many students think it is Y because … But the correct answer is X because … Thank you for helping us understand that misconception.

Allow time for students to think and prepare for participation in a non-stressful setting

This was already suggested in the Climate Section (Race Stressors), but it is worth repeating. BIPOC students and multilingual students may need more time to prepare, not because of their intellectual abilities, but because of the effects of race stressors and other stressors increasing their cognitive load. Providing discussion or problem prompts in advance will reduce this stress and make space for learning. Additionally both student populations may experience stereotype threat, so participation in the “public” aspects of the class session may be stressful in ways that are not true for the majority white and domestic students. If you cannot provide prompts in advance, be sure to allow ample individual “think time” during a synchronous class session.

Avoid consensus models or majority rules processes

This was stated in the Climate Section (Teaching Practices to Avoid), but it’s such an entrenched PWI practice that it needs to be spotlighted and challenged. If I am a numerical “minority” and I am asked to come to consensus or agreement with a numerical “majority,” it is highly likely that my perspective will be minimized or dismissed. Or, I will have to expend a lot of energy to persuade my group of the value of my perspective, which is highly stressful. This is an unacceptable burden to put on BIPOC students and also may result in BIPOC students being placed in the position of teaching white students about a particular perspective or experience. The resulting tensions may also damage BIPOC students’ positive relationships with white students and instructors. When suitable for your content, create a learning experience that promotes seeking multiple solutions to problems, cases, or prompts. Rather than asking students to converge on one best recommendation, why not ask students to log all possible solutions (without evaluation) and then to recommend at least two solutions that include a rationale? Moreover, for course content dealing with policies, the recommended solutions could be explained in terms of their possible effects on different communities. If we value diverse perspectives, we need to structure the consideration of those perspectives into our learning activities and assignments. 

We recognize the challenges of assessing your pedagogy through the PWI lens and doing your best to assess the effects on BIPOC student learning. This is a complex undertaking. But we encourage you to invite feedback from your students as well as to seek the guidance of colleagues, including advisors and other student affairs professionals, to inform your ongoing practices of teaching inclusively at a PWI. In the next section, we complete our exploration of the Inclusive Teaching at a PWI Framework by exploring the importance of auditing, diversifying, and critically assessing course content.

Pedagogy References

Kind, Vanessa and Kennedy K.H. Chan. 2019. “Resolving the Amalgam: Connecting Pedagogical Content Knowledge, Content Knowledge and Pedagogical Knowledge.” International Journal of Science Education . 41(7): 964-978.

Howard, Jay. N.D. “How to Hold a Better Class Discussion: Advice Guide.” The Chronicle of Higher Education . https://www.chronicle.com/article/how-to-hold-a-better-class-discussion/#2 

National Research Council. 2000. “How Experts Differ from Novices.” Chap 2 in How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition . Washington D.C.: The National Academies Press. https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9853/how-people-learn-brain-mind-experience-and-school-expanded-edition

Nelson, Craig E. 1996. “Student Diversity Requires Different Approaches to College Teaching, Even in Math and Science.” The American Behavioral Scientist . 40 (2): 165-175.

Sathy, Viji and Kelly A. Hogan. N.D.  “How to Make Your Teaching More Inclusive: Advice Guide.” The Chronicle of Higher Education . https://www.chronicle.com/article/how-to-make-your-teaching-more-inclusive/?cid=gen_sign_in

Yosso, Tara J. 2005. “Whose Culture Has Capital? A Critical Race Theory Discussion of Community Cultural Wealth.” Race, Ethnicity and Education . 8 (1): 69-91.

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The Complete List of Teaching Methods

assignment of methods of teaching

Teaching Methods: Not as Simple as ABC

Teaching methods [teacher-centered], teaching methods [student-centered], what about blended learning and udl, teaching methods: a to z, for the love of teaching.

Whether you’re a longtime educator, preparing to start your first teaching job or mapping out your dream of a career in the classroom, the topic of teaching methods is one that means many different things to different people.

Your individual approaches and strategies to imparting knowledge to your students and inspiring them to learn are probably built on your academic education as well as your instincts and intuition.

Whether you come by your preferred teaching methods organically or by actively studying educational theory and pedagogy, it can be helpful to have a comprehensive working knowledge of the various teaching methods at your disposal.

[Download] Get the Complete List of Teaching Methods PDF Now >>

The teacher-centered approach vs. the student-centered approach. High-tech vs. low-tech approaches to learning. Flipped classrooms, differentiated instruction, inquiry-based learning, personalized learning and more.

Not only are there dozens of teaching methods to explore, it is also important to have a sense for how they often overlap or interrelate. One extremely helpful look at this question is offered by the teacher-focused education website Teach.com.

“Teaching theories can be organized into four categories based on two major parameters: a teacher-centered approach versus a student-centered approach, and high-tech material use versus low-tech material use,” according to the informative Teach.com article , which breaks down a variety of influential teaching methods as follows:

Teacher-Centered Approach to Learning Teachers serve as instructor/authority figures who deliver knowledge to their students through lectures and direct instruction, and aim to measure the results through testing and assessment. This method is sometimes referred to as “sage on the stage.”

Student-Centered Approach to Learning Teachers still serve as an authority figure, but may function more as a facilitator or “guide on the side,” as students assume a much more active role in the learning process. In this method, students learn from and are continually assessed on such activities as group projects, student portfolios and class participation.

High-Tech Approach to Learning From devices like laptops and tablets to using the internet to connect students with information and people from around the world, technology plays an ever-greater role in many of today’s classrooms. In the high-tech approach to learning, teachers utilize many different types of technology to aid students in their classroom learning.

Low-Tech Approach to Learning Technology obviously comes with pros and cons, and many teachers believe that a low-tech approach better enables them to tailor the educational experience to different types of learners. Additionally, while computer skills are undeniably necessary today, this must be balanced against potential downsides; for example, some would argue that over-reliance on spell check and autocorrect features can inhibit rather than strengthen student spelling and writing skills.

Diving further into the overlap between different types of teaching methods, here is a closer look at three teacher-centered methods of instruction and five popular student-centered approaches.

Direct Instruction (Low Tech) Under the direct instruction model — sometimes described as the “traditional” approach to teaching — teachers convey knowledge to their students primarily through lectures and scripted lesson plans, without factoring in student preferences or opportunities for hands-on or other types of learning. This method is also customarily low-tech since it relies on texts and workbooks rather than computers or mobile devices.

Flipped Classrooms (High Tech) What if students did the “classroom” portion of their learning at home and their “homework” in the classroom? That’s an oversimplified description of the flipped classroom approach, in which students watch or read their lessons on computers at home and then complete assignments and do problem-solving exercises in class.

Kinesthetic Learning (Low Tech) In the kinesthetic learning model, students perform hands-on physical activities rather than listening to lectures or watching demonstrations. Kinesthetic learning, which values movement and creativity over technological skills, is most commonly used to augment traditional types of instruction — the theory being that requiring students to do, make or create something exercises different learning muscles.

Differentiated Instruction (Low Tech) Inspired by the 1975 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), enacted to ensure equal access to public education for all children, differentiated instruction is the practice of developing an understanding of how each student learns best, and then tailoring instruction to meet students’ individual needs.

In some instances, this means Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) for students with special needs, but today teachers use differentiated instruction to connect with all types of learners by offering options on how students access content, the types of activities they do to master a concept, how student learning is assessed and even how the classroom is set up.

Inquiry-Based Learning (High Tech) Rather than function as a sole authority figure, in inquiry-based learning teachers offer support and guidance as students work on projects that depend on them taking on a more active and participatory role in their own learning. Different students might participate in different projects, developing their own questions and then conducting research — often using online resources — and then demonstrate the results of their work through self-made videos, web pages or formal presentations.

Expeditionary Learning (Low Tech) Expeditionary learning is based on the idea that there is considerable educational value in getting students out of the classroom and into the real world. Examples include trips to City Hall or Washington, D.C., to learn about the workings of government, or out into nature to engage in specific study related to the environment. Technology can be used to augment such expeditions, but the primary focus is on getting out into the community for real-world learning experiences.

Personalized Learning (High Tech) In personalized learning, teachers encourage students to follow personalized, self-directed learning plans that are inspired by their specific interests and skills. Since assessment is also tailored to the individual, students can advance at their own pace, moving forward or spending extra time as needed. Teachers offer some traditional instruction as well as online material, while also continually reviewing student progress and meeting with students to make any needed changes to their learning plans.

Game-Based Learning (High Tech) Students love games, and considerable progress has been made in the field of game-based learning, which requires students to be problem solvers as they work on quests to accomplish a specific goal. For students, this approach blends targeted learning objectives with the fun of earning points or badges, much like they would in a video game. For teachers, planning this type of activity requires additional time and effort, so many rely on software like Classcraft or 3DGameLab to help students maximize the educational value they receive from within the gamified learning environment.

Blended Learning Blended learning  is another strategy for teachers looking to introduce flexibility into their classroom. This method relies heavily on technology, with part of the instruction taking place online and part in the classroom via a more traditional approach, often leveraging elements of the flipped classroom approach detailed above. At the heart of blended learning is a philosophy of taking the time to understand each student’s learning style and develop strategies to teach to every learner, by building flexibility and choice into your curriculum.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) UDL incorporates both student-centered learning and the “multiple intelligences theory,” which holds that different learners are wired to learn most effectively in different ways (examples of these “intelligences” include visual-spatial, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, musical, etc.). In practice, this could mean that some students might be working on a writing project while others would be more engaged if they created a play or a movie. UDL emphasizes the idea of teaching to every student, special needs students included, in the general education classroom, creating community and building knowledge through multiple means.

In addition to the many philosophical and pedagogical approaches to teaching, classroom educators today employ diverse and sometimes highly creative methods involving specific strategies, prompts and tools that require little explanation. These include:

  • Appointments with students
  • Art-based projects
  • Audio tutorials
  • Author’s chair
  • Book reports
  • Bulletin boards
  • Brainstorming
  • Case studies
  • Chalkboard instruction
  • Class projects
  • Classroom discussion
  • Classroom video diary
  • Collaborative learning spaces
  • Creating murals and montages
  • Current events quizzes
  • Designated quiet space
  • Discussion groups
  • DIY activities
  • Dramatization (plays, skits, etc.)
  • Educational games
  • Educational podcasts
  • Essays (Descriptive)
  • Essays (Expository)
  • Essays (Narrative)
  • Essays (Persuasive)
  • Exhibits and displays
  • Explore different cultures
  • Field trips
  • Flash cards
  • Flexible seating
  • Gamified learning plans
  • Genius hour
  • Group discussion
  • Guest speakers
  • Hands-on activities
  • Individual projects
  • Interviewing
  • Laboratory experiments
  • Learning contracts
  • Learning stations
  • Literature circles
  • Making posters
  • Mock conventions
  • Motivational posters
  • Music from other countries/cultures
  • Oral reports
  • Panel discussions
  • Peer partner learning
  • Photography
  • Problem solving activities
  • Reading aloud
  • Readers’ theater
  • Reflective discussion
  • Research projects
  • Rewards & recognition
  • Role playing
  • School newspapers
  • Science fairs
  • Sister city programs
  • Spelling bees
  • Storytelling
  • Student podcasts
  • Student portfolios
  • Student presentations
  • Student-conceived projects
  • Supplemental reading assignments
  • Team-building exercises
  • Term papers
  • Textbook assignments
  • Think-tac-toe
  • Time capsules
  • Use of community or local resources
  • Video creation
  • Video lessons
  • Vocabulary lists

So, is the teacher the center of the educational universe or the student? Does strong reliance on the wonders of technology offer a more productive educational experience or is a more traditional, lower-tech approach the best way to help students thrive?

Questions such as these are food for thought for educators everywhere, in part because they inspire ongoing reflection on how to make a meaningful difference in the lives of one’s students.

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In our free guide, you can learn about a variety of teaching methods to adopt in the classroom.

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What is Your Teaching Style? 5 Effective Teaching Methods for Your Classroom

Every teacher has her or his own style of teaching. And as traditional teaching styles evolve with the advent of differentiated instruction, more and more teachers are adjusting their approach depending on their students’ learning needs.

But there are a few fundamental teaching styles most educators tend to use. Which one is yours?

You’ve Got Style

These teaching styles highlight the five main strategies teachers use in the classroom, as well as the benefits and potential pitfalls of each.

Infographic: Common teaching styles - classroom teaching styles. Authority or lecture style (teacher-centered), demonstrator or coach style (shows knowledge, includes activities and demonstrations), facilitator or activity style (promote self-learning, self-actualization, critical thinking skills), delegator or group style (best for lab activities and peer feedback activities), and hybrid or blended style (blends the teacher's personality and interests with students' needs).

The Authority, or lecture style

The authority model is teacher-centered and frequently entails lengthy lecture sessions or one-way presentations. Students are expected to take notes or absorb information.

  • Pros : This style is acceptable for certain higher-education disciplines and auditorium settings with large groups of students. The pure lecture style is most suitable for subjects like history, which necessitate memorization of key facts, dates, names, etc.
  • Cons : It’s a questionable model for teaching children because there is little or no interaction with the teacher. Plus it can get a little snooze-y. That’s why it’s a better approach for older, more mature students.

The Demonstrator, or coach style

The demonstrator retains the formal authority role by showing students what they need to know. The demonstrator is a lot like the lecturer, but their lessons include multimedia presentations, activities, and demonstrations. (Think: Math. Science. Music.)

  • Pros : This style gives teachers opportunities to incorporate a variety of formats including lectures and multimedia presentations.
  • Cons : Although it’s well-suited for teaching mathematics, music, physical education, or arts and crafts, it is difficult to accommodate students’ individual needs in larger classrooms.

The Facilitator, or activity style

Facilitators promote self-learning and help students develop critical thinking skills and retain knowledge that leads to self-actualization.

  • Pros : This style trains students to ask questions and helps develop skills to find answers and solutions through exploration; it is ideal for teaching science and similar subjects.
  • Cons : Challenges teacher to interact with students and prompt them toward discovery rather than lecturing facts and testing knowledge through memorization. So it’s a bit harder to measure success in tangible terms.

The Delegator, or group style

The delegator style is best suited for curricula that require lab activities, such as chemistry and biology, or subjects that warrant peer feedback, like debate and creative writing.

  • Pros : Guided discovery and inquiry-based learning place the teacher in an observer role that inspires students by working in tandem toward common goals.
  • Cons : Considered a modern style of teaching, it is sometimes criticized as eroding teacher authority. As a delegator, the teacher acts more as a consultant rather than the traditional authority figure.

The Hybrid, or blended style

Hybrid, or blended style, follows an integrated approach to teaching that blends the teacher’s personality and interests with students’ needs and curriculum-appropriate methods.

  • Pros : Inclusive! And it enables teachers to tailor their styles to student needs and appropriate subject matter.
  • Cons : Hybrid style runs the risk of trying to be too many things to all students, prompting teachers to spread themselves too thin and dilute learning.

Because teachers have styles that reflect their distinct personalities and curriculum—from math and science to English and history—it’s crucial that they remain focused on their teaching objectives and avoid trying to be all things to all students.

What you need to know about your teaching style

Although it is not the teacher’s job to entertain students, it is vital to engage them in the learning process. Selecting a style that addresses the needs of diverse students at different learning levels begins with a personal inventory—a self-evaluation—of the teacher’s strengths and weaknesses. As they develop their teaching styles and integrate them with effective classroom management skills, teachers will learn what works best for their personalities and curriculum.

Our guide encapsulates today’s different teaching styles and helps teachers identify the style that’s right for them and their students. Browse through the article or use these links to jump to your desired destination.

  • What is a teaching style inventory, and how have teaching styles evolved?
  • What teaching method is best for today’s students?

How does classroom diversity influence teachers?

Emergence of the teaching style inventory.

How have teaching styles evolved? This is a question teachers are asked, and frequently ask themselves, as they embark on their careers, and occasionally pause along the way to reflect on job performance. To understand the differences in teaching styles, it’s helpful to know where the modern concept of classifying teaching methods originated.

The late Anthony F. Grasha, a noted professor of psychology at the University of Cincinnati, is credited with developing the classic five teaching styles. A follower of psychiatrist Carl Jung, Grasha began studying the dynamics of the relationship between teachers and learning in college classrooms. His groundbreaking book, Teaching with Style , was written both as a guide for teachers and as a tool to help colleagues, administrators and students systematically evaluate an instructor’s effectiveness in the classroom.

Grasha understood that schools must use a consistent, formal approach in evaluating a teacher’s classroom performance. He recognized that any system designed to help teachers improve their instructional skills requires a simple classification system. He developed a teaching style inventory that has since been adopted and modified by followers.

  • Expert : Similar to a coach, experts share knowledge, demonstrate their expertise, advise students, and provide feedback to improve understanding and promote learning.
  • Formal authority : Authoritative teachers incorporate the traditional lecture format and share many of the same characteristics as experts, but with less student interaction.
  • Personal model : Incorporates blended teaching styles that match the best techniques with the appropriate learning scenarios and students in an adaptive format.
  • Facilitator : Designs participatory learning activities and manages classroom projects while providing information and offering feedback to facilitate critical thinking.
  • Delegator : Organizes group learning, observes students, provides consultation, and promotes interaction between groups and among individuals to achieve learning objectives.

Although he developed specific teaching styles, Grasha warned against boxing teachers into a single category. Instead, he advocated that teachers play multiple roles in the classroom. He believed most teachers possess some combination of all or most of the classic teaching styles.

How does differentiated instruction affect teaching styles?

Carol Ann Tomlinson, a professor at the University of Virginia, is an early advocate of differentiated instruction and a pioneer in the development of learning-based teaching styles. If Grasha laid the groundwork for 20th-century teachers to adopt styles tailored to match their personalities and strengths, Tomlinson has advanced this theme into the 21st century by focusing on differentiated instruction.

In the simplest terms, differentiated instruction means keeping all students in mind when developing lesson plans and workbook exercises, lectures, and interactive learning. These student-focused differences necessitate instructional styles that embrace diverse classrooms for students at all learning levels and from various backgrounds without compromising the teacher’s strengths.

What teaching style is best for today’s students?

Whether you’re a first-year teacher eager to put into practice all of the pedagogical techniques you learned in college, or a classroom veteran examining differentiated instruction and new learning methodologies, consider that not all students respond well to one particular style. Although teaching styles have been categorized into five groups, today’s ideal teaching style is not an either/or proposition but more of a hybrid approach that blends the best of everything a teacher has to offer.

The traditional advice that teachers not overreach with a cluster of all-encompassing teaching styles might seem to conflict with today’s emphasis on student-centered classrooms. Theoretically, the more teachers emphasize student-centric learning, the harder it is to develop a well-focused style based on their personal attributes, strengths, and goals.

In short, modern methods of teaching require different types of teachers—from the analyst/organizer to the negotiator/consultant. Here are some other factors to consider as teachers determine the best teaching method for their students.

Empty vessel : Critics of the “sage on the stage” lecture style point to the “empty vessel” theory, which assumes a student’s mind is essentially empty and needs to be filled by the “expert” teacher. Critics of this traditional approach to teaching insist this teaching style is outmoded and needs to be updated for the diverse 21st-century classroom.

Active vs. passive : Proponents of the traditional lecture approach believe that an overemphasis on group-oriented participatory teaching styles, like facilitator and delegator, favor gifted and competitive students over passive children with varied learning abilities, thereby exacerbating the challenges of meeting the needs of all learners.

Knowledge vs. information : Knowledge implies a complete understanding, or full comprehension, of a particular subject. A blend of teaching styles that incorporate facilitator, delegator, demonstrator, and lecturer techniques helps the broadest range of students acquire in-depth knowledge and mastery of a given subject. This stands in contrast to passive learning, which typically entails memorizing facts, or information, with the short-term objective of scoring well on tests.

Interactive classrooms : Laptops and tablets, video conferencing, and podcasts in classrooms play a vital role in today’s teaching styles. With technology in mind, it is imperative that teachers assess their students’ knowledge while they are learning. The alternative is to wait for test results, only to discover knowledge gaps that should have been detected during the active learning phase.

Constructivist teaching methods : Contemporary teaching styles tend to be group-focused and inquiry-driven. Constructivist teaching methods embrace subsets of alternative teaching styles, including modeling, coaching, and test preparation through rubrics scaffolding. All of these are designed to promote student participation and necessitate a hybrid approach to teaching. One criticism of the constructivist approach is that it caters to extroverted, group-oriented students, who tend to dominate and benefit from these teaching methods more than introverts; however, this assumes introverts aren’t learning by observing.

Student-centric learning does not have to come at the expense of an instructor’s preferred teaching method. However, differentiated instruction demands that teachers finesse their style to accommodate the diverse needs of 21st-century classrooms.

The ‘sage on the stage’ meets the ‘tiger mom’

The objective of blending teaching styles to leverage the teacher’s strengths while meeting the demands of diverse students has become increasingly difficult, as parents take a decidedly proactive role in child-learning techniques.

The traditional authoritative/expert, or “sage on the stage” lecture style, has come under attack by some parents—and contemporary educational leaders—who emphasize that a more diverse approach to teaching is necessary to engage students. This is compounded by the rise of “tiger moms,” a term made popular by parents devoted to improving the quality of education with laser-precision focus on A-list schools and a highly competitive job market.

Age of the proactive parent

Regardless of what style a teacher adopts, it’s important for teachers to develop positive attitudes, set goals, and establish high expectations for students.

“Assume students can excel!” education authors Harry and Rosemary Wong declare. As former teachers with a combined 80-plus years of educational experience, the Wongs emphasize in their best-selling book, The First Days of School: How to Be an Effective Teacher and their more recent, The Classroom Management Book that successful teachers share three common characteristics:

  • effective classroom management skills
  • lesson mastery
  • positive expectations

All instructors, when developing their teaching styles, should keep in mind these three goals, as well as the primary objective of education: student learning.

It is abundantly clear that today’s teachers are responsible for students with a diverse range of learning abilities. The 21st-century teacher does not have the luxury of “picking the low-hanging fruit” and then leaving the rest of the tree for experts who specialize in children with behavioral issues or learning disorders.

Today’s teachers must develop instructional styles that work well in diverse classrooms. Effective teaching methods engage gifted students, as well as slow-learning children and those with attention deficit tendencies. This is where differentiated instruction and a balanced mix of teaching styles can help reach all students in a given classroom—not just the few who respond well to one particular style of teaching.

The wonderment of teaching, what author/educator Dr. Harry Wong refers to as “that a-ha moment” when a child “gets it,” is one of the most rewarding and seemingly elusive benefits of becoming a teacher. This transfer of knowledge from expert to student is an art form and a skill. Fortunately, both can be learned and perfected.

Knowing how to engage students begins with selecting the teaching style that’s right for you. And remember, even though you may prefer one teaching style over another, you must find the style that works best for your students! Try different styles to meet different objectives, and always challenge yourself to find ways to reach each student.

You may also like to read

  • Effective Teaching Strategies for Adolescent Literacy Teachers
  • Effective Teaching Strategies for Special Education
  • Activities for Teaching Tolerance in the Classroom
  • Interactive Teaching Styles Used in the Classroom

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Teaching Methods Overview

The Faculty Center promotes research-based instructional strategies and classroom techniques that improve student performance and learning. Because instruction at UCF takes place in many formats, environments, and class sizes, there is no single most effective teaching method for all contexts. However, research does support a practical range of methods that can be adapted to the various circumstances in which we teach. These strategies fall somewhere on the continuum illustrated below between teacher- and student-directed. We hope the resources on these pages will help you develop a repertoire of evidence-based instructional strategies that meet your and your students’ needs. Refer also to our Learning Spaces pages for strategies and techniques to implement active learning in various classroom configurations . Finally, a synopsis of teaching and learning principles from various sources helps frame some beneficial strategies to improve student learning.

Teaching Strategies Spectrum

We have provided short descriptions and links to more information for best practice for some popular teaching methods below. They are presented in order from more teacher-directed to more student-directed. For a video discussion of the above, please view the following brief video:

Lecture—Showing/Telling

Direct instruction is a widely used and effective instructional strategy that is strongly supported by research. In direct instruction, the teacher

  • models an interaction with the subject, demonstrates an approach to an issue, or shows example solutions to problems,
  • provides opportunities for guided practice, often assigning small group work in class with an emphasis on constructive feedback, and
  • assigns independent practice with an emphasis on mastery learning.

Lecture can help students organize extensive readings, but it should not be used to simply duplicate those readings. Because learning results from what students do, lectures should be crafted so that students are intentionally active as much as is reasonable. Direct instruction can be easily combined with other teaching methods and can be transferred to online teaching by using videos for the modeling stage and discussion groups for the guided practice stage.

Worked Examples

Worked examples are step-by-step demonstrations of how to complete a problem or perform a task. Concepts are first introduced in their simplest form, then the teacher gradually progresses from simple to complex procedures. Worked examples are a way to impart information. Therefore, the process is considered a form of lecturing. Worked examples are particularly useful in STEM fields, and are most effective when learners are not already familiar with the processes being presented. Students must actually work their way through the examples, rather than skip over them to homework problems, in order to see real benefit.

This sample video from Khan Academy gives a sense of how worked examples play out in practice.

Interactive Lecture

Many instructors build their lectures around questions that students, individually or in small groups, can answer using colored flashcards or polling technologies like clickers or BYOD apps. The advantage to using polling technologies is their scalability, ease of providing collective feedback on student performance, and integration with the online gradebook for uploading participation or quiz points. Other interactive techniques involve short writing exercises, quick pairings or small group discussions, individual or collaborative problem solving, or drawing for understanding. We also have a list of suggested interactive techniques .

View the following video for some ideas about good practices for lecturing:

Flipped Classroom

In the basic structure of a “flipped classroom,” the students first engage the content online (through readings, video lectures, or podcasts), then come to class for the guided practice. It requires explicit communication of learning objectives, procedures, roles, and assessment criteria. It requires a detailed curriculum design organized around scaffolding learning toward mastery. Some critics equate direct instruction with just lecturing; however, here the term is used as “directing” student learning. In direct instruction, the role of the teacher is similar to that of a coach.

Many faculty opt to create video lectures using PowerPoint. The steps are simple: after the slides are ready, click the Slide Show tab and locate the “Record” icon near the middle. The slideshow will start, and audio will be captured for each slide. Upon completion, click File-SaveAs and switch the filetype from .pptx to .mwv or .mp4. After the video file is created, many faculty upload the video to YouTube for maximum accessibility, and link to it (or embed) from Webcourses.

For a basic introduction and resources on flipped classrooms, see https://www.edutopia.org/topic/flipped-classroom . For a more theory-based introduction, see Vanderbilt University’s discussion . Finally, please view our brief video:

Socratic Questioning

Socratic questioning involves the teacher’s facilitation of critical thinking in students by dint of carefully designed questions. The classic Greek philosopher, Socrates, believed that thoughtful questioning enabled students to examine questions logically. His technique was to profess ignorance of the topic in order to promote student knowledge. R. W. Paul has suggested six categories of Socratic questions: questions for clarification, questions that probe assumptions, questions that probe evidence and reasoning, questions about viewpoints and perspectives, questions that probe implications and consequences, and questions about the question.

See Intel.com’s article on the topic for a good overview of Socratic questioning, and view our following video:

Discussion-Based Learning

One of the primary purposes of discussion-based learning is to facilitate students’ meaningful transition into the extended conversation that is each academic discipline. Discussions allow students to practice applying their learning and developing their critical-thinking skills in real-time interactions with other viewpoints. Often, the challenge for the teacher is to get students to engage in discussions as opportunities to practice reasoning skills rather than simply exchanging opinions. One tip for addressing this challenge is to create a rubric for assessing the discussion and to assign certain students to act as evaluators who provide feedback at the end of the discussion. Students rotate into this role throughout the semester, which also benefits their development of metacognitive skills.

See the Tip Sheets at Harvard’s Bok Center for practice ideas on discussion questions and discussion leading.

The Faculty Center also offers the following brief video on discussion-based learning:

Case-Based Learning

Case-based learning is used widely across many disciplines, and collections of validated cases are available online, often bundled with handouts, readings, assessments, and tips for the teacher. Cases range from scenarios that can be addressed in a single setting, sometimes within minutes, to sequential or iterative cases that require multiple settings and multiple learning activities to arrive at multiple valid outcomes. They can be taught in a one-to-many format using polling technologies or in small teams with group reports. Ideally, all cases should be debriefed in plenary discussion to help students synthesize their learning.

For discipline-specific case studies repositories, check out the following:

  • National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (Science topics) http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/
  • Online based-based biology for community colleges (Biology/Ecology topics) http://bioquest.org/lifelines/cases_ecoenviro.html
  • Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media (History topics) http://chnm.gmu.edu/worldhistorysources/whmteaching.html
  • Science Case Net (Sciences) http://sciencecasenet.org/resources/
  • NASPAA Publicases repository (Public Administration, Public Policy topics) https://www.publicases.org/listing/

Collaborative Learning

Learning in groups is common practice across all levels of education. The value of learning in groups is well supported by research and is required in many disciplines. It has strong benefits for at-risk students, especially in STEM subjects. In more structured group assignments, students are often given roles that allow them to focus on specific tasks and then cycle through those roles in subsequent activities. Common classroom activities for groups include: “think-pair-share”, fishbowl debates, case studies, problem solving, jigsaw.

  • Center for Teaching at Vanderbilt University website

Inquiry-Based Learning

Inquiry-based learning encompasses a range of question-driven approaches that seek to increase students’ self-direction in their development of critical-thinking and problem-solving skills. As students gain expertise, the instructor decreases guidance and direction and students take on greater responsibility for operations. Effective teaching in this mode requires accurate assessment of prior knowledge and motivation to determine the scaffolding interventions needed to compensate for the increased cognitive demands on novices. This scaffolding can be provided by the instructor through worked scenarios, process worksheets, opportunities for learner-reflection, and consultations with individuals or small groups. Students are generally allowed to practice and fail with subsequent opportunities to revise and improve performance based on feedback from peers and/or the instructor.

For a basic definition and tips about inquiry-based learning, see Teach-nology.com’s resources.

Problem-Based Learning

Often referred to as PBL, this method is similar to the case study method, except the intention is generally to keep the problem, the process, and the outcomes more ambiguous than is comfortable for students. PBL asks students to experience and struggle with radical uncertainty. Your role as the teacher is to create an intentionally ill-structured problem and a deadline for a deliverable, assign small groups (with or without defined roles), optionally offer some preparation, and resist giving clear, comfortable assessment guidance.

To learn more about problem-based learning, go here: https://citl.illinois.edu/citl-101/teaching-learning/resources/teaching-strategies/problem-based-learning-(pbl)

Project-Based Learning

Project-based learning is similar to problem-based learning, and both can be referred to as PBL, but in project-based learning, the student comes up with the problem or question to research. Often, the project’s deliverable is a creative product, which can increase student engagement and long-term learning, but it can also result in the student investing more time and resources into creative production at the expense of the academic content. When assigning projects to groups that include novice students, you should emphasize the need for equitable contributions to the assignment. Assessments should address differences in effort and allow students to contribute to the evaluations of their peers.

Learn more about project-based learning here: http://www.bu.edu/ctl/guides/project-based-learning/

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Teaching Methods

Choosing optimal methods to support learning outcomes.

On this page:

The importance of teaching methods.

Teaching methods are the broader techniques used to help students achieve learning outcomes, while activities are the different ways of implementing these methods. Teaching methods help students:

  • master the content of the course
  • learn how to apply the content in particular contexts

Instructors should identify which teaching methods will properly support a particular learning outcome. Its effectiveness depends on this alignment. To make the most appropriate choice, an instructor should consider learning outcomes, student needs and the learning environment.

Consider the following example:

  • Learning outcome: Solve a complex math equation.
  • Learning environment: An in person, upper-level math course with 20 students.
  • Teaching method: Guided instruction. First, the instructor facilitates learning by modeling and scaffolding. Students take time to  ask questions and receive clarifications. Next, students practice applying these skills together and then independently. The instructor uses formative assessment to check for understanding.

This example demonstrates alignment of what the instructor wants students to do, and how they are supported in these tasks. If the instructor choses a different teaching method, such as a traditional lecture, students would need to process the lecture’s content and apply principles simultaneously. This is very difficult to do and would lead to less successful outcomes.

Choosing the appropriate teaching method brings instruction to life while encouraging students to actively engage with content and develop their knowledge and skills.

The chart below provides a number of teaching methods to choose from. Teaching methods vary in their approach, some are more student-centered while others are more instructor centered, and you will see this reflected in the chart. Choose methods that will best guide your students to achieve the learning outcomes you’ve set and remember that your teaching approach, teaching methods and activities all work together.

Table adapted from: Nilson (2016)

Choose Your Methods

Using the Course Design Template   explore the aspects that will likely affect your course.

  • Step 1: Review your learning outcomes.
  • Step 2: Identify the teaching methods that best align to these learning outcomes and fill in the appropriate column.
  • Step 3: Consider possible activities which will next be examined in further detail.

Now that you’ve reviewed a variety of teaching methods and considered which ones align with your learning outcomes, the next step is to consider activities.

  • Nilson, L. B. (2016). Teaching at Its Best: A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors (Fourth). John Wiley & Sons.

Center for Teaching & Learning home

Teaching Methods

Ruth Buskirk in her biology lab.

Who's doing this at UT?

Ruth Buskirk , Biological Sciences,  designs her courses by thinking about what she wants her students to know and be able to do by the end of the course. She then decides which teaching methods would best help students achieve these learning outcomes. The deeper the understanding, the more active learning she puts into the class. Active learning, she believes, also increases engagement greatly and improves retention.

How Can I Do This?

The teaching methods you choose reflect the type and depth of learning that you want your students to achieve. The deeper the understanding expected from students, the more active they have to be in their learning. When you think about the learning outcomes for your course, module, or lesson, consider which method will help students: 

Most of our courses are content driven, which means students need to get information from various sources. It is important for students to turn this information into their own knowledge for them to be able to retrieve and use it. You can do this through:

  • Effective Lectures
  • Peer to peer learning 
  • Learning from texts and videos 

The one who does the work does the learning. Students need to practice applying their knowledge to have a deeper understanding of the content and to make it more meaningful and transferable. Encouraging analysis and evaluation develops critical thinking. You can do this through:

  • Interactive lecture activities
  • Problem solving
  • Group learning 
  • Discussions
  • Learn More about Critical Thinking

Students need opportunities to apply their knowledge and critical thinking toward something generative and productive. Guiding students to conduct research, contribute through artistic expression, develop new theories or practical solutions, or present something they’ve put together for themselves develops creative thinking. You can do this through:

  • Inquiry/problem-based learning
  • Experiential learning

Why Is This Important?

Not all learning opportunities are nails, and therefore not all teaching methods are hammers. It’s easy to fall into an instructional rut based on what we’ve always done or how we were taught. Using the right approach that aligns with your outcomes helps your students reach the targeted level of learning.

Students should be given a variety of ways to learn because it can play to their strengths while also giving them practice with less-developed modes of learning. Variety of instructional strategies not only appeals to a broader range of students, but reinforces learning in multiple ways.

Students aren't the only ones to be motivated by the stimulation of creative class time. Instructors also experience a renewed joy of teaching when a fresh approach gets through to students in new ways, or a clever tweak to a particular lesson unlocks deeper learning. Stoking the coals of teaching will keep the flames of learning burning strong.

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Instructional Strategies

Engagement is essential for learning.

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Experiential Learning

Any method that supports students in applying their knowledge and conceptual understanding to real-world problems (critical thinking and/or research).

Flipped Classroom Flow Model

Flipped Classroom

The flipped class reverses the traditional setup: students acquire basic content outside of class, and then work together in class on application-oriented activities.

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The Ultimate Guide to Teaching Methods for Modern-Day Teachers

Two students talk to a teacher using modern teaching methods in her classroom.

Written by Maria Kampen

Easily differentiate learning and engage your students with Prodigy Math Game.

  • Teaching Strategies

Why teaching methods continue to evolve

18 modern teaching methods to explore, teaching methods for students with special needs.

Finding the right modern teaching method for your classroom can be tricky.

Every student, teacher and classroom is different — and that’s one of the wonderful things about the learning process! As you continue in your teaching practice, you’ll try new teaching methods and find out what works best for your students. 

We’ve uncovered some of the best modern teaching methods that are actually driving results in the classroom. Keep reading to find out how to use them to help students reach their full potential and build happy, effective classrooms.

Countless edtech innovations, a better understanding of student learning and new approaches to teaching strategies means your toolkit is so much bigger than a blackboard and chalk.

Today’s teachers face lots of challenges and have lots of opportunities:

  • The shift to remote learning exposed inequality in classrooms, but also offered new ways for students to engage with interactive learning experiences.
  • New edtech innovations connect classroom learning with real-world digital skills.
  • Changing ideas about education and pedagogy have added new learning objectives like social-emotional learning, differentiation and personalized learning. 

Don’t be afraid to try new ways for students to learn and stay engaged. Keep reading to find out which teaching style works best for your classroom!

A teacher uses new teaching methods with a student at the whiteboard in english class.

1. Direct Instruction

Best for: All ages, when combined with other teaching methods

Direct instruction is when you explicitly convey concepts and skills to students , rather than letting them learn on their own. 

While it might seem odd to start off a list of modern teaching methods with a technique that’s been the foundation of traditional classroom instruction for hundreds of years, direct instruction allows you to layer on more recent teaching strategies.

When combined with other teaching strategies, direct instruction is a useful tool for boosting student comprehension! Today, it can include anything from lectures and educational videos to tutorials and workshops. 

Students attend a classroom lecture about ecological diversity, then watch a video from a local conservation group about efforts to preserve local habitats. This direct instruction helps you explain the requirements of a service learning project they’re doing to clean up the park near their school. 

More on service learning in a bit!

2. Flipped classrooms

Three young female students participate in a flipped classroom activity.

Best for: Late elementary and up, or any students who can work independently

Homework at home, lectures at school — that’s how it’s usually done. But in flipped classrooms, students absorb information on their own time, and use in-class time for hands-on learning and problem solving. 

Also known as blended learning, flipped classrooms embrace new edtech innovations and prioritize face-to-face learning activities in order to boost student engagement. 

It helps students move at their own pace and gives you more time to provide one-on-one support where needed. When combined with techniques like experiential learning or inquiry-based learning, flipped classrooms can give students valuable hands-on experience. 

Students read an article about a specific scientific procedure at home, then come to class and do a hands-on experiment. They write up their findings and give a presentation about their results. While they work, you observe student work to spot learning gaps you can address in future lessons. 

Learn more in our blended learning models guide.

3. Kinesthetic learning

Best for: All ages

Kinesthetic learning is a specific learning style also known as tactile learning. Kinesthetic learners absorb information best when it’s presented through hands-on demonstrations , active learning and manipulatives.

Kinesthetic learning is a great modern teaching method for all learners because it gives students more ways to explore concepts and get hands-on, real-life experiences in their learning environment that translate to better learning outcomes. 

Students learning how to do multiplication participate in a variety of station rotation activities, including:

  • Answering multiplication questions in Prodigy Math Game   
  • Working with base ten blocks and other math manipulatives
  • Working in small groups with the teacher to address learning gaps 

4. Game-based learning

A student uses a tablet for game-based learning.

Best for: All ages, depending on the game

Game-based learning (GBL) is a modern teaching method that uses the power of games to define and support learning outcomes. Game-based learning actually uses games to teach, as opposed to gamification, which uses game elements like leaderboards and points to motivate learning. 

Educational games promote engagement, provide immediate rewards and feedback, and harness the power of healthy competition to keep kids excited to learn. 

Today’s students understand games, especially digital games, intimately. Edtech tools can help turn their love for video games into a love of learning, whether they’re at school or at home. 

Prodigy Math Game is a game-based learning platform designed to help students love practicing math skills. 

Plus, free teacher tools mean you can align Prodigy to whatever you’re teaching in the classroom in just a few easy steps. Set up a Plan for curriculum-aligned math practice on a new concept, or send students an Assigment to differentiate and assess learning progress. 

Screenshot of a question in Prodigy Math Game, a game-based learning platform.

Students won’t know they’re being assessed or doing homework — it’s all part of the adventure! Sign up for your free teacher account today to get started. 

Learn more about GBL in our guide to game-based learning .

5. Student-centered learning

Above all, student-centered learning involves students in decisions about their learning . It connects student interest to the classroom and builds an assessment framework to help them understand why the material is important and how it fits into everyday life. 

For better or worse, the internet has opened up new ways for students to receive information and engage with the world. Student-centered learning helps:

  • Give them the tools they need to engage with new topics
  • Make connections between topics and boost problem-solving skills 
  • Directly relate classroom lessons with what they’re experiencing outside of school

Interdisciplinary learning is a great way to tie student interests to your curriculum. Students can read a novel about a specific scientific discovery and submit a book report, or create a budget for marketing a made-up product in math class. Work with students to find out what they like, how they learn best and how the project will be assessed. 

6. Teacher-centered learning

Students learn using a teacher-centered teaching method.

Best for: Elementary and up — younger students may need more hands-on interaction to stay focused 

Teacher-centered learning is most similar to traditional classroom learning . Students learn mostly independently through lectures and receive clear instructions and rubrics from a central authority figure. 

Much like direct instruction, teacher-centered learning is useful to provide a foundation for other work. Most modern classrooms prioritize collaboration, group work and student exploration, for good reasons. But independent learning can reach different learning styles and give students a sense of personal accomplishment and accountability!

Teacher-centered learning can still be engaging and motivating for students. If you’re starting a new novel study or ELA unit, why not have students journal independently about what they think will happen in the story or what questions they have about the concept? They’ll practice their writing skills, and you can all come back at the end of the unit to see whose predictions were the most accurate.

7. Inquiry-based learning

Best for: Middle school and up

Inquiry-based learning is a teaching method that prioritizes student curiosity and independent analysis . Students work to find the answer to an open-ended question or problem, using evidence-based reasoning and problem-solving skills to reach a defendable conclusion. 

As a teacher, your role is to move students beyond mere curiosity and into critical thinking and understanding, encouraging them to ask questions and supporting them as they investigate. 

To help students develop analytical and critical thinking skills, have them write up a case study about a question they have. Students could:

  • Analyze the demographics of their school or city
  • Research the effectiveness of clean energy in their community
  • Look at the factors that contributed to a notable historical event 

Learn more about the different types of inquiry-based learning and what it could look like in your classroom.

8. Personalized learning

A teacher and student read a book together as part of a personalized learning plan.

Best for: Elementary and up

Personalized learning is an educational approach that tailors learning around individual students’ needs , interests and abilities. It helps you differentiate instruction for each student and help them achieve mastery.

Motivation, relatability, self-reflection and self-advocacy skills are all things that will help students succeed in the modern workforce, no matter their career. Personalized learning reaches students of all levels, helps them build these critical skills and focus their time with small group instruction. 

Short, regular formative assessments give students opportunities to show their knowledge and help you spot learning needs early. If you’re starting a new unit, pre-teach foundational concepts and use a quick journal entry to gauge understanding, then assess students throughout the unit with quick quizzes, presentations and assignments before a final test to ensure every student achieves mastery.

Check out seven more personalized learning strategies to use in your classroom. 

9. Project-based learning

Project-based learning is a student-centered teaching method to encourage learning through real-world questions or challenges. 

The questions should:

  • Be open-ended 
  • Encourage students to apply relevant skills or knowledge
  • Allow students to take their own approaches to answering and building a product

You give students the issue, method of investigation and any supplementary materials, and they go off and work — with your support as needed. It looks a little different every time, but project-based learning helps students develop critical thinking and interdisciplinary skills with real-world experience they’ll use for the rest of their life. 

Project-based learning options are many and varied, but can include:

  • Planning a school event
  • Researching the history of a simple machine
  • Designing a playground for their school using geometry skills

Get our ten best project-based learning ideas for boosting student outcomes.

10. Problem-based learning

Three students work together on a problem-based learning exercise.

Problem-based learning is like project-based learning, with one major difference: it gives students the problem at the start of a topic , before they’ve been taught some of the relevant concepts. 

Students receive an open-ended question and find their own information and resources. Your role as a teacher is to provide materials and guidance when needed, and explain the evaluation process. 

Problem-based learning helps build self-directed learners and is easy to personalize to the needs and learning styles of individual students. 

For an environmentally friendly problem-based learning project, start with a topic like classroom waste or ecology. Students can research and find solutions, and you can implement them together!

11. Collaborative learning

Collaborative learning is kind of like a bouquet of roses — while they might all have the same colours and shape on their own, together a bouquet is more than the sum of its parts. 

In collaborative learning, students are working on a common task and doing the same actions, but they’re working together to boost group performance and amplify learning. It’s a coordinated effort to find answers, research or create a final product every group member contributes to equally. 

Students are going to need to know how to work with peers at any age, and collaborative learning can help them start building valuable team-building skills. 

Use brainwriting as a collaborative learning activity that involves everyone. Introduce a discussion topic ahead of class. Have students brainstorm ahead of time and submit ideas anonymously or in-person. Everyone reads the submissions before class and uses them as a jumping-off point for class discussion. Even the shyest student may feel empowered to speak their mind!

12. Cooperative learning

Two students label a diagram of a cell on a whiteboard as part of a cooperative learning exercise.

If collaborative learning is a bouquet of roses, cooperative learning is a bunch of wildflowers — each one unique, but contributing to something beautiful. 

In cooperative learning projects, each student plays a different role in a structured group activity and makes unique contributions to the success of the group. Your role as teacher is to facilitate the groups and guide their research. 

Like collaborative learning, cooperative learning teaches students that every group member’s efforts are important to both individual and group success. This also encourages students to empower each other and be accountable for their work. 

Enhance learning with a jigsaw activity! Each student belongs to two groups: a home group and an expert group. Present students with a topic to research. Students will work with their expert group to learn about a specific sub-topic, then return to their home group and present their findings.

Learn more in our guide to cooperative learning . 

13. Thinking-based learning

In thinking-based learning, you explicitly teach students how to use critical and creative thinking skills in the context of everyday lessons. 

For thinking-based learning to be effective, educators should build it directly into the curriculum and all subjects — whether that’s understanding the why behind important math concepts or the biases in ELA study materials. 

Critical and creative thinking skills help students boost media literacy and understand all the information at their fingertips on a daily basis. A changing workforce means they’ll encounter new and unique challenges, and thinking-based learning can help them be successful. 

Challenge students to put their geometry and physics knowledge to the test and build solid structures with a variety of different materials. Afterwards, ask students to reflect on why some of their creations worked and why they didn’t, and what they would do differently next time.

14. Competency-based learning

Two students write a test in a classroom.

No matter what teaching method you’re using, competency-based education makes sure every student masters given skills before moving on to the next topic, unit, or even grade. 

It moves the focus off memorization and onto deep understanding demonstrated through hands-on application. It goes hand-in-hand with personalized learning to promote equity in the classroom and help students become better learners throughout their whole lives. 

Formative assessments like pre-quizzes and small projects can help you keep track of student learning and mastery. In an ELA class, have students build a portfolio of writing they contribute to regularly. You’ll be able to see their progress and they’ll feel a sense of accomplishment as they grow their writing and comprehension skills!

Find out more about what competency-based education is and how your school can use it.

15. Discussion-based learning

In discussion-based learning, you facilitate the discussion while students talk through problems in small groups.

Discussion-based learning helps promote critical thinking and independent learning, two essential skills for existing in the modern world. Students will learn to:

  • Find biases
  • Weigh evidence
  • Test conclusions

It’s a great way for you to model open-minded and respectful listening, and promotes engagement without relying on classroom technology. It can be tricky to get every student on board the first time, but persevere and you’ll start to see the benefits!

Have a discussion about a current news event or other lesson-related topic. Make materials and guide students through if they get stuck, but don’t dominate the conversation. Model respectful discussion skills and let students work through new ideas on their own. 

16. Play-based learning

A student plays with colorful play dough.

Best for: Pre-K, Kindergarten

Play-based learning is exactly what it sounds like: student learning through child-led and open-ended play . It’s a great way to help little learners become curious about the world around them and develop critical social skills!

Play-based learning isn’t just gamified classwork — it should be self-chosen and relatively unstructured to help build:

  • Imagination
  • Abstract thinking skills
  • Language skills for group play
  • Awareness of the natural world

For play-based learning time, break up the classroom into stations with different activities and materials, and allow students to move between stations freely. Stations can include:

  • Art supplies
  • Sensory play
  • Building blocks

Designate a certain amount of time into your lesson plans and let students’ imaginations run wild!

17. Service Learning

For a lesson as informative as it is impactful, try service learning. It combines academic goals with community service projects . Students get hands-on experience, a chance to make positive change and real-world examples of their curriculum come to life. 

While it’s more student-centered than traditional community service, service learning is still a valuable way for students to contribute positively to their communities and learn about the importance of being good citizens. 

There are lots of ways to do service learning, but one of our favorites is holding a book drive for a low-income school or younger grades. Students will get hands-on practice at organizing events, and they’ll learn about the importance of literacy.

Get more service learning ideas in The Teacher's Guide to Service Learning .

18. Social emotional learning

A class of young students sits in a row on benches and loots happy.

Social emotional learning is the process by which people, children and adults develop the knowledge, self-awareness and personal well-being to build emotional competencies in both academics and life. In particular, SEL can help your students:

  • Develop a growth mindset
  • Form positive relationships
  • Deal with challenging situations

School is a major source of social connection, and researchers agree students with well-developed social emotional skills see improved academic and social outcomes. Recent COVID-related school closures mean students lost out on a lot of social interaction, so placing an added focus on SEL skills is more important than ever!

There are lots of ways to meaningfully incorporate SEL in your classroom, including activities like:

  • Classroom yoga
  • Daily student check-ins
  • Meditation and brain breaks

For more SEL activities and resources, check out these 25 social emotional learning activities .

In the last few decades, education has begun to make more space for diverse learners — students with special needs, learning disabilities or even different learning styles. 

There’s still a long way to go when it comes to making our classrooms open and equitable, but many modern teaching methods are highly adaptable and address some of the issues diverse learners have in a traditional classroom. 

Ultimately, there’s no “best way” to teach, regardless of what kind of students you have in your class. There are, however, some general guidelines you can follow to make sure your instruction is as effective as possible:

  • Explain things using multiple methods. Before you start a service learning project, for example, be sure to pre-teach important information with multiple methods of instruction, including media, role-playing situations, hands-on demonstrations and more.  
  • Expect students to do their best, and don’t accept less. When you believe all your students are capable of great things, they will too. Don’t ignore or make a big deal of incorrect answers, but address them and work together to find the right solution. 
  • Get to know your students . At the beginning of the year or unit, send around a Google form and ask questions about their learning styles or what they’re excited to work on. Parent teacher conferences are also a great time to discuss specific learning needs and what is or isn’t working. 
  • Use modern teaching methodology designed to engage students. Gone are the days of memorization and silent classrooms. Don’t be afraid to try new things to find out what works best for you! Then ask for student feedback to learn more about which learning styles resonate best in your classroom.
  • Use individual, paired and group activities equally. When students learn together, they understand different learning needs and build respect. Intentional strategies like cooperative and collaborative learning give each student responsibility and more ways to process content, while individual learning lets students set their own pace and goals. 

When you try new teaching methods and flex your approach, every student benefits! It keeps them engaged, shows them you care about their learning and gives them an appreciation for different learning strategies. 

Above all, keep trying new things, getting feedback from students and communicating wtih parents.

Teaching students in the modern age of learning

A teacher talks to a student while standing in front of a whiteboard.

Education has come a long way in the past decades, whether it’s more effective teaching methods or new ways to harness students’ use of technology. 

When you constantly innovate and try new strategies, you give your students real-life experiences and help them develop a love of learning. So cheers to you, and keep going!

Prodigy Education is committed to being an industry leader in game-based learning.

Our adaptive math platform gives teachers free, flexible and easy-to-use tools that align student play with the classroom in just a few clicks. As students explore the Prodigy world, their success depends on correctly answering curriculum-aligned questions — and you get all the data on their learning progress. 

Sign up for your free teacher account today to get started!

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[2023] Effective Teaching Methods: Strategies for Success in the Classroom

Marti

  • July 29, 2023
  • Student Engagement

My friend Mo was fighting so he invited me to come along.  I took this picture of his coach and him in-between rounds.  Mo ended up winning the fight in a unanimous decision by the referee.

Teaching is an art that requires a combination of knowledge, skill, and creativity. As educators, we are constantly searching for effective teaching methods that will engage our students, promote learning, and create a positive classroom environment. In this comprehensive guide, we will explore a variety of teaching strategies that have been proven to be effective in the classroom. From online learning to game-based learning, we will cover it all. So, let's dive in and discover the strategies that will help you become a more effective teacher!

Table of Contents

Quick answer, quick tips and facts, 1. online learning, 2. experiential learning, 3. differentiation, 4. blended learning, 5. game-based learning, 6. student-centered learning, recommended links, reference links.

Effective teaching methods are strategies and techniques used by educators to engage students, promote learning, and create a positive classroom environment. These methods include online learning, experiential learning, differentiation, blended learning, game-based learning, and student-centered learning.

  • Effective teaching methods promote active learning and student engagement.
  • Different teaching methods work best for different subjects and learning styles.
  • It's important to adapt teaching methods to meet the needs of diverse learners.
  • Incorporating technology can enhance teaching and learning experiences.
  • Ongoing professional development is essential for teachers to stay current with effective teaching methods.

Now, let's explore each of these teaching methods in more detail.

Online learning has gained popularity in recent years, especially with the advancement of technology. It provides flexibility and accessibility to students, allowing them to learn at their own pace and in their own environment. Online learning can take various forms, including video lectures, interactive quizzes, discussion boards, and virtual simulations.

Key features and benefits of online learning:

  • Flexibility: Students can access course materials and complete assignments at their own convenience.
  • Personalized learning: Online platforms can provide personalized feedback and adaptive learning experiences based on individual student needs.
  • Access to resources: Online learning provides access to a wide range of resources, including multimedia content, e-books, and research databases.
  • Collaboration: Online platforms often include discussion boards and group projects, allowing students to collaborate with their peers.
  • Enhanced engagement: Multimedia elements, such as videos and interactive quizzes, can enhance student engagement and understanding.

✅ Recommended Online Learning Platforms:

  • Khan Academy

Experiential learning is a hands-on approach that encourages students to learn through direct experience. It involves activities such as experiments, field trips, simulations, and role-playing. By actively engaging in real-world experiences, students can gain a deeper understanding of the subject matter and develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

Key features and benefits of experiential learning:

  • Active engagement: Experiential learning encourages students to actively participate and engage in the learning process.
  • Real-world application: Students can apply theoretical knowledge to real-world situations, enhancing their understanding and retention.
  • Critical thinking: Experiential learning promotes critical thinking and problem-solving skills by challenging students to analyze and evaluate their experiences.
  • Collaboration: Group activities and projects foster collaboration and teamwork among students.
  • Motivation: Hands-on experiences can increase student motivation and interest in the subject matter.

✅ Recommended Experiential Learning Resources:

  • National Geographic Education
  • Project-Based Learning

Differentiation is a teaching approach that recognizes and addresses the diverse needs and abilities of students. It involves adapting instruction, assignments, and assessments to meet individual student needs. By providing varied learning experiences, teachers can ensure that all students have the opportunity to succeed.

Key features and benefits of differentiation:

  • Individualized instruction: Differentiation allows teachers to tailor instruction to meet the specific needs of each student.
  • Multiple learning modalities: Differentiation incorporates a variety of teaching strategies and resources to accommodate different learning styles.
  • Personalized feedback: Teachers can provide individualized feedback to guide student learning and growth.
  • Inclusive classroom environment: Differentiation promotes inclusivity and celebrates the diversity of students.
  • Increased student achievement: By addressing individual needs, differentiation can improve student engagement and academic performance.

✅ Recommended Differentiation Resources:

  • Teaching Tolerance
  • ReadWriteThink

Blended learning combines traditional face-to-face instruction with online learning experiences. It integrates technology into the classroom, allowing students to access resources and complete assignments both in-person and online. Blended learning offers the benefits of both traditional and online learning, providing a flexible and engaging learning environment.

Key features and benefits of blended learning:

  • Flexibility: Blended learning provides flexibility in terms of time, location, and pace of learning.
  • Personalized instruction: Online components can be tailored to individual student needs, providing personalized instruction and feedback.
  • Collaboration: Blended learning encourages collaboration and interaction among students through online discussions and group projects.
  • Enhanced engagement: Multimedia elements and interactive activities can enhance student engagement and understanding.
  • Data-driven instruction: Online platforms can provide data on student performance, allowing teachers to adjust instruction accordingly.

✅ Recommended Blended Learning Platforms:

  • Google Classroom

Game-based learning incorporates educational games and simulations into the classroom to promote engagement and enhance learning. By combining entertainment with education, students can develop critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making skills in a fun and interactive way.

Key features and benefits of game-based learning:

  • Engagement: Games capture students' attention and motivate them to actively participate in the learning process.
  • Active learning: Games require students to make decisions and solve problems, promoting active learning and critical thinking.
  • Immediate feedback: Games often provide immediate feedback, allowing students to learn from their mistakes and make improvements.
  • Collaboration: Multiplayer games encourage collaboration and teamwork among students.
  • Real-world application: Games can simulate real-world situations, allowing students to apply their knowledge and skills in a practical context.

✅ Recommended Game-based Learning Resources:

Student-centered learning focuses on the individual needs, interests, and abilities of students. It involves shifting the role of the teacher from the center of the classroom to a facilitator of learning. Students take an active role in their education, setting goals, making decisions, and reflecting on their learning experiences.

Key features and benefits of student-centered learning:

  • Autonomy: Students have a voice in their learning, allowing them to take ownership and responsibility for their education.
  • Personalized learning: Student-centered learning allows for individualized instruction and differentiation based on student needs and interests.
  • Collaboration: Students often work in groups, fostering collaboration and communication skills.
  • Critical thinking: Student-centered learning promotes critical thinking and problem-solving skills by challenging students to think independently and creatively.
  • Lifelong learning: By developing self-directed learning skills, students are prepared for lifelong learning beyond the classroom.

✅ Recommended Student-centered Learning Resources:

  • TeachThought

Woman standing in an office. She's standing and smiling at the camera.

What method of teaching is most effective?

The most effective method of teaching depends on various factors, including the subject matter, student needs, and learning goals. Different methods, such as online learning, experiential learning, differentiation, blended learning, game-based learning, and student-centered learning, have been proven to be effective in different contexts. It's important for teachers to adapt their teaching methods to meet the needs of their students.

What are the 5 methods of teaching?

The five methods of teaching commonly used in education are lecture, demonstration, discussion, cooperative learning, and hands-on learning. Each method has its own benefits and limitations, and the choice of method depends on the subject matter and learning goals.

What are the 6 strategies for effective teaching?

The six strategies for effective teaching discussed in this article are online learning, experiential learning, differentiation, blended learning, game-based learning, and student-centered learning. These strategies promote student engagement, active learning, and personalized instruction.

What are the 4 general types of teaching methods?

The four general types of teaching methods are direct instruction, inquiry-based learning, cooperative learning, and experiential learning. Each method has its own approach to teaching and learning, and the choice of method depends on the subject matter and learning goals.

How can I incorporate effective teaching methods in my classroom?

To incorporate effective teaching methods in your classroom, consider the needs and interests of your students, the subject matter, and the learning goals. Experiment with different methods and strategies, and be open to feedback and reflection. Ongoing professional development and collaboration with other educators can also help you enhance your teaching practices.

In conclusion, effective teaching methods play a crucial role in engaging students, promoting learning, and creating a positive classroom environment. By incorporating online learning, experiential learning, differentiation, blended learning, game-based learning, and student-centered learning, educators can cater to the diverse needs and interests of their students. Remember to adapt these strategies to meet the unique needs of your students and continuously seek professional development opportunities to stay current with the latest teaching methods.

Now it's your turn to implement these strategies in your classroom and witness the positive impact they can have on your students' learning experiences. Happy teaching!

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Marti

Marti is a seasoned educator and strategist with a passion for fostering inclusive learning environments and empowering students through tailored educational experiences. With her roots as a university tutor—a position she landed during her undergraduate years—Marti has always been driven by the joy of facilitating others' learning journeys.

Holding a Bachelor's degree in Communication alongside a degree in Social Work, she has mastered the art of empathetic communication, enabling her to connect with students on a profound level. Marti’s unique educational background allows her to incorporate holistic approaches into her teaching, addressing not just the academic, but also the emotional and social needs of her students.

Throughout her career, Marti has developed and implemented innovative teaching strategies that cater to diverse learning styles, believing firmly that education should be accessible and engaging for all. Her work on the Teacher Strategies site encapsulates her extensive experience and dedication to education, offering readers insights into effective teaching methods, classroom management techniques, and strategies for fostering inclusive and supportive learning environments.

As an advocate for lifelong learning, Marti continuously seeks to expand her knowledge and skills, ensuring her teaching methods are both evidence-based and cutting edge. Whether through her blog articles on Teacher Strategies or her direct engagement with students, Marti remains committed to enhancing educational outcomes and inspiring the next generation of learners and educators alike.

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Transparency in Learning and Teaching (TILT)

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Table of Contents

How to practice tilt, examples of transparent teaching methods, transparent assignment design, advantages of using tilt.

  • Disadvantages of using TILT

Further Training

References & resources.

Transparency in Learning and Teaching or TILT refers to a teaching style that (1) clarifies to students the instructor’s choices for lesson plans and (2) specifies how those choices relate to course goals (The Journal of Effective Teaching p. 38) and aims to improve the quality of Higher Ed experience for both students and faculty.

The research demonstrates that when students are exposed to transparent assignments, they gain academic confidence, a sense of belonging and employability skills. TILT moves away from the “what” of teaching to the “how” and “why” of teaching. Research on metacognition has demonstrated that students learn more and retain that learning longer when they have an awareness of why they are learning something and have control over how they are learning. Giving students more agency in the process of learning increases academic success and monitoring this success through collecting data and analyzing this data can enrich academic practice. Transparent teaching methods help students understand how and why they are learning course content in a particular way and how that learning will be useful to solve real world problems.

When it comes to learning, most students have no idea why instructors choose certain course content, activities, and assignments. TILT is an effective teaching strategy that is based on explaining to students “why” they will be doing specific activities. When students are involved in the learning process and know why they are doing something in a course, it motivates them and increases their confidence in their learning. The easiest way to TILT an assignment, course content, or activity is to:

  • Explain the purpose of the assignment. What does it teach? Why is it relevant?
  • Describe the task in some detail. Provide examples with annotations, if possible.
  • Explain the criteria for grading. A rubric is great! Encourage self-assessment and peer assessment.
  • Discuss assignments’ learning goals and design rationale before students begin each assignment: Before each assignment, chart out the skills students will practice for that assignment, define the learning benefits to students, provide the criteria for success in advance and offer examples of successful work and annotate them to indicate how criteria apply.
  • Invite students to participate in class planning and agenda construction: Give students an advanced agenda at least a couple of days before class and ask them to identify related subtopics, examples or application they wish to learn about. At the outset of each class, review the agenda and at the end evaluate the progress made.
  • Gauge students’ understanding during class via peer work on questions that require students to apply the concepts you’ve taught: Create scenarios to test understanding of key concepts and allow discussion in pairs, provide feedback and explicit assessment of students’ understanding before moving to the next concept.
  • Explicitly connect “how people learn” data with course activities when students struggle at difficult transition points: Offer research-based explanations and examples about concepts or tasks students often struggle to master in your discipline.
  • Engage students in applying the grading criteria that you will use to grade their work: Share criteria for success and examples of good work and encourage students to apply these criteria in written feedback for their peers’ work.
  • Debrief graded tests and assignments in class: Help students identify patterns in their graded work and let them review changes or revisions that they made and whether these resulted in improvements or not. Ask students to record steps used for completing assignments and to analyze which parts of the process were efficient, effective, or ineffective.
  • Offer running commentary of class discussions to indicate what modes of thought or disciplinary methods are in use: During a discussion, identify the types of questioning and thinking skills students use, and engage students in evaluating which types of thinking and questioning skills are most effective for addressing the issues in class discussions. Invite students to describe the steps in their thought process for addressing and solving problems.

TILT, when paired with other incremental changes in the course, can be a powerful tool that supports student learning experiences. Stating the assignment’s purpose, task, and criteria and incorporating these simple, but powerful, elements can help make assignments more transparent for students.

  • Purpose: Describe why students are completing an assignment and what knowledge and skills they will gain from this experience. Additionally, explain how this knowledge and skill set are relevant and will help the students in the future (e.g., relevance to students’ major, lives, employment).
  • Task: Explain what students will do to complete the assignment and how to do it (e.g., steps to follow, things to avoid).
  • Criteria: Show the students in advance what successful submissions look like (e.g., provide annotated examples and a checklist or rubric so students can self-evaluate).

Watch Dr. Winklemes explain this in the short video below:

Mary-Ann Winklemes: TILT Template Explanation

  • The TILT method removes common barriers of participation for students such as resistance to new content, lack of control, and lack of expertise which proves beneficial for instructors to gauge class participation and understanding.
  • Instructors can gather information about their students and respond to the findings in the next semester. If gathered early on, these finding may also benefit the same semester and improve student performance in later assignments and participation levels.
  • Because TILT in Higher Ed encourages the collection of data (by using the Transparency survey ) from each class and sharing this data between institutions across countries, instructors everywhere can benefit from the findings by adopting best practices in transparent methods that have been most effective for enhancing students’ learning in similar courses.
  • Benefits diverse student groups: Non-Caucasian students reported greater gains in academic self-confidence and responded more positively when instructors involved them in developing agendas for class meeting and activities.

Dr. Winklemes explains Transparent Instruction and its impact on learning:

Disadvantages of using TILT 

  • Some research has shown that sometimes students do not perceive transparency as a productive use of class time because they are used to a teaching relationship in which instructors do not explain the reasoning behind their lesson plans. For someone who is accustomed to learning in this manner, transparency methods may seem strange. However, explaining how TILT may benefit students, might help.
  • Some students’ experience and skill levels might make them feel that by being transparent, the instructor is insulting their intelligence by not acknowledging their ability to discover the logic behind the lesson plan and its connection to the learning outcomes. Sometimes students in a single course may vary in academic levels and in such cases, instructors might need to set expectations for the class so that experienced students do not feel insulted or belittled because of transparency.

Transparency can be managed according to each instructor’s preference. However, instructors who transparently connect their activities to overall learning outcomes and course goals from the beginning of the course will avoid negative responses previously discussed. Transparency in Learning and Teaching is a valuable method and worthwhile for instructors to consider when conceptualizing their course strategies. Transparent framework helps in transforming assignments and activities to makes them clear and understandable. It bridges the gap between instructor’s expectation of the outcome and students understanding of the assignment and its learning outcome.  Transparent teaching methods help students understand how and why they are learning course content in a particular way and promotes students’ conscious understanding of how they learn. 

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TILT Resources & Examples

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Equity Minded Teaching

Metacognition Teaching Strategies

Navigating Courageous Conversations

Anderson, A. D., Hunt, A. N., Powell, R. E., & Dollar, C. B. (2013). Student perceptions of teaching transparency. The Journal of Effective Teaching, 13(2): 38-47. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1092137.pdf

Faculty Development. (n.d.). Teach with transparency. California State University. https://www.csun.edu/undergraduate-studies/faculty-development/teach-transparency

Innovations in Learning Center. Transparency in learning and teaching. University of South Alabama. https://www.southalabama.edu/departments/ilc/transparent_assignments.html

North Seattle College (n.d.). Overview of transparency in learning and teaching (TILT). https://canvas.northseattle.edu/courses/1734110/pages/overview-of-transparency-in-learning-and-teaching-tilt

Polk, R., O’Brien, S. P., Carpenter, R., & Williams, L., (2019). Situating transparency in learning & teaching: Introduction to the 2019 proceedings. Pedagogicon Conference Proceedings. https://encompass.eku.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1019&context=pedagogicon

University Center for Excellence in Teaching. (n.d.). Transparency in Learning & Teaching (TILT). Indiana University. https://iu.instructure.com/courses/1540449/pages/transparency-in-learning-and-teaching-tilt

Winkelmas, M. (2013). Transparency in teaching: Faculty share data and improve students’ learning. Liberal Education, 99(2). https://www.aacu.org/publications-research/periodicals/transparency-teaching-faculty-share-data-and-improve-students

Winkelmes, M. (2014). Transparency in learning and teaching project. TILT Higher Ed. https://tilthighered.com/transparency

Winkelmes, M., Bernacki, M., Butler, J., Zochowski, M., Golanics, J., & Weavil, K. H. (2016). A teaching intervention that increases underserved college students’ success. Peer Review, 18(1). https://cte.ku.edu/sites/cte.ku.edu/files/docs/Branding/Winkelmes%20et%20al%202016%20Transparency%20and%20Underserved%20Students.pdf

WSU Office of Assessment for Curricular Effectiveness. (n.d.). Quick guide to transparent assignment design [PDF]. https://ace.wsu.edu/documents/2018/04/transparent-assignment-design-quick-guide.pdf/

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assignment of methods of teaching

  • Teaching & learning
  •    The Complete List of Teaching Methods and Strategies

assignment of methods of teaching

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The complete list of teaching methods and strategies.

  • Chloe Daniel
  • Published On: September 11 ,2021

The Complete List of Teaching Methods and Strategies

Teachers are the main asset of a country because they are nation builders. Teachers and education systems play a vital role in building an individual’s character, and great teachers have set examples of changing their student’s lives. Therefore, one country should invest more in its educational institutes and teachers to succeed. You can find an endless amount of stories about how appropriate teaching methods and strategies have brought remarkable changes in a student’s life. The art of teaching matters a lot. To be a successful teacher, one should know all the possible teaching methods and strategies and use them correctly because students learn better when their teacher knows which teaching method will engage the students more.

Bertrand Russell has summed up the whole process in his quote as:

‘More important than the curriculum is the question of the methods of teaching and the spirit in which the teaching is given.’

After reading this blog, you will understand the difference between teaching methods and strategies, different teaching methodologies and strategies, their advantages and disadvantages, and how a teacher should prepare himself before the class lecture.

So let’s get started.

Difference between teaching methods and strategies

Methods and strategies are two different terms, but both are essential to make a class full of students of different caliber and understand the same subject. The method is a process, procedure, or way something is done or implementing a plan. While on the other hand, strategy is the goal, set of actions, or plans to achieve one aim or something. Let me clarify it with an example: strategy is how a teacher makes a whole year’s plan to complete a specific book or syllabus, and the method is how that teacher delivered the lecture or which way the teacher selects to do a task.

And there is a list of teaching methods and strategies acquired by the teachers or instructors that you will read below. The ideal teaching method is the one in which the learning of students occurs the most. Teaching and learning are considered the two sides of a coin, and for completing the teaching side, teachers should consider all the teaching strategies and methods.

Related Read:   Hacks to Help Students Beat Procrastination

Types of teaching methods

The way of teaching is categorized into different types of teaching methods adopted by the teachers, and most of them are mentioned below:

types-of-teaching-methods

Teacher centered method

It is the method where the teacher is the only expert or an authority figure for the learners or students. They rely on the expert and receive knowledge to achieve positive grades in the end exams or assessments. The lecture method is used in the teacher-centered method, and it requires very little involvement of students or learners during the teaching process. It is also called a closed-ended method if the involvement of learners or students is zero.

Learner-centered method

In this teaching method, the teachers play a dual role. They act as learners and teachers; they learn new things every day while delivering the lecture. The learner-centered method is beneficial for both teacher and the student. The best way to implement this method is to follow the class’s discussion, inquiry-based, or discovery strategies.

Content-focused methods

Among different teaching methodologies, the teacher can use the content-focused method when the content, set of information, or skill taught by the teachers or experts cannot be changed or altered. It means the content to be taught is so important or unimpeachable that both the learner and the teacher have to fit in the subject without being critical about the content.

Interactive or participative method

It is the type of learning method that is considered beneficial for both the learners and the teachers. The teacher’s responsibility is to explain the key points or the importance of following the interactive or participating method during class in general so that students may not resist following it. Many strategies are used in this teaching method like writing exercises, think-pair-share, debate, problem-based learning, or situation analysis.

The lecture method

One of the most commonly used formal or semiformal teaching methods is the lecture method. Teachers mostly use this method for a large class. In this method, the teachers pick a topic and explain its basic definitions, facts, events, principles and clarify the whole point of the subject or topic with relevant examples and problems. The students are allowed to take notes and ask questions at the end of a lecture, and the master of the subject has to answer them all. Thus, in this method, a teacher is the main role model for the large class, and it has a strong mastery of that specific subject.

The discussion method

The discussion method can only be followed when the teacher is highly skilled and disciplined. Because in this two-way communication method, students are prepared to listen to their fellow’s point of view and exchange ideas. The role of a teacher is to introduce disciplined group discussion techniques among students and clear the concept of the topic meanwhile. This method is mainly used to utilize the knowledge, experience, and creativity of each student. When the whole discussion ends, the teacher corrects the mistakes and clears the debatable concepts.

The study assignment method

It is one of those teaching methods that promote active learning. In this method, the teacher or an instructor assigns a task to students before the class. It can be a book or research paper reading, project analysis, or any relevant material review. This method enhances the research skill abilities of students, and the discussion part in class makes the teacher and students know different points of view of each other.

The tutorial method

It is a teaching method that can only be used when a teacher or an instructor teaches one student and works directly. This method is also known as  online tutoring , and it demands more money and time, unlike other teaching methods. Those who follow such methods know the safety and active participation of both learner and the reader. The tutorial teaching methods are user-friendly. The students can skip or restart the lesson any time, leave the tutorial in between, or get access to it when they feel like learning or motivated. Mostly these are the recorded lectures.

The seminar method

The seminar method is one of the costly teaching methods used by the experts or teachers to guide or educate the students about a certain topic or project. In this method, the instructors make groups of students work on their projects and then ask them to exchange the information or techniques used while completing the project. Highly professional; or competent teachers must arrange a seminar method and then evaluate the study, research paper, or project.

The demonstration method

The demonstration method is the kind of teaching method in which the teacher has to perform something or an operation to make its learner understand deeply and clearly. It can be the functioning of a tool or equipment, teaching troubleshooting, performing a certain job or an operation or anything. This teaching method can only be proposed when the instructor explains the why, how, where, what, and when. If the highly competent teacher will choose the method and rehearse well before teaching, it will save time, and the clarity of operation will help the students perform right. The demonstration teaching method is mostly used in laboratories.

Direct teaching

The direct teaching method is commonly used in all institutions as it makes the teacher or an instructor directly communicate with their student within the school or institution premises. This method lessens the communication barrier between students and the teacher. It focuses on the immediate teaching process, and the students are allowed to ask questions or give suggestions in between, with certain time limitations.

Online teaching method

One of the most flexible teaching methods is the  online teaching  method. The teacher and the learner can offer a flexible timescale, which is unrestricted to time and place. Both can communicate with each other via email or any other digital support. The access to recorded lectures after the online session helps the students to listen to them later and understand better. The advancement of technology has turned learners into online learning in the last few decades.

Online and private tutors  have their way of teaching concepts within a certain time limit. Students with jobs mostly use this teaching method to learn during their free time and achieve their desired goals without moving places.

Independent study or practice

Some teachers or an instructor follow the independent study or practice teaching method because this improves the  self-learning  or self-study abilities of the students. In such methods, teachers mostly assign the same task to each student to practice or study it from home on their own, and then the other day, teachers evaluate the task and solve the students’ queries.

Types of teaching strategies

Before moving to the teaching strategies, I would like to add a quote from Benjamin Franklin, which says:

‘Tell me and I forgot. Teach me and I remember. Involve me and I learn.’

And this is how the teaching strategies work on students.

TYPES OF TEACHING STRATEGIES

Classroom management

The very first strategy to engage all the students of a class is its management. The etiquette of a class is matters, and so does the management of the whole class. If you start listing down the classroom management strategies, the list will go on because it has its own set of techniques and different strategies to keep the class managed. Before moving to the teaching method, the teacher or an instructor should acknowledge the whole class management rules in dos and don’ts.

Develop an atmosphere of learning

The atmosphere of learning matters the most because no matter how well the teacher or an instructor delivers the lecture, it’s futile if the atmosphere does not support that all students are willing to learn or excited to start the new chapter or topic. So, to develop a learning atmosphere, the expert should get the whole class’s attention and inform them of the facts and purpose of reading the lecture. The more they will show interest in learning a subject, the more they will learn.

Celebrate achievements

Teachers should assign certain achievement levels with a reward to keep the whole class motivated to learn and do better. And the reward could be anything like the winning student will display their work in the school assembly or get to read the whole chapter and get candy from their teacher in return. The celebration can be small or big, it doesn’t matter, but the outcomes of celebrating success will make huge positive differences in a student’s life.

This teaching strategy is mostly used by the primary or secondary level student teachers to motivate and build students’ confidence. Teachers who make use of this strategy more often prepare the future winners. There is no failure. Only feedback. – Robert Allen

Flexible seating

The appropriate seating in the classroom that keeps the students comfortable is the utmost teaching strategy. Here the flexible seating of both the teacher and the learner matters. Institutions of all levels should follow many  flexible seating ideas . Because if the students are sitting uncomfortably, then they will not be able to focus on the lecture.

It is more of an institution’s duty to take care of students’ sitting comfort and posture because students spend a lot of their day at schools or colleges.

Active learning

Active learning strategy is one of those strategies that not only help the students but the teachers too. The discussion break between the lecture and asking students to submit the clearest point after the lecture keeps the whole class attentive, and it’s called active learning. Their participation makes the teacher understand which part of the lecture has gotten more attention. Such smart tactics or quick questions in between lectures make the student learn better and faster.

Focus on student’s interests

When teachers focus on a student’s interests, it helps them understand the nature of their students way better, and ultimately, they follow the teaching method that can be more effective. And the constructive feedback on what students have done and what they have not mastered helped them determine how they could improve that mastery. This strategy makes the bond of student and teacher strong and improves the learning environment.

‘There is no failure. Only feedback. ’–Robert Allen

Differentiated instruction

One of the most useful teaching strategies is differentiated instruction. In this strategy, the teacher assigns tasks to each student based on abilities and interests. Doing so the students who are struggling will get the proper support or help, and the students with academic skills or capabilities will be assigned tasks that match their caliber. It ensures the dedicated behavior of teachers after knowing everyone’s learning gaps, and no student remains left behind.

Personalized learning

Teachers should focus on personalized learning strategy a bit too much. Students should review their content once learned. Sometimes, students’ queries remain unanswered and make all the students master their studies. Teachers should assign tasks to each individual according to their learning capability and style. This teaching strategy will help students develop reliability, motivation, self-learning, self-advocacy, and self-reflective abilities.

Peer teaching method

The teacher should follow the peer teaching strategy sometimes. It is being said that ‘to teach is to learn twice,’ which is the same case with this strategy. Peer teaching has its advantages and disadvantages, but it is worth pursuing a disciplined class atmosphere as it grows the student’s confidence and enhances communication skills.

“The best answer to the question, ‘what is the most effective teaching method?’ depends on the goal, the student, the content, and the teacher. But the next best answer is, ‘Students teaching other students’.” Wilbert J. MacKeachie

Response to intervention RTI

RTI, or Response to intervention, is one of the general teaching strategies that should be considered from day one of teaching. This strategy is to find out the learning and behavior needs of the students. Teachers should start the intervention process early in each class because the earlier the teacher understands the RTI strategies, the easier it will be to follow a better teaching method.

Project-based learning

Experienced teachers agree on the importance of getting students to recap the information learned during the lesson. And when it comes to project-based learning, it is important to educate students about what they need to learn to complete the assigned project. It is also crucial to get them to engage with the content actively. So, to foster their engagement, it is important to promote project-based learning in groups. Teachers should make the groups of students quite carefully and selectively as each student’s learning style and ability vary.

Classroom technology

Classroom technology is the best teaching strategy a teacher can use to keep the whole class engaged. This strategy can be used at any level or year of education because students get excited when they have to experience something new for the first time. Video lessons, virtual trips in geography or history class, animations to help kids learn basic skills, and many more adapt to this teaching strategy. Moreover, smart whiteboards, projectors should be used in classrooms.

Blended teaching and learning

In this modern era, teachers should go for a blended teaching strategy. It is a blend of  online and offline teaching  and uses digital strategies. Some students hesitate to speak up in the class, so blended learning works best for them. They contribute to an online class. Teachers like the blended teaching and learning strategy because it ensures that all voices are heard.

Humor in class

The use of humor should be one of the important teaching strategies, as dry lectures make the students feel bored and tiring and ultimately makes them lose interest. In such cases, a pinch of humor will not harm anyone. But teachers should be smart enough to quickly change the atmosphere of class back to lessons from fun. A comfortable and cozy class environment captures learners’ attention and results in better understanding and active learning.

Inquiry-based teaching

Interactive teaching enables students to be instructed by actively involving them in their learning process through regular teacher-student interaction, student-student interaction. And taking some time out of the class for inquiry-based questions helps improve students’ life skills like communication and problem-solving. The quality of questions matters a lot, and a teacher should ask the students to inquire with subject-based questions or other appropriate questions. However, the inquiry-based teaching strategy has guided inquiry, structured inquiry, open inquiry, and confirmation inquiry. These all promote the use of long-term memory of both teachers and learners.

Class gamification

It is observed that lessons learned while playing stays long in the student’s mind. This teaching strategy keeps the students more engaged and active in the class. Play and learn techniques should be in each teacher’s teaching method list. Age requirement shouldn’t be the barrier because class Gamification builds and improves the essential skills. A teacher can play any games to teach the basics like mind games, math multiplication games, problem-solving games, language learning games like  ESL games , and many more.

Gamification  has a future in education, and teachers or instructors should effectively use this strategy.

Convergent and divergent thinking

One of the main teaching strategies that all teachers should be aware of is two thinking methods: convergent thinking methods and divergent thinking methods. Teachers should educate their students about its difference as convergent thinking means there are multiple ways to reach one solution. On the other hand, the divergent teaching method makes the students learn and understand the base concepts to solve the given question or problem.

If the teachers and students know these differences, learning will be easier and better.

Problem-based learning

One of the essential teaching strategies a teacher or an instructor should follow is problem-based learning. They should prepare a list of problem-based open-ended questions before a class and ask the class to solve them in groups or teams. This technique helps in developing and improving the transferable and teamwork skills of students, respectively.

Media literacy

Students need to be educated about all the things happening around them. Like nowadays, students are very active on social media and get influenced quite easily. It’s the responsibility of the teachers to guide their students and understand what they are consuming from these platforms. Media literacy lets the students critically think and talk about the changes and innovations. Teachers should follow  media literacy activities  to bring out the creative side of students.

Visualization

Introducing visualization in class is the most advanced teaching strategy that institutions and teachers can use to make the students understand the textbook content with visuals and the real world. It lets the students experience the world while sitting in their classrooms. But again, it is just another strategy to keep the class engaged. The teacher has to play the main role, Bill Gates has said it too:

“Technology is just a tool. In terms of getting the kids to work together and motivating them, the teacher is the most important.”

Cooperative learning

Teachers should work on cooperative learning strategies in class, once a week at least. There are many ways to follow this strategy, such as solving mathematical puzzles, quick fraction questions, performing science experiments, short drama sketches, group presentations, or frequently asked question-answer sessions among students of the same class. This teaching strategy improves the verbal skills of students.

Behaviour management

Just like teaching methods, teachers should be acknowledged properly about the behavior management teaching strategy. Mutual respect of teachers and students is important to keep the class’s productive learning and disciplined environment. Institutions or teachers should reward students based on their behavior during class and overall interaction with their teachers and fellow mates. Teachers should be strict with this strategy because a noisy, disturbed, or undisciplined class cannot promote productive learning.

Professional development

Undoubtedly, teaching is a challenging job because you have to deliver the same knowledge to students with different mindsets and caliber simultaneously. It gets exhausting sometimes. To keep the teachers motivated and engaged, they should attend professional development seminars and people in the same field. These will keep the teachers updated about the new teaching tools, technologies, methods, and strategies.

How teacher should prepare for a lecture

Even after understanding the teaching strategies and teaching methods, teachers should prepare themselves before delivering a lecture. Just like a student rehearsing before giving a presentation. Because teachers too are presenting themselves and it is their job to keep the attention of the whole class throughout the lecture. So, to make the lecture qualitative, teachers should keep in mind that the lecture should not be too long as it exhausted the students and lost their attention. The whole theme and the purpose of studying certain topics should be explained before teaching, the teachers should use maximum examples or illustrations to make it easy to understand, usages of approaches and fluency of lecture should match with the student’s existing knowledge, so they relate to it and understand more clearly.

Other than considering these points, the teacher should make notes and rehearse the follow of lecture in advance, checklist the important points, keep all the relevant textbooks, tools, or other things prepared which need to be utilized during the lecture, pick the teaching strategy or teaching method that will go with the topic. Meanwhile, the teacher should also ensure that if all the students can see or hear him clearly, he should use the entire why, how, tell, and show techniques to explain the lecture or the assigned topic.

Lastly, class discipline matters a lot, and teachers should already tell the students to write down the question if any crosses their mind during the lecture, and in the last 15 minutes of discussion, they can ask freely one by one. And it is how the discipline of class and the flow of the lecture will not be disturbed. And if all the students have not got their answers due to a shortage of time or any other reason, it’s the teacher’s responsibility first to solve the queries the other day and then teach a new topic. That’s the complete preparation process of a teacher before delivering a qualitative lecture.

Here we summed up the difference between teaching strategies and teaching methods that all teachers should know. Knowing these teaching methodologies and strategies will make the classrooms a more creative and dynamic place for students to get qualitative education; furthermore, if you are a teacher and learning new teaching strategies or methods from this page, then make sure to use them in your classroom.

In this rapidly changing world, teachers should be given proper guidelines to transform the smart, creative, and tech knowledge into their students. And the personality of the teacher should inspire the students to learn from them and be a better addition to this world. The truth is teaching is the profession that teaches all the other professions, so educational institutions should invest in providing proper guidelines on types of teaching methods and teaching strategies from time to time to keep their teachers updated to the modern world.

Education is our passport to the future, for tomorrow belongs to the people who prepare for it today. Malcolm X

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Assignment Method Of Teaching

Looking for advantages and disadvantages of Assignment Method Of Teaching?

We have collected some solid points that will help you understand the pros and cons of Assignment Method Of Teaching in detail.

But first, let’s understand the topic:

What is Assignment Method Of Teaching?

The Assignment Method of Teaching is when teachers give tasks or projects to students. These tasks help students learn and understand lessons on their own. They can work alone or in a group. This method makes learning more interesting and practical.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Assignment Method Of Teaching

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of Assignment Method Of Teaching:

Advantages and disadvantages of Assignment Method Of Teaching

Advantages of Assignment Method Of Teaching

  • Promotes independent learning – Assignment method of teaching encourages students to study and learn on their own, fostering self-reliance and self-learning.
  • Enhances critical thinking – This method also helps in developing critical thinking skills as students analyze and interpret the information themselves.
  • Encourages research skills – It promotes research skills as students have to dig deeper into topics and gather information from various sources.
  • Fosters time management – It aids in honing time management skills as students need to plan and complete assignments within a set timeframe.
  • Boosts problem-solving abilities – The method also enhances problem-solving abilities as students encounter and overcome challenges during their assignment work.

Disadvantages of Assignment Method Of Teaching

  • Limits student creativity – Assignment method of teaching can curb student creativity as it often requires students to follow specific guidelines rather than encouraging independent thinking.
  • Can promote rote learning – This method can also encourage rote learning, where students memorize information without truly understanding it.
  • Not suitable for all topics – Some subjects or topics might not be suitable for the assignment method, making it less effective for comprehensive learning.
  • Ignores individual learning styles – It often overlooks individual learning styles, which can hinder students who learn differently from the prescribed method.
  • Can lead to student stress. – Lastly, the pressure of completing assignments can lead to stress among students, affecting their mental health.
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assignment of methods of teaching

Teaching, Learning, & Professional Development Center

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How Do I Create Meaningful and Effective Assignments?

Prepared by allison boye, ph.d. teaching, learning, and professional development center.

Assessment is a necessary part of the teaching and learning process, helping us measure whether our students have really learned what we want them to learn. While exams and quizzes are certainly favorite and useful methods of assessment, out of class assignments (written or otherwise) can offer similar insights into our students' learning.  And just as creating a reliable test takes thoughtfulness and skill, so does creating meaningful and effective assignments. Undoubtedly, many instructors have been on the receiving end of disappointing student work, left wondering what went wrong… and often, those problems can be remedied in the future by some simple fine-tuning of the original assignment.  This paper will take a look at some important elements to consider when developing assignments, and offer some easy approaches to creating a valuable assessment experience for all involved.

First Things First…

Before assigning any major tasks to students, it is imperative that you first define a few things for yourself as the instructor:

  • Your goals for the assignment . Why are you assigning this project, and what do you hope your students will gain from completing it? What knowledge, skills, and abilities do you aim to measure with this assignment?  Creating assignments is a major part of overall course design, and every project you assign should clearly align with your goals for the course in general.  For instance, if you want your students to demonstrate critical thinking, perhaps asking them to simply summarize an article is not the best match for that goal; a more appropriate option might be to ask for an analysis of a controversial issue in the discipline. Ultimately, the connection between the assignment and its purpose should be clear to both you and your students to ensure that it is fulfilling the desired goals and doesn't seem like “busy work.” For some ideas about what kinds of assignments match certain learning goals, take a look at this page from DePaul University's Teaching Commons.
  • Have they experienced “socialization” in the culture of your discipline (Flaxman, 2005)? Are they familiar with any conventions you might want them to know? In other words, do they know the “language” of your discipline, generally accepted style guidelines, or research protocols?
  • Do they know how to conduct research?  Do they know the proper style format, documentation style, acceptable resources, etc.? Do they know how to use the library (Fitzpatrick, 1989) or evaluate resources?
  • What kinds of writing or work have they previously engaged in?  For instance, have they completed long, formal writing assignments or research projects before? Have they ever engaged in analysis, reflection, or argumentation? Have they completed group assignments before?  Do they know how to write a literature review or scientific report?

In his book Engaging Ideas (1996), John Bean provides a great list of questions to help instructors focus on their main teaching goals when creating an assignment (p.78):

1. What are the main units/modules in my course?

2. What are my main learning objectives for each module and for the course?

3. What thinking skills am I trying to develop within each unit and throughout the course?

4. What are the most difficult aspects of my course for students?

5. If I could change my students' study habits, what would I most like to change?

6. What difference do I want my course to make in my students' lives?

What your students need to know

Once you have determined your own goals for the assignment and the levels of your students, you can begin creating your assignment.  However, when introducing your assignment to your students, there are several things you will need to clearly outline for them in order to ensure the most successful assignments possible.

  • First, you will need to articulate the purpose of the assignment . Even though you know why the assignment is important and what it is meant to accomplish, you cannot assume that your students will intuit that purpose. Your students will appreciate an understanding of how the assignment fits into the larger goals of the course and what they will learn from the process (Hass & Osborn, 2007). Being transparent with your students and explaining why you are asking them to complete a given assignment can ultimately help motivate them to complete the assignment more thoughtfully.
  • If you are asking your students to complete a writing assignment, you should define for them the “rhetorical or cognitive mode/s” you want them to employ in their writing (Flaxman, 2005). In other words, use precise verbs that communicate whether you are asking them to analyze, argue, describe, inform, etc.  (Verbs like “explore” or “comment on” can be too vague and cause confusion.) Provide them with a specific task to complete, such as a problem to solve, a question to answer, or an argument to support.  For those who want assignments to lead to top-down, thesis-driven writing, John Bean (1996) suggests presenting a proposition that students must defend or refute, or a problem that demands a thesis answer.
  • It is also a good idea to define the audience you want your students to address with their assignment, if possible – especially with writing assignments.  Otherwise, students will address only the instructor, often assuming little requires explanation or development (Hedengren, 2004; MIT, 1999). Further, asking students to address the instructor, who typically knows more about the topic than the student, places the student in an unnatural rhetorical position.  Instead, you might consider asking your students to prepare their assignments for alternative audiences such as other students who missed last week's classes, a group that opposes their position, or people reading a popular magazine or newspaper.  In fact, a study by Bean (1996) indicated the students often appreciate and enjoy assignments that vary elements such as audience or rhetorical context, so don't be afraid to get creative!
  • Obviously, you will also need to articulate clearly the logistics or “business aspects” of the assignment . In other words, be explicit with your students about required elements such as the format, length, documentation style, writing style (formal or informal?), and deadlines.  One caveat, however: do not allow the logistics of the paper take precedence over the content in your assignment description; if you spend all of your time describing these things, students might suspect that is all you care about in their execution of the assignment.
  • Finally, you should clarify your evaluation criteria for the assignment. What elements of content are most important? Will you grade holistically or weight features separately? How much weight will be given to individual elements, etc?  Another precaution to take when defining requirements for your students is to take care that your instructions and rubric also do not overshadow the content; prescribing too rigidly each element of an assignment can limit students' freedom to explore and discover. According to Beth Finch Hedengren, “A good assignment provides the purpose and guidelines… without dictating exactly what to say” (2004, p. 27).  If you decide to utilize a grading rubric, be sure to provide that to the students along with the assignment description, prior to their completion of the assignment.

A great way to get students engaged with an assignment and build buy-in is to encourage their collaboration on its design and/or on the grading criteria (Hudd, 2003). In his article “Conducting Writing Assignments,” Richard Leahy (2002) offers a few ideas for building in said collaboration:

• Ask the students to develop the grading scale themselves from scratch, starting with choosing the categories.

• Set the grading categories yourself, but ask the students to help write the descriptions.

• Draft the complete grading scale yourself, then give it to your students for review and suggestions.

A Few Do's and Don'ts…

Determining your goals for the assignment and its essential logistics is a good start to creating an effective assignment. However, there are a few more simple factors to consider in your final design. First, here are a few things you should do :

  • Do provide detail in your assignment description . Research has shown that students frequently prefer some guiding constraints when completing assignments (Bean, 1996), and that more detail (within reason) can lead to more successful student responses.  One idea is to provide students with physical assignment handouts , in addition to or instead of a simple description in a syllabus.  This can meet the needs of concrete learners and give them something tangible to refer to.  Likewise, it is often beneficial to make explicit for students the process or steps necessary to complete an assignment, given that students – especially younger ones – might need guidance in planning and time management (MIT, 1999).
  • Do use open-ended questions.  The most effective and challenging assignments focus on questions that lead students to thinking and explaining, rather than simple yes or no answers, whether explicitly part of the assignment description or in the  brainstorming heuristics (Gardner, 2005).
  • Do direct students to appropriate available resources . Giving students pointers about other venues for assistance can help them get started on the right track independently. These kinds of suggestions might include information about campus resources such as the University Writing Center or discipline-specific librarians, suggesting specific journals or books, or even sections of their textbook, or providing them with lists of research ideas or links to acceptable websites.
  • Do consider providing models – both successful and unsuccessful models (Miller, 2007). These models could be provided by past students, or models you have created yourself.  You could even ask students to evaluate the models themselves using the determined evaluation criteria, helping them to visualize the final product, think critically about how to complete the assignment, and ideally, recognize success in their own work.
  • Do consider including a way for students to make the assignment their own. In their study, Hass and Osborn (2007) confirmed the importance of personal engagement for students when completing an assignment.  Indeed, students will be more engaged in an assignment if it is personally meaningful, practical, or purposeful beyond the classroom.  You might think of ways to encourage students to tap into their own experiences or curiosities, to solve or explore a real problem, or connect to the larger community.  Offering variety in assignment selection can also help students feel more individualized, creative, and in control.
  • If your assignment is substantial or long, do consider sequencing it. Far too often, assignments are given as one-shot final products that receive grades at the end of the semester, eternally abandoned by the student.  By sequencing a large assignment, or essentially breaking it down into a systematic approach consisting of interconnected smaller elements (such as a project proposal, an annotated bibliography, or a rough draft, or a series of mini-assignments related to the longer assignment), you can encourage thoughtfulness, complexity, and thoroughness in your students, as well as emphasize process over final product.

Next are a few elements to avoid in your assignments:

  • Do not ask too many questions in your assignment.  In an effort to challenge students, instructors often err in the other direction, asking more questions than students can reasonably address in a single assignment without losing focus. Offering an overly specific “checklist” prompt often leads to externally organized papers, in which inexperienced students “slavishly follow the checklist instead of integrating their ideas into more organically-discovered structure” (Flaxman, 2005).
  • Do not expect or suggest that there is an “ideal” response to the assignment. A common error for instructors is to dictate content of an assignment too rigidly, or to imply that there is a single correct response or a specific conclusion to reach, either explicitly or implicitly (Flaxman, 2005). Undoubtedly, students do not appreciate feeling as if they must read an instructor's mind to complete an assignment successfully, or that their own ideas have nowhere to go, and can lose motivation as a result. Similarly, avoid assignments that simply ask for regurgitation (Miller, 2007). Again, the best assignments invite students to engage in critical thinking, not just reproduce lectures or readings.
  • Do not provide vague or confusing commands . Do students know what you mean when they are asked to “examine” or “discuss” a topic? Return to what you determined about your students' experiences and levels to help you decide what directions will make the most sense to them and what will require more explanation or guidance, and avoid verbiage that might confound them.
  • Do not impose impossible time restraints or require the use of insufficient resources for completion of the assignment.  For instance, if you are asking all of your students to use the same resource, ensure that there are enough copies available for all students to access – or at least put one copy on reserve in the library. Likewise, make sure that you are providing your students with ample time to locate resources and effectively complete the assignment (Fitzpatrick, 1989).

The assignments we give to students don't simply have to be research papers or reports. There are many options for effective yet creative ways to assess your students' learning! Here are just a few:

Journals, Posters, Portfolios, Letters, Brochures, Management plans, Editorials, Instruction Manuals, Imitations of a text, Case studies, Debates, News release, Dialogues, Videos, Collages, Plays, Power Point presentations

Ultimately, the success of student responses to an assignment often rests on the instructor's deliberate design of the assignment. By being purposeful and thoughtful from the beginning, you can ensure that your assignments will not only serve as effective assessment methods, but also engage and delight your students. If you would like further help in constructing or revising an assignment, the Teaching, Learning, and Professional Development Center is glad to offer individual consultations. In addition, look into some of the resources provided below.

Online Resources

“Creating Effective Assignments” http://www.unh.edu/teaching-excellence/resources/Assignments.htm This site, from the University of New Hampshire's Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning,  provides a brief overview of effective assignment design, with a focus on determining and communicating goals and expectations.

Gardner, T.  (2005, June 12). Ten Tips for Designing Writing Assignments. Traci's Lists of Ten. http://www.tengrrl.com/tens/034.shtml This is a brief yet useful list of tips for assignment design, prepared by a writing teacher and curriculum developer for the National Council of Teachers of English .  The website will also link you to several other lists of “ten tips” related to literacy pedagogy.

“How to Create Effective Assignments for College Students.”  http:// tilt.colostate.edu/retreat/2011/zimmerman.pdf     This PDF is a simplified bulleted list, prepared by Dr. Toni Zimmerman from Colorado State University, offering some helpful ideas for coming up with creative assignments.

“Learner-Centered Assessment” http://cte.uwaterloo.ca/teaching_resources/tips/learner_centered_assessment.html From the Centre for Teaching Excellence at the University of Waterloo, this is a short list of suggestions for the process of designing an assessment with your students' interests in mind. “Matching Learning Goals to Assignment Types.” http://teachingcommons.depaul.edu/How_to/design_assignments/assignments_learning_goals.html This is a great page from DePaul University's Teaching Commons, providing a chart that helps instructors match assignments with learning goals.

Additional References Bean, J.C. (1996). Engaging ideas: The professor's guide to integrating writing, critical thinking, and active learning in the classroom . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Fitzpatrick, R. (1989). Research and writing assignments that reduce fear lead to better papers and more confident students. Writing Across the Curriculum , 3.2, pp. 15 – 24.

Flaxman, R. (2005). Creating meaningful writing assignments. The Teaching Exchange .  Retrieved Jan. 9, 2008 from http://www.brown.edu/Administration/Sheridan_Center/pubs/teachingExchange/jan2005/01_flaxman.pdf

Hass, M. & Osborn, J. (2007, August 13). An emic view of student writing and the writing process. Across the Disciplines, 4. 

Hedengren, B.F. (2004). A TA's guide to teaching writing in all disciplines . Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's.

Hudd, S. S. (2003, April). Syllabus under construction: Involving students in the creation of class assignments.  Teaching Sociology , 31, pp. 195 – 202.

Leahy, R. (2002). Conducting writing assignments. College Teaching , 50.2, pp. 50 – 54.

Miller, H. (2007). Designing effective writing assignments.  Teaching with writing .  University of Minnesota Center for Writing. Retrieved Jan. 9, 2008, from http://writing.umn.edu/tww/assignments/designing.html

MIT Online Writing and Communication Center (1999). Creating Writing Assignments. Retrieved January 9, 2008 from http://web.mit.edu/writing/Faculty/createeffective.html .

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Assignment Method of Teaching

Assignment method.

Assignment method as the name suggests students are assigned some tasks-theoretical as well as practical nature for being performed at their parts in the school, at the workshop or laboratory, library or at their home. They are provided necessary guidance instruction and also the specific outlines for completing their assignments in time.

Assignment Method of Teaching

Assignment is a necessary part of the teaching and learning process, helping us measure whether our students have really learned what we want them to learn. While exams and quizzes are certainly favorite and useful methods of assessment, out of class assignments (written or otherwise) can offer similar insights into our students' learning. And just as creating a reliable test takes thoughtfulness and skill, so does creating meaningful and effective assignments.

Undoubtedly, many instructors have been on the receiving end of disappointing student work, left wondering what went wrong, and often, those problems can be remedied in the future by some simple fine-tuning of the original assignment. This paper will take a look at some important elements to consider when developing assignments, and offer some easy approaches to creating a valuable assessment experience for all involved.

Features of the Assignment Method

  • More emphasis is given on practical work.
  • In this method all aspects of the subject matter are included.
  • The teacher has to provide adequate guidance.
  • Students get used to doing work on their own.
  • Each student works according to his capacity.
  • Students develop the habit of fulfilling their responsibilities.

Importance of Assignments

  • Homework acts as a motivator of the students. This motivates the student to make maximum use of the acquired knowledge.
  • Homework also saves time as it eliminates the need to re-read the lesson in class.
  • Homework gives students opportunities to express their ideas through self-activity.
  • Apart from the school, the home environment is also necessary to make the knowledge permanent, otherwise the ignorant will be unable to remember the absorbed knowledge.
  • Properly planned homework helps in guidance.
  • Through homework, students have to write their own answers to the questions. They bring books on various subjects from the library to read at home. This develops the habits of self-study in them.

Types of assignment method

1. page-by-page assignment.

This type is sometimes called the textbook assignment. It designates the number of pages to be covered. Page-by-page assignment is unsatisfactory, but recent studies have revealed that this type is still widely used in the elementary grades.

2. Problem assignment

This type of assignment gets away from the basic textbook idea. It encourages the use of references and stimulates reflective thinking. In this type the problem to be solved is the prime consideration. Special directions and suggestions are important in this type of assignment.

3. Topical assignment

In this kind of assignment the topic to be developed is the prime consideration. This is also a form of textbook assignment which is often given in social and natural science subjects.

4. Project assignment

This is a special type of assignment which is best adapted to vocational courses, to natural science subjects, and in some measure to social science subjects and other content subjects. In this type of assignment a project is considered a unit.

5. Contract assignment

This form of assignment is extensively used in individualized types of instruction with the main purpose of adjusting the task to the ability and interest of the individual.

6. Unit assignment

This type is associated with the Mastery Plan and the Cycle Plan of instruction. It is best adapted to the subjects which are divided into units. The so-called flexible assignment is used with the unit assignment plan.

7. Cooperative or group assignment

Cooperative assignment is most frequently utilized in a socialized type of recitation, or in a project method of instruction. Assignment of this type stimulates pupils to do their own thinking and to organize their materials. Here pupils also participate in determining desirable objectives and in deciding what should be done to attain them. Cooperative assignment can be utilized to advantage in many high school classes.

8. Syllabus assignment

Syllabus assignment is often utilized in the college or university. In this type of assignment, questions and references are given to guide the students. Here again guide questions and other suggestions are given to insure attention to the important points of the lesson.

9. Drill assignment

It is the purpose of this assignment to strengthen the connections formed in the process of growth in mental motor skills. Memorizing a poem or mastery of facts or simple combination facts in Arithmetic are good examples of this type of assignment. Drill assignment, like other type of assignment, should be motivated.

Merits of Assignment Method

1. Development of useful habit:- Assignment method helps in imbibing useful habits like below:

  • (a) A sense of responsibility of finishing the task in hand.
  • (b) Habit of self study and confidence in one's abilities.
  • (c) Self dependency in action and thought.

2. Recognition of individual differences:- The assignment are alloted to the students on the basis of their mental abilities, capacities, interests and aptitudes. They are also allowed to execute their assignments according to their own pace. The brighter ones have not to wait for the slow learners as they can undertake next higher assignments after finishing the one in hand.

3. Provides freedom to work:- There is no restrictions of time both in term of starting and finishing with the assignment. The duration for the execution of the assignment depends upon the mental and physical stamina of the pupil. They may go to the library or work in the laboratory. according to their convenience.

Demerits of Assignment Method

1. Strain on the teacher:- The teacher is expected to work hard in the method for preparing the assignments, assigning these to the students individually or in groups, guiding the students at the proper time in a proper way and evaluating their work.

2. Not suitable to all types of learners:- This method does not suit student of low intelligence and also those having average capacities. Similarly, it cannot also work with the students who are irresponsible or careless and thus cannot be relied to finish their assignment properly in a specified time.

3. Provides stimulation for cheating:- Assignment method may provide temptation or compulsion to a number of students for copying the answers of the questions and results of the experiments from the readily available source or note book of their classmates. If it happens, the very purpose of these assignments is completely lost.

Precautions in the Planning of Assignments

  • The selection of homework should be done keeping in view the prior knowledge of the students.
  • Homework should be inspirational.
  • In the planning of homework, the interests and respects of the students should be taken care of. 4. Homework should be definite and clear.
  • Homework should be based on the teaching formula of 'from simple to complex'.
  • There should be mutual harmony in homework.
  • There should be variety in homework.
  • Homework should be useful.
  • Buzz Group Teaching Method
  • Demonstration Method of Teaching
  • Discussion Method of Teaching

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The impact of transformational leadership on classroom interaction in UAE secondary schools

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  • Published: 16 May 2024

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assignment of methods of teaching

  • Haifaa Y. Abuhassira 1 ,
  • Ahmad Zabidi Abdul Razak 1 &
  • Kazi Enamul Hoque   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8152-9250 1  

Department heads play a critical role in executing school plans, particularly in adopting contemporary instructional methods, integrating technology, assessing student progress, and maintaining high standards of classroom interactions. They facilitate essential interactions within the classroom, spanning teacher-student, student–student, and student-content interactions, aligning with transformational leadership practices. This study explores the influence of department heads' transformational leadership on classroom interaction, mediating teachers' teaching experience in enhancing leadership capacity. Using a straightforward random sampling procedure, 374 teachers from 226 privately owned secondary schools were selected. Descriptive statistics were employed to represent the extent of department heads' engagement in transformational leadership practices. Findings indicate that teachers' role in clarifying activities and assignments to encourage classroom involvement received the highest average rating, emphasizing the importance of diverse instructional approaches. The study reveals a significant, positive influence of teachers' years of experience as a moderating factor in the relationship between department heads' transformational leadership and classroom interaction. A positive correlation was observed between student–teacher interactions and department heads' use of transformational leadership practices, with teachers' experience levels shaping these relationships. Notably, the study suggests that teachers' experience partially affects this phenomenon. The research concludes with recommendations for policymakers and educators to leverage their pedagogical expertise in fortifying the impact of school leadership on heightened student participation within the classroom.

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1 Introduction

Despite the critical significance of the department head's role within educational institutions, the academic literature has shown a relatively limited focus on delineating the characteristics of an effective department head (Coats, 2000 ; Williams, 2001 ). Yielder and Codling ( 2004 ) assert that academic leadership, encompassing department heads, requires a more precise definition. Middle leadership or management in schools primarily comprises department heads (Shaked & Schechter, 2017a ), who bear responsibility for achieving educational objectives, fostering collaboration, and guiding specific academic activities. Consequently, establishing a comprehensive definition of the role of the department head is imperative to address pertinent issues in this domain. In academia and management, multifaceted leadership and decision-making processes emerge. These terms encompass determining future directions, objectives, visions, and goals. An ethical approach by the department head is essential to foster an environment of ethical, professional, and interpersonal interactions among personnel in leadership positions (Osseo-Asare et al., 2005 ).

Building on Middlehurst ( 1993 ), Gordon and Patterson ( 2006 ) underscores five pivotal academic leadership dimensions: 1. accountability, 2. mentoring, 3. achieving results, 4. personnel management, and 5. distinguishing leaders from their counterparts. This study adopts the nomenclature "Department Head (DH)" to signify a leadership role within the school, responsible for collaborating with school leadership to uphold high standards in teaching and learning practices under the guidance of the Head of Curriculums (Bolam & Turner, 2003 ). Furthermore, department heads necessitate appropriate training not only in their administrative roles but also in curriculum development and pedagogy. This expectation often leads to perceptions among teachers that department heads are primarily faultfinders (Alkutich, 2017 ).

In line with these demands, it is critical that department heads receive further training in the ever-evolving curriculum (Tapala, 2020 ) to ensure effective teaching and support for personnel development (Christie et al., 2007 ; Mampane, 2017 ). Thorpe and Bennet-Powell ( 2014 ) emphasize the primary responsibility of department heads in enhancing curriculum leadership to elevate the performance of students and teachers, thereby facilitating effective handling of various classroom situations and educational content.

The department head's role assumes a pivotal position in bridging the gap between classroom dynamics and school objectives. This is achieved by providing necessary resources, professional development opportunities, and facilitating the teaching and learning process. Department heads play a crucial part in implementing school plans, especially when it comes to adopting contemporary instructional methods, technology, student progress assessment, and maintaining high standards of classroom interactions (Tapala, 2019 ). They are also responsible for conducting classroom visits and lesson observations to ensure qualitative and quantitative curriculum implementation (Ogina, 2017 ). Their role extends to monitoring syllabus coverage in each subject, necessitating substantial training and development (Tapala, 2020 ).

While the leadership of department heads holds a delicate position due to its significant impact on daily educational operations and goal attainment (Tapala et al., 2022 ), it remains imperative to elucidate the direct influence of department heads on classroom participation. Leadership styles have evolved to address the multifaceted challenges encountered, with department heads emerging as key figures in achieving and sustaining educational reform. The extent of their responsibilities varies according to school size and the scope of their duties. They may oversee one or more subjects and departments, ensuring positive learning outcomes and teacher performance (Ogina, 2017 ; Tapala, 2020 ). Their oversight extends to managing the divisions they lead (Bambi, 2012 ), and they bear the ultimate accountability for student and teacher performance (Manasseh, 2016 ). As part of their curriculum leadership responsibilities, department heads must supervise and moderate the work of teachers and students.

In a related study by Al-Ghamdi ( 2008 ), it was observed that department heads have developed extensive educational competencies, particularly in student assessment methods, teaching method diversity, and classroom interaction, albeit with moderate proficiency in planning and the utilization of teaching aids. These findings underscore the need for a transformational leadership role for department heads to enhance classroom interaction by supporting teachers throughout the planning, implementation, and evaluation processes and by providing solutions and proposals to elevate the quality of classroom interaction.

In many educational systems across the globe, the position of the Department Head occupies a significant role within the framework of middle leadership or management in schools (Shaked & Schechter, 2017b ). These individuals are also variously referred to as curriculum leaders, subject leaders, subject coordinators, and, in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), as department heads (MoE, 2017 ). The role of an educational department head is defined as "a facilitator and advisor appointed by the school administration to aid teachers in their personal and professional development" (Al-Balawi, 2011 ). Procedurally, an educational department head is designated as a teacher appointed by the school administration to oversee the educational process with the objective of achieving academic and educational goals, improving teachers' performance, and enhancing their professional competence through various supervisory techniques.

The contemporary understanding of the role of department heads, which the department head and school administration should embrace, revolves around the fundamental notion that all teachers possess the potential for professional growth provided they are placed in an environment conducive to making informed choices for effective teaching and goal attainment (Mulford, 2003 ). Consequently, the traditional practices of department head leadership, which primarily involve advice and direction, have given way to a more modern and nuanced concept of leadership (Bennett, 2008 ).

These definitions closely mirror the description of department heads in the UAE, where they are perceived as facilitators, observers, developers, supervisors, and guides in the teaching and learning process. Nevertheless, department heads are often encumbered with numerous administrative tasks, which, at times, reduce their capacity to effectively manage their departments and actively engage in subject development activities (Fullan, 2015 ; Flückiger et al., 2015 ; Lárusdóttir & O'Connor, 2017 ; Javadi et al., 2017 ).

In their study, Elyakim et al. ( 2023 ) identified four modalities of the principal's ongoing leadership presence in social media networks: branding and communicative, transformational, supportive-protective, and enforcement presence. In this study, transformational leadership is employed as a focal variable, aligned with the UAE perspective, given the prevalent utilization of transformational leadership by school leaders in the UAE (Alshammari & Al-Mahdy, 2018 ; Al-Taneiji & McLeod, 2019 ; Alzaydi & Alghamdi, 2019 ). A comparison of leadership styles among 22 principals in public and private schools in the UAE indicated that transactional and passive/avoidant leadership styles were less frequently practiced (Al-Taneiji & McLeod, 2019 ). Furthermore, research conducted by Ibrahim and Al-Taneiji ( 2012 ), examining the relationships between the principal's leadership style (transformational, transactional, or laissez-faire) and school performance, underscored the predominance of transformational leadership over other styles. Consequently, the selection of transformational leadership as the focus of this study is substantiated.

From a UAE perspective, studies have yielded mixed results regarding the use of dimensions of transformational leadership. Burns ( 1978 ) transformational leadership traits, which encompass idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, personalized attention, and inspirational motivation, resonate with the practices of department heads. Idealized influence, as defined by Bass ( 1985 ), signifies the transformative leader's ability to convey a compelling vision and motivate followers effectively. In the UAE, Al-Taneiji and McLeod ( 2019 ) conducted a study involving 22 private and public school principals, revealing Burns ( 1978 ) dimensions, including idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, personalized attention, and inspirational motivation in the practices of UAE school leaders. However, a study by Alshammari and Al-Mahdy ( 2018 ) involving 30 public school principals produced slightly different findings, highlighting patterns of idealized influence and individualized consideration among school leaders. In their qualitative study of ten public schools, Alzaydi and Alghamdi ( 2019 ) identified the presence of inspirational motivation and intellectual stimulation practices among UAE school principals. Consequently, this study incorporates all the dimensions of transformational leadership, acknowledging the variability in study results.

Classroom interaction" encompasses the dynamic exchanges that transpire among educators and learners or between learners themselves (Eisenring & Margana, 2019 ; Li, 2023 ; Tsui, 2001 ). It may also encompass the interactions between educators. Historically, studies on classroom interaction primarily centered on the language employed by instructors and students, the resulting interactions arising from this language use, and the consequential impact on students' learning capabilities (Waring, 2017 ; Sert, 2019 ). Recent research endeavors have ventured beyond these surface-level analyses to explore the underlying factors that mold classroom interaction. These influencing factors include the beliefs held by educators and students, the socio-cultural backgrounds of educators and students, and the psychological dimensions of the learning process (Sundari, 2017 ; Tsui, 2001 ). Moore's model has been the basis for the development of subsequent interaction models (Anderson, 2003a , 2003b ; Hirumi, 2013 ), encompassing various forms of interaction, such as teacher-student interaction and student-interface interaction. Research suggests that learning is a product of students' interactions with educators and peers, irrespective of the context of these interactions (Tirri & Kuusisto, 2013 ).

Both student–teacher and student–student interactions entail multifaceted communication processes involving two or more individuals. Student–student interaction involves the reciprocal exchange of ideas, information, and knowledge related to the subject matter. Teacher-student interaction pertains to communication between educators and students, which can take on various forms, including assessment, feedback, guidance, and support. "Student-content interaction" pertains to the relationship between students and the educational material as they engage with and reflect upon it (Moore & Kearsley, 1996 ; Anderson, 2003a , 2003b ; Miyazoe & Anderson, 2010 ). Overbaugh and Nickel ( 2011 ) also underscore the significance of interactions between educators and students in fostering a sense of community and, consequently, enhancing student satisfaction (Kuo et al., 2014 ). This study places its focus on the interactions occurring within the classroom, encompassing teacher-student, student–student, and student-content interactions. It aims to elucidate the influence of department heads' transformational leadership practices in effectively facilitating classroom interactions by fulfilling their roles and responsibilities.

Moreover, studies have indicated that experienced teachers tend to be more responsive to the directives of department heads compared to their less experienced counterparts. In the realm of school improvement activities, research by Leithwood et al. ( 2002 ) emphasized that experienced teachers aligned their activities more closely with school leaders' mission and vision. Similarly, the OECD ( 2019 ) found that experienced teachers placed greater value on school leaders' feedback and support than those with less experience. Notably, head teachers often encounter challenges in acquainting new teachers with the curriculum instruction, as reported in a study by Edutopia ( 2020 ). Teachers with over 15 years of experience were found to engage less effectively in cooperative activities concerning instructional plans (Ronfeldt et al., 2015 ), requiring leadership support and a sense of significance in their work compared to their less experienced counterparts (Walker & Slear, 2011 ). Additionally, teachers with over seven years of experience encountered challenges beyond the classroom, necessitating greater teaching support (Louws et al., 2017 ). Thus, understanding how teaching experience can influence the relationship between leadership and classroom interactions is of paramount importance.

Based on this conception, the following research questions were formulated to investigate the impacts of department heads' transformational leadership practices on classroom interaction in UAE secondary schools:

What is the Department heads' transformational leadership practice level in UAE private secondary schools?

What is the level of classroom interaction among teachers-students and students-students, and student-content in UAE private secondary schools?

Do department heads’ transformational leadership practices significantly impact classroom interaction?

Does teachers’ teaching experience moderate the relationships between the department heads’ transformational leadership and classroom interaction?

2 Literature review

2.1 department heads’ transformational leadership.

In many countries, the Department Head is part of the school's middle leadership or management structure (Shaked & Schechter, 2017b ). They are also termed curriculum leaders, subject leaders, subject coordinators, and departmental heads, as they are called in UAE (department heads) (MoE, 2017 ). The educational department head is "the facilitator and advisor appointed by the school administration, who helps teachers develop themselves personally and professionally" (Al-Balawi, 2011 ). The educational department head is procedurally defined as a teacher assigned by the school administration to supervise the educational process to achieve its academic and educational goals to improve teachers' performance and raise their professional levels through various supervisory methods.

The modern concept of the department head that the department head and head of the school should adopt is based on the fundamental idea that all teachers have the potential for professional development to the extent that they can make the right choices to plan effective learning and accomplish their goals if they work in the right environment (Mulford, 2003 ). Consequently, the traditional practices of the department head's leadership, based on advice and direction, have replaced a more contemporary idea of leadership (Bennett, 2008 ).

All the previous definitions are identical to the description of the department head in the UAE, as the department head is considered a facilitator, an observer, a developer, a supervisor, and a guide to the teaching and learning process. In addition, department heads are nevertheless needed to carry out a lot of administrative tasks while spending less time managing their departments and participating in subject development activities (Fullan, 2015 ; Flückiger et al., 2015 ; Lárusdóttir & O'Connor, 2017 ; Javadi et al., 2017 ). This study used transformational leadership as a study variable from the UAE perspective because it is evident that UAE school leaders mostly use transformational leadership in their practices (Alshammari & Al-Mahdy, 2018 ; Al-Taneiji & McLeod, 2019 ; Alzaydi & Alghamdi, 2019 ). While comparing the methods of different leadership styles, such as transformational, transactional, and passive/avoidant leadership styles of 22 principals in UAE public and private schools, transactional and passive/avoidant leadership styles exhibited less practice (Al-Taneiji & McLeod, 2019 ). Similarly, Ibrahim and Al-Taneiji ( 2012 ) examined the relationships between the principal's leadership style (transformational, transactional, or laissez-faire) and school performance, which indicated the dominance of transformational leadership over others. Thus, the use of transformational leadership for this study is more justified.

Different studies found mixed results from UAE perspectives regarding the use of dimensions of transformational leadership. Burns ( 1978 ) transformational leadership traits—idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, personalized attention, and inspiring motivation—apply to these department heads. Bass ( 1985 ) defines idealized influence as the transformative leader's ability to communicate a vision and motivate followers convincingly. In the UAE, Al-Taneiji and McLeod ( 2019 ) conducted a study on 22 principals in private and public schools concerning transformational leadership practices. They found the presence of Burns ( 1978 ) dimensions, such as idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, personalized attention, and inspiring motivation in the practices of UAE school leaders. However, Alshammari and Al-Mahdy's ( 2018 ) study on 30 public school principals showed slightly different results in that they found patterns of idealized influence and individualized consideration among school leaders. In their qualitative study on ten public schools, Alzaydi and Alghamdi ( 2019 ) found inspirational motivation and intellectual stimulation practices among UAE school principals. This study employed all the dimensions of transformational leadership, as different study results are inconsistent.

2.2 Classroom interaction

Classroom interaction refers to the interaction between the instructor and the learners or among the learners (Eisenring & Margana, 2019 ; Li, 2023 ; Tsui, 2001 ). It may also refer to the contact between the teacher and other teachers. The earlier study on classroom interaction mainly focused on the language that the instructor and the students used, the interaction that emerged from the language, and the impact of the interaction on the student's ability to learn (Waring, 2017 ; Sert, 2019 ). Recent studies have begun to examine the underlying factors that shape classroom interaction. These factors include beliefs held by teachers and students, the social and cultural backgrounds of teachers and students, and the psychological aspects of learning (Sundari, 2017 ; Tsui, 2001 ;). Based on Moore's model, further interaction models have been constructed by (Anderson, 2003a , 2003b ; Hirumi, 2013 ), including models for various types of interaction (teacher-student interaction, student-interface interaction). According to research, learning occurs whenever students connect with teachers and other students, regardless of the contact situation (Tirri & Kuusisto, 2013 ).

Both student–teacher and student–student interactions include a process of communication between two or more individuals. Student–student interaction is a two-way street where students share Ping, ideas, information, and knowledge about the course. Interaction between students and teachers refers to communication between them. It may take various forms, including assessment, feedback, and direction or assistance. "Student–content interaction" refers to the relationship between students and the course material as they develop and reflect on it (Moore & Kearsley, 1996 ; Anderson, 2003a , 2003b ; Miyazoe & Anderson, 2010 ). Overbaugh and Nickel, ( 2011 ) also mentioned that the interaction between students and teachers is critical for fostering a feeling of community and, as a result, increasing student happiness. Effective teacher-student interaction (TSI) is crucial for promoting learning efficiency and fostering harmonious interpersonal relationships between teachers and students (Jiang et al., 2023 ; Kuo & Yu-Chun, 2014 ).

This study focuses on the interactions that occur in the classroom with the interaction forms between teacher-student, student–student, and student-content, which reflects the department heads' transformational leadership practices in enabling classroom interaction effectively by fulfilling the DHTL roles and responsibilities.

2.3 Department heads’ transformational leadership practices and classroom interaction

Interactions between school leaders and teachers have undergone tremendous changes ((Ping et al., 2023 ). Evidences show that transformational leadership fosters frequent interaction with teacher which significantly promote teachers’ job satisfaction, student learning, and participation in the classroom (Bolkan & Goodboy, 2009 ; Liang & Zhang, 2021 ). Hallinger’s ( 2003 ) research on educational leadership has linked leadership behaviors that indirectly affect student academic achievement development through their behaviors and actions and affect what is going on in the class. It also has an impact on the effectiveness of teachers' performance. This highlighted the role of leadership in promoting students' continuing education and teachers' professional development. Effective educational leadership is of great importance to achieving success for the school, and many programs have been adopted around the world to train academic leaders in schools to achieve this success and, thus, the educational institution's success (Hallinger, 2005 ). Hallinger also concluded that progress had been made in finding a model through which the tasks performed by the academic leader can be determined and that have an impact on the learning process, as well as in his possession of competencies, experiences, and visions in which he can develop the learning in collaboration with the rest of the members the learning community to ensure the dissemination and achievement of the school's vision and goals. (Hallinger, 2011 ). Alkutich ( 2017 ) examined the impacts of the Department head's (DH) leadership on Arabic language instruction at two Abu Dhabi private schools. In this study, teachers viewed them as fault finders, needing to lead by example and continuous professional development. Leithwood ( 2016 ) examined 42 studies from traditional literature searches to determine how department-head leadership affects student learning, how departments compare to schools as change agents, and the barriers to significant department-head leadership. The study found schools and school administrators have less impact on classroom interaction than department heads. Well-performing departments may improve without school leaders. Leithwood ( 2016 ) also identified reasonable departmental and personal leadership procedures. These strategies and materials reflect a proven school leadership model. In its mini-dissertation data, Rajoo ( 2012 ) suggests that the HoD/middle manager/curriculum increases learning and teaching. As middle management, the Head of Department (HoD) should have the vision to attain academic excellence in a subject area and holistically develop learners.

In New Zealand, Highfield's ( 2012 ) surveys identified five intermediate leadership traits: teamwork, clear goals and objectives, student academic achievement, resource management, and a pleasant learning environment for students and instructors. In addition, among 30 departments in 10 institutions, the results showed that certain variables positively correlated with academic achievements and others adversely. Middle leaders had better certification scores but not NCEA Level 1 (15-year-old) outcomes. Goals, resource management, and a good learning environment predict academic performance.

2.4 The role of teaching experience in enhancing leadership capability and interaction

Teaching experience helps students understand leaders' instructions (Hallinger & Heck, 1996 ), receive effective guidance and support (Leithwood et al., 2004 ), and thus influence classroom practices and student achievement. In line with this, Robinson et al. ( 2008 ) revealed teaching experience as one of the factors that help HoDs enhance a conducive and orderly learning environment. A study by Day et al. ( 2009 ) explored the relationship between school leaders’ professional development, learning, and capacity building and their impact on student outcomes. They discovered that experienced teachers developed a shared vision and collaboration with leadership, which enhanced teaching and learning quality. In connection with better student achievement in mathematics, reading, and science in PISA, Hallinger et al. ( 2014 ) discovered a strong association between more experienced teachers and leadership instructions. Based on this evidence, this study assumed that teachers’ experiences (moderating variable) might influence the HoD’s transformational leadership style (independent variable) and classroom interaction (dependent variable).

3 Materials and methods

3.1 research design and data collection.

The present quantitative study employs a correlational methodology to examine the association between the department heads and classroom interaction and the moderation of teachers' teaching experience in UAE private secondary schools. The questionnaire was distributed to more than the required sample, so about 400 questionnaires were sent to ensure that all the required data were collected. Two hundred were sent via a Google form, and two hundred through schools were done on paper. The questionnaire instrument comprised three different existing questionnaires, from which the research instruments were adapted and adopted for use in this study. The questionnaire consists of two main subsections: demographic variables, Department Heads' Transformational Leadership, and Classroom interaction. This research conducted a comprehensive survey among educators to assess the extent to which department heads' transformational leadership practices impact classroom interactions within private secondary schools in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). These private schools encompass various curricula, including American, British, Indian, Asian, and Arabic, where the roles and responsibilities of department heads tend to be more subject/department-specific. To ensure the questionnaire's reliability and validity, a pilot study was conducted with a random sample of 30 participants from a secondary school in Ras Al-Khaimah. The participants provided feedback and comments on the questionnaire's clarity and comprehension. The reliability of the questionnaire was assessed using Cronbach's alpha, resulting in a coefficient of 0.934 for the instrument developed for teachers, which consisted of 23 items. Several modifications were made to enhance the questionnaire's clarity and comprehensibility, including reorganizing instructions and providing definitions for terms participants found challenging to understand, such as "classroom interaction types."

3.2 Participants

Based on the statistical data available for the year 2020, the study's population was initially estimated, revealing approximately 6,452 teachers within the secondary education sector of private schools in the UAE. The research sample consisted of 226 private secondary schools and a total of 374 teachers.

In terms of their teaching experience, 85 teachers (22%) of the participants have years of experience from (1–5) years, whereas 114 of the teachers (31%) had teaching experience between 4 to 7 years. In the meantime, 126 teachers (33.6%) have years of experience from (6–15) years, while 93 teachers (25%) and 43 teachers (11%) of the participants have (21–25) years, and (11%) also have (more than 25 years of experience) in the field of teaching (Table  1 ).

3.3 Instruments

The questionnaire used in this study was developed based on an extensive literature review to investigate the impact of department heads' transformational leadership practices on classroom interaction. It aimed to identify the critical competencies for department heads to lead the teaching and learning process effectively.

The questionnaire consists of three sections. The first section collects demographic information, including participants' gender, to assess whether gender plays a role in department heads' leadership. The second section comprises the Department Heads' Transformational Leadership Scale (DHTL), which includes ten items. The third section covers the Classroom Interaction Scale (CI), which measures various aspects of classroom interaction, including teacher-student, student–student, and student-content interactions, and their influence on learning. This section consists of thirteen items. Respondents used a five-point Likert scale (ranging from "Strongly agree" to "Strongly Disagree"), where a higher score (5) indicates a stronger presence of the construct. In comparison, a lower score (1) suggests a weaker presence of the construct.

3.3.1 Department heads’ transformational leadership (DHTL)

A total of 10 items were used in the study to validate the instrument to examine Department heads' leadership (DHL) in schools. Previous research has shown that the dimensions included in the Leithwood leadership survey are reliable, with Cronbach's alpha scores ranging from 0.78 to 0.85 (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2006 ). Four dimensions of the Leithwood School Leadership Survey exhibit internal solid consistency, according to a recent study by Boberg and Bourgeois ( 2016 ). The researchers reported Cronbach's alpha coefficients for each dimension: a) defining goals: 0.93, b) developing people: 0.93, c) reorganizing the company: 0.94, and d) enhancing the company: 0.95. A Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.98 was reported for the complete scale of Transformational School Leadership. According to the study conducted by Boberg and Bourgeois in 2016, it was found that.

3.3.2 Classroom interaction (CI)

A total of (13) items were used in the study to validate the instrument to examine classroom interaction. A previous study used Cronbach's alpha to perform the reliability test, with scores ranging from 0.713 to 0.913. These findings indicate that the items in each factor have high internal consistency or may be used to test the same underlying meaning of the factors, indicating that the factor analysis is adequate. The original scale consisted of three dimensions: 'Teacher-student,' 'student–student,' 'student-content'. The number of items under each dimension comes from a) 4 items for 'Teacher-student' based on the study of (Balagová & Haláková ( 2018 ), b) 4 items for 'student–student' from Lasfeto, ( 2020 ) study, and c) 5 items from the study of Çakiroğlu et al. ( 2009 ) for the 'student-content.'

3.4 Data collection and analysis procedures

Multiple data collection methods were employed in this research study. Initially, a total of 400 questionnaires were distributed to teachers. The first stage involved obtaining consent letters from the faculty, followed by supervisor approval. Questionnaires with proper authorization were submitted to the UAE Ministry of Education for approval to conduct research within educational institutions. School administrators subsequently granted permission for questionnaire distribution to instructors. Instructors were selected using a basic random sampling technique. Each participant received a physical copy of the questionnaire and was given sufficient time to complete it, with a seven-day response period. The data collection faced challenges, particularly in transporting and collecting questionnaires from the seven Emirates (cities). The online Google Form survey was distributed via email and WhatsApp groups to expedite responses. Data collection began in September 2022 and extended over several months due to unforeseen difficulties in some schools, including teachers' heavy professional commitments and the end of the academic year. To ensure sufficient data collection, more than the required sample of 400 questionnaires were sent, resulting in a response rate exceeding 85%. In total, 374 responses were collected, surpassing the target population size.

The collected data were analyzed using SPSS (Version 29) to address the research questions. Descriptive and inferential statistics were applied to uncover findings. Central tendency and data dispersion were assessed, and measurement reliability was evaluated using Cronbach's alpha. Descriptive analysis was employed to identify prevalent practices, while regression analysis examined the associations between dependent and independent variables. The mean scores in this research were categorized into three levels of interpretation: a mean value between 1 and 2, considered in the lower range; values from 3 to 3.99, classified as moderate; and values ranging from 4 to 5, commonly regarded as high, following the categorization proposed by Hoque et al. ( 2020 ).

In order to assess the extent of transformational leadership practices and classroom interaction among department heads, descriptive statistics, specifically percentages. The research used a method of item-level analysis wherein the perceptions categorized as 'strongly agree' and 'agree' were combined into a single positive perception, represented as percentages. The mean and standard deviation were utilized to determine the level of each variable, as well as their respective dimensions (sub-constructs) and items.

To ascertain the direct relationship or effect between the variables under study, the researchers utilized partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The study employed a hierarchical component model (HCM) consisting of reflective-formative and reflective-reflective constructs, necessitating a two-stage analysis approach. The researcher used a two-stage hierarchical component model (HCM) analysis, utilizing a repeated indicator approach and latent scores to address the challenges associated with this particular analytical framework (Hair et al., 2017 ). During the initial phase, a methodology known as the repeated indicator approach was employed to obtain the latent variable scores about the subconstructs or lower-order components (LOC). Subsequently, the latent inconsistent scores are utilized as indicators, specifically manifest variables, within the higher-order construct (HOC) measurement model in the subsequent phase of the analysis. The evaluation of the structural model was initiated by examining the presence of collinearity issues within the model. Path coefficients were estimated using ordinary least squares (OLS) regression to assess the direct relationship between variables. This involved regressing endogenous variables on their corresponding antecedent variables or constructs. The hypothesized relationships among the variables in the present study were directional.

The research employing Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) must take measures to verify that the analyzed data do not show a substantial departure from normality. This can be accomplished by evaluating the degree to which the data deviate from a distribution that adheres to the normal distribution. Hence, normality can be evaluated by obtaining skewness and kurtosis values, as proposed by Hair et al. ( 2017 ). Hence, the determination of data normality in this study was predicated upon the statistical analysis of skewness and kurtosis. Table 2 shows skewness and kurtosis values for the overall variables of the study (Table 3 ).

4.1 Respondents’ experience

The inclusion of experience is considered a crucial component in providing support for this study. Most teachers who participated in this study possessed ample teaching experience. A total of 85 participants, constituting 22% of the sample, reported having 1 to 5 years of teaching experience. Additionally, 114 teachers, accounting for 31% of the participants, indicated having teaching experience ranging from 4 to 7 years. Altogether 126 teachers, accounting for 33.6% of the participants, possess 6 to 15 years of teaching experience. Additionally, 93 teachers (25%) have accumulated between 21 and 25 years of experience, while 43 (11%) fall within the same range. Furthermore, 11% of the participants have acquired more than 25 years of experience in teaching.

4.2 Level of department heads’ transformational leadership practices

Table 4 shows that the teachers' opinion of their department heads’ transformational leadership had a mean score of 3.945. According to the data above, mean values indicate a moderate level of satisfaction in most areas.

Table 4 shows participants' first axis paragraph replies. Item 1, "Department Head seeks high expectations for your teaching," obtained the highest average score of 4.12. Participants strongly feel the Department Head values good teaching standards. Teacher performance is directly affected by such expectations. Paragraph (5), where the department head promotes best practices in teaching and learning to meet curricular goals, took second place. The arithmetic mean of 4.05 shows that the department head's support and motivation of people and staff are vital to curricular goals. Paragraph (2) emphasizes the department head's role in encouraging innovative teaching concepts, ranking third. This paragraph averaged 4.01 with a standard deviation of 1.091. To sum up, the department head's support as a form of transformational leadership style is essential for encouraging new and varied teaching methods that foster creative and good thoughts .

4.3 Level of classroom interaction

The level of classroom interaction was measured at a high rate (4.204). The first item, on teacher-student interaction, highlighting the teacher's role in clarifying activities and assignments to encourage classroom involvement by presenting examples and explanations, had the highest average rating of 4.307. Student–student interaction significantly impacts educational outcomes, highlighting its importance. The third item about integrating students into group class activities had the highest arithmetic mean of 4.214. After that, the third item on student-content interaction, "pictures and shapes help students engage in the classroom." The arithmetic mean was 4.25%. This emphasizes the need to add forms, diagrams, and visuals to interest students. Overall, the study found that the teacher's role in clarifying activities and assignments to encourage classroom involvement by presenting examples and explanations, had the highest average rating which emphasizes the need to add forms, diagrams, and visuals to interest students.

4.4 DHs’ Transformational Leadership Practices and Classroom Interaction

The regression analysis has been performed to determine the effect of DHTLP on CI. The results show that DHTLP significantly impacts classroom interaction (β = 0.659). The results of the study are presented in Tables 5 .

As shown in Table 7 , as a whole, the model is significant (R2 change = 0.434, F = 0.000, p  < 0.05). The coefficient table (Table  6 ) shows the impact of the independent variable (TL) on Classroom interaction (CI). The β value of TL (β = 0.588, p  ≥ 0.05) significantly impacts CI. It means TL explains 58.8% of the variance in CI.

4.5 Teaching Experience as a Moderator

Table 7  shows the interaction between department heads' transformational leadership practices and teachers' years of teaching experience (t-value = 0.476) significantly and positively influences the relationship between DHTLP and classroom interaction (CI).

This finding underscores the importance of considering teachers' years of teaching experience as a moderating factor when exploring the impact of DHTLP on CI.

Additionally, the interaction coefficient between department heads' transformational leadership practices and teachers' years of teaching experience was negative (β = -0.036), indicating that the interaction effect has a negative influence on the relationship between department heads' transformational leadership practices. In this context, it suggests that as teachers' years of teaching experience increase, the impact of department heads' transformational leadership practices on the outcome becomes less favorable or more negative (Fig. 1 ).

figure 1

Moderation analysis

5 Discussion

This study emphasizes the crucial role of department heads' support, a form of transformational leadership, in promoting diverse teaching methods that nurture creativity and critical thinking. Leithwood and Jantzi ( 2000 ) propose a direct connection between transformational leadership and student learning, with Harvey et al. ( 2003 ) highlighting its positive impact on student learning. Research, including Cheng and Tam ( 1997 ), underlines the correlation between transformational leadership strategies employed by department heads and increased student engagement and classroom interaction.

Similarly, Wang et al. ( 2019 ) investigation shows a positive association between the adoption of transformational leadership strategies and enhanced collaboration among teachers, as well as increased student engagement. The study contends that department heads' transformational leadership practices directly influence classroom interaction by fostering a positive school climate, encouraging collaboration among teachers, setting high expectations, and providing personalized support to both students and teachers.

In contrast, comparative studies, like Alkutich's ( 2017 ), reveal discrepancies in recognizing the impact of department heads' transformational leadership on classroom interaction within some UAE societies. This study acknowledges the need for further research to understand the varying effects of department heads' transformational leadership in diverse UAE communities. Cultural and social factors, such as differing perspectives on teacher autonomy and the role of department heads in instructional leadership, may contribute to these variations.

The research also explores the moderating effect of teachers' experience on the relationship between department heads' transformational leadership and classroom interactions. It suggests that as teachers gain more experience, the influence of department heads' leadership may diminish due to increased teacher autonomy, aligning with OECD findings ( 2019 ). Moreover, the study underscores the importance of leadership education for department heads, advocating policy-level actions to enhance their skills.

Notably, the research observes concerns among instructors regarding department heads' involvement in curriculum and unit creation in centralized systems. It suggests that department heads' formative input and collaborative efforts are underutilized transformational leadership techniques in UAE secondary schools.

6 Practical implications

The findings of the current study bear significant implications for theories, policymakers, and practitioners, particularly school leadership and department heads in UAE schools. Distinguished by its unique exploration of department heads' transformational leadership and its impact on classroom interaction in UAE secondary schools, this study stands out as one of the most critical in the country. The practical implications derived from these findings extend to department heads, who are urged to employ transformational leadership practices to foster classroom interactions conducive to student learning. However, the choice of leadership style should be attuned to the diverse personal and contextual needs of teachers.

In supporting blended learning practices, department heads can cultivate a collaborative working atmosphere among teachers, fostering knowledge sharing, peer support, and the exchange of innovative teaching practices. This collaborative approach instills a sense of shared purpose and collective growth, ultimately enhancing classroom interactions. Additionally, department heads are encouraged to actively support and motivate teachers by providing tailored professional development opportunities and resources. This proactive support empowers teachers, boosting their confidence and enthusiasm for implementing effective teaching practices, thereby positively influencing classroom interactions.

The study underscores the evidence supporting the adoption of transformational leadership by department heads, emphasizing the promotion of collaboration, motivation of teachers, and provision of individualized support to create an environment that values and supports classroom interactions. By doing so, department heads can effectively enhance classroom interactions, contributing to a positive and engaging learning experience for both teachers and students.

7 Limitations

The study acknowledges some limitations. The generalization of results is limited to UAE secondary schools, and the context specificity may vary. The inclusion of qualitative research methods, such as phenomenological or case studies, could provide deeper insights into how department heads' transformational leadership influences classroom interaction in the specific sociocultural context of UAE secondary schools.

8 Conclusion

The study establishes that the transformational leadership practices of department heads exert a significant influence on classroom interaction. Moreover, the research affirms that department heads' transformational leadership acts as an indicator of classroom interaction. These findings offer fresh insights into the pivotal role played by department heads' transformational leadership in advancing classroom interaction. The study underscores the importance of providing leadership education to department head candidates for the enhancement of their leadership skills. Advocating for policy-level actions, the study suggests initiatives such as developing a clear school vision, instituting staff evaluation systems, and adopting self-assessment techniques to improve the leadership abilities of department heads. The research concludes that the positive impact of department heads' transformational leadership practices on classroom interactions is evident in their contribution to fostering a conducive educational atmosphere, encouraging teacher collaboration, setting high expectations, and providing personalized support to both students and teachers.

For department heads to effectively promote classroom interaction, they must employ well-established and well-practiced transformational leadership methods. Particularly during periods of significant educational reform, such as the adoption of new UAE secondary schools, implications connected to both theory and practice become crucial drivers of essential changes. When incorporating the study's conclusions, it is imperative to carefully assess its limitations. A long-term investigation would provide valuable support for the research's conclusions.

Data availability

Data are preserved with the authors. They will be available upon request.

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Abuhassira, H.Y., Razak, A.Z.A. & Hoque, K.E. The impact of transformational leadership on classroom interaction in UAE secondary schools. Educ Inf Technol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12701-3

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There's a surprising reason why many schools don't have a single Black teacher

assignment of methods of teaching

Middle school educator Jeffrey Lee is the only Black male English teacher at his school, which serves about 815 students northwest of Philadelphia.

" It can be a lonely existence. I almost feel like the last dinosaur that roamed the Earth," Lee said. "I have students say, 'You’re the first African American or male teacher of color' they’ve ever had."

Seventy years after a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision outlawing segregation in public schools, Lee's story illustrates a lingering imbalance at schools nationwide: Students of color now make up more than half of America's students, but the number of teachers and principals of color has not kept apace.

An analysis of state-by-state data from The New Teacher Project , a nonprofit organization working to redesign education to meet the needs of students of color and students living in poverty, shows that across a majority of U.S. campuses, nearly one-fourth of public schools did not have an educator of color on staff. Meanwhile, students of color were the majority at public schools.

Teacher representation hasn't kept up: about one-fourth of the nation's teachers identified as people of color, according to the nonprofit's analysis . Research conducted by scholars has shown the imbalance impedes learning , since students across the board and especially students of color , do better academically when they have teachers from diverse backgrounds.

While the reasons for the disparities are varied, education experts told USA TODAY the imbalance is part of a legacy, an unintended consequence, of the Brown v. Board of Education ruling.

How Brown v. Board contributed to teacher diversity imbalance

On May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that separating children based on race in public schools was inherently unequal and violated the right to Equal Protection under the 14th Amendment.

Outlawing segregation in schools was a victory for the civil rights movement, but it enraged Southern white leaders, school superintendents, parents and others.

Before the Brown v. Board ruling, Black teachers made up 35 to 50 percent of the workforce in the 17 states with segregated school systems, Education Week reported . Following the decision, many Black schools closed, thousands of Black educators were pushed out of the field and less-qualified white teachers replaced them , wrote Leslie Fenwick, the dean emerita of the Howard University School of Education and a professor of education policy, i n an op-ed for Politico .

The precipitous drop in the number of Black educators in the workforce was an unintended consequence of the ruling, said Tequilla Brownie, CEO of the nonprofit organization The New Teacher Project.

"Our nation’s current lack of educator diversity is a direct result of Brown (v. Board )," Brownie said. "It had a devastating effect not only on the school building and its demographics but also on Black communities and families. Educators of color were the lynchpin to creating the middle class in communities."

Diversity in the workforce also limited opportunities for Latino educators after the 1947 Mendez vs. Westminster ruling, in which a circuit judge in California ruled the forced segregation among Mexican American and white students was unconstitutional. That case set a precedent for Brown v. Board of Education , according to the Zinn Education Project, a collaboration of historical content from the groups  Rethinking Schools  and  Teaching for Change .

There would be reverberations from both cases for decades to come.

Many other factors propel the teacher diversity imbalance

Beyond the landmark events, several factors limited access to the workforce for teachers of color, preventing them from entering the workforce, making their careers as educators difficult to sustain or pushing them out of the field, experts told USA TODAY. They include:

  • Teacher layoffs : Schools are laying off teachers en masse as they prepare to lose COVID-19 funding in the fall. Many schools hired educators of color in recent years who work at schools with "last in, first out" policies where the last teachers hired are laid off will be cut from their roles. (The financial cliff is expected to affect students of color and students of low-income communities most, research from the national nonprofit the Brookings Institution shows.)
  • Burnout and frustration : Over the last several years, some teachers of color have left the profession , citing burnout and low morale, pandemic-related stressors and a toxic climate amid political attacks on schools. Educators and education leaders of color conveyed to Sharhonda Bossier, CEO of Education Leaders of Color , that they are also worried about school safety issues, such as shootings and increased misbehavior among kids.
  • Financial concerns : Low pay , costly teacher training programs and difficult exams have prevented people of color interested in teaching from entering the workforce, several education experts told USA TODAY.
  • A lack of representation in leadership roles : U.S. schools face a pipeline issue, said Jean Desravines, CEO of New Leaders, a national nonprofit organization whose mission is to train and develop "transformational, equity-minded" school leaders. Teachers of color are being blocked from leadership roles, which means they're missing the chance to lift up others , Desravines said.
  • Diversity, equity and inclusion program cuts : Conservative lawmakers passed measures requiring schools to axe their diversity, equity and inclusion programs which resulted in educators of color being cut from those jobs .

What's needed to close the gap?

To close the gap, American schools would need to hire about 1 million teachers of color and 30,000 leaders of color, according to an analysis of federal data from the school year 2017-2018. The analysis was published by the One Million Teachers of Color Campaign , which was created by a consortium of education organizations advocating for an increase in teacher diversity.

Education experts have outlined a number of ways the federal government, states and schools can work together to improve access for educators of color.

One approach would be to change how schools conduct layoffs: Some want to see schools remove "last in, first out" layoff policies to avoid pushing out teachers of color who are newly hired when funds disappear.

States could also fund programs that help recruit teachers of color, including "grow your own" programs which incentivize paraprofessionals to become teachers at the schools where they're already employed. Another solution: districts could fund teacher residencies that allow people with a bachelor's degree to teach alongside a teacher in a classroom while working to earn their certification or completing fellowships and apprenticeships.

Another route to fixing the imbalance would be to pay teachers better. Some people of color are worried that encouraging young people to enter into a teaching career with low-paying jobs will exacerbate the racial wealth gap, Bossier said. Bossier left her position as a teacher years ago, in part because of the earning gap she experienced among her peers. While working as a teacher, she recalled, she had to wait tables to supplement her income.

It would also help to invest in recruiting, training and hiring school leaders of color who would be more likely to hire, promote and support teachers whose backgrounds align with the demographics of their students, Desravines said.

One such funding source is readily available, according to Education Department Secretary Miguel Cardona. Cardona has also repeatedly called on states to spend COVID-19 funds to increase diversity in the teaching workforce . Some states have made investments in the teacher pipeline to close these gaps over the last few years. However, those funds are drying up soon – which leaves the trajectory of success uncertain.

One method experiencing success

In California, which has invested in teacher residency programs, Peter Watts' Village Initiative program provides Black male teachers with housing, mentorship and resources so they can teach in Los Angeles neighborhoods they live in and connect with the kids in their classrooms without worrying about financial strife.

One of the teachers in the program teaches U.S. history at a charter school in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles and can afford to live there because of financial and mentorship support from the program, according to Watts from the Village Initiative.

Fontae Smith said he was inspired to pursue the role by the Black male teachers in the schools he grew up attending. Now, he's one of the only Black male educators at the school where he teaches – in a similar position to Lee at the middle school in Pennsylvania.

Smith and Lee both said they'd experienced uncomfortable comments or remarks about their race from students in their classrooms, but they felt the role was rewarding and could expose kids to Black male leaders they respected. Black teachers inspired both of them to enter the workforce.

"You have to be the type of person that's like, 'It's bigger than me,'" Smith said. He said it keeps him going to know he may inspire as many as 150 students each year and they will go on to inspire others.

"It spreads like wildfire," Smith said.

Contact Kayla Jimenez at [email protected] .  Follow her on X at @kaylajjimenez.

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Evaluation of the feasibility of a midwifery educator continuous professional development (CPD) programme in Kenya and Nigeria: a mixed methods study

  • Duncan N. Shikuku 1 , 2 ,
  • Hauwa Mohammed 3 ,
  • Lydia Mwanzia 4 ,
  • Alice Norah Ladur 2 ,
  • Peter Nandikove 5 ,
  • Alphonce Uyara 6 ,
  • Catherine Waigwe 7 ,
  • Lucy Nyaga 1 ,
  • Issak Bashir 8 ,
  • Eunice Ndirangu 9 ,
  • Carol Bedwell 2 ,
  • Sarah Bar-Zeev 10 &
  • Charles Ameh 2 , 11 , 12  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  534 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Midwifery education is under-invested in developing countries with limited opportunities for midwifery educators to improve/maintain their core professional competencies. To improve the quality of midwifery education and capacity for educators to update their competencies, a blended midwifery educator-specific continuous professional development (CPD) programme was designed with key stakeholders. This study evaluated the feasibility of this programme in Kenya and Nigeria.

This was a mixed methods intervention study using a concurrent nested design. 120 randomly selected midwifery educators from 81 pre-service training institutions were recruited. Educators completed four self-directed online learning (SDL) modules and three-day practical training of the blended CPD programme on teaching methods (theory and clinical skills), assessments, effective feedback and digital innovations in teaching and learning. Pre- and post-training knowledge using multiple choice questions in SDL; confidence (on a 0–4 Likert scale) and practical skills in preparing a teaching a plan and microteaching (against a checklist) were measured. Differences in knowledge, confidence and skills were analysed. Participants’ reaction to the programme (relevance and satisfaction assessed on a 0–4 Likert scale, what they liked and challenges) were collected. Key informant interviews with nursing and midwifery councils and institutions’ managers were conducted. Thematic framework analysis was conducted for qualitative data.

116 (96.7%) and 108 (90%) educators completed the SDL and practical components respectively. Mean knowledge scores in SDL modules improved from 52.4% (± 10.4) to 80.4% (± 8.1), preparing teaching plan median scores improved from 63.6% (IQR 45.5) to 81.8% (IQR 27.3), and confidence in applying selected pedagogy skills improved from 2.7 to 3.7, p  < 0.001. Participants rated the SDL and practical components of the programme high for relevance and satisfaction (median, 4 out of 4 for both). After training, 51.4% and 57.9% of the participants scored 75% or higher in preparing teaching plans and microteaching assessments. Country, training institution type or educator characteristics had no significant associations with overall competence in preparing teaching plans and microteaching ( p  > 0.05). Qualitatively, educators found the programme educative, flexible, convenient, motivating, and interactive for learning. Internet connectivity, computer technology, costs and time constraints were potential challenges to completing the programme.

The programme was feasible and effective in improving the knowledge and skills of educators for effective teaching/learning. For successful roll-out, policy framework for mandatory midwifery educator specific CPD programme is needed.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Quality midwifery education underpins the provision of quality midwifery care and is vital for the health and well-being of women, infants, and families [ 1 ]. The recent State of the World’s Midwifery report (SoWMy) (2021) indicates that urgent investments are needed in midwifery, especially quality midwifery education, to improve health outcomes for women and neonates. Despite evidence to support midwifery, midwifery education and training is grossly underfunded in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) with variation in the quality, content and duration of content between and within countries [ 2 ]. Barriers to achieving quality education are: inadequate content, lack of learning and teaching materials, insufficient and poorly trained educators and weak regulation, midwifery educators having no connection with clinical practice or opportunities for updating their knowledge or skills competencies [ 3 , 4 ].

The WHO, UNFPA, UNICEF and the International Confederation of Midwives’ (ICM) seven-step action plan to strengthen quality midwifery education, and ICM’s four pillars for midwives to achieve their potential emphasize strengthening midwifery faculty to teach students as a key priority [ 4 , 5 ]. Consequently, ICM recommends that (i) at least 50% of midwifery education curriculum should be practise-based with opportunities for clinical experience, (ii) midwifery faculty should use fair, valid and reliable formative and summative assessment methods to measure student performance and progress in learning and (iii) midwifery programmes have sufficient and up-to-date teaching and learning resources and technical support for virtual/distance learning to meet programme needs [ 6 ]. To achieve this, WHO’s Midwifery Educator Core Competencies and ICM’s Global Standards for Midwifery Education provide core competencies that midwifery educators must possess for effective practice [ 6 , 7 ]. The WHO’s global midwifery educator survey in 2018–2019 reported that fewer than half of the educators (46%) were trained or accredited as educators [ 5 ]. Educators are important determinants of quality graduates from midwifery programmes [ 7 ]. However, the survey identified that none of the educators felt confident in all of WHO’s midwifery educator core competencies [ 5 ]. Further evidence shows that many midwifery educators are more confident with theoretical classroom teaching than clinical teaching despite advances in teaching methods and have low confidence in facilitating online/virtual teaching and learning [ 4 , 8 , 9 ]. To remain competent, design and deliver competency-based curriculum and strengthen midwifery practice, ICM and WHO emphasize that midwifery faculty should engage in ongoing professional development as a midwifery practitioner, teacher/lecturer and leader [ 6 , 10 , 11 ]. However in many settings there is inadequate provision or access to faculty development opportunities [ 12 ].

Continuous professional development (CPD)

Continuous professional development has been defined as the means by which members of the profession maintain, improve and broaden their knowledge, expertise, and competence, and develop the personal and professional qualities required throughout their professional lives [ 13 ]. This can be achieved through multiple formal educational pathways based on the ICM Global Standards for Midwifery Education whilst incorporating the ICM Essential Competencies for Basic Midwifery Practice [ 6 , 14 ]. There are formal CPD activities where there is structured learning that often follows set curricula, usually approved by independent accreditation services or informal CPD that is usually self-directed learning. Participating in accredited CPD programmes is beneficial to the profession. A requirement of regular CPD renewal by a country to maintain licensure ensures an up-to-date, relevant nursing and midwifery workforce [ 15 ] and increases the legitimacy of CPD [ 16 ]. Structured learning (direct or distant), mandatory training, attending workshops and conferences, accredited college/university courses and trainings, research and peer review activities are opportunities for CPD [ 17 ]. Importantly, these CPD programmes are essential for safe, competent and effective practice that is essential to the universal health coverage (UHC) & maternal and newborn health SDGs agenda particularly in developing countries [ 18 , 19 ].

Whilst regulatory bodies and employers in many countries have requirements for midwives to complete CPD programmes and activities, these programmes and supporting activities are found to be ineffective if CPD is irrelevant to the practitioners’ practice setting, attended only because of monetary or non-monetary benefits, geared towards improving a skill for which there is no demonstrated need, and taken only to meet regulatory requirements rather than to close a competency gap [ 20 ]. In most LMICs, midwifery licensure is permanent, without obligation to demonstrate ongoing education or competence [ 15 ]. Consequently, CPD processes are not in place, and if in place, not fully utilised. A systematic review on CPD status in WHO regional office for Africa member states reported that nurses and midwives are required to attend formalised programmes delivered face-to-face or online, but only16 out of 46 (34.7%) member states had mandatory CPD programmes [ 15 ]. This underscores the need for designing regulator approved midwifery educator CPD programmes to improve the quality of midwifery education in LMICs.

Modes and approaches for delivery of CPD

Face-to-face contact is a common mode of delivery of CPD although mHealth is an emerging platform that increases access, particularly to nurses and midwives in rural areas [ 12 , 21 ]. Emerging platforms and organisations such as World Continuing Education Alliance (WCEA) offer mHealth learning opportunities in LMICs for skilled health personnel to access CPD resources that can improve health care provider knowledge and skills and potentially positively impact healthcare outcomes [ 22 ]. Although there is evidence of capacity building initiatives and CPD for midwifery educators in LMICs [ 23 ], these have been largely delivered as part of long duration (2-year) fellowship programmes and led by international organisations. In addition, these programmes have largely focused on curriculum design, leadership, management, research, project management and programme evaluation skills in health professions education with little on teaching and learning approaches and assessment for educators [ 24 , 25 , 26 ]. Successful CPD initiatives should be (i) accredited by the national regulatory bodies (Nursing and Midwifery Councils); (ii) multifaceted and provide different types of formal and informal learning opportunities and support; (iii) combine theory and clinical practice to develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes and (iv) must be adapted to fit the local context in which participants work and teach to ensure local ownership and sustainability of the initiatives [ 16 ].

Short competency-based blended trainings for educators improve their competence and confidence in delivering the quality midwifery teaching. However, systems for regular updates to sustain the competencies are lacking [ 27 , 28 ]. Evidence on effectiveness of the available CPD initiatives is limited. Even where these initiatives have been evaluated, this has largely focused on the outcomes of the programmes and little attention on the feasibility and sustainability of such programmes in low-resourced settings [ 24 , 25 , 29 ]. As part of global investments to improve the quality of midwifery education and training, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine (LSTM) in collaboration with the UNFPA Headquarters Global Midwifery Programme and Kenya midwifery educators developed a blended midwifery educator CPD programme (described in detail in the methods section). The CPD programme modules in this programme are aligned to the WHO’s midwifery educators’ core competencies [ 7 ] and ICM essential competencies for midwifery practice [ 14 ]. The programme is also aligned to the nursing and midwifery practice national regulatory requirements of Nursing and Midwifery Councils in LMICs such as Kenya and Nigeria, and relevant national policy [ 30 , 31 , 32 ].This programme aimed at sustaining and improving the educators’ competencies in delivery of their teaching, assessments, mentoring and feedback to students. To promote uptake, there is need to test the relevance and practicability of the CPD programme. Feasibility studies are used to determine whether an intervention is appropriate for further testing, relevant and sustainable in answering the question – Can it work [ 33 ]? The key focus of these studies are acceptability of the intervention, resources and ability to manage and implement intervention (availability, requirements, sustainability), practicality, adaptation, integration into the system, limited efficacy testing of the intervention in controlled settings and preliminary evaluation of participant responses to the intervention [ 33 , 34 , 35 ].

This study evaluated the feasibility of the LSTM/UNFPA midwifery educator CPD programme using the Kirkpatrick’s model for evaluating training programmes [ 36 ]. This model is an effective tool with four levels for evaluating training programmes. Level 1 (Participants’ reaction to the programme experience) helps to understand how satisfying, engaging and relevant participants find the experience. Level 2 (Learning) measures the changes in knowledge, skills and confidence after training. Level 3 (Behaviour) measures the degree to which participants apply what they learned during training when they are back on job and this can be immediately and several months after the training. This level is critical as it can also reveal where participants might need help to transfer learning during the training to practice afterwards. Level 4 (Results) measures the degree to which targeted outcomes occur because of training. In this study, participants’ reaction to the programme – satisfaction and relevance of the programme to meeting their needs (level 1) and change in knowledge, confidence and skills after the CPD programme (level 2) were assessed. Also, user perspectives and barriers to implementing the CPD programme were explored.

Study design

This was a mixed methods intervention study using a concurrent nested/embedded/convergent design conducted in Kenya and Nigeria in May and June 2023. This was designed to evaluate the feasibility of the midwifery educator CPD programme. The goal was to obtain different but complementary data to better understand the CPD programme with the data collected from the same participants or similar target populations [ 37 ].

The quantitative component of the evaluation used a quasi-experimental pre-post and post-test only designs to evaluate the effectiveness of the blended CPD programme intervention among midwifery educators from mid-level training colleges and universities from the two countries. Pre and post evaluation of knowledge (online self-directed component) and skills (developing a teaching plan during the face-to-face component) was performed. Post intervention evaluation on programme satisfaction, relevance of CPD programme and microteaching sessions for educators was conducted.

The qualitative component of the evaluation included open-ended written responses from the midwifery educators and master trainers to describe what worked well (enablers), challenges/barriers experienced in the blended programme and key recommendations for improvement were collected. In addition, key informant interviews with the key stakeholders (nursing and midwifery councils and the national heads of training institutions) were conducted. Data on challenges anticipated in the scale up of the programme and measures to promote sustainability, access and uptake of the programme were collected from both educators and key stakeholders.

A mixed methods design was used for its strengths in (i) collecting the two types of data (quantitative and qualitative) simultaneously, during a single data collection phase, (ii) provided the study with the advantages of both quantitative and qualitative data and (iii) helped gain perspectives and contextual experiences from the different types of data or from different levels (educators, master trainers, heads of training institutions and nursing and midwifery councils) within the study [ 38 , 39 ].

The study was conducted in Kenya and Nigeria. Kenya has over 121 mid-level training colleges and universities offering nursing and midwifery training while Nigeria has about 300. Due to the vastness in Nigeria, representative government-owned nursing and midwifery training institutions were randomly selected from each of the six geo-political zones in the country and the Federal Capital Territory. Mid-level training colleges offer the integrated nursing and midwifery training at diploma level while universities offer integrated nursing and midwifery training at bachelor/master degree level in the two countries (three universities in Kenya offer midwifery training at bachelor level). All nurse-midwives and midwives trained at both levels are expected to possess ICM competencies to care for the woman and newborn. Midwifery educators in Kenya and Nigeria are required to have at least advanced diploma qualifications although years of clinical experience are not specified.

It is a mandatory requirement of the Nursing and Midwifery Councils for nurse/midwives and midwifery educators in both countries to demonstrate evidence of CPD for renewal of practising license in both countries [ 40 , 41 ]. A minimum of 20 CPD points (equivalent to 20 credit hours) is recommended annually for Kenya and 60 credit hours for Nigeria every three years. However, there are no specific midwifery educator CPD that incorporated both face-to-face and online modes of delivery, available for Kenya and Nigeria and indeed for many countries in the region. Nursing and midwifery educators are registered and licensed to practice nursing and midwifery while those from other disciplines who teach in the midwifery programme are qualified in the content they teach.

Study sites

In Kenya, a set of two mid-level colleges (Nairobi and Kakamega Kenya Medical Training Colleges (KMTCs) and two universities (Nairobi and Moi Universities), based on the geographical distribution of the training institutions were identified as CPD Centres of Excellence (COEs)/hubs. In Nigeria, two midwifery schools (Centre of Excellence for Midwifery and Medical Education, College of Nursing and Midwifery, Illorin, Kwara State and Centre of Excellence for Midwifery and Medical Education, School of Nursing Gwagwalada, Abuja, FCT) were identified. These centres were equipped with teaching and EmONC training equipment for the practical components of the CPD programme. The centres were selected based on the availability of spacious training labs/classes specific for skills training and storage of equipment and an emergency obstetrics and newborn care (EmONC) master trainer among the educators in the institution. They were designated as host centres for the capacity strengthening of educators in EmONC and teaching skills.

Intervention

Nursing and midwifery educators accessed and completed 20 h of free, self-directed online modules on the WCEA portal and face-to-face practical sessions in the CPD centres of excellence.

The design of the midwifery educator CPD programme

The design of the CPD modules was informed by the existing gap for professional development for midwifery educators in Kenya and other LMICs and the need for regular updates in knowledge and skills competencies in delivery of teaching [ 9 , 15 , 23 , 28 ]. Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine led the overall design of the nursing and midwifery educator CPD programme (see Fig.  1 for summarised steps taken in the design of the blended programme).

This was a two-part blended programme with a 20-hour self-directed online learning component (accessible through the WCEA platform at no cost) and a 3-day face-to-face component designed to cover theoretical and practical skills components respectively. The 20-hour self-directed online component had four 5-hour modules on reflection practice, teaching/learning theories and methods, student assessments and effective feedback and mentoring. These modules had pretest and post-test questions and were interactive with short videos, short quizzes within modules, links for further directed reading and resources to promote active learning. This online component is also available on the WCEA platform as a resource for other nurses and midwifery educators across the globe ( https://wcea.education/2022/05/05/midwifery-educator-cpd-programme/ ).

Practical aspects of competency-based teaching pedagogy, clinical teaching skills including selected EmONC skills, giving effective feedback, applying digital innovations in teaching and learning for educators and critical thinking and appraisal were delivered through a 3-day residential face-to-face component in designated CPD centres of excellence. Specific skills included: planning and preparing teaching sessions (lesson plans), teaching practical skills methodologies (lecture, simulation, scenario and role plays), selected EmONC skills, managing teaching and learning sessions, assessing students, providing effective feedback and mentoring and use of online applications such as Mentimeter and Kahoot in formative classroom assessment of learning. Selected EmONC skills delivered were shoulder dystocia, breech delivery, assisted vaginal delivery (vacuum assisted birth), managing hypovolemic shock and pre-eclampsia/eclampsia and newborn resuscitation. These were designed to reinforce the competencies of educators in using contemporary teaching pedagogies. The goal was to combine theory and practical aspects of effective teaching as well as provide high quality, evidence-based learning environment and support for students in midwifery education [ 4 ]. These modules integrated the ICM essential competencies for midwifery practice to provide a high quality, evidence-based learning environment for midwifery students. The pre and post tests form part of the CPD programme as a standard assessment of the educators.

As part of the design, this programme was piloted among 60 midwifery educators and regulators from 16 countries across Africa at the UNFPA funded Alliance to Improve Midwifery Education (AIME) Africa regional workshop in Nairobi in November 2022. They accessed and completed the self-directed online modules on the WCEA platform, participated in selected practical sessions, self-evaluated the programme and provided useful feedback for strengthening the modules.

The Nursing and Midwifery Councils of Kenya and Nigeria host the online CPD courses from individual or organisation entities on the WCEA portal. In addition, the Nursing Council of Kenya provides opportunities for self-reporting for various CPD events including accredited online CPD activities/programmes, skill development workshops, attending conferences and seminars, in-service short courses, practice-based research projects (as learner, principal investigator, principal author, or co-author) among others. In Nigeria, a certificate of attendance for Mandatory Continuing Professional Development Programme (MCPDP) is required as evidence for CPD during license renewal. However, the accredited CPD programmes specific for midwifery educators are not available in both countries and Africa region [ 15 , 42 ].

figure 1

Midwifery educator CPD programme design stages

Participants and sample size

Bowen and colleagues suggest that many feasibility studies are designed to test an intervention in a limited way and such tests may be conducted in a convenience sample, with intermediate rather than final outcomes, with shorter follow-up periods, or with limited statistical power [ 34 ].

A convenience random sample across the two countries was used. Sample size calculations were performed using the formula for estimation of a proportion: a 95% confidence interval for estimation of a proportion can be estimated using the formula: \(p\pm 1.96\sqrt{\frac{\text{p}(1-\text{p})}{n}}\) The margin of error (d) is the second term in the equation. For calculation of the percentage change in competence detectable Stata’s power paired proportion function was used.

To achieve the desired level of low margin of error of 5% and a 90% power (value of proportion) to detect competence change after the training, a sample of 120 participants was required. Using the same sample to assess competence before and after training, so that the improvement in percentage competent can be derived and 2.5% are assessed as competent prior to training but not after training (regress), a 90% power would give a 12% improvement change in competence after the training.

A random sample of 120 educators (60 each from Kenya & Nigeria; 30 each from mid-level training colleges and universities) were invited to participate via an email invitation in the two components of the CPD programme (Fig.  2 ). Importantly, only participants who completed the self-directed online modules were eligible to progress to the face-to-face practical component.

figure 2

Flow of participants in the CPD programme (SDL = self-directed online learning; F2F = face-to-face practical)

For qualitative interviews, eight key informant interviews were planned with a representative each from the Nursing and Midwifery Councils, mid-level training institutions’ management, university and midwifery associations in both countries. Interviews obtained data related to challenges anticipated in the scale up of the programme and measures to promote sustainability, access and uptake of the programme.

Participant recruitment

Only nursing and midwifery educators registered and licensed by the Nursing and Midwifery Councils were eligible and participated. This was because they can access the WCEA website with the self-directed online programme via the Nursing and Midwifery Councils’ websites, only accessible to registered and licensed nurses and midwives.

The recruitment process was facilitated through the central college management headquarters (for mid-level training colleges’ educators) and Nursing and Midwifery Councils (for university participants). Training institutions’ heads of nursing and midwifery departments were requested to share the contact details of all educators teaching midwifery modules, particularly the antepartum, intrapartum, postpartum and newborn care modules in the two countries. A list of 166 midwifery educators from 81 universities and mid-level training colleges was obtained through the Heads of the Department in the institutions.

The research lead, with the assistance by the co-investigator from Nigeria then randomly sampled 120 educators based on institution type and region for representativeness across the countries. Following the selection of participants, the two investigators shared the electronic detailed participant study information sheet and consent form to the potential participants one week before the start of the self-directed online modules. Clear guidance and emphasis on the conduct of the two-part program including completing the mandatory four self-directed online modules was provided. Due to the large number of eligible participants, the recruitment and consenting process was closed after reaching the first 30 participants consenting per institution type and region, with 1–2 educators per institution randomly recruited. This allowed as many institutions to be represented across the country as possible. Participants received a study information sheet and an auto-generated copy of the electronic consent form completed in their emails. Other opportunities for participating in the two-part programme were provided as appropriate for those who missed out. Only those who completed the four online modules were invited for the practical component. A WhatsApp community group for the recruited participants was formed for clarifications about the study, troubleshooting on challenges with online access and completion of the modules before and during the programme.

Self-directed online component

Upon consenting, the contact details of the educators from each level were shared with WCEA program director for generation of a unique identification code to access the self-directed online modules on the WCEA portal. Educators completed their baseline characteristics (demographic and academic) in the online platform just before the modules. Each self-directed online module was estimated to be completed in five hours. Only after completing a module was the participant allowed to progress to the next module. The modules were available for participants to complete at their own time/schedule. An autogenerated certificate of completion with the participant’s post-completion score was awarded as evidence of completing a module. Participants completed a set of 20 similar pretest and posttest multiple choice questions in each module for knowledge check. A dedicated staff from WCEA actively provided technical support for educators to register, access and complete the online modules. At the end of each module, participants completed a self-evaluation on a 5-point Likert scale for satisfaction (0 = very unsatisfied, 1 = unsatisfied, 2 = neutral, 3 = satisfied and 4 = very satisfied) and relevance of the modules (0 = very irrelevant, 1 = irrelevant, 2 = neutral, 3 = relevant and 4 = very relevant). This provided participants’ reactions to the different components of the modules on whether they met the individual educator’s development needs. In addition, participants responded to the open-ended questions at the end of the modules. These were on what they liked about the modules, challenges encountered in completing the modules and suggestions for improvement of the modules. A maximum period of two weeks was given for educators to complete the modules before progressing to the practical component.

Practical component

The practical component was delivered by a pool of 18 master trainers who received a 1-day orientation from the research lead before the training. The master trainers were a blend of experienced midwifery and obstetrics faculty in teaching and clinical practice actively engaged in facilitating EmONC trainings selected from Kenya and Nigeria. Four of these master trainers from Kenya participated in the delivery of both sets of trainings in Kenya and Nigeria.

Only educator participants who completed the self-directed online modules and certified were invited to participate in a 3-day residential practical component. Two separate classes were trained (mid-level and university level educators) per country by the same group of eight master trainers. The sessions were delivered through short interactive lectures; small group and plenary discussions; skills demonstrations/simulations and scenario teaching in small breakout groups; role plays and debrief sessions. Sessions on digital innovations in teaching and learning were live practical sessions with every participant using own laptop. Nursing and Midwifery Councils representatives and training institutions’ managers were invited to participate in both components of the programme.

Participant costs for participating in the two-part CPD programme were fully sponsored by the study. These were internet data for completing the self-directed online component and residential costs – transport, accommodation, and meals during the practical component.

Data collection

Self-directed online knowledge pretests and post-tests results, self-rated measures of satisfaction and relevance of the modules including what they liked about the modules, challenges encountered in accessing and completing the modules and suggestions for improvement data was extracted from the WCEA platform in Microsoft Excel.

On day 1 of the practical component, participants using their personal computers developed a teaching plan. On the last day (day 3), participants prepared a teaching plan and powerpoint presentation for the microteaching sessions. No teaching plan template from the trainers was provided to the participants before the training. However, they used formats from their institutions if available. A standard teaching plan template was provided at the end of the training.

The group of master trainers and participants were divided into groups for the microteaching sessions which formed part of the formative assessment. Each participant delivered a powerpoint presentation on a topic of interest (covered in the teaching plan) to the small group of 13–15 participants. This was followed by a structured session of constructive feedback that started with a self-reflection and assessment. This was followed by peer supportive and constructive feedback from the audience participants and faculty/master trainers identifying areas of effective practice and opportunities for further development. Each microteaching session lasted 10–15 min. Each of the microteaching session presentation and teaching plan were evaluated against a pre-determined electronic checklist by two designated faculty members independently during/immediately after the microteaching session. The checklist was adapted from LSTM’s microteaching assessment of the United Kingdom’s Higher Education Academy (HEA)’s Leading in Global Health Teaching (LIGHT) programme. The evaluation included preparing a teaching plan, managing a teaching and learning session using multiple interactive activities, designing and conducting formative assessments for learning using digital/online platforms, and giving effective feedback and critical appraisal. The master trainers received an orientation training on the scoring checklist by the lead researcher/corresponding author.

Self-rated confidence in different teaching pedagogy skills were evaluated before (on day 1) and after (day 3) the training on a 5-point Likert scale (0 = not at all confident, 1 = slightly confident, 2 = somewhat confident, 3 = quite confident and 4 = very confident). A satisfaction and relevance of practical component evaluation on a 5-point Likert scale was completed by the participants on an online designed form on day 3 after the microteaching sessions of the practical component. This form also had a similar qualitative survey with open-ended questions on what they liked about the practical component, challenges encountered in completing the practical component and suggestions for improvement of the component.

Using a semi-structured interview guide, six qualitative key informant interviews, each lasting about 30–45 min, were conducted by the lead researcher with the Nursing and Midwifery Councils focal persons and training institutions’ managers. These were audio recorded in English, anonymized, and deleted after transcription. These interviews were aimed at getting their perspectives on the programme design, anticipated barriers/enablers with the CPD programme and strategies for promoting uptake of the CPD programme. These interviews were considered adequate due to their information power (indicating that the more information the sample holds, relevant for the actual study, the lower amount of participants is needed) [ 43 ] and upon obtaining data saturation, considered the cornerstone of rigor in qualitative research [ 44 , 45 ].

Assessment of outcomes

Participants’ reaction to the programme (satisfaction and relevance) (Kirkpatrick level 1) was tested using the self-rated 5-point Likert scales. Change in knowledge, confidence and skills (Kirkpatrick level 2) was tested as follows: knowledge through 20 pretest and post-test multiple choice questions per module in the self-directed online modules; confidence in applying different pedagogy skills through the self-rated 5-point Likert scale; and teaching skills through the observed microteaching sessions using a checklist.

Reliability and validity of the data collection tools

The internal consistency (a measure of the reliability, generalizability or reproducibility of a test) of the Likert scales/tools assessing the relevance of the online and practical modules and satisfaction of educators with the two blended modules were tested using the Cronbach’s alpha statistic. The Cronbach’s alpha statistics for the four Likert scales/tools ranged from 0.835 to 0.928, all indicating acceptably good to excellent level of reliability [ 46 ]. Validity (which refers to the accuracy of a measure) of the Likert scales were tested using the Pearson correlation coefficient statistic. Obtained correlation values were compared to the critical values and p-values reported at 95% confidence intervals. All the scales were valid with obtained Pearson correlation coefficients reported − 0.1946, which were all greater than the critical values ( p  < 0.001) [ 46 ]. The semi-structured interview guides for the qualitative interviews with the training institutions’ managers and midwifery councils (regulators) were developed and reviewed by expert study team members with experience in qualitative research.

Data management and analysis

Data from the online/electronic tools was extracted in Microsoft Excel and exported to SPSS version 28 for cleaning and analysis. Normality of data was tested using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test suitable for samples above 50. Proportions of educator characteristics in the two countries were calculated. Differences between the educator characteristics in the two countries were tested using chi-square tests (and Fishers-exact test for cells with counts of less than 5).

For self-rated relevance of CPD programme components and satisfaction with the programme on the 0–4 Likert scales, descriptive statistics were calculated (median scores and proportions). Results are presented as bar graphs and tables. Cronbach alpha and Pearson correlation coefficients were used to test the reliability and validity of the test items respectively.

Change in knowledge in online modules, confidence in pedagogy skills and preparing teaching plans among educators was assessed by comparing pre-training scores and post-training scores. Descriptive statistics are reported based on normality of data. Differences in the scores were analysed using the Wilcoxon signed ranks tests, a non-parametric equivalent of the paired t-test. Differences between educators scores in microteaching by country and institution type were performed by Mann-Whitney U test. Level of competence demonstrated in the teaching plan and microteaching skill was defined as the percentage of the desired characteristics present in the teaching plan and microteaching session, set at 75% and above. The proportion of participants that achieved the desired level of competence in their teaching plan and microteaching skill was calculated. Binary logistic regression models were used to assess for the strengths of associations between individual educator and institutional characteristics (age, gender, qualifications, length of time as educator, training institution and country) and the overall dichotomised competent score (proportion achieved competence in teaching plan and microteaching skills). P-values less than 0.05 at 95% confidence interval were considered statistically significant.

Preparation for qualitative data analysis involved a rigorous process of transcription of recorded interviews with key informants. In addition, online free text responses by midwifery educators on what worked well, challenges encountered, and recommendations were extracted in Microsoft Excel format and exported to Microsoft Word for data reduction (coding) and theme development. Qualitative data was analysed using thematic framework analysis by Braun and Clarke (2006) as it provides clear steps to follow, is flexible and uses a very structured process and enables transparency and team working [ 47 ]. Due to the small number of transcripts, computer assisted coding in Microsoft Word using the margin and comments tool were used. The six steps by Braun and Clarke in thematic analysis were conducted: (i) familiarising oneself with the data through transcription and reading transcripts, looking for recurring issues/inconsistencies and, identifying possible categories and sub-categories of data; (ii) generating initial codes – both deductive (using topic guides/research questions) and inductive coding (recurrent views, phrases, patterns from the data) was conducted for transparency; (iii) searching for themes by collating initial codes into potential sub-themes/themes; (iv) reviewing themes by generating a thematic map (code book) of the analysis; (v) defining and naming themes (ongoing analysis to refine the specifics of each sub-theme/theme, and the overall story the analysis tells); and (vi) writing findings/producing a report. Confidentiality was maintained by using pseudonyms for participant identification in the study. Trustworthiness was achieved by (i) respondent validation/check during the interviews for accurate data interpretation; (ii) using a criterion for thematic analysis; (iii) returning to the data repeatedly to check for accuracy in interpretation; (iv) quality checks and discussions with the study team with expertise in mixed methods research [ 39 , 47 ].

Integration of findings used the parallel-databases variant and are synthesised in the discussion section. In this common approach, two parallel strands of data are collected and analysed independently and are only brought together during interpretation. The two sets of independent results are then synthesized or compared during the discussion [ 39 ].

Quantitative findings

Midwifery educators’ characteristics.

A total of 116 (96.7%) and 108 (90.0%) educators from 81 institutions completed the self-directed online learning and practical component respectively from the two countries. There were no significant differences between countries in educators’ qualifications, when last taught a midwifery class and whether attended any CPD training in the preceding year before the study ( p  > 0.05). Overall, only 28.7% of the educators had a midwifery related CPD training in the preceding year before the study. Midwifery educator characteristics are outlined below (Table  1 ).

Change in knowledge

This was assessed in each of the four self-directed online modules. The results from ranked scores based on Wilcoxon signed ranks test showed significant improvements in educators’ knowledge in all the four online modules completed ( p  < 0.001). The highest mean score improvement was observed in students’ assessment module, 48.1% (SD ± 15.1) to 85.2% (SD ± 15.7), a 37.1% improvement. Improvements in knowledge in the other modules were as follows: reflective practice (27.6%), mentoring and giving effective feedback (27.4%) and teaching methods (19.2%). Overall knowledge score for all modules improved from 52.4% (SD ± 10.4) to 80.4 (SD ± 8.1), p  < 0.001 (Table  2 ).

Relevance of self-directed online modules

The internal consistency of each of the four modules was tested with Cronbach’s alpha. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the four items was 0.837, a good and acceptable level of reliability. All the four modules assessed were valid with calculated Pearson correlation coefficient values greater than the critical value of 0.1946 ( p  < 0.001) at 95% confidence interval.

Educators from the two countries, on a scale of 0–4 rated the online modules as very relevant with a median score of 4 out of 4 (IQR 0) for each of the four modules: reflective practice, teaching methods, students’ assessments and mentoring and giving effective feedback. There were no ratings of 0, 1 and 2 for all the modules (Fig.  3 ).

figure 3

Educators’ ratings of the relevance of self-directed online modules

Satisfaction with the self-directed online modules

The internal consistency of each of the eight items was tested with Cronbach’s alpha. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the eight items was 0.928, an excellent level of reliability. All the eight items assessed were valid with their obtained Pearson correlation coefficient values greater than the critical value of 0.1946 ( p  < 0.001) at 95% confidence interval.

Each of the eight items rated on satisfaction had a median score of 4 out of 4 (IQR 0). Over 80% of the educators were very satisfied with the online modules’ content as presented in a logical format and informative. Also, the modules helped them to learn something new, updated their knowledge and the materials were useful and valuable for their practice. Over 70% were very satisfied with the modules as they helped them refresh their knowledge and skills with the links and activities embedded in the modules useful in adding to their learning. None of the educators were dissatisfied (rated 0 or 1) with the online modules (Table  3 ).

Change in confidence in different pedagogy skills

The internal consistency of each of the eight items assessed was tested with Cronbach’s alpha using the baseline data. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the eight items was 0.893, a good level of reliability. All the eight items assessed were valid with their obtained Pearson correlation coefficient values greater than the critical value of 0.1946 ( p  < 0.001) at 95% confidence interval.

Changes in confidence before and after the training were compared using the Wilcoxon signed rank test, a parametric equivalent of the paired t-test when data is not normally distributed. The mean score of self-rated confidence of educators on a scale of 0–4 for all the eight skills significantly improved after the training from 2.73 (SD ± 0.68) to 3.74 (SD ± 0.34) ( p  < 0.001). Mean confidence was highest in facilitating a lecture (3.23, SD ± 0.8) and lowest on using digital innovations (Mentimeter) in formative assessment of teaching/learning (1.75, SD ± 1.15) before the training. These improved significantly after the training to 3.84 (SD ± 0.41) for facilitating a lecture and 3.50 (SD ± 0.63) for using digital innovations (Mentimeter) in formative assessment of teaching/learning, p  < 0.001. The mean confidence of educators was largely average before the training and significantly improved after the training in six skills ( p  < 0.001). These were designing learning outcomes using measurable Bloom’s taxonomy verbs, preparing a teaching plan, identifying relevant resources to enhance learning, facilitating a scenario teaching, facilitating a practical simulation/demonstration and giving effective feedback for learning (Table  4 ).

Preparing a teaching plan and microteaching skills

The overall median score in preparing a teaching plan was 63.6% (IQR 45.5) before the training and improved significantly to 81.8% (IQR 27.3) after the training, p  < 0.001. The median scores differed significantly by country before and after the training. Before the training, Kenyan educators had higher median scores (72.7%, IQR 27.3) compared to Nigeria counterparts (54.5%, IQR 36.4), p  < 0.001. After the training, Kenyan educators had significantly higher median scores (81.2%, IQR 18.2) than Nigerian counterparts (72.7%, IQR 18.2), p  = 0.024. However, there were no significant differences in the median scores between the training institutions before and after the training, p  > 0.05. For microteaching, the overall median score was 76.5% (IQR 29.4). There were no significant differences between countries and training institutions in the microteaching scores, p  > 0.05. Kenya educators (82.4%, IQR 29.4) had slightly higher scores than Nigeria (76.5%, IQR 29.4), p  = 0.78. Mid-level educators (79.4%, IQR 29.4) had slightly higher scores than university educators (76.5%, IQR 28.7), p  = 0.515 (Table  5 ).

The inter-rater reliability/agreement of the eight pairs of assessors in both countries were assessed by Cohen Kappa statistic. The Kappa statistics for the eight pairs ranged between 0.806 and 0.917, p  < 0.001, showing near perfect agreement between the pairs of assessors.

Association between independent educator and institutional characteristics and the microteaching skill scores

Categorised skills scores (≥ 75% mean score as competent) showed that 55 (51.4%) and 62 (57.9%) of the educators scored 75% or higher in the teaching plan preparation and microteaching skill assessments respectively. Logistic regression analysis showed that educator’s country, age, gender, qualifications, training institution type and length as educator were not significantly associated with the overall categorised teaching plan or microteaching scores ( p  > 0.05).

Relevance of the practical component

The internal consistency of each of the six skills items was tested with Cronbach’s alpha. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the six items was 0.866, a good level of reliability. All the six skills items assessed were valid with their obtained Pearson correlation coefficient values greater than the critical value of 0.1946 ( p  < 0.001) at 95% confidence interval.

On a self-rating Likert scale of 0–4, the median score for each of the six skills assessed and trained was 4 out of a maximum of 4, indicating that the educators found the different pedagogy skills very relevant after the training. Over 80% of the educators rated the sessions on teaching plan (85.2%), scenario teaching (87.0%), simulation/demonstration teaching (82.4%) and giving effective feedback (85.2%) as very relevant. Over three-quarters (77.8%) of the educators rated the sessions on lecture teaching and use of digital innovations (Mentimeter) in assessment as very relevant (Fig.  4 ).

figure 4

Relevance of the practical components

Satisfaction with the practical component

The internal consistency of each of the six skills items was tested with Cronbach’s alpha. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the six items was 0.835, a good level of reliability. All the six skills items assessed were valid with their obtained Pearson correlation coefficient values greater than the critical value of 0.1946 ( p  < 0.001) at 95% confidence interval.

On a self-rating Likert scale of 0–4, the median score for each of the six skills assessed was 4 out of a maximum of 4, indicating that educators were very satisfied with the practical skills sessions. Over 70% of the educators were very satisfied with the sessions on giving effective feedback (79.6%), lecture teaching (75.9%), scenario and simulation teaching (73.1% each). Two-thirds of the educators (67.6%) were very satisfied with the digital innovations in teaching (use of Mentimeter) for formative assessment in teaching and learning. All educators were satisfied with the preparing of teaching plan in teaching and learning with the majority (63.0%) as very satisfied while the remaining 37.0% satisfied. None of the educators were dissatisfied with the practical component of the training (Fig.  5 ).

figure 5

Satisfaction with practical skills

Qualitative findings

What educators liked about the self-directed online modules.

Educators from both levels and countries had similar views on the online component. These are broadly summarised under the sub-themes: (i) educative and relevant for practice, (ii) flexible and convenient learning and (iii) motivating, interesting and interactive.

Educative and relevant for practice

Educators reported the online modules as educative and informative and, improved their knowledge in teaching, assessments, reflective practice and providing effective feedback to students to promote learning as well as increasing their self-confidence and critical thinking skills. Besides, educators found the modules valuable and relevant for their professional growth and practice.

“The modules were well organized, they were relevant to my practice and met my expectations” university midwifery educator, Kenya. “The materials are very rich with current information to guide. Very informative & valuable to my professional growth” university midwifery educator, Nigeria.

Flexible and convenient learning

Educators reported that they could access and complete the online modules at their flexible and convenient time. This flexibility enhanced and stimulated them to complete the informative modules at their comfort times either at home or office without disruption to their schedules.

“(The modules) gave me ample time to read at my own pace and time without any hurry to understand the content well. They were well organised. Also, flexibility of learning and the access to materials was excellent” university midwifery educator, Kenya. “It is flexible and convenient. It empowers the learner to take ownership of the learning process. Learning is personalized” mid-level training college midwifery educator, Nigeria.

Motivating, interesting and interactive

Educators reported that the online modules were well structured, motivating, interesting and had components that promoted interaction for learning. For example, pretests, various quizzes within the modules and posttest questions and the added specific short extra reading segments promoted interaction and learning.

“The intermittent assessment questions. It helped maintain my focus” university midwifery educator, Nigeria . “Very interactive. They were very informative and extra reading assignments complemented the content” university midwifery educator, Kenya .

Challenges encountered with the self-directed online learning modules

Four sub-themes emerged that summarised the challenges experienced by midwifery educators in the two countries to access and complete the self-directed online modules. These are (i) network/internet connectivity, (ii) technology challenges, (iii) electricity power supply and power outages and, (iv) time constraints.

Network/internet connectivity

Network and internet connectivity difficulties and fluctuations was the commonest reported challenge in completing the self-directed online modules by educators from both countries. This affected the access, progress, downloading extra resources embedded within the modules and completing the integrated evaluations within the modules.

“Accessing the modules, problem with submitting forms and exams, had network problem” mid-level training college midwifery educator, Nigeria . “I kept going offline and I would have to restart every time. They were too internet dependent” university midwifery educator, Kenya.

Technology challenges

Technological challenges were observed as well as reported among educators from both countries. These ranged from poor access to emails due to forgotten email addresses, usernames or passwords, difficult access and navigation through the online modules, completing the matching questions that required dragging items, completing the evaluations and downloading certificates after completion of the modules.

“I am not very good with ICT, so I had issues using my laptop” mid-level training college midwifery educator, Nigeria. “Accessibility was difficult. I had to restart the process a number of times. The modules would sometimes take you back more than 20 slides which delayed the completion rate” university midwifery educator, Kenya.

Electricity power supply interruptions and fluctuations

Power interruptions, fluctuations and outages especially in Nigeria were cited as a challenge to complete the online modules. This delayed the completion of the modules as electric power was critical to access and complete the modules on either WCEA app on mobile phones or computers.

“The modules should not start from beginning whenever there is interrupted power supply” MLC midwifery educator, Nigeria. “Network failure due to interrupted power supply” university midwifery educator, Nigeria.

Time constraints

Although educators commented the flexibility with which to complete the online modules, time to complete the online modules was also cited as a challenge in both countries.

“It requires a lot of time, this is a challenge because I am also involved with other activities at the place of work which require my attention” university midwifery educator, Kenya.

What educators liked about the practical component

Educators written feedback on what they liked about the practical component of the CPD programme was categorised into the four sub-themes: new knowledge and relevant for practice; improved knowledge, skills and confidence to teach; enhanced participatory and active learning; individualised support in learning.

New knowledge and relevant for practice

The practical component provided new learning particularly on the use of digital platforms (Mentimeter and Kahoot) for formative assessment to evaluate learning during classroom teaching. In their integrated teaching using both online and face-to-face delivery, use of technology (Mentimeter and Kahoot) in classroom assessment was not a common practice as most of them had not heard about the available online platforms. They found Mentimeter (and Kahoot) to be interesting resources for formative assessments in class to facilitate teaching and learning. The techniques of giving effective feedback using the sandwich and ‘stop, start, continue’ methods were viewed to promote interaction between the educator and the learner for effective learning. Educators also acknowledged new knowledge and skills updates on EmONC relevant for their practice.

“Giving feedback, innovation of the online formative assessment, the teaching plan. I wish we would adapt them for daily application rather than the traditional teacher centered one.” Mid-level training college educator, Kenya . “(I liked) Everything, especially the technological innovations for assessment” Mid-level training college educator, Nigeria .

Improved knowledge, skills and confidence to teach

Educators reported that the practical sessions were interactive and engaging with good combination of theory and practice which facilitated learning. They reported that participating in the practical component enabled them to update and improve their knowledge, skills and confidence in planning and delivering theoretical and practical teaching using multiple methods. Similar improvements were reported on preparing and conducting students’ assessments and giving effective feedback to promote learning. On use of technology in formative assessments, the interactive practical sessions boosted the confidence of educators in using Mentimeter (and Kahoot) online platforms during classroom teaching.

“It helped build my confidence, had hands on practice on clinical skills and teaching skills, learnt about outdated practices and current evidence based clinical and teaching skills.” Mid-level training college educator, Nigeria . “They were very interesting especially the scenarios and skills. I was able to enhance my practical skills and technology in evaluating learning.” University midwifery educator, Kenya .

Enhanced participatory and active learning

The practical component complemented the self-directed online learning for educators. They highly commented and benefitted from the hands-on opportunities to actively engage through return demonstrations during the practical programme. This component also enabled them to brainstorm and contribute actively during the sessions. They highlighted that the practical component enhanced and reinforced learning through active participation in demonstrations, questions, group discussions and plenary sessions.

“This face-to-face module provided me with the opportunity to brainstorm with other educators, facilitators and resource persons. This will enhance my teaching skills.” Mid-level training college midwifery educator, Nigeria . “Interaction with facilitators who could clarify points that I had earlier not understood, interaction with other participants and was also able to learn from them.” University midwifery educator, Kenya .

Individualised support in learning

Educators received individualised peer support and learning during the practical component. They had opportunities within the small breakout groups for peer learning and one-to-one support from the facilitators to update and learn new knowledge and skills.

“A chance to get immediate feedback was availed by the presenters.” University midwifery educator, Kenya . “Facilitators were well informed and gave learners opportunity for return demonstration and support.” Mid-level training college midwifery educator, Kenya .

Challenges encountered with the practical component

Key challenges reported by the mixed group of educators and master trainers across the two countries include: inadequate time, computer technology challenges and poor internet connectivity for practical components.

Inadequate time

Although small breakout sessions were utilised to provide each educator with an opportunity to practice the skills, it was commonly reported that time was inadequate for skills demonstrations and return demonstrations by all educators. This was especially for areas educators had inadequate knowledge and new skills that were observed thus adequate time for teaching and repeat demonstrations for mastery was required. Similar observations were made by the master trainers who felt that some educators had never encountered some of the basic EmONC skills demonstrated or never practised and thus required a longer duration for familiarisation and practice.

“Time was short hence not enough to return demo” Mid-level training college midwifery educator, Kenya . “Some of the things were new and required more time for demonstration and practice.” Mid-level training college midwifery educator, Nigeria .

Computer technology challenges and poor internet connectivity for practical components

Some educators encountered technical difficulties in using computers during the practical component. In some cases, this was compounded by poor network/internet connectivity. This delayed completion of practical components requiring the use of computers including pretests, preparing teaching plans and presentations, post-tests and classroom demonstrations using digital innovations in teaching and learning. However, assistance was provided by the trainers as appropriate to those who needed technical support.

“(There were) technical challenges with use of computers for few participants.” Master trainer, Nigeria . “Slow internet can hinder smooth flow of sessions.” Master trainer, Kenya .

Key areas for additional support

For quality education and training, master trainers generally recommended that all educators should be trained and regularly supported in the basic EmONC course to strengthen their competencies for effective teaching of EmONC skills. Further support in computer technology use including basics in navigation around windows/programmes, formatting in Microsoft Office Word and Powerpoint, literature searching, and referencing were other critical components to be strengthened.

Perspectives from training institutions managers and midwifery regulators

Measures to ensure midwifery educators take specific cpds that have been designed to improve their teaching competencies.

Key informant interviews with the pre-service training institutions’ managers and nursing and midwifery councils from the two countries were conducted and revealed key strategies outlined below that should ensure access and completion of the blended CPD programme specific for educators’ teaching competencies.

Awareness creation, integrating programme into policy and performance appraisal

The aspect of online CPD was highlighted as a new concept in Nigeria. Due to this novelty, the country was reluctant to accredit many online CPD programmes for in-service and pre-service nursing and midwifery personnel. However, the regulatory Nursing and Midwifery Council of Nigeria had established monitoring mechanisms to evaluate its uptake to meet the definition of CPD and is still work in progress.

“For the online, it’s actually a relatively new concept, in fact because of monitoring and evaluation, we have struggled with accepting online CPDs… So, we’re struggling on how to develop a guideline for online CPDs. So, we’re now starting with the WCEA. So far, only the WCEA has that approval to provide CPD…We said let’s look at how this works out before we can extend it to other providers.” Nursing and Midwifery Council, Nigeria .

Both countries emphasized the need to create awareness of the CPD programme for midwifery educators and a policy framework for CPD. Regulators emphasized the need to have the CPD programme as mandatory for all midwifery educators through a policy directive. They suggested that the blended CPD programme should form a mandatory specified proportion of the content addressing their specific competencies. Besides, the training institution recommended that the programme should form part of the educator’s performance appraisal on a regular basis. Active monitoring systems were suggested to be in place to ensure compliance of participation and completion to acquire specific relevant competencies in pedagogy.

“…Ensure that educators take the particular modules before license renewal. Tie modules that are related to midwifery education to the educators and make them mandatory. Yes, we make it as a matter of policy that you should be taking these courses over and over again.” Nursing and Midwifery Council, Nigeria .

It was strongly suggested that attaching incentives as motivators to completing the programme would attract educators to complete the CPD programme. These incentives include certification, recognition for participation in curriculum reviews, national examination setting, facilitating national examinations, promotion and service and eligibility as trainers of trainers to colleagues.

“You attach a course, one training, you cannot guarantee that these courses will be taken. So we find a way to attach something to it. You must have evidence that you attended these programs. So once you attach something like that, they will all flock because there is an incentive to it. Because we say, as an educator, before you go after every examination to examine students, you must have taken these courses.” Nursing and Midwifery Council, Nigeria .

Internet connectivity

Training institutions’ managers suggested investments in internet connectivity for training institutions to support educators access and complete the self-directed online programme. This was also highlighted as a critical challenge for the online component by the educators in both countries.

“The issues of internet connectivity and I think we need to be proactive about it so that we have a way to constantly bring it to the forefront especially in our policies. But connectivity would be a major area to look at as people are using their money.” Mid-level training college manager, Kenya .

Anticipated challenges in the scale-up of the CPD programme

Key challenges anticipated in the roll-out and scale-up of the blended CPD programme were identified as inadequate skills of the educators in the use of information and communication technology during the practical component (including preparation of powerpoint presentations and completing tasks using a computer), and participant costs to attend the practical component (including participants’ residential costs and investments in proctor technology for ensuring academic integrity and monitoring and evaluation tool for educators’ compliance.) It was also emphasized that due to low remuneration of the educators, additional costs from their pocket to undertake the CPD could be a limiting factor for the intended faculty development initiatives. Other challenges included maintaining quality and academic integrity of the programme, potential bias in the selection of educators to attend future CPD programmes that is based on pre-existing relationships and ensuring an adequate pool of in-country trainers of trainers with midwifery competencies to deliver the practical component of the CPD programme.

There were strong suggestions that personal commitment by educators was required for personal and professional development. There were observations that educators sometimes completed the professional development programmes purely for relicensing and not necessarily for professional development. Regulators and institutional managers emphasized that educators need to understand the value of continuous professional development and create time to participate in the targeted CPD programmes to improve their competencies.

“We do advise our nurses, or we continue to inform them that taking these courses shouldn’t be tied to license renewal. It shouldn’t be tied to licence expiration or renewal of licences. You should continue to take these courses to develop yourself and not waiting until your licence expired before you take the courses. Yes, we actually try as much as possible to dissociate the renewal of licences with these courses.” Nursing and Midwifery Council, Nigeria .

Key results

Our study evaluated the feasibility of what the authors believe to be the first blended programme with online and face-to-face learning available in Africa, as a tool to reach midwifery educators in both urban and rural low-resource areas. In addition, our study is in line to an important call by WHO, UNFPA, UNICEF and ICM for an effective midwifery educator with formal preparation for teaching and engages in ongoing development as a midwifery practitioner, teacher/lecturer and leader [ 6 , 7 ]. Consequently, our intervention is part of investments for improving and strengthening the capacity of midwifery educators for quality and competent midwifery workforce as recommended by multiple global reports [ 4 , 5 , 11 ] and other publications [ 12 , 15 , 23 , 42 ]. Our study findings showed that the midwifery educators were very satisfied with the blended CPD programme. Educators rated the programme as highly relevant, educative, flexible, interesting and interactive, improved their knowledge, confidence and practical skills in their professional competencies for practice. Use of digital technology in teaching and students’ assessment was found to be an effective and innovative approach in facilitating teaching and learning. Key challenges experienced by educators included deficiencies in computer technology use, internet/network connectivity for online components, time constraints to complete the blended programme and isolated electric power outages and fluctuations which affected completion of the self-directed online components. Costs for participating and completing the programme, motivation, investments in information and communication technology, quality assurance and academic integrity were highlighted as critical components for the scale-up of the programme by institutional managers and training regulators. Establishment of a policy framework for educators to complete mandatory specific and relevant CPD was recommended for a successful roll-out in the countries.

Interpretation of our findings

Our study findings demonstrated that educators found the theoretical and practical content educative, informative and relevant to their practice. Recent evidence showed that midwifery educators had no/limited connection with clinical practice or opportunities for updating their knowledge or skills [ 15 , 42 ]. This underscores the value and importance of regular opportunities of CPD specific for educators to improve their professional competencies. It has provided these educators with a flexible educational model that allows them to continue working while developing their professional practice.

The use of a blended programme was beneficial as educators’ needs were met. It provided opportunities for educators to reflect, critically think, internalise and complement what was learned in the self-directed online component during the practical phase. This approach has been considered a means to adequately prepare midwifery faculty and improving national midwifery programmes in low-resource and remote settings [ 48 , 49 ]. Use of self-directed online platforms has emerged as a key strategy to improve access to CPD with flexibility and convenience as educators take responsibility for their own learning. Evidence suggests that the flexibility of net-based learning offers the midwifery educators a new and effective educational opportunity that they previously did not have [ 50 , 51 ]. A practical – based learning is important in pre-service education settings where the capacity of midwifery educators needs to be strengthened [ 52 , 53 ]. However, without continuous regular training, the midwives’ competence deteriorate and this in turn threaten the quality of pre-service midwifery education [ 52 , 54 ]. Implementation of this flexible blended educational model allows educators to continue working while developing their professional practice.

The quality of educators is an important factor affecting the quality of graduates from midwifery programmes to provide quality maternal and newborn health services [ 7 ]. Evidence suggests that many midwifery educators are more confident with theoretical classroom teaching than clinical practice teaching and that they also struggle to maintain their own midwifery clinical skills [ 4 , 5 ]. Our findings showed that the programme was effective, and educators improved their knowledge, confidence and skills in teaching, students’ assessment, effective feedback, reflective practice, mentoring and use of digital innovations in teaching and assessments. Our findings are similar to other related models of capacity building midwifery educators in other developing countries [ 24 , 50 , 53 , 55 , 56 , 57 ]. It is expected that educators will apply the learning in their planning for teaching, delivery of interactive and stimulatory teaching, monitoring learning through formative and summative assessments and mentoring their students into competent midwives. This is a pathway for accelerating the achievement of maternal and newborn health SDGs, universal health coverage, ending preventable maternal mortalities and every newborn action plan targets.

The value for CPD on educators’ knowledge, confidence and skills has been demonstrated with opportunities for improvement. Specific CPD targeted to relevant professional competencies is beneficial to the profession, quality of graduates for maternal and newborn health care and global targets. However, further investments in strengthening capacity of educators in EmONC skills and information and communication technology for effective teaching and learning is mandatory. Related challenges with individual technical capacity, technological deficiencies and infrastructure to support the technological advancement have been reported in other studies that have used a blended learning approach [ 58 ]. Resource constraints – financial and infrastructural (e.g. computers) as well as internet access are key challenges to participation in CPD activities especially the self-directed learning [ 16 ]. Designing self-directed modules that can be accessed and completed offline will increase access especially in poorly connected settings with electric power and network coverage.

Strengths and limitations

This study assessed the feasibility a blended midwifery educator CPD programme in low resource settings. This was conducted in a multi-country and multi-site context which provided opportunities for learning across the two countries, two levels of training institutions and specific in-country experiences [ 20 ]. The study served to improve awareness of the availability of the CPD programme so that (1) regulators can ensure that midwifery educators take this as part of mandatory CPD required for relicensing and (2) training institutions can plan to support their educators access/participate in the practical components of the programme after the study. It is a mandatory requirement of the Nursing and Midwifery Councils of Kenya and Nigeria for nurse/midwives and midwifery educators to demonstrate evidence of CPD for renewal of practising license [ 40 , 41 ]. The use of mixed methods research design with multiple evaluations was relevant to address the aims and objectives of the study and ensure methodological rigour, depth and scientific validity as recommended for good practice in designing pilot studies [ 37 , 38 ]. This also enhanced triangulation of findings and enabled the capturing of broad perspectives important in strengthening sustainable implementation of the blended CPD programme [ 39 ]. Preliminary findings were disseminated to participant stakeholders from Kenya and Nigeria at the knowledge management and learning event in Nairobi. This approach enhanced the credibility and trustworthiness of the final findings reported. We believe our study findings from different participants using multiple data collection methods are robust, transparent and trustworthy for generalization to other contexts [ 38 ].The self-directed learning component of the blended CPD programme is hosted on the WCEA platform which is accessible to healthcare professionals in over 60 countries in Africa, Asia and Middle East and accredited for continuous professional development (59). Although our sample size was small, it is sufficient, geographically representative for training institutions across the countries and acceptable for feasibility studies [ 34 ].

The additional cost analysis of implementing the blended midwifery educator CPD programme is relevant and key to the uptake, scale-up and sustainability of the programme but this was not conducted due to limited funding. Different CPD programme funding models exist. In Nigeria, educators are required to meet the costs for accessing and completing the CPD programme components, while in Kenya the cost of accessing the online component is minimal (internet access costs only) and the face-to-face component has to be funded. The cost of implementing the programme should be explored in future studies and optional models for sustainable funding explored with stakeholders.

Implications

Our findings show demand for the CPD programme. Regular continuous professional development could help to bridge the gap between theory and practice and improve the quality of teaching by midwifery educators. A blended CPD programme is effective in improving the teaching and clinical skills of midwifery educators and increasing their confidence in effective teaching. However, midwifery educators require motivation and close support (individual capacity, time, technological infrastructure and policy) if the blended CPD approach is to be mandatory and successfully implemented in resource limited settings. Besides, regular quality assurance modalities including review of content, monitoring and evaluation of uptake of the CPD programme should be undertaken to ensure that updated and relevant content is available.

For quality CPD programmes, hands-on teaching is more effective than didactic classroom teaching and should be used when feasible to transfer clinical skills. Distance education models (self-directed learning) in combination with short residential training and mentoring should be embraced to strengthen capacity strengthening of midwifery educators; and CPD programmes must consider the local context in which participants work and teach [ 16 , 23 ]. Evidence has shown that knowledge and clinical skills are retained for up to 12 months after training [ 54 ]. Taking the CPD programme annually will potentially maintain/improve knowledge, skills and practice by midwifery educators for quality teaching and learning leading to a competent midwifery workforce.

For quality midwifery education and practice, educators need contact with clinical practice to strengthen classroom teaching [ 6 , 7 ]. This will promote and enable students to acquire the skills, knowledge, and behaviours essential to become autonomous midwifery practitioners. Therefore, demonstrating relevant practical clinical CPD should be included in midwifery educator CPD policy. In addition, a business case by the CPD hubs on the sustainability of the face-to-face practical components in the centres is necessary. Stakeholder engagement on cost and sustainability are required as key policy components for the scale-up of the blended midwifery educator CPD programme for impact.

The blended CPD programme was relevant, acceptable and feasible to implement. Midwifery educators reacted positively to its content as they were very satisfied with the modules meeting their needs and rated the content as relevant to their practice. The programme also improved their knowledge, confidence and skills in teaching, students’ assessments and providing effective feedback for learning and using digital/technological innovations for effective teaching and learning. Investments in information and communication technology, quality assurance and academic integrity were highlighted as critical components for the scale-up of the programme. For successful and mandatory implementation of the specific midwifery educator CPD programme to enhance practice, a policy framework by midwifery training regulators is required by countries.

Data availability

The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to the confidentiality of the data but are available from the corresponding author on request.

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Acknowledgements

The study was made possible through the financial support of the Johnson and Johnson Foundation for the three-year “Design, implementation and evaluation of Nursing/Midwifery CPD Educator Programme in Kenya” (2021 – 2023) and the Alliance to Improve Midwifery Education through UNFPA Headquarters. Special acknowledgement to nursing and midwifery educators from mid-level training colleges and universities in Kenya and Nigeria, Ministries of Health, Nursing Council of Kenya, Nursing and Midwifery Council of Nigeria, KMTC headquarters management who participated in the study. Also, we specially appreciate the World Continuing Education Alliance for the dedicated support with the online modules and expert trainers who participated in the delivery of the face-to-face training component: Aisha Hassan, Dr. Mojisola Ojibara, Dr. Eniola Risikat Kadir, Aminat Titi Kadir, Benson Milimo, Esther Ounza, Marthar Opisa, Millicent Kabiru, Sylvia Kimutai, Dr. Joyce Jebet, Dr. Steve Karangau, Dr. Moses Lagat and Dr. Evans Ogoti. Gratitude to Boslam Adacha and Roselynne Githinji for their dedicated support with data preparation for analysis and Dr. Sarah White for her statistical analysis expert guidance and support. Thank you also to Geeta Lal at UNFPA Headquarters. Lastly, the authors would like to acknowledge the special technical and logistical support provided by the LSTM – Kenya team (Onesmus Maina, Martin Eyinda, David Ndakalu, Diana Bitta, Esther Wekesa and Evans Koitaba) and LSTM Nigeria team (Dr. Michael Adeyemi and Deborah Charles) during the trainings.

The study was funded by the Johnson and Johnson Foundation as part of the three-year “Design, implementation and evaluation of Nursing/Midwifery CPD Educator Programme in Kenya” and the Alliance to Improve Midwifery Education through UNFPA. The Johnson and Johnson Foundation were not involved in the research – study design; in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; and in the decision to submit the article for publication.

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Contributions

DNS, SBZ and CA conceived the idea and designed the study protocol; DNS designed the online data collection tools/checklists/assessments, performed data extraction, cleaning, analysis and interpretation of the results, drafted the primary manuscript, reviewed and prepared it for publication; DNS, HM, LM, PN and AU conducted the training intervention, collected data and reviewed the drafts and final manuscript; AL participated in the design of the study, qualitative data analysis, interpretation of findings and reviewed draft manuscripts; CW, LN, IB, EN, CB and SBZ participated in the design of the study procedures and substantively reviewed the drafts and final manuscript. CA reviewed study procedures, data collection tools, provided oversight in investigation, analysis, interpretation and substantively reviewed the manuscript drafts. SBZ and CA obtained funding for the study. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Duncan N. Shikuku .

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Ethics review and approvals were obtained from Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine’s Research Ethics Committee (LSTM REC No. 23 − 004) and in-country ethical approvals from Kenya (MTRH/MU – IREC FAN 0004383; NACOSTI License No: NACOSTI/P/23/25498) and Nigeria (NHREC Approval Number NHREC/01/01/2007- 31/03/2023). Participation in the study was strictly voluntary and did not form part of the educator’s performance appraisals. Not taking part in the study did not disadvantage some educators who consented but missed out. Informed electronic and written consent was obtained from all participants. Unique participant codes were used for identification and all the data collection tools/forms and datasets were de-identified with no participant identifying information. All interviews were conducted at the offices of the respective stakeholders maintaining privacy during data collection process.

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Shikuku, D.N., Mohammed, H., Mwanzia, L. et al. Evaluation of the feasibility of a midwifery educator continuous professional development (CPD) programme in Kenya and Nigeria: a mixed methods study. BMC Med Educ 24 , 534 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05524-w

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