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What Defines a Public School?

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Deborah Meier continues her conversation with Harry Boyte. To read their full exchange, please visit here .

Dear Harry and friends,

I can’t locate your Tuesday letter! So for a moment let me revert to an earlier issue: What does it mean to be a “public” school?

Since most authority for schooling rests with states, this obviously will vary by state. But what would you propose for either the state or the federal government with regard to defining a tax-funded public school versus “other” kinds of schooling?

I think the Constitution says that they shouldn’t advocate a particular religious view. That’s a start. What else? I’d add that they should be governed by a public body that does not stand to have any conflicting material stake in the schools operations. That’s common practice with most not-for-profit boards. But maybe we’d like to argue that such governing bodies must demonstrate that they represent the community being served in some form or other. Maybe a certain percentage of its seats should be filled by its constituents: parents and teachers. What about the larger public, whose future partially rests on the education of future citizens and/or whose taxes pay for the school?

I’d like to find a definition that strongly nudges schools to be able to defend their governing structure in terms of democratic principles: of, for, and by the people. But which people? Answer: at least those most directly affected, plus ...

No institution plays a greater role in sustaining the democratic idea than the ones that educate our children for 12 or more years of their lives. Where else might they witness democracy in practice? Can they learn it through the best of textbooks? Or does it need something more?

Democracy is both too important and too “messy” to learn about without constant and self-conscious reflection-in-practice. So much of what it means rests on context, past history, equality of power in a particular circumstance, and a balancing of individual interests and the “common good.” It makes it hard to define, much less teach abstractly. In comparative government courses we learn about different forms of government, but do we discuss which is “better"—and why? Young people, and their teachers and families and neighbors, have the opportunity, however, to explore this together as they govern their schools together. Our children are apprentices in such schools, gradually joining in the act of self-governance. But what they learn about governance in most of our private, charter, and public schools can hardly be called an apprenticeship in democratic skills and habits.

Yet, surely, there needs to be some restrictions on the local powers that be, restrictions that rest on our understanding of the Constitution and its implications, as well as common sense. What should those be? And who should set them?

As we contemplate the elections of fall 2016, maybe this should be on the table. Maybe the “political revolution” that Sanders argues for is in part a rethinking of what it means to raise the next generation of citizens together.

The opinions expressed in Bridging Differences are strictly those of the author(s) and do not reflect the opinions or endorsement of Editorial Projects in Education, or any of its publications.

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Public or Private School? It Shouldn’t Matter

Subscribe to the brown center on education policy newsletter, mark dynarski mark dynarski owner - pemberton research, former brookings expert.

June 12, 2014

My years of attending different schools went like this: public, private, public, public, private.  As the sequence suggests, I had opportunities to experience schools that were public and schools that were private.  At least from my perspective as a student, a school’s classification as public or private did not make much difference. They were all schools to me.

I was reminded of the public versus private school debate, and my experience with the insignificance of this categorization, by a recent front-page article in Education Week with the headline, ‘Public Schools Outperform Private Schools, Book Says.’   The authors of the book ( The Public School Advantage: Why Public Schools Outperform Private Schools ), Christopher and Sarah Lubienski, argue that earlier research showing private schools—mostly Catholic schools—outperformed public schools was hampered by data limitations. When they analyze data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) and the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study’s (ECLS) kindergarten cohort, they find that after adjusting for student characteristics, the average student in an elementary public school had a higher math score than the average student in an elementary private school.

At least three issues come to mind about these findings. First is that costs are not mentioned, despite how much they matter. Second is how disconnected the findings are from the choices parents actually have to make. And, thirdly, the question of ‘public versus private’ is a sideshow diverting attention from a far more substantive inquiry: what can we do to make all schools become more productive?

First, costs. Recent data on Catholic schools reports per-student costs well below public schools. It’s about $6,000 for elementary schools and $12,000 for secondary schools . NCES reports average public school spending combined for both levels of $12,000 . Over the K-12 span, then, and with most Catholic elementary schools spanning K-8, the total spent per student is about $102,000 in Catholic schools versus 50 percent more, $156,000, in public schools. By this metric, even if Catholic schools had the same test scores, their productivity (output per unit of input) is substantially higher than public schools.

Second, parents. Tables in the Lubienskis’ book show huge differences in public and private school test scores. Catholic and Lutheran schools have fourth-grade NAEP scores that are 10 points higher than public schools. Because of how the NAEP is scored, this difference is approximately an entire grade level. Fourth graders in public schools are scoring about what third graders in private schools score. Differences between public and private school students are even larger in eighth grade, ranging from 14 to 20 points.

These differences disappear when the authors do their analysis. But how? Scores are ‘adjusted for’ student differences using statistical models. I am not criticizing the use of statistical models, having spent decades using them. But there are limitations that need to be kept in mind. In the case of private schools, ‘adjusting’ for characteristics creates a hypothetical situation in which public and private schools are being analyzed ‘as if’ they had the same characteristics. For example, a local public school that has a large enrollment and many students on free lunch and a local private school with a small enrollment and few students on free lunch will be compared ‘as if’ they have the same enrollment and the same proportion of students on free lunch.

The fact that this situation doesn’t actually exist is the point. Parents see real schools, not hypothetical ones. Suppose a parent is considering whether to send their son or daughter to a private school or to a public school. For sake of argument, let’s assume transporting their child to either school takes the same time and energy. There is a huge difference in student test scores between the schools, which the parent recognizes might be partly because high-achieving students already attend the private school. The parent also learns that studies suggest students who attend private schools are more likely than similar students attending public schools to graduate from high school and to enroll in college . Suppose the private school is achieving these score differences and graduation outcomes while also spending less than public schools.

This scenario might lead many parents to choose private schools. Having high-achieving students in the private school as peers for one’s child is an attractive feature. Increasing the odds that one’s child will graduate from high school and attend college is appealing as well. The lower cost closes the deal.

Except in reality, parents don’t pay a lower cost for private schools. In fact, the cost of a private school is added onto the cost of a public school. Parents pay property and state income taxes that fund public schools, and then have to decide whether they can afford private school on top of that. So, private school becomes an expensive proposition. Some parents will nonetheless decide to pay for it, but it’s unsurprising that 90 percent of America’s K-12 students are in public schools.

The Lubienskis say their findings should undermine arguments in support of voucher programs and other market-based programs because these programs are based on the idea that students attending private schools will do better than if they attended public schools. Let’s expand ‘doing better’ beyond test scores and focus on the education attainment of older students.

The DC voucher study cited above found that using vouchers increased high school graduation by 21 percentage points. Applicants for those vouchers were low-income (families below 185 percent of the poverty level were eligible), and nearly all were African-American. That study did not follow students long enough to know whether students went on to college. However, the study of the New York voucher program cited above found that using vouchers increased college enrollment by 9 percentage points for African-Americans.

These seem like small numbers, but economists have estimated that compared to dropping out, lifetime earnings of high school graduates are $300,000 higher for African-Americans, and lifetime earnings of graduates who attend at least some college are $800,000 higher. Thus, the increased likelihood of graduating high school and attending college associated with the use of a voucher can add tens of thousands of dollars to lifetime earnings. This is likely an underestimate given that completing college is not accounted for (neither study explored college completion), but is associated with even greater earnings. And most voucher users do not use the voucher for long, usually only two to three years. The current DC voucher program provides $8,000 for elementary schools and $12,000 for high schools, which means public spending of somewhere around $20,000 to $30,000 could achieve an earnings effect three times larger or more.

Of course these are rough numbers that are influenced by data limitations: estimates of lifetime earnings necessarily involve many assumptions; the New York City study found beneficial effects of vouchers only for African-American students and not for Hispanic students; and only a couple studies have been done (though both studies referenced here use strong experimental designs). And if a much larger voucher program were created, it might serve other kinds of families and possibly have smaller effects.

The point is that comparing test scores of public and private schools can be a distraction from the bigger picture. In fact, the entire public-private debate is nothing more than a sideshow. How to improve schools generally is more fruitful, though less dramatic, than framing the debate as ‘public is bad and private is good,’ or the reverse. Certainly though, analyzing what private schools are doing to yield higher graduation and college-going rates while spending less is one way to begin answering that question. And if what’s discovered to be working in private schools can possibly be replicated by the public schools that nearly all students attend, there will be no need for future debate. 

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Private School vs. Public School

A private school is autonomous and generates its own funding through various sources like student tuition, private grants and endowments. A public school is government funded and all students attend free of cost.

Because of funding from several sources, private schools may teach above and beyond the standard curriculum, may cater to a specific kind of students (gifted, special needs, specific religion / language ) or have an alternative curriculum like art , drama, technology etc. Public schools have to adhere to the curriculum charted out by the district, and cannot deny admission to any child within the residential school zone.

There are several preconceived notions regarding private and public schools. Private schools are often assumed to be very expensive, elitist and a better bet for admission to good colleges. Public schools are often thought of as shoddy, less disciplined and low-grade curriculum. This comparison offers a fair insight into both schools for parents to make an informed decision.

Comparison chart

Admission Criteria

Anyone may apply to attend a private school, there is no zoning based on the students address. However, granting admission to a student is up to the school authorities and is based on tests and other criteria.

Admission to public school is determined by the address of the students. Every community has a zoned school and students attend their respective zoned school. Certain school districts may have variations to this rule. Public schools are required to accommodate all children within the zoning area.

Private schools have to raise their own funds and they get most of their funding through student tuition, fundraising events, gifts and endowments from donors.

Funding for public schools is a three tiered process. The federal government allocates certain amount of funds to each state for education. The state government contributes through income taxes, lotteries and property taxes. The local government may also contribute through taxation funds. Some public schools these days have resorted to a some amount of fundraising on account of budget cuts.

Private schools do not have to adhere to their respective state’s standards or the Common Core state standards and have the freedom to choose their own curriculum.

Public schools are moving towards adoption of the Common Core State Standards . As of today, 45states, the District of Columbia and 4 territories have adopted the Common Core State Standards.

The Common Core State Standards in a nutshell:

Private schools usually have smaller class sizes and could have as many as 10 to 15 students in an elementary classroom. A lower student ratio can mean a more personalized interaction for students and teachers.

Public schools have a larger student to teacher ratio and have larger class sizes. This is often due to budget cuts or inadequate funding. There can be as many as 30 students in an elementary classroom.

Private schools are subjective in their requirement for teachers to be certified, some do not require certification, and others may require certification but could be open to a certification from a different state.

Public schools required teachers to be certified in the state they teach. Certification requirements vary and are determined by each state.

Teacher Pay

Private school teachers get paid less than public school teachers and may or may not have health insurance . (In the UK private school teachers receive higher wages than their state school counterparts.)

Teachers in public schools get paid more than their private school counterparts. Public schools also offer health insurance and retirement benefits which may vary depending on the state.

Private schools are free to choose their own form of assessments and tests. They are not required to publish results of their tests.

Public schools are required to administer standardized tests to their students which are chosen by the state. The test scores are required to be published by the school.

Transportation

Private schools may or may not provide transportation to students; the provision differs from school to school.

It is mandatory for public schools to provide bus transportation to all students living in the school's designated residential area.

Additional Resources

Funds from various resources enable private schools to offer more to students in terms of science, technology , humanities, and the visual and performing arts.

Due to dependency on government funding, public schools may not have enough resources to offer technology tools, music , art and other activities to their students.

Test Scores

Comparison between public and private school test scores is a difficult if not virtually impossible task, because the type of tests may differ, and private schools have a choice to not publish their scores.

Are Private Schools Really Better?

It is very difficult to give a conclusive answer with an absolute "Yes" or "No." It depends on what parents want for their child, what and whether they're willing to pay to get it, and what the child is capable of. While curriculum is often considered to be more rigorous in private schools, private schools are not a guaranteed access to a better college or university. The following videos throw light on different perspectives of private vs public schools.

KCRA News discusses the results of studies conducted on the much debated topic:

An insight on whether private schools stand to have an advantage for admission to Standoford:

A word from the dean at USC on the topic:

How To Choose

Choosing between a private and public school goes beyond just affordability. Choosing the right school for your child is a process where there's no such thing as too much information. A good place to start would be to eliminate all preconceived notions about private and public schools and knowing that's it's more about the best fit for a child as opposed to "the best school in town." Of course, there's no substitute to visiting every short-listed school.

This video presents some facts about private schools, and might help bust some myths regarding affordability and elitism:

While test scores seem to be a natural go-to criterion to compare schools, they can often be misleading. Test scores cannot be the absolute criterion to assess a school, whether public or private; there is more to a school than just test scores, and it's possible that a school with a lower score may actually be more nurturing or a better fit for a child:

• School Funding - teach-nology.com
• Private Education - capenet.org
• Is a Private School Worth It? - theweek.com
• Core Standards - Official Site
• Lake Washington School District
• Public and Private School Teaching - teaching.monster.com

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Americans Have Given Up on Public Schools. That’s a Mistake.

The current debate over public education underestimates its value—and forgets its purpose.

Public schools have always occupied prime space in the excitable American imagination. For decades, if not centuries, politicians have made hay of their supposed failures and extortions. In 2004, Rod Paige, then George W. Bush’s secretary of education, called the country’s leading teachers union a “terrorist organization.” In his first education speech as president, in 2009, Barack Obama lamented the fact that “despite resources that are unmatched anywhere in the world, we’ve let our grades slip, our schools crumble, our teacher quality fall short, and other nations outpace us.”

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President Donald Trump used the occasion of his inaugural address to bemoan the way “beautiful” students had been “deprived of all knowledge” by our nation’s cash-guzzling schools. Educators have since recoiled at the Trump administration’s budget proposal detailing more than $9 billion in education cuts, including to after-school programs that serve mostly poor children. These cuts came along with increased funding for school-privatization efforts such as vouchers. Our secretary of education, Betsy DeVos, has repeatedly signaled her support for school choice and privatization, as well as her scorn for public schools, describing them as a “dead end” and claiming that unionized teachers “care more about a system, one that was created in the 1800s, than they care about individual students.”

Few people care more about individual students than public-school teachers do, but what’s really missing in this dystopian narrative is a hearty helping of reality: 21st-century public schools, with their record numbers of graduates and expanded missions, are nothing close to the cesspools portrayed by political hyperbole. This hyperbole was not invented by Trump or DeVos, but their words and proposals have brought to a boil something that’s been simmering for a while—the denigration of our public schools, and a growing neglect of their role as an incubator of citizens.

Americans have in recent decades come to talk about education less as a public good, like a strong military or a noncorrupt judiciary, than as a private consumable. In an address to the Brookings Institution, DeVos described school choice as “a fundamental right.” That sounds appealing. Who wouldn’t want to deploy their tax dollars with greater specificity? Imagine purchasing a gym membership with funds normally allocated to the upkeep of a park.

My point here is not to debate the effect of school choice on individual outcomes: The evidence is mixed, and subject to cherry-picking on all sides. I am more concerned with how the current discussion has ignored public schools’ victories, while also detracting from their civic role. Our public-education system is about much more than personal achievement; it is about preparing people to work together to advance not just themselves but society. Unfortunately, the current debate’s focus on individual rights and choices has distracted many politicians and policy makers from a key stakeholder: our nation as a whole. As a result, a cynicism has taken root that suggests there is no hope for public education. This is demonstrably false. It’s also dangerous.

The idea that popular education might best be achieved privately is nothing new, of course. The Puritans, who saw education as necessary to Christian practice, experimented with the idea, and their experience is telling. In 1642, they passed a law—the first of its kind in North America—requiring that all children in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts receive an education. Puritan legislators assumed, naively, that parents would teach children in their homes; however, many of them proved unable or unwilling to rise to the task. Five years later, the legislators issued a corrective in the form of the Old Deluder Satan Law: “It being one chief project of that old deluder, Satan, to keep men from the knowledge of the Scriptures,” the law intoned, “it is therefore ordered … that everie Township [of 100 households or more] in this Jurisdiction” be required to provide a trained teacher and a grammar school, at taxpayer expense.

Almost 400 years later, contempt for our public schools is commonplace. Americans, and especially Republicans, report that they have lost faith in the system, but notably, nearly three-quarters of parents rate their own child’s school highly; it’s other people’s schools they worry about. Meanwhile, Americans tend to exaggerate our system’s former glory. Even in the 1960s, when international science and math tests were first administered, the U.S. was never at the top of the rankings and was often near the bottom.

Not only is the idea that American test scores were once higher a fiction, but in some cases they have actually improved over time, especially among African American students. Since the early 1970s, when the Department of Education began collecting long-term data, average reading and math scores for 9- and 13-year-olds have risen significantly.

These gains have come even as the student body of American public schools has expanded to include students with ever greater challenges. For the first time in recent memory, a majority of U.S. public-school students come from low-income households. The student body includes a larger proportion than ever of students who are still learning to speak English. And it includes many students with disabilities who would have been shut out of public school before passage of the 1975 law now known as the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, which guaranteed all children a “free appropriate public education.”

The fantasy that in some bygone era U.S. test scores were higher has prevented us from acknowledging other possible explanations for America’s technological, scientific, and cultural preeminence. In her 2013 book, Reign of Error , Diane Ravitch—an education historian and former federal education official who originally supported but later became a critic of reforms like No Child Left Behind—cites surprising evidence that a nation’s higher position on an international ranking of test scores actually predicted lower per capita GDP decades later, compared with countries whose test scores ranked worse. Other findings complicate the picture, but at a minimum we can say that there is no clear connection between test scores and a nation’s economic success. Surely it’s reasonable to ask whether some of America’s success might derive not from factors measured by standardized tests, but from other attributes of our educational system. U.S. public schools, at their best, have encouraged a unique mixing of diverse people, and produced an exceptionally innovative and industrious citizenry.

Our lost faith in public education has led us to other false conclusions, including the conviction that teachers unions protect “bad apples.” Thanks to articles and documentaries such as Waiting for “Superman , ” most of us have an image seared into our brain of a slew of know-nothing teachers, removed from the classroom after years of sleeping through class, sitting in state-funded “rubber rooms” while continuing to draw hefty salaries. If it weren’t for those damned unions, or so the logic goes, we could drain the dregs and hire real teachers. I am a public-school-certified teacher whose own children attended public schools, and I’ve occasionally entertained these thoughts myself.

But unions are not the bogeyman we’re looking for. According to “The Myth of Unions’ Overprotection of Bad Teachers,” a well-designed study by Eunice S. Han, an economist at the University of Utah, school districts with strong unions actually do a better job of weeding out bad teachers and retaining good ones than do those with weak unions. This makes sense. If you have to pay more for something, you are more likely to care about its quality; when districts pay higher wages, they have more incentive to employ good teachers (and dispense with bad ones). And indeed, many of the states with the best schools have reached that position in the company of strong unions. We can’t say for sure that unions have a positive impact on student outcomes—the evidence is inconclusive. But findings like Han’s certainly undermine reformers’ claims.

In defending our public schools, I do not mean to say they can’t be improved. But if we are serious about advancing them, we need to stop scapegoating unions and take steps to increase and improve the teaching pool. Teacher shortages are leaving many states in dire straits: The national shortfall is projected to exceed 100,000 teachers by next year.

That many top college graduates hesitate to join a profession with low wages is no great surprise. For many years, talented women had few career alternatives to nursing and teaching; this kept teacher quality artificially high. Now that women have more options, if we want to attract strong teachers, we need to pay competitive salaries. As one observer put it, if you cannot find someone to sell you a Lexus for a few dollars, that doesn’t mean there is a car shortage.

Oddly, the idea of addressing our supply-and-demand problem the old-fashioned American way, with a market-based approach, has been largely unappealing to otherwise free-market thinkers. And yet raising salaries would have cascading benefits beyond easing the teacher shortage. Because salaries are associated with teacher quality, raising pay would likely improve student outcomes. Massachusetts and Connecticut have attracted capable people to the field with competitive pay, and neither has an overall teacher shortage.

Apart from raising teacher pay, we should expand the use of other strategies to attract talent, such as forgivable tuition loans, service fellowships, hardship pay for the most-challenging settings (an approach that works well in the military and the foreign service), and housing and child-care subsidies for teachers, many of whom can’t afford to live in the communities in which they teach. We can also get more serious about de-larding a bureaucracy that critics are right to denounce: American public schools are bloated at the top of the organizational pyramid, with too many administrators and not enough high-quality teachers in the classroom.

Where schools are struggling today, collectively speaking, is less in their transmission of mathematical principles or writing skills, and more in their inculcation of what it means to be an American. The Founding Fathers understood the educational prerequisites on which our democracy was based (having themselves designed it), and they had far grander plans than, say, beating the Soviets to the moon, or ensuring a literate workforce.

Thomas Jefferson, among other historical titans, understood that a functioning democracy required an educated citizenry, and crucially, he saw education as a public good to be included in the “articles of public care,” despite his preference for the private sector in most matters. John Adams, another proponent of public schooling, urged, “There should not be a district of one mile square, without a school in it, not founded by a charitable individual, but maintained at the expense of the people themselves.”

In the centuries since, the courts have regularly affirmed the special status of public schools as a cornerstone of the American democratic project. In its vigorous defenses of students’ civil liberties—to protest the Vietnam War, for example, or not to salute the flag—the Supreme Court has repeatedly held public schools to an especially high standard precisely because they play a unique role in fostering citizens.

This role isn’t limited to civics instruction; public schools also provide students with crucial exposure to people of different backgrounds and perspectives. Americans have a closer relationship with the public-school system than with any other shared institution. (Those on the right who disparagingly refer to public schools as “government schools” have obviously never been to a school-board meeting, one of the clearest examples anywhere of direct democracy in action.) Ravitch writes that “one of the greatest glories of the public school was its success in Americanizing immigrants.” At their best, public schools did even more than that, integrating both immigrants and American-born students from a range of backgrounds into one citizenry.

At a moment when our media preferences, political affiliations, and cultural tastes seem wider apart than ever, abandoning this amalgamating function is a bona fide threat to our future. And yet we seem to be headed in just that direction. The story of American public education has generally been one of continuing progress, as girls, children of color, and children with disabilities (among others) have redeemed their constitutional right to push through the schoolhouse gate. But in the past few decades, we have allowed schools to grow more segregated, racially and socioeconomically. (Charter schools, far from a solution to this problem, are even more racially segregated than traditional public schools.)

Simultaneously, we have neglected instruction on democracy. Until the 1960s, U.S. high schools commonly offered three classes to prepare students for their roles as citizens: Government, Civics (which concerned the rights and responsibilities of citizens), and Problems of Democracy (which included discussions of policy issues and current events). Today, schools are more likely to offer a single course. Civics education has fallen out of favor partly as a result of changing political sentiment. Some liberals have come to see instruction in American values—such as freedom of speech and religion, and the idea of a “melting pot”—as reactionary. Some conservatives, meanwhile, have complained of a progressive bias in civics education.

Especially since the passage of No Child Left Behind, the class time devoted to social studies has declined steeply. Most state assessments don’t cover civics material, and in too many cases, if it isn’t tested, it isn’t taught. At the elementary-school level, less than 40 percent of fourth-grade teachers say they regularly emphasize topics related to civics education.

So what happens when we neglect the public purpose of our publicly funded schools? The discussion of vouchers and charter schools, in its focus on individual rights, has failed to take into account American society at large. The costs of abandoning an institution designed to bind, not divide, our citizenry are high.

Already, some experts have noted a conspicuous link between the decline of civics education and young adults’ dismal voting rates. Civics knowledge is in an alarming state: Three-quarters of Americans can’t identify the three branches of government. Public-opinion polls, meanwhile, show a new tolerance for authoritarianism, and rising levels of antidemocratic and illiberal thinking. These views are found all over the ideological map, from President Trump, who recently urged the nation’s police officers to rough up criminal suspects, to, ironically, the protesters who tried to block DeVos from entering a Washington, D.C., public school in February.

We ignore public schools’ civic and integrative functions at our peril. To revive them will require good faith across the political spectrum. Those who are suspicious of public displays of national unity may need to rethink their aversion. When we neglect schools’ nation-binding role, it grows hard to explain why we need public schools at all. Liberals must also work to better understand the appeal of school choice, especially for families in poor areas where teacher quality and attrition are serious problems. Conservatives and libertarians, for their part, need to muster more generosity toward the institutions that have educated our workforce and fueled our success for centuries.

The political theorist Benjamin Barber warned in 2004 that “America as a commercial society of individual consumers may survive the destruction of public schooling. America as a democratic republic cannot.” In this era of growing fragmentation, we urgently need a renewed commitment to the idea that public education is a worthy investment, one that pays dividends not only to individual families but to our society as a whole.

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School Is for Everyone

By Anya Kamenetz

Ms. Kamenetz is a longtime education reporter and the author of “The Stolen Year: How Covid Changed Children’s Lives, and Where We Go Now,” from which this essay is adapted.

For the majority of human history, most people didn’t go to school. Formal education was a privilege for the Alexander the Greats of the world, who could hire Aristotles as private tutors.

Starting in the mid-19th century, the United States began to establish truly universal, compulsory education. It was a social compact: The state provides public schools that are free and open to all. And children, for most of their childhood, are required to receive an education. Today, nine out of 10 do so in public schools.

To an astonishing degree, one person, Horace Mann, the nation’s first state secretary of education, forged this reciprocal commitment. The Constitution doesn’t mention education. In Southern colonies, rich white children had tutors or were sent overseas to learn. Teaching enslaved people to read was outlawed. Those who learned did so by luck, in defiance or in secret.

But Mann came from Massachusetts, the birthplace of the “common school” in the 1600s, where schoolmasters were paid by taking up a collection from each group of households. Mann expanded on that tradition. He crossed the state on horseback to visit every schoolhouse, finding mostly neglected, drafty old wrecks. He championed schools as the crucible of democracy — his guiding principle, following Thomas Jefferson, was that citizens cannot sustain both ignorance and freedom.

An essential part of Mann’s vision was that public schools should be for everyone and that children of different class backgrounds should learn together. He pushed to draw wealthier students away from private schools, establish “normal schools” to train teachers (primarily women), have the state take over charitable schools and increase taxes to pay for it all.

He largely succeeded. By the early 20th century all states had free primary schools, underwritten by taxpayers, that students were required to attend.

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• Example of a great essay | Explanations, tips & tricks

Example of a Great Essay | Explanations, Tips & Tricks

Published on February 9, 2015 by Shane Bryson . Revised on July 23, 2023 by Shona McCombes.

This example guides you through the structure of an essay. It shows how to build an effective introduction , focused paragraphs , clear transitions between ideas, and a strong conclusion .

Each paragraph addresses a single central point, introduced by a topic sentence , and each point is directly related to the thesis statement .

As you read, hover over the highlighted parts to learn what they do and why they work.

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Table of contents

Other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about writing an essay, an appeal to the senses: the development of the braille system in nineteenth-century france.

The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

Lack of access to reading and writing put blind people at a serious disadvantage in nineteenth-century society. Text was one of the primary methods through which people engaged with culture, communicated with others, and accessed information; without a well-developed reading system that did not rely on sight, blind people were excluded from social participation (Weygand, 2009). While disabled people in general suffered from discrimination, blindness was widely viewed as the worst disability, and it was commonly believed that blind people were incapable of pursuing a profession or improving themselves through culture (Weygand, 2009). This demonstrates the importance of reading and writing to social status at the time: without access to text, it was considered impossible to fully participate in society. Blind people were excluded from the sighted world, but also entirely dependent on sighted people for information and education.

In France, debates about how to deal with disability led to the adoption of different strategies over time. While people with temporary difficulties were able to access public welfare, the most common response to people with long-term disabilities, such as hearing or vision loss, was to group them together in institutions (Tombs, 1996). At first, a joint institute for the blind and deaf was created, and although the partnership was motivated more by financial considerations than by the well-being of the residents, the institute aimed to help people develop skills valuable to society (Weygand, 2009). Eventually blind institutions were separated from deaf institutions, and the focus shifted towards education of the blind, as was the case for the Royal Institute for Blind Youth, which Louis Braille attended (Jimenez et al, 2009). The growing acknowledgement of the uniqueness of different disabilities led to more targeted education strategies, fostering an environment in which the benefits of a specifically blind education could be more widely recognized.

Several different systems of tactile reading can be seen as forerunners to the method Louis Braille developed, but these systems were all developed based on the sighted system. The Royal Institute for Blind Youth in Paris taught the students to read embossed roman letters, a method created by the school’s founder, Valentin Hauy (Jimenez et al., 2009). Reading this way proved to be a rather arduous task, as the letters were difficult to distinguish by touch. The embossed letter method was based on the reading system of sighted people, with minimal adaptation for those with vision loss. As a result, this method did not gain significant success among blind students.

Louis Braille was bound to be influenced by his school’s founder, but the most influential pre-Braille tactile reading system was Charles Barbier’s night writing. A soldier in Napoleon’s army, Barbier developed a system in 1819 that used 12 dots with a five line musical staff (Kersten, 1997). His intention was to develop a system that would allow the military to communicate at night without the need for light (Herron, 2009). The code developed by Barbier was phonetic (Jimenez et al., 2009); in other words, the code was designed for sighted people and was based on the sounds of words, not on an actual alphabet. Barbier discovered that variants of raised dots within a square were the easiest method of reading by touch (Jimenez et al., 2009). This system proved effective for the transmission of short messages between military personnel, but the symbols were too large for the fingertip, greatly reducing the speed at which a message could be read (Herron, 2009). For this reason, it was unsuitable for daily use and was not widely adopted in the blind community.

Nevertheless, Barbier’s military dot system was more efficient than Hauy’s embossed letters, and it provided the framework within which Louis Braille developed his method. Barbier’s system, with its dashes and dots, could form over 4000 combinations (Jimenez et al., 2009). Compared to the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, this was an absurdly high number. Braille kept the raised dot form, but developed a more manageable system that would reflect the sighted alphabet. He replaced Barbier’s dashes and dots with just six dots in a rectangular configuration (Jimenez et al., 2009). The result was that the blind population in France had a tactile reading system using dots (like Barbier’s) that was based on the structure of the sighted alphabet (like Hauy’s); crucially, this system was the first developed specifically for the purposes of the blind.

While the Braille system gained immediate popularity with the blind students at the Institute in Paris, it had to gain acceptance among the sighted before its adoption throughout France. This support was necessary because sighted teachers and leaders had ultimate control over the propagation of Braille resources. Many of the teachers at the Royal Institute for Blind Youth resisted learning Braille’s system because they found the tactile method of reading difficult to learn (Bullock & Galst, 2009). This resistance was symptomatic of the prevalent attitude that the blind population had to adapt to the sighted world rather than develop their own tools and methods. Over time, however, with the increasing impetus to make social contribution possible for all, teachers began to appreciate the usefulness of Braille’s system (Bullock & Galst, 2009), realizing that access to reading could help improve the productivity and integration of people with vision loss. It took approximately 30 years, but the French government eventually approved the Braille system, and it was established throughout the country (Bullock & Galst, 2009).

Although Blind people remained marginalized throughout the nineteenth century, the Braille system granted them growing opportunities for social participation. Most obviously, Braille allowed people with vision loss to read the same alphabet used by sighted people (Bullock & Galst, 2009), allowing them to participate in certain cultural experiences previously unavailable to them. Written works, such as books and poetry, had previously been inaccessible to the blind population without the aid of a reader, limiting their autonomy. As books began to be distributed in Braille, this barrier was reduced, enabling people with vision loss to access information autonomously. The closing of the gap between the abilities of blind and the sighted contributed to a gradual shift in blind people’s status, lessening the cultural perception of the blind as essentially different and facilitating greater social integration.

The Braille system also had important cultural effects beyond the sphere of written culture. Its invention later led to the development of a music notation system for the blind, although Louis Braille did not develop this system himself (Jimenez, et al., 2009). This development helped remove a cultural obstacle that had been introduced by the popularization of written musical notation in the early 1500s. While music had previously been an arena in which the blind could participate on equal footing, the transition from memory-based performance to notation-based performance meant that blind musicians were no longer able to compete with sighted musicians (Kersten, 1997). As a result, a tactile musical notation system became necessary for professional equality between blind and sighted musicians (Kersten, 1997).

Braille paved the way for dramatic cultural changes in the way blind people were treated and the opportunities available to them. Louis Braille’s innovation was to reimagine existing reading systems from a blind perspective, and the success of this invention required sighted teachers to adapt to their students’ reality instead of the other way around. In this sense, Braille helped drive broader social changes in the status of blindness. New accessibility tools provide practical advantages to those who need them, but they can also change the perspectives and attitudes of those who do not.

Bullock, J. D., & Galst, J. M. (2009). The Story of Louis Braille. Archives of Ophthalmology , 127(11), 1532. https://​doi.org/10.1001/​archophthalmol.2009.286.

Herron, M. (2009, May 6). Blind visionary. Retrieved from https://​eandt.theiet.org/​content/​articles/2009/05/​blind-visionary/.

Jiménez, J., Olea, J., Torres, J., Alonso, I., Harder, D., & Fischer, K. (2009). Biography of Louis Braille and Invention of the Braille Alphabet. Survey of Ophthalmology , 54(1), 142–149. https://​doi.org/10.1016/​j.survophthal.2008.10.006.

Kersten, F.G. (1997). The history and development of Braille music methodology. The Bulletin of Historical Research in Music Education , 18(2). Retrieved from https://​www.jstor.org/​stable/40214926.

Mellor, C.M. (2006). Louis Braille: A touch of genius . Boston: National Braille Press.

Tombs, R. (1996). France: 1814-1914 . London: Pearson Education Ltd.

Weygand, Z. (2009). The blind in French society from the Middle Ages to the century of Louis Braille . Stanford: Stanford University Press.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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• Significance of Teamwork in Schools However, teamwork in schools is initiated by the administration and embraced by teachers in their respective departments. Teamwork is important in ensuring the success of schools.
• School Climate and Student Culture The formation of the school climate is also a complex process; however, it is subjected to the influence of various factors starting from the mood of a certain individual and ending with the situation in […]
• What Themes of ICT Should Be Taught in Secondary School In the conclusive part, the paper recommends integration of the ICT tools in the research and e-awareness theme for the relatively simple learning stage.
• Peer Pressure in High School However, the best and easy way in this tough world, or in the peer group, is to prove oneself as a rebellious teen.
• The Problem of Social Promotion in Schools Social promotion in public school was approved practice in the late 1950s and 1960s and put in place to allow students pass to the next level of education without meeting the necessary requirements in the […]
• Business Plan: Preschool Startup in Dubai The Ministry of Education governs the school education in the country. Hence, the rising demand for private schools presents a unique opportunity in the education industry of the UAE.
• Students’ Involvement in Establishing School Rules The process of setting rules in this case will be free and democratic. Executive committee- this will be the supreme body in rule making.
• Daycare/Pre-School in Panama: Requirements The first step in doing so would be to notarize the articles where the owners name and domicile, and domicile of the school has to be mentioned including a few other identifications.
• The Impact of School Governance on School Leadership The traditional school system in most states and territories took the form of the old public administration with school governance highly centralized in the Ministry of Education and the Education Department.
• The Plight of Mexican American Students in US Public School System Unfair and discriminatory treatment against Mexican American students has contributed to the increased number of school dropouts. The introduction of flipped classrooms has led to increased struggles and barriers to Mexican American students from low […]
• Creative Writing for Children in Primary School This has the implication that the connections for such writing should be strong and should be in line with the ideas that have to be passed to the reader that is from the beginning to […]
• Banning of Social Media Such as Facebook from Schools Students, who spend most time using social media, such as Facebook and twitter, find it hard to concentrate in class because of the addictive nature of the social media.
• Gymnastics Training in Schools: Pros and Cons The need for gymnastics activities in schools that would be suitable for non-professional audiences is supported by gymnastics’ various benefits for physical health, including promoting the development of good motor skills in children.
• Overweight and Obesity Among Primary School Children This has lots of repercussions in different aspects of life with regard to health, pecuniary and social realms.”Overweight “and “obesity” are terms which are being used in the same sense to indicate an unhealthy state […]
• Motivation in Continuous Education: Back to School I decided to go back to school and change my life because I want to get a degree in human resource management, help to keep the economy growing, and to get a job working for […]
• Role of Advertising in Launching a New Dance School In order to launch a new dance school in the US, it would be necessary to analyze the market. Since its establishment in 1905, the institution has managed to offer training services to over 800 […]
• Leadership of the School Community The objective of this paper is to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the article in the areas of style, problem definition, methodology, originality and analysis as used by the author in coming up with […]
• Physical Education within Elementary Schools One of the benefits of the physical education is the level of physical fitness that it induces to the students. The manner in which these students are introduced to physical education and the way that […]
• School Preparedness Plan for Tornado, Earthquakes, Fire Emergency In case of an earthquake emergency, the school should be prepared to keep the students safe. In case of a tornado emergency the school should be prepared to keep the students safe.
• Analysis of High School Longitudinal Study Dataset M1MTHYRS912 is a continuous variable that shows how many years of experience the math teacher had at the moment of the survey.
• Before and After School Care In many families the working days of parents are longer than school days of children. As a result, the need for before and after school care grows.
• Colonization and Residential Schools Most of the practices, way of life, and cultural values of the aboriginals seemed uncouth in the eyes of colonialists. The government made significant steps towards decolonization to allow the indigenous communities to understand the […]
• School Project and Design: Building a Six-Story Boarding School Apartment When initiating a project, there is the need to hasten the process of starting the project, which includes planning for the available resources. Therefore, the project will have to identify the best quality materials in […]
• Food and Grades of Students at School The paper conducts a literature review to determine how nutrition and healthy food helps to improve the academic performance of students.
• Introducing English as a Second Language in Primary School in the Middle East During the 16th century, the rise of England as a maritime power and the expansion of the British Empire led to the recognition of English as an important language alongside French, Italian, and Latin, and […]

⭐ Simple & Easy School Essay Titles

• Boston Fights Drugs in Harvard Business School The problem of the case under analysis is that the population of Boston is challenged by the access to illicit drugs.
• High School Social Studies Teacher Career In this line, my expectations in the next five to fifteen years is to be able to be financially stable and debt-free, be able to land a job that gives me the benefit of having […]
• School Improvement for Students’ Benefits Teachers’ experiences are also considered by Razzak and Lamb who emphasize the necessity for school authorities to teacher understanding of the necessity to implement changes and their readiness to alter their practices.
• Tobacco-Free School Program and Policy Enforcement Thus, it is imperative for the schools to initiate programs and implement policies that prohibit the use of tobacco products within the precincts of the learning institutions.
• The UAE Private and Public School Sector The subject choice of this report is education and it will compare the business activities of public and private schools in the UAE.
• The Tracking System in Secondary School Education This being the case, the paper shall set out to give an elaborate discussion as to the benefits and limitations of the tracking system on both the students and the educators.
• Comparison Between Public and Private Schools in the UAE This proves the words of the President of the UAE ‘education is like a lantern which lights your way in a dark alley’ and an increased attention of his wife to promoting this issue in […]
• Beyond Yourself as Principle Applied at Haas School For example I have developed a master plan for my studies and the targets I would like to meet at the end of it.
• Academic Performance at St. Martin de Porres High School At the same time, one of the most important missions of a teacher is to form the skills and abilities of an educational and cognitive nature.
• Opportunities After Secondary School College is a commitment to the future of a teenager, and it can enable them to find a more lucrative career and make more profit throughout their lives.
• The Role of Religion in the Schools The primary goal of schools is to make the learners competent in the future in terms of being skilled in the labor market as well as when making important life decisions.
• Multicultural Education: Action Plan for Professional Development of the School’s Staff Multicultural education has to be emphasized in the discussion to make it the core of a future action plan for the next academic year. It is a chance for teachers to recognize their roles in […]
• Founding Teacher’s Experience in Montessori School During this time, I was promoted to the position of the vice principle in the school that I had worked for a very long time.
• Accountability in Hotel and School Management From a certain perspective, it can be stated that accountability involves not only taking responsibility for when actions result in adverse consequences but also the use of a moral and ethical framework in a decision-making […]
• High School Education: Past, Present, and Future In this paper, focus will be cast on historical development of high school education, the current practices in high school curriculum, the challenges that are related to high school education and the future trends that […]
• Personal High School Experience Teachers and students as the main participants of the teaching-learning process are inclined to shift the responsibility for the low effectiveness of the programs on each other.
• An Evaluation of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development and How It Could Be Applied to Grade School It is the purpose of this essay to summarize Kohlberg’s theory, and thereafter analyze how the theory can be applied to grade a school.
• Developmental Milestones of School-Aged Children The typical development of 7-year-old children includes such markers as displaying a rapid improvement in cognitive capabilities and increasing the focus on friendships and collaboration. Children are receptive and sympathetic to the opinions and ideas […]
• The Structuring of Schools Organizations Nevertheless, the noticeable heterogeneity of knowledge, skills, and abilities in the Education/Organizational Leadership creates both a challenge and an opportunity for educating an organization, because shared organizational leadership is a continuum, people need to be […]
• School Principal: Successful Time Management As the key administrator of the school, the principal is expected to set the tone for a society of learners-teachers who unreservedly exchange information, thoughts and ideas.
• Nursing School at Seattle University In 1859, Florence Nightingale the founder of modern nursing expressed her meaning of nursing as “the goal of nursing is to put the patient in the best condition for nature to act upon him primarily […]
• Motivating Middle School Students to Read However, in the middle-school educational setting, motivating students to read can be challenging due to their lack of concentration, interest in the learning process, and the overall limited dedication to the process.
• Chapter 1-6 of “Child, Family, School, and Community” The reason for this is that, as it was shown in the Chapter, the actual quality of kin-relationships is the subject of continual transformation.
• Underachievement in Schools: Teaching and Learning In a school setting, underachievement refers to the inability of a learner to meet standards of performance that are set in the relevant level of study, which they have been established to have the ability […]
• Cultural Capital in the School Settings The behavior of students in school is compared to the findings of Bourdieu who conducted an extensive study on members belonging to a low culture in Europe.
• Public Schools’ Advantage over Private Schools As we can see, the answer to the question of whether to choose a public or private school is not a straightforward one.
• Gender Issues in the School Environment Studies show that the school does not convene the needs of a child in the way that is expected because of the narrower understanding of the terms masculinity and femininity.
• Bilingual and ESL Programs Implementation in Schools As for ESL pull-out programs, they are based on pulling minority students out of the mainstream classroom to provide them with class instruction in English as a second language.
• After-School Programs and Activities The referral programs have ensured the success of the students’ endeavors to get jobs near or in the campus hence solved a myriad of financial problems encountered by students before the onset of such programs.
• Retention in Schools There is however some positive effects of retention on students and they include: it gives the students the chance to learn and gain new skills and knowledge that they had not obtained in the previous […]
• Washback Effect of School-Based Assessment on Teaching and Learning in Hong Kong Just as Biggs and Shepard state, there is a need to align curriculum, pedology and assessment constructively to ensure that while teaching and assessment form the better part of curriculum, there should be conducive strategies […]
• Effect of Storytelling on Vocabulary Learning For Elementary School Students in Saudi Arabia Schools In this study, the researcher will be interested in investigating the effect of storytelling on vocabulary for elementary school students in Saudi Arabia schools.
• Indoor Air Quality in Schools The concentration of contaminants in the indoor air may lead to the occupants experiencing a range of health symptoms and discomfort. Numerous factors contribute to poor indoor air in the majority of the schools.
• Schools and Good Diet On the other hand, there is need for schools to include in their menus healthy diets, because it will be of no significance for schools to eliminate eateries that sale junk foods while maintaining their […]
• Computer Communication Network in Medical Schools Most medical schools have made it compulsory for any reporting student to have a computer and this point the place of computer communication network in medical schools now and in the future.
• Should Huck Finn Be Banned in Schools? Huckleberry Finn Should Not Be Banned Essay In spite of the controversy The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn generates, its hidden values support the use of this book in schools and prove the point it should not be among banned books.
• Code of Conduct and Ethics in School Conformity with the Set Rules, Laws and Regulations Students and all members of staff are expected to abide by all laws and regulations which pertain to the endeavors they partake for and on behalf of […]
• Spring Road Elementary School’s Improvement Plan The poor performance at Spring Road elementary school is attributed to absenteeism especially the blacks and the economically disadvantaged students. The antidote to the absenteeism challenge is getting the students involved in school activities and […]
• Leaders of the Future School: Academic Plan Leaders of the Future School will have 48 toilets and washrooms, the floors and walls of which will be covered with ceramic tiles, thereby allowing for effective disinfection.
• Analysis of Uniform in Japanese Schools In addition, uniforms and the rules of school life contribute to the development of a sense of harmony and collectivism in children.
• Children’s Rights and School Attendance
• Importance of Art at Elementary School
• Uniforms in Public Schools: Benefits and Drawbacks
• School Student Property Searches Without Warrants
• School Licensed Counselor’s Interview on Profession
• How Media Promotes School Violence?
• Comparison of Preschool and Middle School Child Development
• School Improvement
• Educational Leadership in School
• How Can School Prayer Possibly Hurt?
• Discrimination in School
• American High Schools and Colleges
• Rights People Lose on Public School Property
• Four Schoolmasters and American Foreign Policy
• School Family Community Partnership and Its Benefits
• Closing Education Attainment Gap in Schools
• The Forest School Theory by Marlene Power
• A School Nurse’s Role in Healthcare
• Methods of Elementary School Music Teaching
• Effectiveness of Integrating ICT in Schools
• Professional Development and School Improvement
• Improving Low Performance in Science in Primary Schools
• Erikson’s Development Model and Pre-School Education
• Introducing Tablet PC Into School
• The Concept of School-To-Prison Pipeline Process
• School Uniforms: Conflicting Viewpoints
• Professional School Counseling: Interview Reflection
• Teaching in an Urban School
• Advantages of Foreign Language in High School
• Project-Based Approach in School Settings
• School Communication and Interaction With Parents
• W. James Popham: Everything School Leaders Need to Know About Assessment
• The Role of Social Support in School’s Success
• Guidance Lesson Plan for School Student
• Ethics in School Leadership
• Gender and School Subject Choice in the UK
• New School Model in Abu Dhabi Public Education System
• Diversity in School and Its Advantages
• Ethics in School-Based Action Research
• The Causes of High School Dropping Out
• Managing Challenges in Schools
• A Plan for Effective School Leadership
• The Buck Stops at Business School
• How to Promote Intercultural Learning Among Schools in US
• Marketing Plan for the School of International Business
• Social Influence on Bullying in Schools
• The Value of a High School Diploma
• Working During the High School
• LA School Uniforms as Mandatory Attire for All Students
• The English Preparatory School Programs
• Introducing Ethnic Studies Into Schools’ Curricula
• School Principals Preparation and Skills
• School Anxiety and Phobia in Children
• Selection and Recruitment in the School Sector
• The Role of Parental Involvement in School Life
• Effect of Social Media on Junior and High School
• Children Grade Promotion in the US Schools
• The Mahanoy Area School District v. B.L. Case
• Improving the School’s Funding
• The ABC Model of Crisis: Bullying at School
• Electricity Blackout in Schools
• Role of the Pediatric Nurse in the Promotion of Health in School
• Collective Efficacy Action Plan at Highschool X
• United Arab Emirates Schools: Students With Learning Disabilities
• Education System in Willowbrook School
• The Consequences of School Cheating
• Public School Quality and Its Relationship With Location Within the American Class Structure
• School-Based Nutrition Health Promotion Program
• High School vs. College: Differences
• Depression and Anxiety Due to School and Work-Related Stress
• “A School for My Village” by Jackson and Linville
• Cambridge Public Schools: Vision and Mission Statements
• Fights and Bullying Among Middle School Learners
• Fast Food Ban Necessity in Schools
• Literature Studies: Poetry in Business Schools
• School Leadership: Concepts and Evidence
• Both Abstinence and Safe Sex Should Be Taught in High Schools
• Indian Boarding Schools
• Advertising for a New Dance School
• High School Students Participating In Extra-Curricular Activities Have Fewer Discipline Problems?
• Adolescent Problems in Urban Schools
• Sunday School in HD by Allan Taylor
• Finance Course in High School
• How to Boost Your School Performance With the Right Schedule
• Five Lesson Plans for Elementary School Children
• Reasons to Teach Sex in Schools: Examples of Sex Education
• Social and Emotional Learning in Schools
• Perception of the School: The Informal System
• American Boarding School System
• Enhancing School-Home Connectivity for Holistic Student Development
• Spatial Factor in Educational Inequality at Schools
• Task Specialization and Directive Leadership in Beaufort County School District
• Abolishment of Standard (ACT and SAT) Tests in Schools
• The Purpose of High School Sports
• Acceptable Use Policy in Miami Public Schools
• Empowerment and Accountability in the High School
• Analysis of Lancaster Central School District’s Code of Conduct
• Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) in Schools
• Southside High School Principality: Case Analysis
• The School Curriculum: Gender and Sexuality Themes
• School Employees’ Mental Well-Being in Wyomissing
• Administration of School Technology Programs
• Concept for Teaching Memory in Primary School Students
• African American Male Principals in High-Performing Title I Schools
• Evaluating the School Textbooks From the Perspective of Students
• Geometry in High School: Issues and Solutions
• Transgender Bathroom Policies in Schools
• Aspects of Experience of Nursing School
• Strong Relationships Between Home and the School
• Effective Ways to Deal With Bullying in US Schools
• Mitigating Drug Abuse in Pine View School
• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Schools
• Evaluating the Impact of Financial Support on School Fees and Budget Management
• Researching of Partnership Schools
• School Nursing: The Main Challenges
• Discussion: LED Lighting in Schools
• The Ministry of Health’s Fruit in Schools Action Plan
• Mental Health in School-Age Children
• Promoting Students’ Health: School-Based Strategies
• No Homework Policy in Primary Schools of Abu Dhabi
• Effects of Support on Stress in School Principals
• The Use of Technology in American Schools
• Preschoolers’ Free Play During Covid-19 in Saudi Arabia: The Impact of Screen Use
• Cyberbullying Through Facebook at School: Teacher’s Actions
• The Action Team for Partnerships and the School Improvement Team
• Network Bullying: School Policy Framework
• Exposure to Smartphones on Learning Development in Preschoolers
• Micropolitics of School Aspects
• Race Factor in Students Admission to Law School
• The Need for Online Learning at St. Francis Elementary School
• Summarise of the BUS411 Course at Malcolm Baldrige Business School
• Teaching Preschool Children
• How “Play” Can Affect Preschool Students in Language Acquisition
• K-12 Educational Policy of St. Mark’s School in Texas
• Public School Financing Plan: New Jersey State Summary
• Abuse and Maltreatment of School-Aged Children
• Organizational Culture: The Project for the School Fair
• How to Become a Data-Driven School
• School’s Performance and Education Intervention
• Smith Elementary School’s Improvement Project
• “The First Days of School” Book by Wong and Wong
• Social Enterprise for Economic Stability Among Schools in Africa
• School Motivation: The Use of Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivations
• Freedom of Speech and Propaganda in School Setting
• The Significance of School Staff in Promoting Student Achievement
• The Fox News Article: School Shooting in Uvalde, Texas
• Schools and Families During the COVID-19 Pandemic
• Challenges and Barriers in Novice Teachers’ Practice in Public Schools
• Middle School Student Interview on Education Issues
• Gothic Revival, Arts & Crafts, and Glasgow School
• Data-Driven School Education Improvement
• Coral Springs High School Guidance Counselor Interview
• Black Children Start on the Road to Prison in Preschool
• Male Gender Expression in Middle School
• A Preschoolers’ Learning Curriculum: A Celebration of Diwali
• Teaching and Managing in New York City Schools
• Importance of Symbolic Capital in Economics as Taught in Schools
• Strategies for Recess in Schools
• The Potential Benefits of Diverse Schools and Classrooms Video
• Holidays, Schools, and Family: Family Language Policy on Holiday
• Moral Position of Religious Education in Schools
• Native American Boarding Schools
• School Fundraiser Event: Conventional Foodservice
• Aspects and Missions of Community Schools
• School-Based Diet and Nutrition Focused Behavioral Change Intervention in Bangladesh
• Elementary School Librarian Versus Dept. of Veterans Affairs Librarian
• The Job of Associate Director of School Operations
• The Role of My School Platform in Developing Teachers’ Technical Skills in Saudi Arabia
• Styles of Decision-Making, and Management of Personality of School Principals
• Shaping School Culture for Instructional Leaders
• New York City Community Schools’ Strategic Plan
• Accreditations of Higher Educations Healthcare Schools
• School-To-Prison Pipeline: Educational Perspective
• Adolescent Pregnancy and School Dropout After COVID-19 in Kenya
• Sexual Bullying in Schools and Its Influence
• Diversity in School: Diversity In Organizations
• Adolescent Relationship and School Culture
• “Home, School, and Community Relations”: The Complex Role Nature of Parenting
• Opioid Crisis in Canadian High Schools & Colleges
• Student Rights in School Disciplinary Proceedings
• Legal Search of Students in Schools
• Conserving Resources Due to Reduced School Funding
• How to Minimize Gender Disparities in Schools
• Low-Income Elementary School Students in the Indianapolis Area
• Queer (LGBT) Teenage Bullying at School
• The Working Poor and Schooling
• March for Our Lives: Campaign to Defund Police in Schools
• Marijuana Possession in a High-School Student Case
• Competitors of Pole Dancing: Pole Dancing Schools
• The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on School Students’ Physical Activity
• School Sports Director’s Challenges and Commitments
• Problem of Racism in Schools Overview
• Poor Neighborhoods, Quality of Schools, and Social Mobility
• Social Mobility and Economic Inequalities in Schools
• “Bullying in Schools”: The Aspects of Bullying
• Youth Violence in Schools
• Reducing Obesity in African-American School-Age Children
• The Budget of the York County School Division
• Should Florida’s School Resource Officers Get Permission to Use Tasers on Youths?
• Dietary Patterns and Nutrition at Schools
• Healthier School Lunches Without Processed Foods
• Promoting Equality in the UK Primary School Education System
• Home to School Connections in Terms of Learning
• Technology Adoption in Plymouth-Canton School District
• Hillgrove High School Data Profile
• School Operations for Student Learning: Educational Leadership
• Purpose of Human Resource Management in the UAE Public School
• Disparities in NYC Education: Challenges Faced by African American Community
• School-Based Yoga Program for Adolescents’ Mental Health
• Building a School in the Polluted Environment
• Analysis of Breakfast for School Children in USA, UK, Finland and Singapore
• Sociology: Home School Environment
• Depression Among High School Students
• Japanese “Juku” Schools in Alexander Karr’s View
• New Harbor North High School’s Research and Evaluation
• Schools in the UAE for Children of Expatriates
• Pre-Schooling Before Kindergarten Admission
• Educational Supervision in a Transformed School Organization
• Are Homework Tasks Successful in Helping a School Develop Key Priorities?
• Skinner North Elementary School: Leadership
• Effect of Supportive Relationships on School
• American Indian Boarding Schools
• Taking Children to School Process Flowchart
• Stocking Epinephrine in Schools: Policy-Making Visit
• Impacts of Racial Segregation in High School
• Fostering the Home/School Connection
• Learning Centers for Preschool Children
• Schooling for Poor Children in 19th-Century America
• Parent-School Communication
• Confidentiality and Data Protection in School
• Preschool Teaching and Nuggets of Wisdom
• Elementary and Middle School Mathematics Teaching Developmentally by Walle
• High School Transition From One Model to Another
• Reflection on the Job of a School Social Worker
• Bullying Perpetration Among School-Aged Children
• Promotion of the Healthy Breakfast Program at Elementary Schools
• Needed Changes in School Health Care
• Reinforcing Nutrition in Schools to Reduce Diabetes and Childhood Obesity
• Implementing a Permanent Exercise Regimen in Schools to Decrease Childhood Obesity
• School Nurses Role Regarding Obesity in School-Age Children in Kuwait
• Juvenile Treatment: The High Scope Perry Preschool Project
• School of Nursing, Midwifery & Social Work
• The Superior School of Nursing
• Tox Town Website: Health Concerns in the School Environment
• Wholeness Meeting to Deal With Stress in School
• Microorganisms Associated With Snacks Sold in Schools
• Stocking Epinephrine in Schools
• Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe
• The Hospital Fatimah School of Nursing
• How to Choose the Best Supplier for the Class in the School
• School Campus Service: Wellness and Health Promotion
• The Qatar Independence Schools’ Computer Network Security Control
• Face Biometrics in a School: Pros and Cons
• HIV Testing of High School Seniors Should Not Be a Mandatory Requirement for Graduation
• The Engineering School Conceptual Design
• US Schools’ War Against Chocolate Milk by Gilbert Cruz
• Purchasing School Supplies for a Classroom
• University of Washington: Dental School and a Hospital Within the Campus
• Searching the Web for Research Evidence: Drug Addiction Among School Aged Children
• Behavior Modification as an Intervention to Enhance School and Training Attendance at Manson Youth Institution
• Jonathan Kozol “The Shame of Nation”: The Rationales of Apartheid Schooling
• Sexual Harassment in the Schools
• Defibrillators in All the Schools of Indiana
• Los Angeles Unified School District Board of Education Meeting
• Bethel School District v. Fraser: Free Speech Issue
• Fairness in Schooling: Legacy of the Brown v. Board of Education Decision
• School Lunch Program on Reducing Obesity Among Children
• Teaching English in Riyadh Public Primary Schools
• The Problems English Teachers Face in Riyadh Public Primary Schools
• Science in the Preschool Classroom
• School Mathematics Reform Versus the Basic
• Cultural Toxicity in a Public School Setting and the Means to Deal With It
• Cultural Environment in Schools: Demographic Characteristics
• The Clarion School for Boys, Inc. – Milwaukee Division: An Assessment of Three Major Projects
• Features of High School Education
• Saudi Primary School Science Teachers’ Beliefs: Teaching New Curriculum
• Comprehension Achievement Test and High School Comprehensive Test at High Schools
• School Counseling: A Challenge, an Opportunity
• School Counselors for Students With Disabilities
• “The Death and Life of the Great American School System” by Diane Ravitch
• How the School Has Changed My Sense of Self?
• Schoolwide Performance Bonuses: A Big Apple for Educators
• Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury in the School Curriculum
• Schools and Census Data for Cities in Virginia
• School Leadership and Its Role in Teacher Turnover
• Importance of Formal Schooling in America
• Rethinking Schools and Reconstruction Approach
• School Counseling Specialization
• GEMS World Academy: School Improvement Plan
• Management of Occupational Health and Safety in Schools in Libya Tripoli
• School Attendance Issues: Funding of the Project
• The Phenomenon of Failing Schools
• Social Inequality at School: Vision
• Social Inequality at School: The G-Spot
• Input-Directed Approach to Raising Schools’ Teaching Quality
• Alleged Flaw in a System of the U.S. Compulsory Schooling System
• School Leadership and Change
• Learning Environment in Schools of Twenty First Century
• Bushvale Primary School: Good Curriculum
• Sheltered Curriculum at the Ho Chi Minh City School
• How to Respond to a School Crisis?
• School Hostage Crisis Intervention
• Arnold Kitchens as the Superintendence for Schools in Huntsville Description
• The Spread of Multilingualism in School
• Human Rights Issues in Australia: Bullying Among School-Going Age and Young People
• Interview With the School Principal: Something for Grown-Ups to Learn
• Making Sense of Data to Save School Operations Dollars
• Reducing Energy Consumption in Schools
• Evaluation of Waste Reduction Program of the Green School
• Supervision Change and School Success
• Agnes Parker…”Keeping Cool in Middle School” by O’Dell
• The Trivialization of School in the Present Educational Organization
• Public Schooling in 19th Century Canada
• Mapleton High School Review
• “Bowling for Columbine” and “Elephant”: The Problem of School Violence
• Algebra I in Middle School and Its Impact on Tracking and Motivation
• School Counseling Study: Data Analysis
• St. Luke’s School’s Organizational Change
• Free After-School Programs for 1st-8th Graders
• Aboriginal Policy Initiatives at School
• St. Lucie County School’s Language Policy
• How Stress Affects Learning in Middle School
• School-Based Interventions for Students With Behavior Problems
• “Big-City Schools Struggle With Graduation Rates” by Greg Toppo
• Decision-Making. College or Break After High School
• Concept Problem of School Counseling
• Developmental School Counseling and Pupil Services
• “Home, School and Playroom” by Claire Etaugh: The Combined Effects and Interactions Among Parental Child-Rearing Practices
• Behavior Problem of Students in the School
• School Vouchers in States
• McCluskey’s Qualitative Study “Exclusion From School?”
• Leadership in Empowered Schools
• High School Students Restriction From Playing in Athletics
• “In School” Accommodation Program
• Biblical Account of Creation in Genesis in School
• School Campaign Against Anaphylaxis
• Culture-Sensitive Science Teaching and Urban Schooling
• Missouri School Improvement Program
• What Are the Causes of Poor Educational Standards in the Chicago Public Schools?
• Catholic Identity and Culture in Australian Schools
• Ethics Setting the Condom Vending Machines in the High-School Area
• Team Collaboration Between Teachers in Schools
• History of Singaporean Education: Independence and Bilingualism in Schools
• High School Activities Participation
• Why Do Many Students Drop Out of School?
• School Administration Sensitive Situations
• Interim Budget for Santa School for the Fiscal Year
• The Structure of Learning Systems in Schools
• Discipline Implementation at School
• School Climate, Communication, and Supervisory Climate
• Rachel’s Challenges and Its Benefits to the Youth. Columbine School Shooting
• Non-Traditional Leadership in U.S. Schools
• Teaching Skills in Simschool Program
• Information Systems and E-Services at the State and Province Level Schools
• Emmett Scott High School Study: Data Analysis
• The Lawsuit Against the Hazelwood East School
• Mandatory Drug Testing of High School Students Wishing to Pursue Extra-Curricular
• Universal Prevention of Mental Stigmatization Among the Adolescents in Schools
• Education in Jewish Church and Family Services Therapeutic Day School
• Supportive Supervision in Schools
• Wallis on Modernization of Schools
• Relevance of Technology in Schools
• Sedona Red Rock High School Exhibition
• Fashion in Society: School Uniforms and Self-Expression
• Segregated and Integrated Schools for Children
• Cheating in High Schools: Issue Analysis
• Two US Business Schools in View of Two Ranking Systems
• Key Elements in a Successful Career Development in a School
• Engaging the Learner in the Early Years of School
• American Freestyle and Greco-Roman Wrestling in the School Curriculum
• Drug Abuse in High School and College
• High School Teacher’s Role in Education
• Effectiveness of Physical Education Provisions in the UK School
• Carlisle Indian Industrial School
• Northwestern and New York Business Schools Comparison
• Crime in High Schools
• “Organizational Structures and Perceived Cultures of Community Charter Schools in Ohio” by J. Fox
• Theoretical Background of School Shooting
• Violence in United States High Schools
• Home Schooling and Public Schooling Comparison
• Over Crowding in Miami Dade County Schools, Florida
• Public School Prayer Question Analysis
• Studying and Teaching Environment of Australian and Malaysian Primary Schools
• Every Child Matters and Extended Schooling
• Preventing Burnout in Preschool Teachers
• School Bullying: Case Analysis
• Getting High-School Diploma: Arguments For & Against
• Preschool Teacher Burnout Prevention
• Political Process and Schools Analysis
• Character Education Curriculum in Elementary Schools
• School Vouchers and Their Role in American Education
• Anti-Racism Policy Statement in Australian Schools
• Aboriginal Education Policy in Australian Schools
• Afrocentric Schools in Toronto
• Social Work Services in a School Environment
• Athletic Programs for High School Students
• Sex Education as a Part of the Elementary School
• Federal Initiatives Rescuing Failing Schools
• School Interventions Against HPV and Effect on Vaccination Rates
• The Opportunity for School Food to Influence a Child’s Dietary Intake
• Washington Schools Public-Private Partnership Project
• Al Zadjali Grade School: Technological Upgrade Program Evaluation
• Parent Involvement in the Elementary School Setting
• Adding Health Education as a Mandatory Class in Saudi Arabia Schools
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• Adoption of Blackboard in a School Setting: Project Management Plan
• Extending Existing Knowledge in the Area of Schools Foods and Their Influence on Children’s Diets
• The Long Term Effects of Bullying in Elementary School
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• Technology Integration Process in Education: Repton School in Dubai
• Girls’ Sexuality Issues in American Schools
• Analyzing the English Cultural Contents of Materials Used for Teaching English to Secondary School Students in Libya
• Technology Leadership: School Personnel Management
• Jazan School’s Organizational Change Project
• The Healthcare System in North Bergen High School
• After-School Program and Homeschooling: Comparison
• Reducing Violence at School: Action Plan
• School Councelor’s Role in Students’ Transition
• Schools and Parents’ Fight Against Cyberbullying
• School Counseling & Problem Conceptualization
• School Uniforms: Conflicting Opinions
• Planning & Cooperative Learning in Primary School
• Mobile Devices in High School Social Studies
• Mental Health Issues Identification in Schools
• Life in School: Interview Report and Analysis
• Writing Lessons in Webster Elementary School
• Statistical Profile of School District, Seattle WA
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• Teaching at the Ashwood High School
• School Attendance Problem and Behavior Reinforcement
• Reading Lessons at Melchi Elementary School
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• Inclusive Education Barriers in Chicago Schools
• Innovative Social Networking in Online High School
• Primary School Lessons in Audio Podcast
• Galena Park Middle School’s Board Meeting
• Managerial Accounting: Charter School’s Budgeting
• Inclusion and Achievement in Mainstream Schools
• The Transition From School to Work
• NJ Preschool Teaching and Learning Standards 2014
• Abu Dhabi Queens School Building Project
• Dubai New Ethos School: Academic Plan
• Performance of School: Qualitative Research
• Change Implementation in Arizona Schools
• Domestic Violence and Bullying in Schools
• Pedagogy Topics
• Online Education Topics
• Uniform Research Topics
• Philosophy of Education Paper Topics
• Education Reform Essay Ideas
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• Distance Education Topics
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• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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IvyPanda . "610 School Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 29, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/school-essay-topics/.

Steve Nuzum: Why Are Schools Eliminating Recess, and What Are the Impacts?

Steve Nuzum used to teach sixth graders, his first encounter with the problems of eliminating recess.

I taught sixth grade for two years in Southeast Richland County. During that time, I only saw my kids get to spend time outside a handful of times, during school-wide events like field day.

On every “normal” day of the school year, those sixth graders left class with their teachers in the late morning, marched down to the lunchroom in lines, cued up to get their lunches on Styrofoam trays, and then sat at crowded lunch tables with built-in plastic seats, beneath harsh fluorescent lights, until it was time to march back to class.

I imagine Sisyphus could relate.

I don’t remember if we ever received an official explanation for the decision to completely forgo regular recess/ outside time, but I seem to remember hearing that either a kid getting injured in a previous year while at recess, or the overall “bad behavior” of the students was the culprit.

The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and Centers for Disease Control (CDC) both formally recommend recess time during the day, with  the AAP calling for a total of  “60 minutes of moderate to vigorous activity per day,” including recess time  and  the CDC calling for at least 20 minutes of recess time per day.

Because I taught in a school with no recess, I am not surprised by research showing, as the AAP puts it, “a trend toward reducing recess to accommodate additional time for academic subjects in addition to its withdrawal for punitive or behavioral reasons.” At the time– the immediate aftermath of the mid-2000s Great Recession, and just a few years away from the absurd No Child Left Behind requirement that all students score “proficient or advanced” on state testing, the school was frankly obsessed to an unhealthy degree with bringing up test scores.

Ironically, like many decisions in education policy, eliminating recess seems to be not only bad for students in itself, but is actually counterproductive even if your goal is to improve behavior or test scores. Research shows a connection between recess and improved academic performance, improved focus in class,  better executive function and “classroom behavior,”  and  improved social-emotional learning .

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