writing numbers in research papers

Using Numbers in Scientific Manuscripts

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When should you spell out a number in a scientific paper, and when do you use a numeral? Here's how to follow conventions and be consistent.

Updated on January 8, 2013

Writing a scholarly manuscript often requires the use of numbers to express important information, particularly in the sciences. Although the use of numbers is largely straightforward, there are a few things to keep in mind. In this article, numeral refers specifically to a number as it is written in mathematics (e.g., 4).

Do not start a sentence with a numeral

When writing for publication, try to use spelled-out numbers at the beginning of a sentence in place of numerals. This distinction is not based on grammar, but rather the conventions of academic writing in English.

• " 15 samples were collected " should be written as " Fifteen samples were collected "
• At times, writing out the numeral at the beginning of the sentence would be particularly unwieldy. In such cases, it is preferable to rearrange the sentence such that the numeral is not placed at the beginning. For example, " 6579 patient charts were collected for analysis " could be altered to " Charts from 6579 patients were collected for analysis "
• Note that some chemical compounds include numerals, and these should not be written out, even at the beginning of a sentence: " 5 -hydroxytryptamine is a neurotransmitter derived from tryptophan. "

Be consistent in the use of numerals or spelled-out numbers

Other tips for number usage involve consistency within your manuscript. As shown above, each number can be written as a numeral or a word. Many authors choose to use numerals for large numbers (say, those over 10) but words for small numbers. Either form is typically fine, but it is best to be consistent with your choice.

• If " We collected a total of eight samples " is written in your Methods section, avoid writing " Samples from all 8 lakes were nearly identical in pH " in your Results. Either correct the first sentence to include a numeral ('8') or change the second to the spelled-out word 'eight.'
• In addition, try to avoid mixing numerals and spelled-out words within a single sentence. For example, we suggest changing " The zoo has two pandas, eight elephants, and 15 orangutans " to " The zoo has two pandas, eight elephants, and fifteen orangutans ."

Other tips for consistency with numerals

Here are two other ways to make sure that your numerals are consistent within your manuscript. Consistency in your formatting choices is one way to demonstrate your attention to detail. Always consult your target journal's style sheet to see what they prefer.

• When using numbers larger than 1000, be sure to format them all in the same way. For example, 156000 , 156,000 , and 156 000 are all acceptable, but use only one format in your document.
• Be consistent with the inclusion or omission of a leading zero before decimals (i.e., 0.05 or .05 , but not both). Also, do not mix the use of a decimal point (0.12) with a decimal comma (0,12). In the vast majority of cases, journals prefer the use of the decimal point.

We hope that this article provides some guidance for the use of numbers in your writing. If you have specific questions about the numbers in your text, write to us by email at [email protected] . As always, AJE wishes you the best of luck with your research and publication!

Ben Mudrak, PhD

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Writing numbers When to use words and when to use numerals

It can be difficult to know how to write numbers in academic writing (e.g. five or 5 , 1 million or 1,000,000 ). This section gives some guidelines on when to use words to write numbers, and when to use numerals . There are also some exceptions to the rule which are considered, i.e. times when you might expect to use words but should instead use numerals. There is also a checklist at the end, that you can use to check the use of numbers in your own writing.

When to use words

In general, words should be used for zero to ten , and numerals used from 11 onwards. The same rule should be applied to ordinal numbers, i.e. use words for first, second up to tenth, and numbers plus 'th' (or 'st') from 11th onwards. However, it is always best to check what the accepted practice is at your university (or in your department/on your course), and remember that some common referencing systems have their own, different requirements, as follows.

• MLA . Use words if the number can be written using one or two words (e.g. three , twenty-seven ).
• APA . Use words for numbers zero to nine.
• Chicago . Use words for numbers zero to one hundred.

Before looking at when to use numerals (which is almost all other situations, see next), it is useful to look at important exceptions.

(1) When the number begins a sentence , you should use words , whatever the size of the number (though if possible, rewrite the sentence so the number is not at the beginning).

• Fifty respondents agreed with the statement.
• There were 50 respondents who agreed with the statement. [ rewritten sentence ]
• 50 respondents agreed with the statement.

(2) When expressing part of a very large round number , e.g. million, billion, you should use words for that large number part (it is common to use abbreviations m for million and bn billion ).

• The population of the earth is now in excess of 7 billion people.
• The population of the earth is now in excess of 7bn people.
• The population of the earth is now in excess of 7,000,000,000 people.
• The population of the UK is approximately 70 million.
• The population of the UK is approximately 70,000,000.

Conversely, numerals should be used rather than words, whatever the size of the number, when large and small numbers are combined , since this makes comparisons easier.

• There were 2 respondents in the first category, and 22 in the second.
• There were two respondents in the first category, and 22 in the second.

When to use numerals

Numerals are used for almost all other situations. These include the following.

• Measurements (e.g. 6 kg, 3 cm, 10 min, 2 hr, 3 days, 6 years, 5 decades )
• Currency (e.g. $10, £50, £60 billion )
• Statistical data , including survey data (e.g. A survey of participants revealed that 4 out of 5 students worked. )
• Mathematical functions (e.g. v 2 = u 2 + 2as )
• Decimals (e.g. 2.5, 4.54 )
• Percentages (e.g. 75% )
• Ratios (e.g. 3:1 )
• Percentiles/quartiles (e.g. the 95th percentile, the 1st quartile )
• Times (e.g. 12.30 a.m., 6 p.m., 16:00 )
• Dates (e.g. Wednesday 25 December 2019 )
• Scores/points on a scale (e.g. This item scored 5 on a 9-point scale )

Other important points

The following are a few other points to remember when using numbers.

• Consistency. You should be consistent in how you write numbers; for example, if write a figure like 7bn in one place, do not write a figure like 5 billion in another.
• Use of commas. When giving numerals of 1,000 or larger, use commas for each thousand, e.g. 5,500, 8,326,500 .
• Use of hyphens. When displaying a range, use a hyphen, with no space, e.g. 30%–50%
• Expressing fractions. Fractions can be written either as numerals e.g. 2/3 or words e.g. two-thirds . If using words, use a hyphen.

American Psychological Association (2019a) Numbers Expressed in Words . Available at: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers/words (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

American Psychological Association (2019b) Numbers Expressed in Numerals . Available at: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers/numerals (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

Harvard Wiki (2019) Numbers . Available at: https://wiki.harvard.edu/confluence/display/HSG/Numbers . (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

University of Bristol (2015) Using numbers . Available at: http://www.bristol.ac.uk/arts/exercises/grammar/grammar_tutorial/page_33.htm (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

University of New England (nd) Numbers in academic writing . Available at: https://aso-resources.une.edu.au/academic-writing/miscellaneous/numbers/ (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

University of Oxford (2015) Style Guide . Available at: https://www.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/oxford/media_wysiwyg/University%20of%20Oxford%20Style%20Guide.pdf (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

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Below is a checklist for using numbers in academic writing. Use it to check your writing, or as a peer to help.

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Numbers in Scientific Manuscripts: What Are the Rules?

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• v.16(12); 2020 Dec

Ten simple rules for typographically appealing scientific texts

Lars ole schwen.

Fraunhofer Institute for Digital Medicine MEVIS, Bremen, Germany

Introduction

Text is ubiquitous in everyday scientific work—when was the last time you spent 5 minutes working without writing, reading, or interacting with any kind of equipment that had text (scales, labels, brand name, etc.) on it? Most forms of communicating ideas and findings in science are based on text, e.g., BSc/MSc/PhD theses, manuscript drafts, grant proposals, reports, or job applications. In addition, text appears in figures, (electronic) slides for presentations, and posters, i.e., in formats focused more strongly on a graphical presentation.

All these documents are usually written to convince the audience of the quality of your ideas or results, ultimately with the goal of a positive evaluation (grading, decision on funding/hiring, etc.). A good visual appearance of the text and graphical elements is key for making a good first impression on the audience. When sustaining this impression by clearly structured and well-written text, professional layout is again important because less-than-optimally typeset texts distract the audience from fully appreciating the high-quality content [ 1 ]. Even though single visual inconsistencies cost the readers only a fraction of a second, these interruptions to the flow of reading add up and subconsciously frustrate the readers, possibly undermining your credibility. Poor visual appearance and language can be spotted at first glance in Fig 1 , and incorrect content (or a confusing structure, not shown in Fig 1 ) take much longer to notice. Properly formatting text is particularly challenging in interdisciplinary fields like Computational Biology, where authors are faced with a variety of text elements, e.g., Greek characters, mathematical formulas, chemical formulas, and source code listings. Similar to inconsistent writing style, inconsistent formatting may indicate plagiarism, e.g., stray dashes resulting from copying and pasting hyphenated text, garbled characters, and fonts/formatting copied from the source.

Poor formatting, incorrect language, or wrong contents?

Scientists frequently need to produce final document layout themselves, either from scratch or based on a template—where some templates are well designed and others are, well, “designed.” If a template is given, fewer decisions need to be made, but some typographical knowledge is still helpful to understand the template and to deal with issues unforeseen therein. Ideally, the actual typesetting is subsequently done by trained professionals, e.g., working with publishers, who know what they are doing [ 2 ]. Submissions should, in this case, follow the publishers’ guidelines and templates, but still be prepared carefully, as “reviewers’ opinion about a manuscript can be skewed by careless formatting” [ 3 ]. Typography is thus one of the tools of the trade for scientists.

This article is meant as a practical guide for typesetting scientific texts, including motivation for the recommendations. While focusing on the intended layout, the rules also provide hints on how these results can be obtained in common text processing/typesetting tools (such as Microsoft Word/LibreOffice Writer, Google Docs, and LaTeX). These rules are meant to complement

• detailed typography textbooks or reference books [ 4 – 7 ] by providing hands-on recommendations for everyday scientific writing;
• software manuals (typically focused on features and how to achieve specific formatting) by explaining which formatting makes sense in which case;
• style manuals [ 8 – 10 ];
• tips for scientific writing [ 11 – 17 ] and collaboration tools [ 18 – 21 ]; and
• specialized recommendations for slides [ 22 , 23 ] and posters [ 24 , 25 ].

The rules primarily apply to English (specifically American English), and many of them also apply to other languages using the Latin alphabet and beyond. However, ligatures and diacritics (Rule 2), punctuation and its spacing (Rule 2), hyphenation (Rule 3), and number formatting (Rule 8) vary between languages.

Rule 1: Fonts—Choose a suitable (type)face for your work

Fonts should be chosen according to the intended function. Documents primarily consisting of text are usually typeset in serif fonts where letters end in horizontal lines (see Fig 2A ) guiding the readers’ eyes through the lines like a “railroad track” [ 26 ]. Moreover, serifs provide distinctive shapes of words ( Fig 2B ). This allows more easily reading text by fixing a few points in each line (saccades, [ 27 ]) rather than continuously reading each individual letter. These properties generally make serif fonts easily readable.

(A) Terminology to describe the “anatomy” of glyphs. (B, C) Samples of serif (B) and sans serif fonts (C), all of them nominally of the same size (but notice the differences in width, x versus ascender/descender height and overall apparent size). (D) Confusing use of fonts for a purpose they were not designed for.

In contrast, posters, slides, and figure annotations containing only little text and incomplete sentences require each word to be clearly legible. In this case, sans serif fonts are more suitable ( Fig 2C ). Nonproportional (typewriter-like) fonts where each glyph has the same width have a technical appearance and are used, e.g., for source code listings. Calligraphic, handwritten, or otherwise creative fonts may lack a serious appearance and should be used with care in scientific content, e.g., if a handwritten/sketched look is intended [ 28 ]. Besides the function, fonts can convey characteristics like elegant, modern, or traditional (see Fig 2D ) [ 29 ].

In 1 document, only as many fonts as necessary should be mixed. Fonts should be combined to complement each other with the intended level of contrast and with matching x height and length of ascenders/descenders. The main font for the text should include all required diacritics (e.g., for proper names), non-Latin characters (e.g., Greek), and symbols (e.g., arrows or for mathematical formulas), cf. Rule 2.

Rule 2: Individual characters and words—Get the details right

Text is composed of single characters including (uppercase and lowercase) letters, numbers, punctuation, characters with diacritics, and symbols. Typographically, however, text is composed of glyphs, representations of characters in a specific shape and design.

Certain combinations of letters appear differently when combined, forming so-called ligatures (e.g., the “fi” in the word fish in Fig 2A ). Ligatures enhance readability by avoiding visual gaps inside words and are examples of 1 glyph representing multiple characters.

Punctuation is used to structure sentences and should use correct glyphs (cf. Fig 3A ).

(A) Typographically correct symbols make a difference between sloppily written and conveniently readable texts. (B) Many language use the Latin alphabet combined with different types of diacritics and additional characters.

Quotation marks exist in 2 forms: straight/dumb (as typed on the keyboard) and typographic form. In English, raised 6/66 and 9/99 forms as shown in Fig 3A are used as opening and closing quotation marks, respectively, depending on whether you follow a style using single or double quotes. Punctuation is placed before or after closing quotation marks depending on whether it is part of the quote, except for periods and commas always placed before the closing quotation mark [ 10 ]. Apostrophes have the raised-9 form of a closing single quotation mark. Prime and double prime symbols are used, e.g., for feet/inches, arcminutes/arcseconds in geographic latitude and longitude (cf. Fig 3B ), and derivatives in mathematics and to indicate positions of carbon on ribose rings in molecular biology. Neither of these symbols should be confused with accents (see below).

Dashes come in 3 flavors. For hyphenation (see also Rule 3) and compound words, a standard dash (-) is used. The slightly longer en dash (–) is used for ranges (e.g., pages 24–33), sometimes as the symbol in bullet lists (see Rule 6), and to indicate naming after separate persons (e.g., the Michaelis–Menten reaction) as opposed to hyphenated names (e.g., 2008 Nobel laureate Françoise Barré-Sinoussi). The minus sign is typically similar to the en dash. The em dash—as shown here—is used as a phrase marker—or for adding afterthoughts. However, besides unspaced em dashes, spaced en dashes are also recommended for these purposes [ 7 ].

Accents and other diacritics (cf. Fig 3B ) may be complicated, in particular outside one’s native language. Still, they are worth getting right—imagine what a picky reviewer will think about your scientific work if you cited them, but did not even manage to spell their name correctly.

Correct symbols that cannot directly be typed can be selected/copied from a character table or entered via their respective Unicode code points. Both these options are tedious. Using defined macros or auto-correction features of the text processing software can be more convenient, but do not always work as intended and should be checked.

Rule 3: Lines and paragraphs—Keep the text flowing

Paragraphs consist of lines of text (see Rule 5 for a discussion of line width). Paragraphs can be typeset left-aligned, centered, right-aligned, or fully justified; cf. Fig 4A . Justifying text requires aligning both the left and right ends of lines, and this is commonly achieved by stretching the spacing between words. Paragraphs in continuous text are usually typeset justified. This is most convenient to read as paragraph breaks can be spotted easily, and there is no random graphical emphasis on words at the beginning or end of lines which are longer than the surrounding lines. Shorter pieces of text can also be typeset left-aligned, e.g., on posters and slides. Centered and right-aligned text is sometimes used for headings, displayed equations, or tables (cf. Rule 7). Such alignment is not suitable for longer texts as it makes finding the next line inconvenient ( Fig 4A ).

(A) Left-aligned text randomly emphasizes words appearing at the end of the line (indicated in orange); right-aligned text makes finding the next line unnecessarily difficult for the readers (indicated in blue); centered text combines both disadvantages; and justified text avoids these issues and has the calmest appearance. (B) Examples where hyphenation or line breaks interrupt the flow of reading (hyphenation examples from p. 115 in [ 30 ]). (C) Indenting the first line of paragraphs (except after headings) clearly indicates where a new paragraph starts, and this may be unclear at the top of a page otherwise.

Line breaks in paragraphs should not interrupt the flow of reading. To prevent undesired line breaks, e.g., between numbers and their unit ( Fig 4B ), non-breaking spaces should be used.

Words may need to be hyphenated to avoid large gaps in lines in justified text. Text should be hyphenated by the respective feature of the text processing/typesetting software. Automatic hyphenation usually works well if language settings are correct, but should be checked for misleading hyphenations ( Fig 4B ). Enforcing hyphenation by manually entering dashes and spaces/line breaks may lead to stray dashes when fur-ther editing the text.

The first line of paragraphs is frequently indented ( Fig 4C ) to clearly indicate that a new paragraph has started (except immediately after headings where indentation would be redundant). In contrast to vertically spacing paragraphs, indenting is also visible after a page break, below a figure, and after lists.

Alignment, indentation, and other formatting of paragraphs should not be applied manually for each paragraph, but via suitably defined paragraph or document styles. Ideally, this is provided by the document template.

Rule 4: Emphasize what is important, and only that

Not all words in a text are equally important, and some need to be distinguished visually. Visual emphasis, however, should not happen by accident (e.g., because a word happens to appear at the end of a line or because a symbol needs to be used from a different font). Instead, emphasis should result from a conscious decision, and a suitable and consistent way of formatting different types of importance should be used. The main purposes of increased visibility of words are.

• structuring (providing “entry points” on the page where one could start reading),
• emphasis (where stressing something only makes sense within the context), and
• markup (e.g., in bibliographies or for syntax highlighting in source code).

Typographically, there are different variants of highlighting ( Fig 5A ), ranging from subtle to highly prominent. The prominence of emphasis can be characterized by the change of “color” [ 7 ] (or “type color” [ 31 ]), i.e., how dark the page appears at some location when viewed out of focus. Larger changes of type color are more prominent highlighting and easier to spot when just glancing at the page/poster/slide. Italic (no change in type color) is usually the formatting of choice for emphasis within context. In contrast, bold (notable change in type color) is useful, e.g., for headings or terms defined in a glossary. Small caps (no change in type color) are sometimes used to distinguish family names from given names or real-world from model entities. Underlining used to be one of the few possibilities of emphasis using a typewriter (see Fig 5B ), but is neither particularly nice nor useful nowadays.

(A) Text in italics, small caps, or a matching alternative font does not change the type color of the page and emphasizes words within the context while reading. Bold text, uppercase letters, and different colors are more prominent and serve as “entry points” to the text. Using a contrasting alternative font, letter spacing, and underlining words forms an even stronger visual contrast, but is challenging to get looking good. (B) In the era of typewriters, authors were much more limited in using emphasis in their texts. (C) Italic, bold, and small caps should be used as properly designed font variants and not be faked by slanting (making the text look unnatural), making lines thicker (leading to, e.g., shrunken eyes and unbalanced spacing), or scaling capitals (making glyphs skinny). (Disclosure of image manipulation: text typed using a mechanical typewriter was digitized and edited for clarity, and color channels of the RGB image were manipulated to imitate red text from a 2-color ink ribbon).

Emphasis in continuous texts should be used sparingly. If 80% of a text is emphasized, actually the remaining 20% of the text are most visible. In contrast, text not meant to be read as a whole may profit from extensively combining different ways of highlighting, e.g., markup in bibliographies or syntax highlighting in source code listings.

Pitfalls of highlighting are shown in Fig 5C . Italic, bold, and small caps of a font should only be used if available as properly designed variants. Automatically created variants (slanting glyphs, using thicker lines, or shrinking uppercase letters) are of lower quality (“Frankensteinian manipulation” [ 32 ]) and best avoided.

To achieve consistent visual emphasis throughout a document, suitable styles or macros should be defined and used. Naming these by purpose rather than appearance makes it easy to consistently change formatting when editing and revising a document (cf. Rule 9).

Rule 5: Pages—Visually distribute your story

Unlike information on web pages, printed material and presentation slides are arranged on separate pages of fixed size. Contents thus need to be distributed with page breaks at useful locations (unless, of course, only a single page or a poster is needed). Besides text, also non-text material (figures, tables, and footnotes) needs to be positioned on pages.

For good readability, lines should not be longer than 75 to 80 characters [ 7 ] or require additional line spacing; otherwise, the readers’ eyes cannot easily jump from 1 line to the next. Reducing the margin width is thus not a good way to squeeze more content into a given number of pages. Also, margins are needed for the readers simply to hold the document without fingers covering part of the content and to take notes. Only little text such as page numbers should be placed in the margin (top outside, bottom outside, or bottom center). Two-column layout allows more readable text per page, but makes placing wide elements like figures or tables more complex. One-sided layout with page numbers at the bottom center is more robust if readers will likely print the document themselves and might not use duplexing or might print 2-on-1 (swapping left and right pages).

If not defined by a template, one easy way [ 33 ] to define page margins (cf. Fig 6A ) is to first determine how wide the text block needs to be to fit about 70 characters on average. The page is then divided into an n × n grid such that using 2 stripes of cells each as the left and right margins leaves the desired text width. One and 2 horizontal stripes are then used as the top and bottom margins, respectively. For 2-sided layout, each page should have only 1 stripe as the inner margin. In both cases, additional space for binding may need to be considered. For 12-point Cambria text on an A4-sized page, this construction results in n = 12 and margins of 35 mm, 25 mm, and 50 mm on the left/right, top, and bottom, respectively. In contrast, using a default setting of 1-inch margins for a letter-sized page containing 10-point Times New Roman text results in about 115 characters per line, too much for convenient reading.

(A) One way to construct page margins for 1-sided and 2-sided layouts, also considering the type of binding used (here: spiral binding with narrower inner margin—glue or sewn binding requires enlarging the inner margin). (B) Figures (or tables) are commonly placed at the top of a page (or on figure-only pages), but not in between the text. (C) Orphans and widows, single lines of text separated from the rest of their paragraph, should be avoided.

Besides the running text, documents contain “floating” objects like figures or tables. These also need to be placed on the pages, typically at the top or bottom or on figure-only pages, ideally close to where they are referenced; see Fig 6B . Placing figures inside the running text would interrupt reading and may cause distracting page breaks. Instead, presenting figures in a separate “thread” outside the continuous text also permits readers to just browse through the figures and quickly find what interests them.

Footnotes, as the name suggests, are placed at the bottom of the page where they are referenced (which, clearly, should be done automatically). Footnotes are useful for relevant information complementing the main text without interrupting its flow (e.g., translations), see below for an example. Sometimes (e.g., to make presentation slides self-contained), footnotes are also used for literature references.

When optimizing page breaks, no single lines should be separated from the rest of a paragraph; see Fig 6C . Such single lines at the bottom and top of a page are denoted as widows (“have no future”) and orphans (“have no past”), respectively [ 33 ]. (The previous sentence is an example where a footnote would make sense: This vivid terminology is also used in other languages, e.g., the German terms for widow and orphan are “Hurenkind” [politically correct translation: offspring of a person working in the world’s oldest profession] and “Schusterjunge” [shoemaker’s apprentice].)

Text processing/typesetting software can places figures and partially prevent orphans and widows automatically, but this may require additional fine-tuning. Tricks for optimizing page breaks include rephrasing the text to make a paragraph on the affected page 1 line longer or shorter; enlarging the page vertically or breaking the page a line earlier; and moving, enlarging, or shrinking figures.

Rule 6: Lists—Present some content in structured form

Not all textual information is best presented as complete sentences in continuous text. In particular, as few text as possible should be used on slides [ 22 , 23 ] and posters [ 24 , 25 ]. Also in longer written texts, some information is best presented in (sub-)structured lists, either unsorted (itemized/bulleted) or sorted (numbered) lists; see Fig 7 . The readability of lists may profit from manually optimizing line breaks, in particular on slides and posters.

(A) Hard-to-recognize list, (B) properly formatted unsorted list, and (C) properly formatted numbered list.

Numbered lists are most useful for step-by-step instructions or if some of the entries are referenced from elsewhere (“item 5c” is more convenient than “the third sub-item of the fifth item”). Other common types of structured lists are glossaries (alphabetically sorted definition of terms where readers should quickly find the term they are looking for) and bibliographies (which additionally require cross-referencing from the main text). Itemized and numbered lists should be formatted consistently, i.e., they should be entered as the appropriate type of list and not by manually entering bullets/numbers and indentation; see Fig 7 .

Particularly in bibliographies, it makes sense to conceptually distinguish content and layout. Here, the same information (author, title, journal, volume, year, etc.) should be printed in 1 consistent style (format, referencing from the text, and sorting). Using suitable reference management integrated with the text processing avoids manually formatting bibliographies.

Rule 7: Figures, plots, and tables—Do not neglect the text outside the continuous text

Typography is relevant not only for the continuous text, but also for text in figures, plots, and tables. Figures convey content in easy-to-grasp graphical form, and plots present data in visual form, whereas tables provide precise numbers. Creating high-quality and well-readable figures [ 28 , 34 – 39 ] can be challenging, but is worth spending effort; well-designed figures with self-contained captions telling the main story are a useful way of reaching hurried readers just browsing through your work [ 15 ] or starting reading by looking at figures [ 40 ]. In particular, a good graphical abstract [ 41 ] or concept figure [ 42 ] can attract readers (even though the impact on citations is unclear [ 43 ]).

Figures may contain different amounts of text that should be consistent with the main text not only in terminology, but also in terms of fonts and symbols. Figures are often created in separate software, so consistency may be challenging. However, the limited capability of software is not a convincing excuse for low-quality figures (cf. Fig 8A versus Fig 8B ), and malicious readers could interpret it as limited capability of the author.

(A) Poor-quality plot: numbers are hard to read, symbols are not displayed properly, and color provides no additional information (except that automatic spell checking marked part of the axis labels as wrong). (B) Same data, better plot quality. (C) Poor-quality table: excessive lines and hard-to-read numbers, even in the right-aligned column due to the footnote symbol and numerals of different width. (D) Same information, better table layout.

Table formatting includes proper column alignment. While text should be left-aligned in columns, numbers in columns can only be compared conveniently if printed right-aligned and written in numerals that are all of the same width (table figures). Tables should not include too many prominent lines to prevent the impression of a “prison cell” (cf. Fig 8C versus Fig 8D ). Instead, tables can be structured optically by moderate spacing, light shading of every other row, or light lines. Whitespace is useful for structuring contents [ 44 , 45 ], elsewhere as well, e.g., in figures and lists (cf. Rule 6).

Rule 8: Mathematical and chemical formulas—Do not let doubt enter the equation

Numbers should not only be correct, but should also be formatted appropriately. Numbers with more than 4 digits are grouped using commas between each group of 3 digits: 31,556,952. For decimal numbers, a period (“point”) is used as the decimal separator: 3.14. Following [ 10 ], ordinal numbers should be written as 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, … without superscript letters. When reporting computer-generated results, notation like 5·10 −9 is easier to read than pasting 5e−9 verbatim (and shows that you know what the “e” stands for).

Formulas provide precise information in a very condensed form. They are difficult to get right in the first place, and incorrect typesetting can alter the meaning: consider, e.g., 2 3 = 8 versus 23, or the isotope 14 C versus 14 carbon atoms. Formulas are a particular example where correct typesetting is indispensable to show you understood what you have written. Shorter and simpler formulas can be included “inline” in the text ( Fig 9A and 9B ). In this case, font, font size, and the base line should match the surrounding text. More complex formulas, those to be cross-referenced by number or formulas too high to fit in the text without modified line spacing, are better written as displayed formulas ( Fig 9C and 9D ). From a grammar and punctuation perspective, also displayed formulas should be considered part of the sentences in the containing text. Depending on the text processing software used, formulas can be entered via math syntax or equation editors or (e.g., in case of complex chemical formulas) may need to be created in external software and imported as images.

(A versus B) Formulas in the text should use a font matching the text and match the baseline of the text. Mathematical variables should be typeset in italic, unlike text parts of formulas or certain functions. (C versus D) Similarly, displayed formulas should match the surrounding text and are easier to understand if properly aligned. (E) Chemical formulas include subscript and superscript indices around symbols for chemical elements.

In formulas, mathematical variables are commonly typeset in italic. However, mathematical functions like sin (sine), text (including, e.g., abbreviations in indices), units, chemical elements, and certain constants should not appear in italic ( Fig 9B, 9D, and 9E ). To make longer formulas easier to read, proper alignment and grouped brackets of matching size are helpful ( Fig 9D ).

Rule 9: Use templates and styles for automatic and consistent formatting

When writing texts, unfinished layout may distract from content and structure. However, these topics should be addressed and concentrated on first, see Rule 10. Using software like Microsoft Word, LibreOffice Writer, or Google Docs that uses the “what you see is what you get” principle, layout needs to be ignored actively, unless a structure view, disabled page preview, or similar is used. Writing text in markup languages (e.g., Markdown or LaTeX using “what you see is what you mean”) makes the separation of content/structure and format/layout easier, but requires more technological affinity.

Structure in texts should be defined by styles/macros declaring, e.g., a section heading as a “level 1 heading” rather than manually numbering it, formatting it to a specific font size in bold with additional line spacing, making sure it is not followed by a page break, etc.; see Fig 10 . Properly structuring in this way also permits automatically creating a table of contents, cross-referencing to section numbers without keeping them up to date manually, automatically using the same style, or conveniently switching the style if the template is changed. Similarly, figures and tables with captions should be included as such objects so that they can be positioned automatically at the top/bottom or on separate pages, again with the side effect of automatic numbering and cross-referencing.

(A versus B) Marking headings as the appropriate level of headings (instead of manually formatting it bold and larger) ensures consistent layout (Google Docs example). (C) Using automatically numbered headings and proper cross-references (rather than manually entering it) allows keeping them up to date automatically (Microsoft Word example). (D) Using a macro name indicating its purpose (rather than having to remember the formatting for a specific purpose) makes writing easier (LaTeX example).

Rule 10: Iterative writing and typesetting—Do first things first and last things last

Formatting manuscripts is an iterative process, just like writing the contents [ 12 , 16 ]. When drafting contents at an early stage of the writing process, it only makes sense to pay attention to typographic issues that will likely be missed or cause problems/increased efforts later. This includes proper structuring, cross-referencing, and using template styles/macros. When editing the text later on, effort should be invested in those parts to be kept in the final manuscript. Issues relevant at this stage include, e.g., the contents of proper formulas, tables, and figures. Only when the contents have been finalized, it makes sense to polish the layout by optimizing line or page breaks and figure placement. Prematurely polishing either language or layout of parts of text that are deleted later is wasted effort.

Solitary and collaborative [ 18 , 20 ] writing may use a different format/platform than the one used for formatting and finalizing the submission, e.g., one may collaborate via a Google Doc or via Markdown files in a Git repository followed by finalizing the layout in LibreOffice Writer or LaTeX. Moreover, input from one or different authors needs to be unified also on a technical level, regardless of the technical platform used. Enough time should be planned for the work needed to turn finalized content into a formatted document ready for submission.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank the organizers of CdE-SommerAkademie 2017 and the participants of the “Getting Things Finished” workshop for providing an inspiring environment where he wrote a substantial part of this manuscript. Moreover, the author would like to acknowledge Simon Kempny for fruitful discussions about a draft of this manuscript.

Funding Statement

The author did not receive funding for preparing this manuscript.

Writing academically: Numbers

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When using numbers in academic writing you need to decide if it’s more appropriate to use a numeral (e.g. 9) or to write the number in words (e.g. nine). It’s worth checking to see if your department has specific advice on this matter, because individual approaches do vary. In the absence of specific advice, here is some general guidance on the matter:

Basic numbers

• Numbers  up to nine  should always be written in  words,  anything higher than nine can be written in numerals. Alternatively, some guides suggest that if you can write the number in two words or fewer then use words rather than numerals. If you are going to take this approach then you should include a hyphen when writing numbers with two words, e.g. twenty-seven.
• For larger numbers, it is acceptable to use either numerals or words depending on context (e.g. a thousand people/1,000 people), but you should always use numerals in technical writing, e.g. 200,000 km. For less precise larger numbers, the written form is better (e.g. several thousand).

Measurements and decimals/fractions

• Use numerals for units of measurement or time, e.g. 500 km, 10 minutes.
• Always use numerals for decimals and fractions (e.g. 0.5 cm) unless the figures are vague (e.g. around half of the population).
• Units of measurement that modify a noun should be hyphenated, e.g. a 3-year-old child.

Dates, money and time

• Always use numerals for dates, e.g Monday 4 April, 2016.
• Use numerals for money (e.g. His pocket money was exactly £1.00 per week) unless the amounts are vague (e.g. He earned well over a million last year).
• Use numerals for indicating the precise time (e.g. 08:00), or words if the times indicated are vague (e.g. around eight o’clock). 

Combining numbers

• If you need to combine two numbers that run together then use words for the shorter number and numerals for the longer number, e.g. a tower of 1000 ten-pence pieces. 

Starting sentences with numbers

• Avoid starting a sentence with a numeral. Either write the number in words or rearrange your sentence. For example, “Three hundred and sixty-five days make one year” could become “There are 365 days in a year”. If you start a sentence with a year, write “The year” first e.g. “The year 1066 saw one of the most famous battles in English history”.
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Other APA Guidelines: Numbers

Basics of numbers.

Per APA 7, Section 6.32, use numerals to express numbers 10 or above (e.g., 11, 23, 256). Per Section 6.33, write out numbers as words to express numbers up to nine (e.g., three, seven, eight).

Take the APA Style Diagnostic Quiz  to test your knowledge.

Numbers Expressed as Words

Use words to express numbers in these situations:

Seventeen computer programmers went out to dinner last night

The principal presented awards to three fourths of the student body.

(This is a new rule in APA 7. APA 6 recommended using numerals in the abstract.)

Numbers Expressed as Numerals

Use numerals to express numbers in these situations:

She had been a nurse for 3 years.

Chapter 4 was considered required reading.

The student scored a perfect 7.

Each post was roughly 2.45 ft apart.

Teachers gave students ice cream if they scored in the top 5%.

You owe me $5.

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Writing Numbers

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Although usage varies, most people spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words and use figures for numbers that are three or more words long. Note: If you are using a specific citation style, such as MLA or APA , consult the style manual for specific formatting instructions.

Here are some examples of specific situations:

Days and Years

Time of Day

Identification Numbers

Page and Division of Books and Plays

Decimals and Percentages

Large Round Numbers

Notes on Usage

Repeat numbers in commercial writing.

Use numerals in legal writing.

Numbers in series and statistics should be consistent.

Write out numbers beginning sentences.

Use a combination of figures and words for numbers when such a combination will keep your writing clear.

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Numbers In Academic Writing – APA Style Guidelines

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Numbers are an imperative part of academic writing , serving as vital tools to represent quantitative data, statistical data, or measures in an accurate and precise manner. Numbers are used across various fields, including sciences, humanities, and business. However, adherence to specific rules is necessary in terms of using numbers effectively in academia, which vary depending on the style guide followed. This article will provide insights into how numbers are used appropriately.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Numbers in Academic Writing – In a Nutshell
• 2 Definition: Numbers in academic writing
• 3 Numbers in academic writing: Exceptions
• 4 Numbers in academic writing: Percentages
• 5 Numbers in academic writing: Statistical results
• 6 Numbers in academic writing: Measurements
• 7 Numbers in academic writing: Long numbers

Numbers in Academic Writing – In a Nutshell

• Academic writing uses numbers in distinct ways depending on style guide.
• Conventions apply to technical number writing and non-technical number writing.
• Numbers are usually written out from one to nine, and numerals are used from 10.
• Technical data and statistics should always appear as numerals for reference.

Definition: Numbers in academic writing

The APA Style is one of the most widely used academic writing styles and is largely adopted by the behavioral and social sciences. A number can be written both numerically or in words within this style.

Typically, a number from one to nine should be written out as words, while numbers from 10 and above should be written out numerically. This general rule also applies to ordinals (first, 10th). Some exceptions do apply, as found next in this article.

Other writing styles utilize different number rules. The Chicago style , for instance, requires numbers to be written out as words up to 100. The MLA style spells out all numbers that can be written within one or two words (three, one hundred, etc.).

Numbers in academic writing: Exceptions

Exceptions to the general rule above apply in the following cases:

1. All numbers should be represented numerically when they are detailing an exact unit of measurement.

• The rock was chiseled 6 cm deep.

2. Write out numerals as words when they begin a sentence, except when dealing with specific years.

• Eighteenth-century scientists advanced the practice of medicine
• 1921 marked the discovery of insulin.

3. A number should be written out when dealing with fractions, set expressions, or other known numeric titles.

• John Milton crafted the poem in 1626, also referred to as the Fifth of November poem.
• According to sources, one-third of the English population perished from the Black Death.
• Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four is set in an alternative world in the year 1984 .

Numbers in academic writing: Percentages

When dealing with percentages in the APA Style, use numerals followed by the percent sign % , instead of “percent” or the abbreviations, “pct.”, “pct,”, or “pc”.

• The Spanish flu affected over 25% of the US population.

The same rule when beginning sentences with numerals applies to percentages, i.e., they should be written out as words when they start a sentence.

• Twenty-five percent of the US population was affected.

Numbers in academic writing: Statistical results

Reporting statistics in APA and papers that deal with technical numerical language in qualitative research have their own rules.

Here, all data is written in numerals to remain consistent and easily digested. This applies to the main body, tables, and figures sections of a paper.

Other statistical conventions include:

• Report the majority of statistics to two decimal places.
• Report statistics that can’t exceed 1.0 to three decimal places.
• For values that could exceed 1.0, use a leading zero. Those that can’t exceed 1.0 do not feature a leading zero.
• Italicize statistical values that aren’t Greek letters. E.g. SD .
• Spaces should be left before and after equal, more-than, and less-than signs.

Numbers in academic writing: Measurements

Always use numerals for units of measurement.

• Ampules contain 100 mg in 2 ml .

Numerals should be used for precise ages, timescales, dates, score lines, points of scale, and monetary sums.

• The final score was France 4 , and Croatia 2 .
• The students were aged 18 to 21 years in the study.

Imprecise ages and generalizations are not numbered but written out.

• She was roughly six years old based on his estimation.
• The outcome will be approximately seven times .

Numbers in academic writing: Long numbers

Longer numbers have their own set of rules. A period should be used to indicate a decimal point.

Commas are to be used to separate large figures every three digits after 1,000.

For sums exceeding 6 numerals, like 1 million and 1 billion, use a combination of numerals and written language.

• HBO Max had 73.8 million subscribers in 2022.
• This is a considerable growth from its 800,000 subscribers in 2015.

Should you write out numbers in academic writing?

As a general rule of thumb, numbers up to nine should be written out in the APA Style, while anything exceeding 10 should appear as numerals.

How are dates written in academic writing?

Dates are always written as numerals.

How are numbers expressed at the beginning of a sentence?

They are written out when they begin a sentence, except for dates and technical data.

Should I use the word "percent" or its symbol "%"?

The APA Style states that the symbol “%” should be used after numerals, while “percent” should be used for written-out figures.

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When to Spell Out Numbers in Writing: Guide and Examples

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The Rules for Writing Numbers in English 

You may have noticed a theme when it comes to the English language: most rules are not standardized. This (somewhat frustrating) fact is especially true when it comes to spelling out numbers. Should you write them out in words or leave them as numerals? To write numbers properly, you will also need to identify potential differences between major style guides (such as MLA , APA , and Chicago , to name a few) because these guides often outline different rules for using numbers in writing.

To make it easier, let's use an example. Say you're working on a paper evaluating the importance of the local public library in your community. The document will make use of small numbers, large numbers, decades, and statistics. Each type of number may follow a different rule.

Thankfully, when using numbers in writing, you can count on a few conventions that apply to most situations; just be sure to consult your specific style guide if one has been assigned. If you don't have time to review each number yourself, a professional editor or proofreader can ensure that your numbers are written correctly.

Writing Small and Large Numbers

A simple rule for using numbers in writing is that small numbers ranging from one to ten (or one to nine, depending on the style guide) should generally be spelled out. Larger numbers (i.e., above ten) are written as numerals.

For example, instead of writing "It cost ten-thousand four-hundred and sixteen dollars to renovate the local library," you would write, "It cost $10,416 to renovate the local library."

The reason for this is relatively intuitive. Writing out large numbers not only wastes space but could also be a major distraction to your readers.

Beginning a Sentence with a Number

Here is a rule that you can truly rely on: always spell out numbers when they begin a sentence, no matter how large or small they may be.

Incorrect: 15 new fiction novels were on display.

Correct: Fifteen new fiction novels were on display.

If the number is large and you want to avoid writing it all out, rearrange the sentence so that the number no longer comes first.

Revised: There were 15 new fiction novels on display.

Whole Numbers vs. Decimals

Another important factor to consider is whether you are working with a whole number or a decimal. Decimals are always written as numerals for clarity and accuracy.

To revisit our library example, perhaps circulation statistics improved in 2015. If a number falls in the range of one to ten and is not a whole number, it should be written as a numeral.

Incorrect: The circulation of library materials increased by four point five percent in 2015.

Correct: The circulation of library materials increased by 4.5% in 2015.

Paired Numbers (Two Numbers in a Row)

When two numbers come next to each other in a sentence, be sure to spell out one of these numbers. The main purpose of this rule is to avoid confusing the reader.

Incorrect: There were 12 4-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.

Correct: There were 12 four-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.

Correct: There were twelve 4-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.

Decades and Centuries

Decades or centuries are usually spelled out, especially if the writing is formal.

Incorrect: The library was built in the '50s.

Correct: The library was built in the fifties.

If you are referring to a specific year (e.g., 1955), use the numeral.

Consistency Is Key When Using Numbers in Your Writing

Always strive for consistency, even if it overrides a previous rule. For example, if your document uses numbers frequently, it is more appropriate for all numbers to remain as numerals to ensure that usage is uniform throughout. Similarly, if a single sentence combines small and large numbers, make sure that all the numbers are either spelled out or written as numerals.

Incorrect: The library acquired five new mystery novels, 12 new desktop computers, and 17 new periodicals.

Correct: The library acquired 5 new mystery novels, 12 new desktop computers, and 17 new periodicals.

Style Guides May Have Slightly Different Rules for Writing Numbers in Words

Let's complicate things a bit, shall we?

If your work must follow the rules of a specific style guide, understand that various guides all have rules for spelling out numbers that may differ slightly from the rules listed above. For example, MLA style indicates that writers may spell out numbers if they are not used too frequently in the document and can be represented with one or two words (e.g., twenty-four, one hundred, three thousand ). APA style advises that common fractions (e.g., two-thirds ) be expressed as words. A number of specific rules for spelling out numbers are outlined in Section 9.1 of the Chicago Manual of Style.

Your ultimate authority will always be a style guide, but in the absence of one, following the rules outlined above will help you stay consistent in your use of numbers in writing.

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Guidelines and Rules for Presenting Numbers in Research Papers

Updated: May 7, 2020

Since numbers are at the heart of research, you should know common rules regarding presenting numbers representing quantitative data in research papers. Knowing these rules will be helpful for writing the material and method section as well as other sections of the paper. If you are aiming to publish in a scientific or scholarly journal, you should check the Guidelines for Authors page of the journal you are targeting for the specific style guide that they follow. Since there are some variations found in different style guides, this will be important to know which guide they adopt. If they do not give this sort of information, it can be helpful to follow some common guidelines prescribed from respected sources like the Council of Scientific Editors. For more detailed coverage of presenting numbers, statistics and mathematical equations in research papers check out: Scientific Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers, The Chicago Manual of Style, and How to Report Statistics in Medicine. My apologies for instances where certain math characters were lost in copying below, specifically those related to exponents and superscript in scientific notation.

1. In scientific and technical texts, with a focus on quantitative data, represent a number with its numeral form, not word form:

312 base pairs

2. Use the numeral form when comparing with numbers:

A total of 5 out of 24 of the respondents dropped out of the study.

NOT: A total of five out of twenty four of the respondents dropped out of the study.

3. Do not begin a sentence with a digit; instead use the word form for the number in question, even if it is above eleven:

Fifty-six rats were used.

NOT: 56 rats were used.

Or rewrite the sentence instead of beginning with a lengthy word:

A total of 4,589 moths were collected.

NOT: Four thousand five hundred eighty-nine moths were collected.

4. Separate every three digits with a comma, except with numbers after a decimal. Use a period as a decimal point, and not a comma:

3,000 participants completed the survey.

NOT: 3.000 participants completed the survey.

5. Be careful with compound nouns that report numbers. All words preceding the head noun must be singular since they function like adjectives. In English, adjectives are always singular:

A 36-day-old rat.

NOT: a 36 days old rat.

6. The terms twice vs. two times have essentially the same meaning, except that twice might be favored for being shorter.

The specimens were disrupted by sonication two times for 45 s at 5°C.

The specimens were disrupted by sonication twice for 45 s at 5°C.

7. The term circa is used with historical dates, but not typically with measurements. Likewise, the symbol, “” means approximately. Only use it in math applications, not in prose. Instead, use the word “approximately” in running text:

The temple was destroyed circa 1432 BCE.

Approximately 542 birds were sighted.

NOT: Circa 542 birds were sighted.

Approximately 2ml was added to the buffer.

NOT: Circa 2ml was added to the buffer.

The temperature was approximately 35C

NOT: The temperature was “” 35

8. Avoid imprecise expressions such as a 3-fold rise, 2-fold increase, two times as much , but instead use a more precise numerical percentage or decimal point when reporting precise quantities. This form can be used in a context where an approximation is acceptable, yet the number form should be used, not the word form:

3-fold increase NOT: threefold increase

9. When describing a decade use this form:

In the 1970s

During the 1980s

NOT: In the 70’s

NOT: In the Seventies

NOT: I n the 70s

10. Ordinals are commonly used in English to focus on rank, order or a sequence of certain quantitative data. They can be represented in numerical form or word form; for example, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, first, second third, and fourth. Do not confuse their form:

Eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth,…

NOT: eleventeen, twelveteen,…

As the CSE points out, “Ordinal numbers generally convey rank order, not quantity. Rather than being expressly enumerative (answering the question “How many?”), ordinals often describe “which”, “what”, or “in what sequence”. Because this function of ordinals is more prose-oriented than quantitative, distinctiveness within the text is less important for ordinal numbers, and undisrupted reading flow and comprehension take precedence”. Hence use the word form for ordinal numbers under 10:

The second wave toppled the wall.

The third sample contained only sediment.

The ninth patient quit the study due to family issues.

Use the numeric form for larger numbers above 10 as the word forms can be lengthy and awkward:

The 15th attempt was successful.

The 25th test was incomplete.

We focused on the 19th century.

The 97th test run

NOT: The ninety-seventh test run

The 21st Century

NOT: twenty-first Century

The numeric form can be used for numbers under 10 if they referred to repeatedly:

We surveyed 8 subjects: the 1st was most coherent, the 3rd, 4th, and 6th were contradictory, while the 5th, 7th, and 8th were moderately coherent; yet t he 1st could not recall the incident, and the 6th and 8th provided highly specific details of certain events.

Do not use an ordinal when writing the complete date:

February 7, 2014.

NOT: February 7th, 2014.

Use the short numerical form rather than the longer word form when discussing centuries:

Then 19thCentury

NOT: The nineteenth Century

11. Use the percent symbol (%) whenever a numeral accompanies it. Also, use no space between the number and the percent symbol:

NOT: 0.053 percent

NOT: 0.053 %

12. When two numbers are adjacent, for the sake of readability, spell out one and leave the other as a numerical form:

As shown in Table 2, three were not recovered.

NOT: As shown in Table 2, 3 were not recovered.

13. In running text in general, fractions should be represented in word form, rather than numerals. All two-word fractions should be hyphenated, whether as a noun or adjective form.

Roughly one-tenth of the study subjects reported adverse effects.

Two-thirds of this species is found in Brazil.

Nearly three-quarters of the respondents were pleased with the outcome .

Yet, for fraction quantities greater than one, use mixed fractions when you do not intend to give a precise value:

The study site was approximately 3¾ kilometers from the river.

The study ran for about 2½ years.

When a more precise value is desired, use a percentage or decimal form of the number.For mixed numbers with built up fractions, place the whole number close to the fraction, but for solid fractions, place a space between the whole number and the fraction:

Built up fraction: 9

Solid fractions: 9 2/3

14. With numbers that are less than 1.0, use an initial zero to the left of the decimal point:

0.345 NOT: .345

NOT: P = .05

15. When reporting quantities, consider what unit of measurement and decimal place is most meaningful to report. Round numbers to the most relevant and meaningful digit. For example, while reporting the average length of a group of fish, reporting centimeters would be the most meaningful unit to report. For example, it would be meaningful to report an average length of fish as 12 cm, and it might even be meaningful to report the tenths of Cen termers as in 12.4 cm, yet it would not be necessary to report in hundreds 12.37 cm or thousands of centimeters as in 12.372 cm. Reporting too many decimal points can be distracting to the reader and have little scientific importance. For example, note how it is easy to grasp the general pattern of weight gain in the following two sentences:

We noticed an average weight gain of 14.4529 g for college students, 12.39815 g for retired couples and 2.99277 g for single parents.

We noticed an average weight gain of 14 g for college students, 12 g for retired couples and 3g for single parents.

16. When reporting percentages, if the sample you are considering is less than 100, then round to whole numbers. With samples larger than 100, it could be meaningful to report one decimal point. Yet, consider how it will improve the readability and importance of the number. Note this pattern in the sentences below:

Of the 23 students studied, 32% (7 students) reacted favorably, 49% (11 students) had a neutral response, and 19% (4 students) had an adverse reaction to the practice.

NOT: Of the 23 students studied, 32.432% (7 students) reacted favorably, 48.983% (11 students) had a neutral response, and 18.594% (4 students) had an adverse reaction to the practice.

17. In research papers, numbers typically combine with units of measure or symbols, as specified and defined by the International System of Units (Système International d’Unités). These symbols can be alphabetical ( e.g., kg, μg, K, mol, A, s, Hz, mm, mL, min, g, cm) or non-alphabetical (e.g., $, %, S, £, °, ¹). As a general rule, numerals should always accompany these symbols:

A 25.0 mL  aliquot of 0.25 M HCNO (weak acid) is titrated with 0.15 M NaOH.

Near lead smelters and battery plants, air levels typically ranged from 0.3 to 4.0 μg/m3

18. Separate symbols from numbers with a single space:

19. Close up the space between a non alphabetical symbol and a number:

Note, one exception to this rule: The Council of Scientific Editors recommend a space here, while the American Medical Association recommends no space:

CSE Style: 45 °C

AMA Style: 45°C

Ultimately, you will need to follow the style guide recommendations from the journal that you planning to submit your research paper to.

21. When representing numbers in a range, use the word “to” between numbers, and not a hyphen or a dash:

Regional unemployment rates ranged from 1.2% to 33.3%.

NOT: Regional unemployment rates ranged from 1.2% - 33.3%.

When using the preposition “between” to introduce a range, always accompany it with “and”, not a hyphen or a dash:

In a range between 4 and 10cm.

NOT: In a range between 4 - 10cm.

When the range includes numbers with several digits, do not leave out the leading numbers of the second number of the range:

1958 to 1962

NOT: 1958 to 62

1,724 to 1,736

NOT: 1,724 to 36

You can use a single unit symbol alone after second number in a range of numbers, except for when the symbol is non-alphabetical and must be closed up to the number (e.g., $,%).

30 to 45 mL

120 to 200 Hz

10 to 20 min

NOT: 40 to $60

NOT: 13 to 22%

Be careful when expressing a change in value in a range, especially when using terms like “increased”, “decreased” or “changed”. Use language that clarifies that the change is in the range or in the final amount.

Growth increased by a range of 1.5 g/d to 3.5 g/d.

Growth increased from an initial value a range of 1.5 g/d to a final value of 3.5 g/d.

NOT: Growth increased by 1.5 g/d to 3.5 g/d.

NOT: Growth increased from 1.5 g/d to 3.5 g/d.

22. When reporting dimensions, use a multiplication symbol and not the letter “x” or the word “by”, and leave a space between the multiplication symbol and the numbers:

NOT: 22 by 18 by 16

When the focus is on expressing one range changing to a new range, place a hyphen between numbers to improve readability:

increased from 25–34 mm to 28–42 mm 

NOT:  increased from 25 to 34 mm to 28 to 42 mm

23. For a series of numbers, place the symbol after the last number, except in cases where the symbol must be close to a number:

14, 15, 18, and 54 Hz

$21, $37, and $41

10%, 14% and 34%

24. Express large numbers or very small number in powers of 10, scientific notation.

NOT: 38,000

NOT: 735,000,000

NOT: 0.000,003,51

25. For large numbers that are not expressing high precision, a combination of numbers and words are acceptable:

The population is around 25 million.

NOT: The population is around 25, 000, 000.

26. With common symbols of math operations ( separate the symbol and number with a space or thin space. Use the math symbol and not the letter x to represent multiplication. Do not use these sybmols in running text:

The averages equaled the total of all samples from plot A plus plot B.

NOT: The averages = the total of all samples from plot A + plot B.

When these symbols are used as modifiers of words, then close up the space between them and the term they modify. Also, do not place two or more operator symbols side by side.

Also, do not place two or more operator symbols side by side.

The total was greater than

NOT: The total was

27. For symbols used in calculus, refer to the Association of American Publishers for extensive details directions on their markup in manuscripts. For details on how to present vectors, scalars, tensors, matrices and determinants, see Scientific Style & Format: The Council of Scientific Editors, Chapter 12.

28. Brackets, parentheses, and braces in mathematics are referred to as enclosures or “fences”. In math, their order of use is parentheses within brackets within braces, and the reverse is order follows in non-mathematical prose: braces within brackets within parentheses.

mathematics: { [ ( ) ] }

prose or non-mathematics: ( [ {} ] )

29. In the following math expressions no space (closed up to the number) is required:

When expressing multiplication without the multiplication symbol:

Between fences and enclosures and the variables on either side of them:

(2p − 6bc)(1 − a)

 Between terms and their subscripts as in the following terms:

With the symbols plus and minus when used to indicate positive or negative value for numbers:

When expressing a ratio using a colon, close up the space:

Place a space between all common math operators: +, =, -,

30. Ratios, percentages, and proportions are commonly used to simplify and report research findings. Whenever using them, be sure to report a numerator and denominator of that accompanies them; otherwise it will be difficult to interpret them in a meaningful way. For instance 50% could be 2 of 4 samples had a positive result or 6,000 of 12,000 had a positive result. While both are examples of 50%, they would have a very different meaning in research. Separate the two numbers of a ratio by a colon, with the first typically being the numerator and the second the denominator:

The ratio of negative results was 3 to1 (946:329).

NOT: The ratio of negative results was 3 to1.

Proportions are the result of dividing the numerator by the denominator, with the numerator typically a subset of the items in the denominator:

The proportion of subjects experiencing adverse effects was 0.032 (21/651).

NOT: The proportion of subjects experiencing adverse effects was 0.032 .

To express a proportion as a percentage, multiply it by 100.

The percentage of subjects experiencing adverse effects 3.2% (21/651).

NOT: The percentage of subjects experiencing adverse effects 3.2% (21/651).

After studying the points made above about presenting numbers, correct the sentences below with errors related to numbers.

1. 4 assays were performed.

2. Measurements were made for just about one hundred and fifty snakes.

3. Since 80ies’ it has been shown that X plays a role in Y.

4. The 2th and 3th samples were negative.

5. This accounted for most of the total biomass.

6. Many informations can be found in the literature.

7. A lot of water was needed.

8. The deprotonated ion increased by about 2-fold.

9. For this case, the factor was just about 0.90, i.e. very close to one.

10. Three of percent of the samples were positive.

11. Each stock was valued at ten thousands of dollars.

12. Circa 10 mM was used.

13. 17x4=68

15. The total was

16. The population is around 25, 000, 000.

17. We found 15 % similarity.

18. The range increased from 25 to 34 mm to 28 to 42 mm.

19. As shown in table 3, 2 there was a significant increase.

20. The average cost per sample was 40 to $60

21. As many as 13 to 22% of the participants expreienced no adverse effect.

22. One tenth of the subjects reported improved vision.

23. We detected a difference of 0.000,003,51.

24. Statistical significance was set at .05

25. Rates ranged from 1.2% to 33.3%.

Check Answers Below:

Four assays were performed. Begin a sentence with the word form (four), not a digit (4). Measurements were taken for approximately 150 snakes. Since the 1980sit has been shown that X causes Y. The 2nd and 3rd were negative for… …Accounted for the majority of the biomass.a great deal of informationcan be found in the literature.A great deal of water was needed. Give a precise numerical percentage rather than something vague like “about 2-fold”.Avoid vague and informal term such as “just about” and “very close to”. Instead substitute “approximately” and “nearly”. Three percent of the samples were positive. Each stock was valued at ten-thousand dollars Approximately10 mM was used. (Use space between common math operators) 94 (use no space between numeral and exponent)The total was greater than (Avoid presenting two math operator symbols side by side).The population is around 25 million. (Use the word form when giving large imprecise numbers).We found 15% similarity. (No space between numerals and non-alphabetical symbols).The range increased from 25–34 mm to 28–42 mm. (When reporting a change of ranges, use a hyphen between numbers to improve readability).As shown in Table 3, three subjects dropped out. (When two numbers are adjacent, for the sake of readability, spell out one and leave the other as a numerical form).

20. The average cost per sample was $40 to $60 (When presenting a range, both numbers must be accompanied by the non-alphabetical symbol).

21. As many as 13% to 22% of the participants experienced no adverse effect. (When presenting a range, both numbers must be accompanied by the non-alphabetical symbol).

22. One-tenth of the subjects reported improved vision (hyphenate two-word fractions).

23. We detected a difference of 3.51 ´ 10-6 (write out very large or very small numbers in scientific notation)

24. Statistical significance was set at 0.05 (Place a zero before a decimal place.

25. Rates ranged from 1.2% to 33.3%. (Use the preposition “to” between numbers in a range, not a hyphen).

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How to Use Bullet Lists and Number Lists in a Research Paper

Academic articles often include lists, which organize the material and provide the reader with a quick overview of a section. There are different ways to format lists, but some general principles apply to all of them: they should be constructed in a parallel fashion, and they should be consistent. Numbers, letters, and bullet points are not required in all cases. Academic writers who use The Chicago Manual of Style will find various formats there, but four common list formats are presented here.

Types of List Formats

Run-in lists.

A run-in list, as the name suggests, is included as part of the general text. Elements can be separated in different ways, as shown in the examples below.

Separated with a Colon:   When a complete sentence is followed by a list of items, separate the sentence from the list with a colon.

E.g. “ Do not venture into the wilderness without these items: a knife, a book of matches, a flashlight, and a map. ”

Separated with Numbers:  When the list is part of the sentence, you can separate the items by numbering them.

E.g. “ The Housing Committee passed resolutions on (1) annual salaries, (2) fundraising efforts, and (3) community building. ”

Related: Need instant academic writing tips on your cell phone? Download the FREE Enago Academy mobile app now!

Vertical Lists

A vertical list should be preceded by a complete sentence that gives an overview of the points being listed. The list does not need to have a bullet point format and a punctuation mark is not at the end of the entries. For example:

Your admissions packet should include these items:

The three-page statement of purpose

The financial questionnaire

Your contact information

If the lead-in sentence is a complete one and all entries in the list are complete sentences, a punctuation mark should follow each entry. For example (using bullet points):

Make perfect banana bread every time by following these easy steps:

• Preheat the oven to 325 degrees.
• Grease an 8 x 8 baking dish.
• Combine all the dry ingredients (listed above).
• Gently fold in the wet ingredients (listed above).
• Pour the batter into the dish and bake for 45 minutes.

Again, note that because each entry in the list is a complete sentence, a final period is used.

Vertical Lists Punctuated as a Sentence

When a list is too long or convoluted to be presented as one sentence, you can use a vertical list that is punctuated like a sentence. This format is especially useful when the phrases include internal punctuations or the reader might find it difficult to follow the meaning. An example follows below.

Biology instructors have made significant changes to their curricula and classrooms, and today it is common to find

• innovative research techniques, especially those requiring knowledge of anatomy, in labs;
• greater focus on teamwork;
• in-class lectures customized for learning styles; and
• bilingual lesson plans.

Vertical Lists with Subdivided Items

A complex vertical list may be formatted in a way that resembles an outline, using numbers and letters to provide a logical structure. The lead-in (introductory) line should be a complete sentence, as seen in the example below.

Students should be prepared to discuss the following topics:

• Regional History
• Geography and landmarks
• Erosion in mountainous areas
• Notable Figures
• The first tribal chieftains
• The emergence of political divisions and leaders
• The role of women
• Cultural Developments
• The spread of language
• Music used to bind communities

The next time you read a research paper , look for lists and examine how they were constructed. Do the entries use a consistent format? Are the numbers and/or letters correctly placed and in the proper order? Is the lead-in line a complete sentence? If you find that these steps are all present, chances are that the author took the time to research the structure of lists and present them accurately. Now you can do the same.

References:

• Get It Write. Handling Vertical Lists.  Retrieved from http://www.getitwriteonline.com/archive/101406VerticalLists.htm

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How to Write a Research Paper 

• Smodin Editorial Team
• Updated: May 17, 2024

Most students hate writing research papers. The process can often feel long, tedious, and sometimes outright boring. Nevertheless, these assignments are vital to a student’s academic journey. Want to learn how to write a research paper that captures the depth of the subject and maintains the reader’s interest? If so, this guide is for you.

Today, we’ll show you how to assemble a well-organized research paper to help you make the grade. You can transform any topic into a compelling research paper with a thoughtful approach to your research and a persuasive argument.

In this guide, we’ll provide seven simple but practical tips to help demystify the process and guide you on your way. We’ll also explain how AI tools can expedite the research and writing process so you can focus on critical thinking.

By the end of this article, you’ll have a clear roadmap for tackling these essays. You will also learn how to tackle them quickly and efficiently. With time and dedication, you’ll soon master the art of research paper writing.

Ready to get started?

What Is a Research Paper?

A research paper is a comprehensive essay that gives a detailed analysis, interpretation, or argument based on your own independent research. In higher-level academic settings, it goes beyond a simple summarization and includes a deep inquiry into the topic or topics.

The term “research paper” is a broad term that can be applied to many different forms of academic writing. The goal is to combine your thoughts with the findings from peer-reviewed scholarly literature.

By the time your essay is done, you should have provided your reader with a new perspective or challenged existing findings. This demonstrates your mastery of the subject and contributes to ongoing scholarly debates.

7 Tips for Writing a Research Paper

Often, getting started is the most challenging part of a research paper. While the process can seem daunting, breaking it down into manageable steps can make it easier to manage. The following are seven tips for getting your ideas out of your head and onto the page.

1. Understand Your Assignment

It may sound simple, but the first step in writing a successful research paper is to read the assignment. Sit down, take a few moments of your time, and go through the instructions so you fully understand your assignment.

Misinterpreting the assignment can not only lead to a significant waste of time but also affect your grade. No matter how patient your teacher or professor may be, ignoring basic instructions is often inexcusable.

If you read the instructions and are still confused, ask for clarification before you start writing. If that’s impossible, you can use tools like Smodin’s AI chat to help. Smodin can help highlight critical requirements that you may overlook.

This initial investment ensures that all your future efforts will be focused and efficient. Remember, thinking is just as important as actually writing the essay, and it can also pave the wave for a smoother writing process.

2. Gather Research Materials

Now comes the fun part: doing the research. As you gather research materials, always use credible sources, such as academic journals or peer-reviewed papers. Only use search engines that filter for accredited sources and academic databases so you can ensure your information is reliable.

To optimize your time, you must learn to master the art of skimming. If a source seems relevant and valuable, save it and review it later. The last thing you want to do is waste time on material that won’t make it into the final paper.

To speed up the process even more, consider using Smodin’s AI summarizer . This tool can help summarize large texts, highlighting key information relevant to your topic. By systematically gathering and filing research materials early in the writing process, you build a strong foundation for your thesis.

3. Write Your Thesis

Creating a solid thesis statement is the most important thing you can do to bring structure and focus to your research paper. Your thesis should express the main point of your argument in one or two simple sentences. Remember, when you create your thesis, you’re setting the tone and direction for the entire paper.

Of course, you can’t just pull a winning thesis out of thin air. Start by brainstorming potential thesis ideas based on your preliminary research. And don’t overthink things; sometimes, the most straightforward ideas are often the best.

You want a thesis that is specific enough to be manageable within the scope of your paper but broad enough to allow for a unique discussion. Your thesis should challenge existing expectations and provide the reader with fresh insight into the topic. Use your thesis to hook the reader in the opening paragraph and keep them engaged until the very last word.

4. Write Your Outline

An outline is an often overlooked but essential tool for organizing your thoughts and structuring your paper. Many students skip the outline because it feels like doing double work, but a strong outline will save you work in the long run.

Here’s how to effectively structure your outline.

• Introduction: List your thesis statement and outline the main questions your essay will answer.
• Literature Review: Outline the key literature you plan to discuss and explain how it will relate to your thesis.
• Methodology: Explain the research methods you will use to gather and analyze the information.
• Discussion: Plan how you will interpret the results and their implications for your thesis.
• Conclusion: Summarize the content above to elucidate your thesis fully.

To further streamline this process, consider using Smodin’s Research Writer. This tool offers a feature that allows you to generate and tweak an outline to your liking based on the initial input you provide. You can adjust this outline to fit your research findings better and ensure that your paper remains well-organized and focused.

5. Write a Rough Draft

Once your outline is in place, you can begin the writing process. Remember, when you write a rough draft, it isn’t meant to be perfect. Instead, use it as a working document where you can experiment with and rearrange your arguments and evidence.

Don’t worry too much about grammar, style, or syntax as you write your rough draft. Focus on getting your ideas down on paper and flush out your thesis arguments. You can always refine and rearrange the content the next time around.

Follow the basic structure of your outline but with the freedom to explore different ways of expressing your thoughts. Smodin’s Essay Writer offers a powerful solution for those struggling with starting or structuring their drafts.

After you approve the outline, Smodin can generate an essay based on your initial inputs. This feature can help you quickly create a comprehensive draft, which you can then review and refine. You can even use the power of AI to create multiple rough drafts from which to choose.

6. Add or Subtract Supporting Evidence

Once you have a rough draft, but before you start the final revision, it’s time to do a little cleanup. In this phase, you need to review all your supporting evidence. You want to ensure that there is nothing redundant and that you haven’t overlooked any crucial details.

Many students struggle to make the required word count for an essay and resort to padding their writing with redundant statements. Instead of adding unnecessary content, focus on expanding your analysis to provide deeper insights.

A good essay, regardless of the topic or format, needs to be streamlined. It should convey clear, convincing, relevant information supporting your thesis. If you find some information doesn’t do that, consider tweaking your sources.

Include a variety of sources, including studies, data, and quotes from scholars or other experts. Remember, you’re not just strengthening your argument but demonstrating the depth of your research.

If you want comprehensive feedback on your essay without going to a writing center or pestering your professor, use Smodin. The AI Chat can look at your draft and offer suggestions for improvement.

7. Revise, Cite, and Submit

The final stages of crafting a research paper involve revision, citation, and final review. You must ensure your paper is polished, professionally presented, and plagiarism-free. Of course, integrating Smodin’s AI tools can significantly streamline this process and enhance the quality of your final submission.

Start by using Smodin’s Rewriter tool. This AI-powered feature can help rephrase and refine your draft to improve overall readability. If a specific section of your essay just “doesn’t sound right,” the AI can suggest alternative sentence structures and word choices.

Proper citation is a must for all academic papers. Thankfully, thanks to Smodin’s Research Paper app, this once tedious process is easier than ever. The AI ensures all sources are accurately cited according to the required style guide (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.).

Plagiarism Checker:

All students need to realize that accidental plagiarism can happen. That’s why using a Plagiarism Checker to scan your essay before you submit it is always useful. Smodin’s Plagiarism Checker can highlight areas of concern so you can adjust accordingly.

Final Submission

After revising, rephrasing, and ensuring all citations are in order, use Smodin’s AI Content Detector to give your paper one last review. This tool can help you analyze your paper’s overall quality and readability so you can make any final tweaks or improvements.

Mastering Research Papers

Mastering the art of the research paper cannot be overstated, whether you’re in high school, college, or postgraduate studies. You can confidently prepare your research paper for submission by leveraging the AI tools listed above.

Research papers help refine your abilities to think critically and write persuasively. The skills you develop here will serve you well beyond the walls of the classroom. Communicating complex ideas clearly and effectively is one of the most powerful tools you can possess.

With the advancements of AI tools like Smodin , writing a research paper has become more accessible than ever before. These technologies streamline the process of organizing, writing, and revising your work. Write with confidence, knowing your best work is yet to come!

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How to Add Page Numbers in Word for Your Papers? [For Students]

As a student, adding page numbers while writing your research papers, dissertations, and theses etc., can be tricky; especially if your document uses a specific formatting style. But, it's not impossible. How can you add page numbers in Word without any complications? After using Word for multiple papers of my own, I have identified the quickest and easiest way of adding page numbers in Word. In this article, I will show you exactly how.

Typical Issues with Adding Page Numbers in Word

It is common for students to encounter a number of different problems while inserting page numbers in Word. Let’s walk through each of these problems and solve them. Here are a few typical issues you might have come across while adding page numbers in your document:

1.Locating the “Insert Page Number” Option

You can normally find the “Page Number” option in the Insert tab on your Toolbar to add page numbers like below:

2.Errors While Adding Page Numbers

Some students have also encountered an error while adding page numbers by clicking the button “More page numbers from Office.com”. This further gives the resulting error, “no online content available”. To prevent this error you should follow the below steps to diagnose the problem:

Update your Office to ensure that everything is up to date or;

Disable add-ins;

Check for permissions.

In case the above options don’t work, you can try troubleshooting via the system, and proceed with using the built-in templates of page numbers without accessing online content.

3.Formatting Page Numbers

As per the format you will be using for your paper or thesis, you will need to format your page numbers accordingly. There are a variety of ways you can display your page numbers and edit them.

For this, we will explore all the ways you can do this in the guide below:

How to Add Page Numbers to Your Paper in Word [Basic]

In my experience, it was quite simple to add page numbers in my documents, and only got a little tricky when I wanted to format them. I can understand that for some students with a nearer deadline, this can be a frustrating experience. This is why I’ve compiled all the different ways you can add a page number to your paper in Word. To demonstrate, I’ll be using WPS Office, which is easy to follow along and compatible with all Word document versions and devices (Mobile, Windows, or Mac).

Step 1 : First, open the document where you want to add in your page numbers.

If you haven’t started on your document yet, that is okay. You can add in your page numbers and continue your writing later.

Step 2 : Head over to your Toolbar and go to your Insert tab to add in your page numbers

Step 3 : In your Insert tab, you will see the option of “Page Number” and click on it.

Step 4 : After clicking on “Page Number”, you will see a number of different ways you can display your page numbers.

These are built-in templates. Choose the one that best fits your needs.

Note : It might be helpful for you to note that certain academic writing styles require you to use only specific number formats.

For instance, if you are writing your thesis or research paper in APA, MLA, or Chicago format, your page number should be on the top right corner.

How to Add Page Numbers Starting from a Specific Page in Word

For certain academic documents you don’t need page numbers on specific pages, and sometimes you do. It can get a little annoying when you delete a page number from the first page but the next page is still numbered at 2.

It can be helpful to note that if your document is in APA or MLA format, your title page should be page numbered at 1. However, if you’re following the Chicago format, your title page should not have page number at all.

Here’s a simple number of steps you can follow to add page numbers starting from a specific page in Word:

Step 1 : Go to the specific page you want your page numbers to begin.

Step 2 : Insert a section break - “Next Page”  in your previous page.

If you have already written your paper, there are pretty good chances you have already inserted your section breaks. Well done on that!

Step 3 : Double click on either the Header or Footer of the page (where you want to add the page number)

Step 4 : Uncheck the box that says “Link to Previous”

Step 5 : Go to the Insert Tab

Step 6 : Click on “Page Numbers” and choose the format you want

If you want your page number to start from 1, follow these steps after the above:

Step 7 : Click on “Page Numbers” once more and scroll down the menu to “Insert Page Number…”. This will open a pop-up box.

Step 8. In the pop-up menu, go to the option “Start at” and enter 1.

Your page numbers will be in line after this. While this process may seem a little lengthy, it is always helpful in my experience to make sure that you insert your section breaks while you are writing your paper. This helps in giving your paper a finished look, makes creating your table of contents easier, and will make many formatting tasks simpler in the long-run.

Using this, you can even use different number formatting styles for different sections of your page, as per your writing format (APA, MLA or Chicago). For instance if you want to use Roman numbers in the initial sections:

Repeat Steps 1-7.

In the pop-up menu, go to the option “Number Format” and select the formatting you want.

Advanced Format of Page Numbers in Word

If you’ve been tasked with formatting page numbers as “Page X of Y'' in Word, there is no need to worry. This method adds clarity, enhances professionalism, and makes your paper easier to navigate for your reader.

You don’t need to manually add this in, as I’ve noticed some students attempt to do so.

While adding these page numbers manually is possible, I would not recommend it. Why? Here are a few downsides to it. If your document is long and consists of 200+ pages, you might be up all night adding these page numbers.

Secondly, even if your document is short, as soon as you add in an extra page in your paper, all your previous total page numbers will automatically be incorrect and you will have to go back in to edit them out.

Word, especially WPS, makes this a lot easier and makes this process a lot more dynamic. Let’s dive into this process:

Step 1 : When inserting page numbers, go to the Insert tab and the “Page Numbers” Option

Step 2 : When the menu opens up, go to Format Page Numbers

Step 3 : In the Format Option, select “Page 1 of X” and click Ok.

Now it will be easier for you and others to navigate through your paper. I have also noticed that it is also easier to refer to or bookmark pages in this particular case.

Use WPS AI to Refine Your Papers

With AI monopolizing the industry, I have found WPS Office readily equipped with everything I need for my writing. When writing research papers, theses, dissertations, WPS AI offers me invaluable assistance in refining my papers and adds finesse to them.

Using WPS has set aside any difficulty that I normally encountered in my writing. With all my writing easily proofread, I can also use simple word replacements and grammar checks to present my arguments in the best way possible.

Here is how students can make use of WPS AI during academic writing, whether it's a thesis or a class assignment:

Step 1 : One of the uses of WPS AI would be to utilize the WPS AI spell check feature to ensure your work is error-free. To do this, visit the Review tab in WPS Writer.

Step 2 : Next, click on the "AI Spell Check" button to open WPS AI Spell Check.

Step 3 : With WPS AI spell check open on the right side of the screen, where all the grammatical errors will be displayed, click on "Accept All" to avoid going through all the corrections.

Step 4 : Furthermore, WPS AI spell check can be tailored according to the academic style being followed. To do this, click on the "Set Goals" button.

Step 5 : Now, set the Domain as "Academic", and then click on the Academic Format of your choice.

WPS AI can also be used to improve writing, or we can also use it to shorten or elongate the content that we have.

Step 1 : Open your academic document on WPS Writer and use your cursor to select the text that you want to improve.

Step 2 : Now, right-click to open the context menu, and then click on the "WPS AI" button.

Step 3 : This will enable the WPS AI assistant, which provides a couple of options for students such as "Improve Writing", "Change Layout", "Make Longer", and others.

Step 4 : Once you have chosen any option, WPS AI will process your request, and the results will be displayed. If you're not content with the results, click on the "Rewrite" option.

Step 5 : Students can also decide to "Replace" or "Discard" the results accordingly.

WPS AI is not just a simple addition to office suites anymore. With the introduction of AI, it acts as an assistant for students, capable of helping them at every step, from brainstorming ideas to refining their work. So why wait? Download WPS Office now and see how it is making life easier for thousands of students!

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Converting Your Papers to PDF While Preserving the Format

As a student, most of your submissions require your papers and documents to be in a PDF format. There are a number of ways you can convert your papers to PDF, however there is no guarantee that your format will remain the same.

Sometimes, converting from Word to PDF will either change your font, or add something on a different page or mess up your alignment.

WPS makes your life easier by having a built-in option to convert your Word documents to PDF while preserving your format.

To make it simpler for you, follow the below steps to do the same.

Step 1 : Go to the Menu.

Step 2 : Click “Export to PDF”.

Step 3 : Select “Common PDF” and then “Export to PDF”.

You can go through your document as well and you will find all your formatting intact.

FAQs about Adding Page Numbers in Word

Q1. how do i stop page numbering from a specific page in word.

There are different ways you can remove page numbers from a specific page or stop page numbering in Word. You can follow the below steps and you will successfully remove your page number.

Click on the page number that you want to remove

Press Delete

If, however, you only want to remove the page number from the first page of the document, then you can simply go to the Header/Footer tab, and select “Different First Page”.

Q2. How do I exclude a page from page numbering?

If you want to exclude certain pages from page numbering, you can follow the below steps to make it simple:

Step 1 : Go to the specific page you want your page number to be excluded

Step 3 : Double click on either the Header or Footer of the page (where you want to delete the page number)

Step 6 : Click on “Page Numbers” and click “Remove Page Number”.

Q3. How to create different headers or footers for odd and even pages

Here is a straightforward guide on how to create custom headers and footers in Microsoft Word:

Step 1 : Open the Word document you wish to customize. Double-click on the header section of the document.

Step 2 : In the Header and Footer ribbon, locate and select the option for "Different Odd & Even Pages."

Step 3 : On an odd page, click on the header or footer area you want to edit. Enter your document title, then press Tab twice.

Step 4 : Go to "Page Number", select "Current Position", and pick a style.

Step 5 : Move to an even page. Repeat the process for page numbering on the even page.

Step 6 : Press Tab twice and type in your document title.

Step 7 : Finally, click on "Close Header and Footer" or press Esc to conclude.

Q4. Can we customize the appearance of page numbers in Word?

Word provides robust customization options for page numbers. You can adjust the font, size, color, style, and positioning of page numbers to align perfectly with your document's layout and design requirements.

Simplify Your Thesis with WPS Writer: Effortless Page Numbering

At the end of your thesis, adding page numbers will be one less problem for you now. With all the tricks up your sleeve on how to add page numbers in Word as per your need, you can format your file exactly the way you want to. WPS, a student-friendly Office-Suite, makes your life easier in more than one way. Download WPS Writer now, to get the full experience.

• 1. How to start page numbers on page 2 in WPS Writer
• 2. How to do page numbers in word on page 3 (Step-by Step)
• 3. How to add page numbers in word document excluding cover page
• 4. How to Delete a Page in Word for Your Thesis/Dissertation? [For Students]
• 5. How to add page numbers on certain pages in word
• 6. How to Add Page Numbers In Word Starting on Page 2 (Step by Step)

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How Does Writing Fit Into the ‘Science of Reading’?

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In one sense, the national conversation about what it will take to make sure all children become strong readers has been wildly successful: States are passing legislation supporting evidence-based teaching approaches , and school districts are rushing to supply training. Publishers are under pressure to drop older materials . And for the first time in years, an instructional issue—reading—is headlining education media coverage.

In the middle of all that, though, the focus on the “science of reading” has elided its twin component in literacy instruction: writing.

Writing is intrinsically important for all students to learn—after all, it is the primary way beyond speech that humans communicate. But more than that, research suggests that teaching students to write in an integrated fashion with reading is not only efficient, it’s effective.

Yet writing is often underplayed in the elementary grades. Too often, it is separated from schools’ reading block. Writing is not assessed as frequently as reading, and principals, worried about reading-exam scores, direct teachers to focus on one often at the expense of the other. Finally, beyond the English/language arts block, kids often aren’t asked to do much writing in early grades.

“Sometimes, in an early-literacy classroom, you’ll hear a teacher say, ‘It’s time to pick up your pencils,’” said Wiley Blevins, an author and literacy consultant who provides training in schools. “But your pencils should be in your hand almost the entire morning.”

Strikingly, many of the critiques that reading researchers have made against the “balanced literacy” approach that has held sway in schools for decades could equally apply to writing instruction: Foundational writing skills—like phonics and language structure—have not generally been taught systematically or explicitly.

And like the “find the main idea” strategies commonly taught in reading comprehension, writing instruction has tended to focus on content-neutral tasks, rather than deepening students’ connections to the content they learn.

Education Week wants to bring more attention to these connections in the stories that make up this special collection . But first, we want to delve deeper into the case for including writing in every step of the elementary curriculum.

Why has writing been missing from the reading conversation?

Much like the body of knowledge on how children learn to read words, it is also settled science that reading and writing draw on shared knowledge, even though they have traditionally been segmented in instruction.

“The body of research is substantial in both number of studies and quality of studies. There’s no question that reading and writing share a lot of real estate, they depend on a lot of the same knowledge and skills,” said Timothy Shanahan, an emeritus professor of education at the University of Illinois Chicago. “Pick your spot: text structure, vocabulary, sound-symbol relationships, ‘world knowledge.’”

The reasons for the bifurcation in reading and writing are legion. One is that the two fields have typically been studied separately. (Researchers studying writing usually didn’t examine whether a writing intervention, for instance, also aided students’ reading abilities—and vice versa.)

Some scholars also finger the dominance of the federally commissioned National Reading Panel report, which in 2000 outlined key instructional components of learning to read. The review didn’t examine the connection of writing to reading.

Looking even further back yields insights, too. Penmanship and spelling were historically the only parts of writing that were taught, and when writing reappeared in the latter half of the 20th century, it tended to focus on “process writing,” emphasizing personal experience and story generation over other genres. Only when the Common Core State Standards appeared in 2010 did the emphasis shift to writing about nonfiction texts and across subjects—the idea that students should be writing about what they’ve learned.

And finally, teaching writing is hard. Few studies document what preparation teachers receive to teach writing, but in surveys, many teachers say they received little training in their college education courses. That’s probably why only a little over half of teachers, in one 2016 survey, said that they enjoyed teaching writing.

Writing should begin in the early grades

These factors all work against what is probably the most important conclusion from the research over the last few decades: Students in the early-elementary grades need lots of varied opportunities to write.

“Students need support in their writing,” said Dana Robertson, an associate professor of reading and literacy education at the school of education at Virginia Tech who also studies how instructional change takes root in schools. “They need to be taught explicitly the skills and strategies of writing and they need to see the connections of reading, writing, and knowledge development.”

While research supports some fundamental tenets of writing instruction—that it should be structured, for instance, and involve drafting and revising—it hasn’t yet pointed to a specific teaching recipe that works best.

One of the challenges, the researchers note, is that while reading curricula have improved over the years, they still don’t typically provide many supports for students—or teachers, for that matter—for writing. Teachers often have to supplement with additions that don’t always mesh well with their core, grade-level content instruction.

“We have a lot of activities in writing we know are good,” Shanahan said. “We don’t really have a yearlong elementary-school-level curriculum in writing. That just doesn’t exist the way it does in reading.”

Nevertheless, practitioners like Blevins work writing into every reading lesson, even in the earliest grades. And all the components that make up a solid reading program can be enhanced through writing activities.

4 Key Things to Know About How Reading and Writing Interlock

Want a quick summary of what research tells us about the instructional connections between reading and writing?

1. Reading and writing are intimately connected.

Research on the connections began in the early 1980s and has grown more robust with time.

Among the newest and most important additions are three research syntheses conducted by Steve Graham, a professor at the University of Arizona, and his research partners. One of them examined whether writing instruction also led to improvements in students’ reading ability; a second examined the inverse question. Both found significant positive effects for reading and writing.

A third meta-analysis gets one step closer to classroom instruction. Graham and partners examined 47 studies of instructional programs that balanced both reading and writing—no program could feature more than 60 percent of one or the other. The results showed generally positive effects on both reading and writing measures.

2. Writing matters even at the earliest grades, when students are learning to read.

Studies show that the prewriting students do in early education carries meaningful signals about their decoding, spelling, and reading comprehension later on. Reading experts say that students should be supported in writing almost as soon as they begin reading, and evidence suggests that both spelling and handwriting are connected to the ability to connect speech to print and to oral language development.

3. Like reading, writing must be taught explicitly.

Writing is a complex task that demands much of students’ cognitive resources. Researchers generally agree that writing must be explicitly taught—rather than left up to students to “figure out” the rules on their own.

There isn’t as much research about how precisely to do this. One 2019 review, in fact, found significant overlap among the dozen writing programs studied, and concluded that all showed signs of boosting learning. Debates abound about the amount of structure students need and in what sequence, such as whether they need to master sentence construction before moving onto paragraphs and lengthier texts.

But in general, students should be guided on how to construct sentences and paragraphs, and they should have access to models and exemplars, the research suggests. They also need to understand the iterative nature of writing, including how to draft and revise.

A number of different writing frameworks incorporating various degrees of structure and modeling are available, though most of them have not been studied empirically.

4. Writing can help students learn content—and make sense of it.

Much of reading comprehension depends on helping students absorb “world knowledge”—think arts, ancient cultures, literature, and science—so that they can make sense of increasingly sophisticated texts and ideas as their reading improves. Writing can enhance students’ content learning, too, and should be emphasized rather than taking a back seat to the more commonly taught stories and personal reflections.

Graham and colleagues conducted another meta-analysis of nearly 60 studies looking at this idea of “writing to learn” in mathematics, science, and social studies. The studies included a mix of higher-order assignments, like analyses and argumentative writing, and lower-level ones, like summarizing and explaining. The study found that across all three disciplines, writing about the content improved student learning.

If students are doing work on phonemic awareness—the ability to recognize sounds—they shouldn’t merely manipulate sounds orally; they can put them on the page using letters. If students are learning how to decode, they can also encode—record written letters and words while they say the sounds out loud.

And students can write as they begin learning about language structure. When Blevins’ students are mainly working with decodable texts with controlled vocabularies, writing can support their knowledge about how texts and narratives work: how sentences are put together and how they can be pulled apart and reconstructed. Teachers can prompt them in these tasks, asking them to rephrase a sentence as a question, split up two sentences, or combine them.

“Young kids are writing these mile-long sentences that become second nature. We set a higher bar, and they are fully capable of doing it. We can demystify a bit some of that complex text if we develop early on how to talk about sentences—how they’re created, how they’re joined,” Blevins said. “There are all these things you can do that are helpful to develop an understanding of how sentences work and to get lots of practice.”

As students progress through the elementary grades, this structured work grows more sophisticated. They need to be taught both sentence and paragraph structure , and they need to learn how different writing purposes and genres—narrative, persuasive, analytical—demand different approaches. Most of all, the research indicates, students need opportunities to write at length often.

Using writing to support students’ exploration of content

Reading is far more than foundational skills, of course. It means introducing students to rich content and the specialized vocabulary in each discipline and then ensuring that they read, discuss, analyze, and write about those ideas. The work to systematically build students’ knowledge begins in the early grades and progresses throughout their K-12 experience.

Here again, available evidence suggests that writing can be a useful tool to help students explore, deepen, and draw connections in this content. With the proper supports, writing can be a method for students to retell and analyze what they’ve learned in discussions of content and literature throughout the school day —in addition to their creative writing.

This “writing to learn” approach need not wait for students to master foundational skills. In the K-2 grades especially, much content is learned through teacher read-alouds and conversation that include more complex vocabulary and ideas than the texts students are capable of reading. But that should not preclude students from writing about this content, experts say.

“We do a read-aloud or a media piece and we write about what we learned. It’s just a part of how you’re responding, or sharing, what you’ve learned across texts; it’s not a separate thing from reading,” Blevins said. “If I am doing read-alouds on a concept—on animal habitats, for example—my decodable texts will be on animals. And students are able to include some of these more sophisticated ideas and language in their writing, because we’ve elevated the conversations around these texts.”

In this set of stories , Education Week examines the connections between elementary-level reading and writing in three areas— encoding , language and text structure , and content-area learning . But there are so many more examples.

Please write us to share yours when you’ve finished.

Want to read more about the research that informed this story? Here’s a bibliography to start you off.

Berninger V. W., Abbott, R. D., Abbott, S. P., Graham S., & Richards T. (2002). Writing and reading: Connections between language by hand and language by eye. J ournal of Learning Disabilities. Special Issue: The Language of Written Language, 35(1), 39–56 Berninger, Virginia, Robert D. Abbott, Janine Jones, Beverly J. Wolf, Laura Gould, Marci Anderson-Younstrom, Shirley Shimada, Kenn Apel. (2006) “Early development of language by hand: composing, reading, listening, and speaking connections; three letter-writing modes; and fast mapping in spelling.” Developmental Neuropsychology, 29(1), pp. 61-92 Cabell, Sonia Q, Laura S. Tortorelli, and Hope K. Gerde (2013). “How Do I Write…? Scaffolding Preschoolers’ Early Writing Skills.” The Reading Teacher, 66(8), pp. 650-659. Gerde, H.K., Bingham, G.E. & Wasik, B.A. (2012). “Writing in Early Childhood Classrooms: Guidance for Best Practices.” Early Childhood Education Journal 40, 351–359 (2012) Gilbert, Jennifer, and Steve Graham. (2010). “Teaching Writing to Elementary Students in Grades 4–6: A National Survey.” The Elementary School Journal 110(44) Graham, Steve, et al. (2017). “Effectiveness of Literacy Programs Balancing Reading and Writing Instruction: A Meta-Analysis.” Reading Research Quarterly, 53(3) pp. 279–304 Graham, Steve, and Michael Hebert. (2011). “Writing to Read: A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Writing and Writing Instruction on Reading.” Harvard Educational Review (2011) 81(4): 710–744. Graham, Steve. (2020). “The Sciences of Reading and Writing Must Become More Fully Integrated.” Reading Research Quarterly, 55(S1) pp. S35–S44 Graham, Steve, Sharlene A. Kiuhara, and Meade MacKay. (2020).”The Effects of Writing on Learning in Science, Social Studies, and Mathematics: A Meta-Analysis.” Review of Educational Research April 2020, Vol 90, No. 2, pp. 179–226 Shanahan, Timothy. “History of Writing and Reading Connections.” in Shanahan, Timothy. (2016). “Relationships between reading and writing development.” In C. MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (2nd ed., pp. 194–207). New York, NY: Guilford. Slavin, Robert, Lake, C., Inns, A., Baye, A., Dachet, D., & Haslam, J. (2019). “A quantitative synthesis of research on writing approaches in grades 2 to 12.” London: Education Endowment Foundation. Troia, Gary. (2014). Evidence-based practices for writing instruction (Document No. IC-5). Retrieved from University of Florida, Collaboration for Effective Educator, Development, Accountability, and Reform Center website: http://ceedar.education.ufl.edu/tools/innovation-configuration/ Troia, Gary, and Steve Graham. (2016).“Common Core Writing and Language Standards and Aligned State Assessments: A National Survey of Teacher Beliefs and Attitudes.” Reading and Writing 29(9).

A version of this article appeared in the January 25, 2023 edition of Education Week as How Does Writing Fit Into the ‘Science of Reading’?

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How Much Research Is Being Written by Large Language Models?

New studies show a marked spike in LLM usage in academia, especially in computer science. What does this mean for researchers and reviewers?

In March of this year, a  tweet about an academic paper went viral for all the wrong reasons. The introduction section of the paper, published in  Elsevier’s  Surfaces and Interfaces , began with this line:  Certainly, here is a possible introduction for your topic. 

Look familiar? 

It should, if you are a user of ChatGPT and have applied its talents for the purpose of content generation. LLMs are being increasingly used to assist with writing tasks, but examples like this in academia are largely anecdotal and had not been quantified before now. 

“While this is an egregious example,” says  James Zou , associate professor of biomedical data science and, by courtesy, of computer science and of electrical engineering at Stanford, “in many cases, it’s less obvious, and that’s why we need to develop more granular and robust statistical methods to estimate the frequency and magnitude of LLM usage. At this particular moment, people want to know what content around us is written by AI. This is especially important in the context of research, for the papers we author and read and the reviews we get on our papers. That’s why we wanted to study how much of those have been written with the help of AI.”

In two papers looking at LLM use in scientific publishings, Zou and his team* found that 17.5% of computer science papers and 16.9% of peer review text had at least some content drafted by AI. The paper on LLM usage in peer reviews will be presented at the International Conference on Machine Learning.

Read  Mapping the Increasing Use of LLMs in Scientific Papers and  Monitoring AI-Modified Content at Scale: A Case Study on the Impact of ChatGPT on AI Conference Peer Reviews  

Here Zou discusses the findings and implications of this work, which was supported through a Stanford HAI Hoffman Yee Research Grant . 

How did you determine whether AI wrote sections of a paper or a review?

We first saw that there are these specific worlds – like commendable, innovative, meticulous, pivotal, intricate, realm, and showcasing – whose frequency in reviews sharply spiked, coinciding with the release of ChatGPT. Additionally, we know that these words are much more likely to be used by LLMs than by humans. The reason we know this is that we actually did an experiment where we took many papers, used LLMs to write reviews of them, and compared those reviews to reviews written by human reviewers on the same papers. Then we quantified which words are more likely to be used by LLMs vs. humans, and those are exactly the words listed. The fact that they are more likely to be used by an LLM and that they have also seen a sharp spike coinciding with the release of LLMs is strong evidence.

Some journals permit the use of LLMs in academic writing, as long as it’s noted, while others, including  Science and the ICML conference, prohibit it. How are the ethics perceived in academia?

This is an important and timely topic because the policies of various journals are changing very quickly. For example,  Science said in the beginning that they would not allow authors to use language models in their submissions, but they later changed their policy and said that people could use language models, but authors have to explicitly note where the language model is being used. All the journals are struggling with how to define this and what’s the right way going forward.

You observed an increase in usage of LLMs in academic writing, particularly in computer science papers (up to 17.5%). Math and  Nature family papers, meanwhile, used AI text about 6.3% of the time. What do you think accounts for the discrepancy between these disciplines? 

Artificial intelligence and computer science disciplines have seen an explosion in the number of papers submitted to conferences like ICLR and NeurIPS. And I think that’s really caused a strong burden, in many ways, to reviewers and to authors. So now it’s increasingly difficult to find qualified reviewers who have time to review all these papers. And some authors may feel more competition that they need to keep up and keep writing more and faster. 

You analyzed close to a million papers on arXiv, bioRxiv, and  Nature from January 2020 to February 2024. Do any of these journals include humanities papers or anything in the social sciences?  

We mostly wanted to focus more on CS and engineering and biomedical areas and interdisciplinary areas, like  Nature family journals, which also publish some social science papers. Availability mattered in this case. So, it’s relatively easy for us to get data from arXiv, bioRxiv, and  Nature . A lot of AI conferences also make reviews publicly available. That’s not the case for humanities journals.

Did any results surprise you?

A few months after ChatGPT’s launch, we started to see a rapid, linear increase in the usage pattern in academic writing. This tells us how quickly these LLM technologies diffuse into the community and become adopted by researchers. The most surprising finding is the magnitude and speed of the increase in language model usage. Nearly a fifth of papers and peer review text use LLM modification. We also found that peer reviews submitted closer to the deadline and those less likely to engage with author rebuttal were more likely to use LLMs. 

This suggests a couple of things. Perhaps some of these reviewers are not as engaged with reviewing these papers, and that’s why they are offloading some of the work to AI to help. This could be problematic if reviewers are not fully involved. As one of the pillars of the scientific process, it is still necessary to have human experts providing objective and rigorous evaluations. If this is being diluted, that’s not great for the scientific community.

What do your findings mean for the broader research community?

LLMs are transforming how we do research. It’s clear from our work that many papers we read are written with the help of LLMs. There needs to be more transparency, and people should state explicitly how LLMs are used and if they are used substantially. I don’t think it’s always a bad thing for people to use LLMs. In many areas, this can be very useful. For someone who is not a native English speaker, having the model polish their writing can be helpful. There are constructive ways for people to use LLMs in the research process; for example, in earlier stages of their draft. You could get useful feedback from a LLM in real time instead of waiting weeks or months to get external feedback. 

But I think it’s still very important for the human researchers to be accountable for everything that is submitted and presented. They should be able to say, “Yes, I will stand behind the statements that are written in this paper.”

*Collaborators include:  Weixin Liang ,  Yaohui Zhang ,  Zhengxuan Wu ,  Haley Lepp ,  Wenlong Ji ,  Xuandong Zhao ,  Hancheng Cao ,  Sheng Liu ,  Siyu He ,  Zhi Huang ,  Diyi Yang ,  Christopher Potts ,  Christopher D. Manning ,  Zachary Izzo ,  Yaohui Zhang ,  Lingjiao Chen ,  Haotian Ye , and Daniel A. McFarland .

Stanford HAI’s mission is to advance AI research, education, policy and practice to improve the human condition.  Learn more . 

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