what is problem solving theory in social work

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Home / Social Work Resources / Theories & Practice Models Used in Social Work

Theories & Practice Models Used in Social Work

Private practices. Mental health clinics. Child welfare service agencies. Occupying a variety of professional settings, social workers are united by a shared mission: helping others live better lives.

In order to do that, they must first understand what makes their clients tick. As a social worker, studying different social work theories and social work practice models can help to bring you closer to your clients — equipping you with actionable insights that inform empathetic, evidence-based service.

Inspired by the scientific method, social work theories uncover the why of human behavior, while social work practice models reveal how you can effect change for individuals, couples, families, and communities at large.

If you’re looking for Social Work Practice Models, jump down here.

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List of Theories Used in Social Work

As a social worker, more knowledge can lead to a more informed approach, and more effective client interactions. Here, we’ll dig into decades of research to share a comprehensive set of social work theories and practice models, including:

Systems Theory

Behaviorism and social learning theory, psychodynamic theory, developmental perspective, rational choice perspective, conflict theory, ecological systems theory, family systems theory, contingency theory.

The 1950s were a decade of global innovation. From barcodes to credit cards, commercial computers to video cassette records, cutting-edge inventions were taking the stage. Around the same time, a new social work development was making its debut: systems theory.

Inspired by major advancements in the fields of psychology, communication, and psychiatry, systems theory is based on the belief that individuals don’t operate in isolation . Rather, the theory positions people as products of complex systems: influenced by a variety of external factors, including other individuals, families, communities, and organizations.

Learn more about System Theory in Social Work.

Developed by the American psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner , ecological systems theory emphasizes the importance of observing people in multiple environments, or systems, to fully understand their behavior. In his theory, Bronfenbrenner outlines five distinct systems:

The microsystem is someone’s small, immediate environment. For a child, this usually includes direct family, teachers, peers, and caregivers. Relationships in the microsystem are bi-directional—for instance, a parent treating a child with kindness will likely affect how the child treats the parent in return. For this reason, some consider the microsystem to be the most influential level of the ecological systems theory.
The mesosystem consists of interactions between the different parts of a person’s microsystem. For instance, between a child’s parent and teacher. A social worker using this theory in everyday practice might ask themselves: “Are the different parts of my client’s microsystem working together towards a positive impact or working against each other?”
The exosystem is an individual’s indirect environment. Consider a child whose father is an active duty soldier. Though the military isn’t a part of that child’s direct environment, it still influences them mentally and emotionally, and can impact their thoughts, relationships, and behavior.
The macrosystem is a society’s overarching set of beliefs, values, and norms. This system often has a cascading effect on behavior in all the other systems, serving as a filter through which an individual interprets their experiences. For instance, a child might grow up thinking their socioeconomic status is a limiting factor in life. This macrosystem-level belief may cause them to behave differently in school — for positive or for negative, depending on the individual.
The chronosystem includes major changes that influence an individual’s development overtime. This could include changes in family structure, employment status, or address, as well as large societal changes like wars, civil rights movements, or economic flux.

Family systems theory was developed in the mid-1950s, while American psychiatrist Murray Bowen was working at the National Institute of Mental Health . Based on his knowledge of family patterns and systems theory, Bowen believed that the personalities, emotions, and behaviors of grown individuals could be traced back to their family interactions. The family, he suggested, is an emotional unit and can therefore play a formative role in development.

Within social work, professionals may enable families to try out different ways of doing things, such as teaching a parent on how to maintain appropriate boundaries with their child. The family is identified as a social system and therapy engages that concept to support the growth of clients.

Contingency theory explains that individual outcomes are contingent on a variety of specific situational factors. In the realm of social work, contingency theory can inspire you to seek understanding by considering all of the internal and external influences that are contributing to a client’s problem.

Systems Theory Related Resources

American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) – Systems-Based Practice
Bronfenbrenner Center for Translational Research
The Bowen Center
The Ecology of Human Development by Urie Bronfenbrenner
Effective Social Work with Children, Young People and Families: Putting Systems Theory into Practice
GoodTherapy – Systems Theory/Therapy
New England Association for Family and Systemic Therapy (NEAFAST) – What is Systems Theory?
Psychology Today – Family Systems Theory
Systems Theory in Social Work

Behaviorism
Cognitive Theory

What drives human behavior? It’s a question that’s been asked for decades on end — and one that’s particularly relevant to the field of social work. Both behaviorism and social learning theory provide social workers with a useful framework for understanding clients.

By learning how past experiences influence present-day behavior, you can develop a research-backed approach to providing targeted care.

Social learning theory was developed by the influential Stanford University psychologist Albert Bandura. In 1961, Bandura conducted his most widely known experiment: the Bobo doll study . In this experiment, children watched an adult shout at and beat a Bobo doll on television.

Later that same day, the children were left to play in a room containing a Bobo doll — and those who’d seen the film were more likely to torment the doll, imitating the behavior they’d been exposed to earlier. As a result, social learning theory posits that learning occurs through observation and imitation.

Learn more about Social Learning Theory in Social Work.

Behaviorism and Behavioral Theory

According to behaviorism, all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. By adding in a conditioned stimulus before an unconditioned stimulus that leads to an unconditioned response, the conditioned stimulus will lead to a new conditioned response. In his famous experiment, Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov conditioned dogs to produce saliva at the sound of a metronome. By consistently introducing the metronome before feeding time, he found that the sound alone would lead to salivation — in anticipation of feeding time.

Similarly, humans can be conditioned to respond to specific stimuli. For instance, a child may work harder in school if they are promised a reward for receiving good grades.

Cognitive Theory in Social Work

Cognitive theory uncovers how a person’s thinking influences behavior. This theory places emphasis on dysfunctional thought patterns that influence problematic behaviors — what we tell ourselves after an event. Social works may utilize this approach in therapy sessions to link dysfunctional thoughts that occur after and before behaviors.

Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory Related Resources

American Psychological Association (APA) – “Albert Bandura to receive National Medal of Science”
Association for Psychological Science (APS) – What Happened to Behaviorism
Berkeley Graduate Division: Graduate Student Instructor Teaching & Resource Center – Behaviorism
BMC Medical Education – Using Social Learning Theory to Explore the Process of Learning from Role Models in Clinical Settings
Psychology Today – Behaviorism
Psychology Today – Social Learning Theory
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Behaviorism
Social Learning Theory – By Albert Bandura
Social Learning Theory in Social Work
Youtube Video from The Curious Classroom – Bandura and Social Learning Theory

Drive Theory

Ego psychology, object relations theory, self psychology.

Originally introduced by Sigmund Freud, psychodynamic theory has a storied history within social work. This theory is based on Freud’s belief that humans are intra-psychologically driven to seek gratification and that these impulses largely influence our everyday behavior. Psychodynamic theory has four major schools of thought: drive theory, ego psychology, object relations theory and self-psychology.

This psychodynamic theory is based on Freud’s belief that humans are biologically driven to seek gratification of their endogenous drive — and that these impulses largely influence our everyday behavior. Per Freud, these primary drives include sex, self-preservation, and aggression. Impositions on these drives may be external or internal via superego and ego; psychic structures introduced by Freud. Social workers who approach clients with theoretical orientation on drive may posit that a client’s actions are based on an innate suppression of, otherwise, socially unacceptable actions.

According to the American Psychological Association (APA), ego psychology is an approach that emphasizes the functions of the ego in controlling impulses, planning, and dealing with the external environment. Freud believed that the ego is weak in relation to one’s id. Ego psychology combines biological and psychological views of development by understanding the influences of socio cultural impacts on function.

Object-relations theory is a branch of psychodynamic thought that suggests relationships are more critical to personality development than individual drives and abilities. Accordingly, social workers may want to study the interactions between a client and the people who played a significant role in their life in early childhood.

Self psychology was introduced by Austrian psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut in the early 1970s and has since become one of social work’s most significant analytic theories. According to self psychology, humans have a distinct set of development needs and transferences: mirroring, idealizing, and alter ego. If a parent fails to meet those needs in childhood, an individual may wind up unable to regulate self-esteem — and therefore, may be overly dependent on others to provide those functions. In the realm of social work, this calls for a careful understanding of early occurrences and shortcomings.

Psychodynamic Related Resources

PsychCentral – Psychodynamic Therapy
Psychodynamic Theory – By Kathleen Holtz Deal
Psychology Today – Psychodynamic Therapy
SAMSHA/CSAT Treatment Improvement Protocols – Brief Interventions and Brief Therapies for Substance Abuse – Brief Psychodynamic Therapy
Psychosocial Development Theory

Transpersonal Theory

Growth. Change. Consistency. By adopting a developmental perspective, social workers can start uncovering the patterns of a person’s life. A large portion of developmental theories focus on childhood, since this is such a formative time.

Psychosocial Developmental Theory

Inspired by the earlier work of Sigmund Freud, German psychoanalyst Erik Erikson developed an eight-stage theory of identity and psychosocial development. According to Erikson, everyone must pass through eight stages of development throughout their life cycle: hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, and wisdom. As a social worker, you may find it useful to identify a client’s current stage to pinpoint what challenges they’re currently facing.

Transpersonal theory suggests the existence of stages beyond the adult ego. These stages contribute to creativity, wisdom, and altruism in healthy individuals—but can lead to psychosis in those lacking healthy ego development. In social work, transpersonal theory may be used to treat anxiety, depression, addiction and other mental health concerns. Typically spiritual approaches as used such as meditation, guided visualization, hypnotherapy and more.

Developmental Perspective Related Resources

A Lifespan Developmental Perspective on Psychosocial Development in Midlife – By Tara L. Kuther and Kaitlyn Burnell
Liberty University – Theories of Psychosocial Development
Midlife Eriksonian Psychosocial Development: Setting the Stage for Cognitive and Emotional Health in Late Life – By Johanna C. Malone, Sabrina R. Liu, George E. Vaillant, Dorene M. Rentz, and Robert J. Waldinger
Psychosocial Theory: Erikson – By Doug Davis and Alan Clifton
Psychology Today – Our Hierarchy of Needs
Psychology Today – Transpersonal Therapy
A Review of Transpersonal Theory and Its Application to the Practice of Psychotherapy – By Mark C. Kasprow, M.D. and Bryce W. Scotton, M.D.
Social Work and Social Development – Edited By James Midgley and Amy Conley

Social Exchange Theory

Social constructionism, symbolic interactionism.

Rational choice perspective is based on the idea that people calculate risks and benefits before making any decision, since all actions are fundamentally rational in character. Studying this theory can help social workers better understand client behavior. For instance, an action that seems objectively irrational to some, may make more sense upon closer examination of the individual’s context.

Social exchange theory dates back to 1958, when American sociologist George Homans published the paper “Social Behavior as Exchange.” According to Homans, any two-person relationship can be viewed in terms of cost-benefit analysis— what am I giving, and what am I getting in return? The APA defines social exchange theory as a concern of social interactions in exchanges where all participants seek to maximize their benefits. Within social work, professionals may utilize their theory to better understand interactions with their client and others around them — diving into the intrinsic rewards they may receive.

True. False. Good. Bad. Right. Wrong. In social constructionism, these are all relative concepts, entirely dependent on the person who is interpreting them. This concept abandons the idea that one’s mind represents a mirror of reality—rather, it suggests that each of us creates our own world from our individual perceptions and interactions with others in the community.

Symbolic interactionism positions communication as the central way in which people make sense of their social worlds. American psychologist Herbert Blumer introduced three premises of symbolic interactionism:

Humans interact with objects, institutions, and other individuals based on ascribed meanings.
These ascribed meanings are inspired by our interactions with others and society.
The meanings are interpreted by individuals in specific circumstances.

Imagine, for example, that your client professes a love for baking. Adopting a lens of symbolic interactionism, you may dig deeper into the ascribed meaning behind this act. Perhaps your client makes meringues because they used to help their mother do so in childhood — and for them, escaping to the kitchen is an act of comfort and safety.

Rational Choice Perspective Related Resources

Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI) – Behavior Analysis and Social Constructionism: Some Points of Contact and Departure by Bryan Roche and Dermot Barnes-Holmes
Cornell University ILR School – Social Exchange Theory of Emotions by Edward J. Lawler and Shane R. Thye
Iowa State University – Social Exchange Theory by Mark V. Redmond
Ontario Ministry of Children, Community and Social Services – Rational Choice and Routine Activities Theory
Rational Choice Theory: Advocacy and Critique – Edited by James S. Coleman and Thomas J. Fararo
What is Social Constructionism? – By Tom Andrews

Conflict theory explains how different power structures impact people’s lives. In this theory, life is characterized by conflict—whether that’s oppression, discrimination, power struggles, or structural inequality. In addressing these asymmetrical power relationships, social workers can strive to reduce tensions between different groups.

Practice Models Used in Social Work

Problem solving model.

Task Centered Practice
Solution Focused Therapy

Narrative Therapy

Cognitive-behavioral therapy, crisis intervention model.

Read on to discover how these practice models are used by social workers in a variety of settings.

Proposed by Helen Harris Perlman in her book Social Casework: A Problem-solving Process, the problem solving model. Ms. Perlman posited that “success could be achieved by partializing – or separating into manageable segments – a client’s intertwined problems and focusing on one specific issue the client and social worker agreed needed to be resolved at a given time”, according to The University of Chicago School of Social Service Administration . Utilizing this model, social workers are employed to address one concern of a client as to be resolved, at any given time. This allows for therapy for clients to be more manageable.

Task-Centered Practice

Beginning at the University of Chicago’s School of Social Service Administration, task-centered practice (TCP) is a four step process that trains social workers to work with clients in establishing specific and achievable goals based upon their concern for therapy. Through this model, social workers empower clients to drive their therapy by asking what they most want to work on to address their problems.

Solution-Focused Therapy

Solution-focused therapy was developed out of necessity, as a brief theory, in an inner city outpatient mental health setting bySteve de Shazer, Insoo Kim Berg and their colleagues. This approach focuses on finding solutions in the from the past, for the present — in hopes of achieving quicker problem resolution. Social workers may use this theory when focusing more on the present and future, asking questions like “What would you be doing this weekend that supports your therapy goals?”.

Narrative therapy can be an effective way of separating a client from their problems. By examining a person’s life story, this social work practice model externalizes struggles, allowing individuals to adopt a new perspective and see the bigger picture. From a distance, they may be able to reframe their situation—recognizing that their self-worth and purpose are separate from their problems. When told from a third-person perspective, a story of hardship may transform into a story of resilience.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy is one of the leading treatments for many mental health conditions. This social work practice model focuses on the relationship between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors—encouraging clients to identify patterns of irrational and self-destructive thoughts and behaviors that impact emotions.

Crisis intervention includes seven stages: assess safety and lethality, rapport building, problem identification, address feelings, generate alternatives, develop a plan of action, and follow up. This social work practice model is used when someone is experiencing an acute crisis — and is commonly used with clients who are expressing suicidal intent.

If you would like to become a social worker, but are not sure what degree options are available for you, explore our list of accredited masters in social worker online programs .

Theories Used in Social Work

Social workers are employed throughout a variety of settings and guide people from all walks of life. Regardless of their context, social workers can leverage some core theories and practice models to help clients throughout the industry.

Common Theories and Practice Models in Social Work

In many ways, social work is a science. Social workers can guide their clients, but they don’t carry out their practice based on their own opinion and/or style. Instead, social workers study specific clinical theories that are grounded in research to inform how they implement clinical practice in a methodological manner. In fact, clinical social workers need to obtain both a bachelor’s and master’s degree in order to fully understand these theories and master therapeutic practice models.

At its core, social work focuses on “person-in-environment” (PIE) theory. This considers clients within their psychosocial contexts, and it connects to micro, mezzo, and macro levels of social work practice. This guide explores how each theory and practice model functions within the PIE theory.

Social workers learn about these theories during their education. You can learn more about these academic programs with these resources: a guide to social work bachelor’s degrees , master’s degrees , and online master’s degrees .

Why is Theory Important in Social Work?

As any social work professor can tell you, understanding clinical theories are an essential part of a social worker’s job. It allows social workers to explore certain origins of behavior with evidence-based approaches. Social workers also lean on these theories and practices to address client problems with research to back up their practice. This is especially important, as social workers need to avoid personal assumptions or biases from interfering with effective treatment plans.

Learning about these theories can also help social workers implement effective solutions rather than grasping at straws. If a certain therapeutic approach does not work, social workers can examine the reasons and use what they’ve learned to try a different approach.

Common Social Work Theories

Social workers can incorporate components of several different clinical theories in their work with clients. Some popular approaches for social workers include theories of systems, social learning, psychosocial development, psychodynamic, transpersonal, and rational choice.

Many of these theories have been developed within the past century, and several draw upon Sigmund Freud’s theories of psychoanalysis. Some of these theories encompass a broad outlook (such as systems theory), while others focus on specific conflicts (like psychosocial theory). Not every social worker uses every theory, while some social workers might use elements of each one. You can read more information about the most common social work theories below.

Systems theory assumes that human behavior is the result of a larger system comprised of several elements, including the relationships between these elements, as well as external factors like their environment. These factors could involve a person’s family, peers, school, work, or community. Sociologists have identified many different types of systems, including microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems, and macrosystems.

Social work professionals examine how the systems in which their clients live affect their behaviors. For instance, living in a system of poverty can have a significant impact on how a person makes decisions. Social workers can devise strategies based on these systems in order to provide a more concise treatment plan for their client.

Developed by psychologist Albert Bandura in the 1970s, social learning theory accounts for how the behavior of other people can affect somebody’s behavior. Bandura argued that individuals pick up behaviors by observing and imitating the people around them. Unlike behavioral theories, social learning theory proposes that people actively and mentally process other people’s behaviors before imitating them.

Social workers may take into account social learning theory when working with children who take on aggressive or violent behaviors, for example. The children may mimic their parents or other significant adults in their lives. When social workers are able to identify the origin of a child’s behaviors, they are able to effectively create a treatment approach.

Influenced by the seminal work of Freud, psychologist Erik Erikson proposes several stages of development relating to a person’s ego identity, personal identity, and social and cultural identity. Erikson’s theory argues that humans struggle with specific conflicts throughout different stages of their life. Those conflicts include:

Trust vs. mistrust in infancy
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt in early childhood
Initiative vs. guilt in preschool age
Industry vs. inferiority in school age
Identity vs. role confusion in adolescence
Intimacy vs. isolation in young adulthood
Generativity vs. stagnation in middle adulthood
Ego integrity vs. despair in maturity

Erikson’s theory suggests that if humans effectively navigate these tensions at each stage of their life, they can develop a healthy ego. Social workers may consider these conflicts when working with their clients. It is important to note that each stage correlates with an emotional stage which could also be in conflict with a developmental stage.

Introduced by Freud at the turn of the 20th century — and popularized by Carl Jung, Melanie Klein, and Anna Freud — psychodynamic theory argues that our personalities develop because of various internal forces. Freud wrote that our personalities are largely shaped during our early childhood, and our personality consists of three main parts: id (impulse), ego (decision-making), and superego (conscience). Psychodynamic theory also prioritizes a person’s unconscious thought process as the root of their behaviors.

Social workers may use psychodynamic theory to help clients examine the underlying causes of certain behaviors — often considering the clients’ childhood — to help explain why they act a certain way. Social workers may offer different types of therapies based on psychodynamic theory, including transference and dream analysis.

Transpersonal theory approaches humans with a holistic philosophy, and considers factors like spirituality, the relationship between the body and the mind, and consciousness. Psychologists generally do not consider transpersonal theory to be scientific, but many therapists or mental health professionals integrate elements of transpersonal theory into their practice. They might use meditation, mindfulness practices, or hypnotherapy on their patients.

Rational choice theory argues that people make decisions and carry out behaviors based on their own rational thought processes, especially if those decisions ultimately benefit the individual. This theory directly opposes some other clinical theories that suggest people make decisions on unconscious thought processes.

Although rational choice theory is often found within economic theory, social workers can also apply these principles to their job. To understand why clients make certain decisions, social workers can examine how those clients believed their choices would benefit them. Social workers also can develop solutions and suggest resources to assist clients with achieving their goals.

Common Practice Models in Social Work

While social workers integrate various clinical theories into their practice, they can also implement specific therapeutic models. The theories above may explain the causes of a person’s struggles; however, practice models allow social workers to carry out specific approaches to treat those struggles.

The section below outlines some of the most common practice models, including cognitive behavioral therapy, crisis intervention model, narrative therapy, problem-solving model, solution-focused therapy, and task-centered therapy. Some of these methods overlap or share characteristics with each other, but each serves a purpose for specific clients and circumstances.

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) identifies unhealthy patterns of thinking and attempts to rewrite these patterns.

People often convince themselves that their frequently distorted thoughts are true. CBT forces individuals to question and confront these distortions. For instance, somebody might find themselves in fear of social situations, because they imagine a worst-case scenario that they will humiliate themselves. CBT pushes that person to examine these assumptions and instead consider new scenarios and outlooks.

People who struggle with anxiety and depression often find CBT helpful, and many clinical social workers incorporate CBT into their therapeutic practice.

Crisis intervention model is much what it sounds like: in times of acute psychological strain or distress, social workers and mental health professionals intervene before that crisis turns into harm. Albert Roberts and Allen Ottens propose seven steps to crisis intervention. These include conducting a safety assessment, establishing psychological contact, identifying the major problems, helping the patient explore their feelings, looking for new coping mechanisms, creating an action plan, and planning follow-ups.

Social workers can use the crisis intervention model for clients suffering from major trauma, post-traumatic stress disorder, or suicidal thoughts, among others. This model of crisis intervention works in a voluntary manner, which means that clients must be open to the process.

Narrative therapy is based on the theory that individuals turn their personal experiences into stories. In other words, they create narratives of their own lives. This type of therapy relies on four major principles: “objective truth” does not exist; reality is a social construct; language can influence how we view reality; and narratives help us organize our personal realities.

Narrative therapy encourages clients to distance themselves from their personal experiences by taking on the role of a narrator and rewriting the script. This can help them change harmful and disruptive thinking patterns, especially those shaped by trauma.

Helen Harris Perlman proposed the problem-solving model in the 1950s specifically for the field of social work. At the time, many social work theories and therapies relied on psychotherapy; Perlman instead argued that social workers could more effectively help clients by focusing on one problem at a time.

Focusing on smaller problems allows clients to develop and follow through with action plans to confront those issues in a manageable way. This method — also called “partializing” — would make therapies more manageable for social workers and clients alike, and professionals still use Perlman’s proposals.

Solution-focused therapy, or solution focused brief therapy, concentrates on an individual’s present and future situations. This therapy involves a departure from psychodynamic-influenced theories that focus on a person’s past and childhood.

Solution-focused therapy proposes immediate, manageable solutions that allow patients to better cope with their problems. A mental health professional or social worker employing this type of therapy might challenge a client to imagine their future life without their problem, or they might help individuals recognize and better harness copy mechanisms that they already use. Social workers might implement solution-focused therapy for adolescents with behavioral problems or families with conflicts, to name a couple of examples.

Task-centered practice shares many principles with the problem-solving model and solution-focused therapy, but it tends to follow an even more focused and quick approach. Task-centered practice usually only lasts 8-12 sessions, and clients concentrate on achieving measurable goals. Clients and social workers create action plans with specific tasks, and then clients carry out those tasks.

Social workers can integrate this type of therapy into many different types of settings. They might work with students with disruptive behavioral issues, soon-to-be-discharged hospital patients, or older clients at nursing homes.

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what is problem solving theory in social work

Melissa Russiano, LCSW, LISW

Melissa Russiano is a licensed clinical social worker in private practice that has organically developed into a specialty working with helping professionals. Russiano has a proven track record helping professionals avoid burnout in a unique way that holds clinicians accountable through laughter, tears, blunt (yet very supportive) feedback and quirky analogies that are grounded in solid theoretical research. Russiano practices solely in a virtual setting in the states of California, Florida, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Tennessee. Additionally, Russiano is a professor imparting her experiences and knowledge in the field to future social workers in a graduate program through Simmons University online.

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Helen harris perlman and the problem solving model.

Helen Harris Perlman and the Problem Solving Model

Allison D. Murdach LCSW

2942 Hardeman St.

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Abstract: This article examines the work of Helen Harris Perlman in developing the problem-solving model of social work direct practice. The origins, development and subsequent spread of this approach throughout social work practice is discussed and the various ways in which this model has been applied in the profession is briefly reviewed. The current status of the model, including concerns about its contemporary viability and usefulness, is examined at the conclusion of the article.

Key Words: Problem-Solving Model, Social Work Method, Social Work History, Direct Practice, Social

Work Profession

“I do claim to be an authority on the Problem-solving model in social work, both in

its methodological aspects and its theoretical roots. I am the originator and developer

of that model.” (Perlman, p. 1, 1980)

This article examines the work of Helen Harris Perlman (1906-2004) in the development of the problem-solving model of direct practice in social work. As we approach the third anniversary of her death (September 18, 2004), it is important to recognize once again the importance and magnitude of her contribution to the field. Perlman, a prolific social work author as well as a distinguished clinician and educator in social work, always laid special claim to her model, which she developed in the 1950’s. Sadly, although she asserted ownership, her model soon slipped from her hands because of its wide acceptance and became, in the latter stages of her life, often misrepresented and at times unrecognizable.

Perlman and Problem-Solving

Perlman did not start out to be a social worker. Her original intention was to become a college humanities professor. After graduating from the University of Minnesota with honors in 1926 with a B. A. in English literature, she was told that she was unemployable at the college level because she was a woman and especially because she was Jewish. She then found work as a summer caseworker for the Chicago Jewish Social Service Bureau. Later she reported that this first exposure to social work was a revelation. “A whole world opened up to me,” she said, a world in which she also “got a great deal of satisfaction from being able to help people.” ( News & Notes, 2004, p. 1). She continued working in various social work capacities and assignments at increasingly responsible levels until 1933, when she got a scholarship enabling her to enroll in the New York School of Social Work, now affiliated with ColumbiaUniversity. While completing her training in social work in New York, she was in demand as a speaker and often addressed various conferences and professional groups about new developments in social work theory and method. In 1943 she earned her master’s degree in social work from ColumbiaUniversity. She joined the social work faculty of the Schoolof Social Service Administrationat the Universityof Chicagoin 1945. While at the school she became first a national and then an international social work figure because of her writing about social work issues, as well as her teaching, consulting, public speaking, and her innovative development of the problem-solving model of social work practice. She published her classic text, Social Casework, A Problem-Solving Process , in 1957. She officially retired late in her career, but continued to work, teach, write, and do research at the school until just before her death at age 98, even though afflicted near the end of her life with blindness.

Despite her many scholarly achievements, Perlman always remained a clinician at heart. As a professional with broad learning and classical training, Perlman was driven to use the insights derived from her clinical work as inspiration for conjecture about social work method and training. She said her contacts with clients gave her valuable learning opportunities because these relationships involved her in “many cases…(in which) families faced the same kinds of problems and conflicts that one encountered in the great works of literature.” (News & Notes, 2004, p. 5.) She also stated that it was through these experiences that she came to realize that she “had learned much more of the sickness in people than of their healthiness.” She soon recognized that she needed to look beyond client pathology to see instead the great “human potential for recuperation and aspiration” that resided in the many ordinary individuals and families who sought her care and assistance on a daily basis (Perlman, 1971, p. xviii). It was considerations such as these that eventually led to her interest in, and championing of, the importance of processes of everyday human problem-solving in resolving the difficulties in client’s lives (Perlman, 1957).

Development of the Problem-Solving Approach

Before discussing Perlman’s model in detail, it will be instructive to review the intellectual background of her approach to gain a better understanding of the context in which it developed. Prior to the appearance of Perlman’s text in the 1950’s the topic of problem-solving had been, and today continues to be, an area of study in this country in many fields, particularly psychology. In 1907 the psychologist and philosopher William James established problem solving (which he called “ common sense”) as a field of intellectual enquiry by giving it a central place in his doctrine of Pragmatism, a philosophical approach to truth which also sought to develop methods that were “helpful in life’s practical struggles” (James, 1963, p.36). The goal of such methods, James believed, was to help individuals to find their own truth through observation and experience (James, 1963). In 1910 James’ fellow pragmatist John Dewey conceptualized human problem-solving (or, in his terms, “reflective thinking”)as being composed of four central elements: recognizing and formulating a problem, gathering facts that will lead to a solution, testing each proposed solution, and deciding upon a course of action (Dewey). Perlman was the first social work author to use the term “problem-solving” in a social work context and credits Dewey’s writings as her inspiration for the concept (Perlman, 1971).

Social work was at first slow to adopt the pragmatic idea of problem-solving as a style of intervention. Mary Richmond, the founder of social work direct practice method, was influenced more strongly by medical methods of intervention (i.e., “study”, “diagnosis”, and “treatment”) (Richmond, 1917) than the philosophical and psychological approach taken by James and Dewey. Although also a form of problem-solving, the medical approach was, and continues to be, practitioner-driven and assumes the pathology and passivity of the client. The pragmatic approach, on the other hand, has always emphasized client normality and capacity for personal self-determination, which it seeks to enlist in a search for growth and positive change (Perlman, 1957).

The medically-oriented view of the helping relationship prevailed in social work throughout the early twentieth century, largely due toRichmond’s extensive impact on the profession’s development (Garton & Otto, 1964). Due to the growing popularity of the pragmatic point of view in this country (Menand, 2001), the problem-solving mode of thinking began to influence direct social work practice and social work theorists in the 1920’s and social work authors increasingly began to refer to the practitioner’s efforts to involve clients in the helping interaction by engaging the client’s own problem-solving capacities. The following list of recommended worker interventions from classic social work writers over several decades, much condensed, helps to indicate the progress of this development:

a) Help client acknowledge difficulty.

b) Assist client in understanding the meaning of the situation.

c) Aid client in making decision to change. (Sheffield, 1922)

a) Show sympathetic approach with client.

b) Establish rapport.

c) Present and discuss facts of the case.

d) Stimulate the client to action. (Young, 1935)

a) Demonstrate to the client your ability to observe and listen.

b) Begin where the client is.

c) Ask only necessary questions.

d) Take leadership only when needed, otherwise use client’s own resourcefulness.

e) Offer interpretations of client’s situation, as well as resources and direction only as needed.

(Garrett, 1942)

a) Demonstrate acceptance of client.

b) Discuss client request.

c) Gather facts about request.

d) Note and discuss client stresses and patterns of behavior.

e) Offer only interpretations of the situation that can also utilize the client’s own insight and can aid the client to take action. (Hamilton, 1951)

In developing her problem-solving model, Perlman utilized the best features of these intervention schemes but infused them with even greater attention to client problem-solving efforts and capacities (Perlman, 1970). First in a journal article in 1953 (Perlman, 1971b) and finally fully in her book, Social Casework, a problem-solving process (Perlman, 1957), she laid out the intervention stages required by her model. These can be outlined briefly as follows:

a) Ascertaining and clarifying the facts of the problem.

b) Thinking through the facts.

c) The making of some choice or decision. (Perlman, 1957)

Perlman’s problem-solving approach, which appears extremely simple and derivative in bare outline, was actually sophisticated and innovative (Bunston, 1985). Far from being just a rehash of John Dewey, her model was a synthesis derived from a number of sources: her background in the humanities, her philosophical reflections combined with her knowledge of psychodynamics and the social sciences, her extensive clinical experience, and her study of the “functional” version of social work originated by Jessie Taft, with its strong emphasis on the importance of the helping relationship in direct practice (Perlman, 1957, 1970). Building from this foundation, she brilliantly formulated a unique cognitively-oriented and client-centered problem-solving process for social work intervention. In doing so, she highlighted her concepts of “focus” and “partialization”, which described ways of aiding the client to overcome difficulties by tackling small problems first and thus building confidence to move on to more challenging goals.

Though this brief sketch of her work hardly does justice to the power and complexity of Perlman’s accomplishment, it does at least highlight the principal stages of her model: problem definition, problem analysis (including the generation and review of alternatives), and the need for specific decision about a course of action (including methods of monitoring and evaluating the results of such action) ( Perlman, 1957). This intervention method was initially controversial in the profession. Some thought it a mere social work copy of long existent business and management intervention techniques. Others found it too “rationalistic” and structured, and overly focused on method instead of process, while some in the “diagnostic” social work tradition complained that it was superficial and did not sufficiently address in depth issues of diagnosis, psychopathology, or treatment. It also was buffeted by competing versions of problem-solving and by “adaptations” of her model that both amused Perlman and caused her dismay (Perlman, 1980). However in the end, her brilliant synthesis of cognitive analysis, practicality, and psychodynamic compassion and understanding led her model to triumph over her social work critics and imitators. So successful has the problem-solving approach become that it has now recently been enshrined in the international definition of social work practice (International Definition of the Social Work Profession, Supplement of International Social Work, p. 5, 2007).

Concerns about Problem-Solving

It is ironic that the wide-spread influence, success, and acceptance of Perlman’s model makes her achievement appear today to be almost commonplace and banal. This has even led some to question the method’s apparent efficiency and effectiveness and to seek more in-depth explanations of what actually constitutes problem-solving activity (DeRoos, 1990). The easy accessibility of the problem-solving approach has also caused others to question the accuracy of its empirical foundations (Bunston, 1985). Perlman herself, reflecting on her model’s lack of adornment, was to complain in her later years that many social workers seemed to talk as if the problem-solving method in social work had always existed and “just happened”, that it seemed to have no author or source, and was not even inspired by her work (Perlman, p. 1, 1980). The popularity and appeal of her approach, it seems, did indeed have its price.

In addition to the above, other theorists have raised objections that question the whole notion of using a problem-solving model in helping interventions. In essence, these objections can be boiled down to the following four general statements:

1) In reality problem “solving” doesn’t often happen– Some have claimed that in real life social workers and their clients deal with tremendous uncertainty and rarely with well-identified problems, therefore problem “solving” does not often happens and the most that can be hoped for is problem reduction and management—goals that are more realistic and far easier for clients and workers to achieve (Schon, 1983).

2) Problem- s olving is only one form of thought— Authors in the narrative tradition of social work and therapuetic intervention have worried that fixation on the problem-solving mode of interaction can constrict the client’s ability to freely tell his or her “story” and thus fail to tap into alternate styles of thought and reflection ( Anderson, 1997).

3) The problem-solving model is culture-bound— Since the social work problem-solving approach was developed initially in social work in the context of white, middle-class culture in the United States (though Perlman did have extensive clinical experience working with minority populations, Perlman, 1971a), some have raised concerns that the approach may be unsuitable for clients from other cultures or social groups. It is held this model may be especially inappropriate for individuals from cultures that rely on less organized and less focused methods to address difficulties in social life (such as Native Americans and Mexican-Americans) (Sue, 1981; Galan, 2001).

4) The model is based on non-experimental (i. e., “soft”) evidence— Since Perlman developed her model when social work research was in its infancy, most of her supporting documentation was drawn from clinical and anecdotal sources, plus her own extensive clinical experience. In other words, when developing her approach Perlman made extensive use of the now discredited “argument from authority” in her research (Gambrill, 1999). Although this may put her model on shaky ground in our current social work world of evidence-based practice, it is also true that her problem-solving approach today stands out as a final tribute to the power of “practice wisdom” (DeRoos, 1990) especially as used by a practitioner like Perlman, who possessed a solid liberal arts background as well as infinite discretion and finesse.

Conclusion

Although today no social work author who today used Perlman’s model-building procedures exclusively would be readily considered for academic advancement, the fact that her conceptualizations were generally successful in actual practice appears to bear out psychologist Kurt Lewin’s famous adage that “there is nothing so practical as a good theory.” However, it still needs to be asked how the model measures up today in our current research-heavy climate in social work practice? In general one can answer: pretty well. A number of evaluation research studies done over the past several decades have documented that problem-solving approaches and their variants, such as task-centered treatment and problem-solving therapy, have an impressive record of effectiveness in work with diverse different populations, cultural groups, treatment methodologies, and diagnostic categories (Reid, 1988; Reid & Fortune 2002; Dobson, Backs-Dermott, &

Dozois, 2000). Indeed these research efforts have, for the most part, laid to rest the objections to Perlman’s problem-solving approach mentioned in the previous section. One issue remain still remains, however. As mentioned above, though the many current variants of Perlman’s approach have been demonstrated to have proven efficacy and effectiveness, Perlman’s model itself is based on theory which has never been empirically tested. Although some have tried to develop ways to accomplish this goal (Bunston, 1985), many of her sources now go back as far as seventy or eighty years, and it may never be possible to fully validate Perlman’s claims empirically. However as Perlman, who loved proverbs, would probably note: “the proof of the pudding is in the tasting.” Thus it appears that it is now in the proof offered by actual practice success that we can best find the final validation of her method.

References

Bunston, T. (1985). Mapping practice: problem solving in clinical social work. Social Casework,

66, 225-236.

DeRoos, Y. S. (1990). The development of practice wisdom through human problem-solving

processes. Social Service Review, 64, 276-287.

Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Boston: D. C. Heath.

Dobson, K. S., Backs-Dermott, B. J. & Dozois, D. J. A (2000). Cognitive and cognitive-behavioral

therapies. In C. R. Snyder & R. E. Ingram (Eds.) Handbook of psychological change , pp. 409-428.

New York: Wiley.

Galan, F. J. (2001). Experiential approach with Mexican-American males with acculturation stress.

In H. E. Briggs & K. Corcoran (Eds.), Social work practice, pp. 283-302. Chicago: Lyceum.

Gambrill, E. (1999). Evidence-based practice: an alternative to authority-based practice. Families in

Society, 80, 341-350.

Garrett, A. (1942). Interviewing. New York: Family Service Association.

Garton, N. R. & Otto, H. A. (1964). The development of theory and practice in social casework.

Springfield,ILL: Charles C. Thomas.

Hamilton, G. (1951). Theory and practice of social case work (2 nd ed.) . New York:ColumbiaUniversity.

International definition of the social work profession (2007). Supplement of International Social Work,50,

James, W. (1967). Pragmatism and other essays. New York:Washington Square.

Menand, L. (2001). The metaphysical club. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

News & Notes (2004). Helen Harris Perlman, social work pioneer and distinguished educator,

p. 1 and p. 5. Chicago: TheSchool ofSocial Service Administration.

Perlman, H. H. (1957). Social casework. Chicago: TheUniversity ofChicago.

Perlman, H. H. (1970). The problem-solving model in social casework. In R. W. Roberts & R. H.

Nee (Eds.), Theories of social casework , pp. 131-179. Chicago: TheUniversity ofChicago.

Perlman, H. H. (1971a). A guide to the reader of this book. In H. H. Perlman, Perspectives

On social casework , pp. ix-xxiv. Philadelphia:TempleUniversity.

Perlman, H. H. (1971b). The basic structure of the casework process. In H. H. Perlman, Perspectives

On social casework , pp. 51-64. Philadelphia:TempleUniversity.

Perlman, H. H. (1980). Letter to author.

Reid, W. J. (1988). Brief task-centered treatment. In R. A. Dorfman (Ed.), Paradigms of clinical social

Work , pp. 196-219.

Reid, W. J. & Fortune, A. E. (2002). The task-centered model. In A. R. Roberts & G. J. Greene (Eds.),

Social workers’ desk reference , pp. 101-104. Oxford:OxfordUniversity.

Richmond, M. E. (1917). Social diagnosis. New York: Russell Sage.

Schon, D. A.(1983). The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books.

Sheffield, A. E. (1922). What is the case worker really doing? The Journal of Social Forces, 1,

362-366.

Sue, D. W. (1981). Counseling the culturally different. New York: Wiley.

Young, P. (1935). Interviewing in social work. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Theories Used in Social Work Practice & Practice Models

Social work theories are general explanations that are supported by evidence obtained through the scientific method. A theory may explain human behavior, for example, by describing how humans interact or how humans react to certain stimuli.

Social work practice models describe how social workers can implement theories. Practice models provide social workers with a blueprint of how to help others based on the underlying social work theory. While a theory explains why something happens, a practice model shows how to use a theory to create change.

Social Work Theories

There are many social work theories that guide social work practice. Here are some of the major theories that are generally accepted in the field of social work:

Systems theory describes human behavior in terms of complex systems. It is premised on the idea that an effective system is based on individual needs, rewards, expectations, and attributes of the people living in the system. According to this theory, families, couples, and organization members are directly involved in resolving a problem even if it is an individual issue.

Social learning theory is based on Albert Bandura’s idea that learning occurs through observation and imitation. New behavior will continue if it is reinforced. According to this theory, rather than simply hearing a new concept and applying it, the learning process is made more efficient if the new behavior is modeled as well.

Psychosocial development theory is an eight-stage theory of identity and psychosocial development articulated by Erik Erikson. Erikson believed everyone must pass through eight stages of development over the life cycle: hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, and wisdom. Each stage is divided into age ranges from infancy to older adults.

Psychodynamic theory was developed by Freud, and it explains personality in terms of conscious and unconscious forces. This social work theory describes the personality as consisting of the id (responsible for following basic instincts), the superego (attempts to follow rules and behave morally), and the ego (mediates between the id and the ego).

Transpersonal theory proposes additional stages beyond the adult ego. In healthy individuals, these stages contribute to creativity, wisdom, and altruism. In people lacking healthy ego development, experiences can lead to psychosis.

Rational choice theory is based on the idea that all action is fundamentally rational in character, and people calculate the risks and benefits of any action before making decisions.

Social Work Practice Models

There are many different practice models that influence the way social workers choose to help people meet their goals. Here are some of the major social work practice models used in various roles, such as case managers and therapists:

Problem solving assists people with the problem solving process. Rather than tell clients what to do, social workers teach clients how to apply a problem solving method so they can develop their own solutions.

Task-centered practice is a short-term treatment where clients establish specific, measurable goals. Social workers and clients collaborate together and create specific strategies and steps to begin reaching those goals.

Narrative therapy externalizes a person’s problem by examining the story of the person’s life. In the story, the client is not defined by the problem, and the problem exists as a separate entity. Instead of focusing on a client’s depression, in this social work practice model, a client would be encouraged to fight against the depression by looking at the skills and abilities that may have previously been taken for granted.

Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on the relationship between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Social workers assist clients in identifying patterns of irrational and self-destructive thoughts and behaviors that influence emotions.

Crisis intervention model is used when someone is dealing with an acute crisis. The model includes seven stages: assess safety and lethality, rapport building, problem identification, address feelings, generate alternatives, develop an action plan, and follow up. This social work practice model is commonly used with clients who are expressing suicidal ideation.

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Online MSW Programs / Social Work / 6 Important Theories in Social Work

Six important theories in social work

Social work theories attempt to describe, explain and predict social events based on scientific evidence, studies and research. Social work perspectives draw from psychology, philosophy, economics, education and other fields to attempt to explain what drives and motivates people at various stages of life.

Some social work students studying for a bachelor’s degree in social work or master of social work may wonder, “Why is theory important in social work?” Studying theory ensures that aspiring professionals are both competent and confident when the time comes to apply social work theories to practice.

Why is theory important in social work?

Social work theories help social workers analyze cases, understand clients, create interventions, predict intervention results, and evaluate outcomes. While the theories are constantly evolving as new evidence is produced, referencing social work theories that have been used over time enables social workers to explore causes of behavior and identify potential solutions.

A crucial objective of learning social work theories is to train and encourage social workers to set aside personal assumptions and beliefs when engaging in social work practice. Social workers should use evidence-based theories to investigate issues and drive their decision making.

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Applying social work theory to practice

Social work theory provides a starting point for social workers to address client problems through a research-based lens.

The theories help social workers better understand complex human behaviors and social environments, which influence their clients lives and the challenges they face. A good grasp of theory that is backed by research-based scientific evidence helps guide social workers by providing them with a sense of direction and purpose.

One challenge when applying social work theories to practice is choosing the right theory for the situation. It can be difficult to assign a single theory to complex client issues. Often, it’s more practical to draw upon the knowledge of multiple theories and use that understanding to design multifaceted interventions.

List of important social work theories

The following list of social work theories includes some of the most widely referenced theories used in social work.

1. Social learning theory

Social learning theory , which is also known as social cognitive theory , was developed by psychologist Albert Bandura. This theory posits that learning occurs by observing others and modeling their behavior.

In order for social learning to occur, a person must want to emulate the person they’re watching. The individual pays close attention to the action and retains the action in memory. Then, the individual must experience a situation where the behavior can be repeated and must be motivated to repeat the behavior.

Social workers can use this theory to better understand how role models affect the behaviors and emotions of their clients. Social learning theory can also help social workers form intervention strategies that use positive modeling and reinforcement to encourage their clients to engage in new positive behaviors.

2. Systems theory

Systems theory proposes that people are products of complex systems, rather than individuals who act in isolation. According to this theory, behavior is influenced by a variety of factors that work together as a system. These factors include family, friends, social settings, religious structure, economic class, and home environment.

Systems theory can be used to treat issues like eating disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety, school trauma, and risky behavior. In ecological systems theory, individuals are observed in multiple environments so that behavior is fully understood. Family systems theory examines the family as a social system influencing behavior and thoughts.

Social workers using systems theory will work to understand how their clients are influenced by the systems they’re a part of. Social workers then identify where systemic breakdowns are affecting behavior.

3. Psychosocial development theory

Psychosocial development theory was introduced by German psychoanalyst Erik Erikson, who believed personality develops in a series of stages. Erikson created an eight-stage theory of psychosocial development . According to the theory, the eight stages of development that people pass through in life are:

Trust versus mistrust
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
Initiative versus guilt
Industry versus inferiority
Identity versus confusion
Intimacy versus isolation
Generativity versus stagnation
Integrity versus despair

Psychosocial development theory explains that humans pass through these stages as they age. By identifying which stage of development their clients are experiencing, social workers can better understand the challenges their clients face.

4. Psychodynamic theory

Psychodynamic theory was introduced by the founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud. This theory is founded on the idea that humans are biologically driven to seek gratification. The theory states that people do this based on processes that have developed outside of conscious awareness, with origins in childhood experiences. This drive influences everyday behavior, leading to actions like aggression, sex and self-preservation.

In social work, psychodynamic theory can help to explain the internal processes individuals use to guide their behavior , some of which may be unconsciously motivated. Social workers may also examine how early childhood experiences have played a role in influencing their clients’ current behavior.

5. Social exchange theory

Social exchange theory suggests that relationships are based on cost-benefit analysis. Each person seeks to maximize their benefits and is expected to reciprocate for the benefits they’ve received. When risks outweigh potential rewards, relationships may be abandoned. When one person in a relationship has greater personal resources than another, that person is predicted to have greater power as well.

Social workers can use social exchange theory to understand their clients’ relationships, including why they continue to maintain certain relationships or abandon them.

Social exchange theory can also be applied to the techniques social workers use to connect with their clients. This theory can influence how social workers position the social worker-client relationship as one that benefits their clients.

6. Rational choice theory

Rational choice theory helps explain why people make the choices they do, by weighing risks, costs and benefits. This theory suggests that all choices are rational because people calculate the costs and benefits before making a decision. Even when a choice seems irrational, there is reasoning behind it.

This theory can help social workers understand the decision-making processes and motivations of their clients.

Six practice models in social work

Social work practice models enable social workers to implement theories in their day-to-day work. Just like a social worker may use various theories to guide their interventions, social workers may also use various practice models depending on the problems their clients encounter.

1. Cognitive behavioral therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on how thoughts and feelings influence behaviors, which can sometimes lead to psychological problems. Social workers using cognitive behavioral therapy methods help clients identify self-destructive thoughts that influence negative emotions and behaviors.

Cognitive behavioral therapy is often used for individuals who are experiencing mental health issues, mental illness or depression resulting from crisis or trauma. Social workers using cognitive behavioral therapy help their clients eliminate negative thoughts to prevent destructive behaviors and adverse outcomes.

2. Crisis intervention model

The crisis intervention model is used for clients who are experiencing crisis and trauma, such as victims of domestic violence, and for clients who require intervention to prevent physical harm or suicide. Albert R. Roberts, PhD, and Allen J. Ottens, PhD, developed a seven-stage crisis intervention model :

Take a psychosocial and lethality assessment.
Rapidly establish rapport.
Identify the major crisis cause(s).
Enable the client to express their feelings and emotions.
Generate and explore safe alternatives for coping.
Create an action plan.
Follow up after the intervention.

This social work model can be used for clients who are experiencing thoughts of suicide or self-harm or who have undergone an acute crisis, like rape or violence.

3. Narrative therapy

Narrative therapy is the process of helping the individual recognize that they have the power to change their life story, also known as the narrative. Narrative therapy helps individuals realize that they are separate from their problems and can fix them when they view the narrative from an outside perspective.

Using narrative therapy, a social worker can help an individual create a new narrative with different positive actions. The social worker enables the individual to understand how the broader context is contributing to their narrative, so that they can be aware of pitfalls to avoid and can utilize various strategies to tackle their problems.

4. Problem-solving model

The problem-solving model was created by Helen Harris Perlman , a social worker and author of “Social Casework: A Problem-solving Process.” Using the problem-solving model, a social worker helps an individual identify a problem, create an action plan to solve it, and implement the solution. Together, the social worker and individual discuss the effectiveness of the problem-solving strategy and adjust it as necessary. The problem-solving model enables the social worker and individual to focus on one concrete problem at a time.

5. Solution-focused therapy

Solution-focused therapy involves the social worker and client identifying a problem and creating a solution based on the individual’s strengths. It’s a short-term practice model that focuses on helping clients cope with challenges using specific behaviors. Instead of focusing on changing who a client is, solution-focused therapy attempts to change a client’s actions in certain situations to achieve more favorable outcomes.

Collaborating to create solutions allows the client to play an active role in implementing necessary actions and achieving positive change.

6. Task-centered practice

Using task-centered practice, a social worker breaks down a problem into manageable tasks. The individual has deadlines to complete the tasks and agrees to meet them. Task-centered practice is a goal-setting form of social work that helps individuals make consistent steps toward improving their lives.

Instead of focusing on the past, this type of practice encourages clients to live in the present and think about how completing certain tasks will positively impact their future.

Resources to explore social work theories

Social work theories have been practiced over decades and continually evolve when new research is completed. Learn more about social work theories by exploring the resources below.

Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work : This journal features research on evidence-based practice in social work and evaluates social work theory, techniques, and strategies.
Journal of Social Work Practice : This journal focuses on psychodynamic and systemic social work perspectives. It features research on theory and practice and includes articles offering critical analysis of systemic and psychodynamic theory.
Journal of Social Work : This journal includes social work research and short “think pieces” on social work theoretical understanding, policy, and practice.
Social Work: This journal is the official journal of the National Association of Social Workers and features articles on social work and social welfare, including new techniques and research.
Clinical Social Work Journal: This journal features peer-reviewed articles on clinical social work practice with individuals, groups, families, and couples. It also has articles on theory developments, practice and evidence-based clinical research.

Introductory books

“A Brief Introduction to Social Work Theory” : This textbook by David Howe explains how social work practice is influenced by various social work theories and shows how social work theories have evolved over time.
“An Introduction to Applying Social Work Theories and Methods”: This book by Barbra Teater explains the most prominent social work theories and how those approaches can be used in practice.
“Social Work Theory and Practice”: This book by Lesley Deacon and Stephen J. Macdonald explains how social work theory informs practice for various individuals and contexts.
“Modern Social Work Theory”: This book by Malcolm Payne introduces the major social work practice theories and explains how to apply theory to practice.
“An Introduction to Using Theory in Social Work Practice”: This book by James A. Forte covers 14 social work theories and explains how to use them from engagement through evaluation.

Note: the links in this section on Social Work Theory all go to Google Books and are solely provided for your information. edX does not receive any form of compensation for these links.

Other online resources

NASW Clinical Social Work : This section of the National Association of Social Workers website covers clinical social work practice. It features content, publications, and related resources for clinical social workers, like the “ NASW Standards for Clinical Social Work in Social Work Practice (PDF, 135 KB) .”
Encyclopedia of Social Work: The Encyclopedia of Social Work by the National Association of Social Workers Press and Oxford University Press features tools for applying social work theory to practice. These resources include scholarly articles and bibliographies.
Social Work Today : This publication features articles on current social work trends in categories like behavioral health, addictions, children and family, aging and professional practice.

Science-based social work theory helps social workers and their clients succeed

Social work theory helps professionals in the field identify and implement effective interventions for clients. An understanding of the most prominent social work theories gives social workers the tools they need to provide evidence-based treatment and help their clients overcome their problems. As social work theories continue to evolve and emerge, social workers can apply their multifaceted knowledge to unique situations and clients.

Are you considering a career in social work? Read more about the field of social work and the steps to becoming a social worker , which can vary by location.

Last updated: November 2023

Problem-Solving Theory: The Task-Centred Model

Living reference work entry
First Online: 12 April 2022
Cite this living reference work entry

Blanca M. Ramos 5 &
Randall L. Stetson 6

Part of the book series: Social Work ((SOWO))

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This chapter examines the task-centred model to illustrate the application of problem-solving theory for social work intervention. First, it provides a brief description of the problem-solving model. Its historical development and key principles and concepts are presented. Next, the chapter offers a general overview of the crisis intervention model. The task-centred model and crisis intervention share principles and methods drawn from problem-solving theory. The remainder of the chapter focuses on the task-centred model. It reviews its historical background, viability as a framework for social work generalist practice, as well as its applicability with diverse client populations and across cultural settings. The structured steps that guide task-centred implementation throughout the helping process are described. A brief critical review of the model’s strengths and limitations is provided. The chapter concludes with a brief summary and some closing thoughts.

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Blanca M. Ramos

State University of New York at Oswego, Oswego, NY, USA

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Ramos, B.M., Stetson, R.L. (2022). Problem-Solving Theory: The Task-Centred Model. In: Hölscher, D., Hugman, R., McAuliffe, D. (eds) Social Work Theory and Ethics. Social Work. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3059-0_9-1

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Social Work and Theories

What Is Social Work Theory?

Social work theory refers to various systems created to help understand and explain human behavior. They were developed over time, incorporating knowledge from professionals within a variety of disciplines including psychology and sociology. Additional contributions to social work theories and models come from other fields such as psychoanalysis, economics and philosophy.

Social work theories provide social workers with unified methods for understanding and describing the motivations, impulses, personalities and forces that affect how a person behaves. The theories are based on research and observation and are supported by scientific evidence. By applying social work theories and perspectives to their work, social work professionals may help clients overcome challenges and improve the quality of their lives.

List of Social Work Theories

Social work is referred to as a helping profession, as one of the main focuses is improving clients’ well-being. There is also an aspect of social justice in social work, given that this field often specializes in helping people who are vulnerable or oppressed.

There are multiple social work theories of human behavior that professionals can apply in their daily work. Some common social work theories in use today include the following:

Social learning theory
Systems theory
Psychosocial development theory
Psychodynamic theory
Social exchange theory
Rational choice theory

Social Learning Theory

This concept revolves around the idea that people learn by observing and repeating the behaviors they see around them. The social learning theory—also called social cognitive theory—came from psychologist Albert Bandura , who demonstrated that children can learn behaviors they see modeled by adults.

For social learning to take place, some conditions need to be met. A child must see the action, want to emulate it, remember it and have a similar opportunity to act out the behavior.

Systems Theory

Systems theory looks at complex systems that influence human behavior. The idea is that no single force completely encompasses or explains human behavior—instead, individuals are influenced by multiple factors that work together.

Systems theory considers factors like family and social interactions, religious and cultural influences and economic forces. Within systems theory, individual problems are often addressed collectively because of the interconnected nature of the theory. You may see this type of social work theory used in the treatment of eating disorders, depression or similar struggles.

Psychosocial Development Theory

The psychosocial development theory is based on psychologist Erik Erikson’s idea that individuals move through eight different stages of psychosocial development in their life. According to this theory, stages from infancy through maturity include the following:

Trust vs. mistrust
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Initiative vs. guilt
Industry vs. inferiority
Identity vs. confusion
Intimacy vs. isolation
Generativity vs. stagnation
Integrity vs. despair

In addition to being useful for studying early childhood development, this is one of the social work theories used in hospice, as it touches on end-of-life conflicts.

Psychodynamic Theory

The psychodynamic theory was developed by Sigmund Freud , who is often considered the founder of psychoanalysis. The idea behind the theory is that the conscious and unconscious mind have an effect on how people behave and react. Some of these forces are driven by biology and human nature—like the tendency to seek gratification. Other driving forces come from specific situations, such as early childhood experiences.

This social work theory of human behavior may be helpful in understanding internal processes that shape personality.

Social Exchange Theory

The social exchange theory was developed by sociologist George Homans. The theory suggests that every relationship a person has is based on a cost-benefit analysis. In other words, everyone evaluates the rewards of a relationship and weighs them against any costs or risks. When the potential for rewards seems high, people tend to keep the relationship. When the potential for reward seems low, people tend to leave.

The social exchange theory may be used to help understand how clients function within their relationships.

Rational Choice Theory

Rational choice theory suggests that every decision is rational from the perspective of the decision maker. This is because humans naturally weigh the costs, risks and rewards of every decision before they take action. Even if it may not be apparent to onlookers, rational choice theory shows that every decision someone makes is supported by thought and reasoning.

How Is Theory Applied in Social Work?

In addition to social work theories, there are practice models. These are roadmaps that help social workers apply social work theories into their daily work. There are multiple practice models that are common within social work, each one providing a different approach for understanding behavior, resolving issues and improving outcomes. Your line of work and what you are trying to accomplish may determine which social work models you use most frequently. For example, some practice models focus on goal setting while other models are focused on the connection between emotions and actions.

Together, social work theories and models function as valuable tools for putting theory into action. Since each client’s problems, motivations and issues are unique, no single practice method works for every situation. As a social worker, you may need to assess the client’s individual needs to determine which approach is most likely to provide a positive outcome.

Problem Solving

Problem solving is a practice model that focuses on identifying and solving specific problems in a client’s life. Using this model, the social worker and client work together to clearly define a problem and create an action plan to solve it. They then evaluate how effective the problem-solving strategy is at resolving the problem.

Task-Centered Practice

Task-centered practice is a method of guiding clients through resolving issues and achieving goals one task at a time. Within this practice model, the social worker creates small, manageable tasks for their client to focus on. With each task the client completes, they are closer to reaching their larger goal.

Instead of digging into the past, the focus of task-centered practice is to find solutions that can help clients address their current problems.

Narrative Therapy

Narrative therapy encourages the separation of the person from their problems. The idea is to help clients externalize problems and realize that they are whole and separate from whatever issues they may be experiencing. By helping a client explore their life as if it were a story, social workers guide them to create a new, positive narrative. This approach can help clients gain perspective on issues and feel more empowered to create change.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

The idea behind cognitive behavioral therapy is that people can benefit from understanding the connection between thoughts, feelings and behaviors. By making this connection, people can work to remove self-destructive behaviors and recover from depression or other types of trauma. Social workers use cognitive behavioral therapy to help clients identify problems and eliminate thoughts and behaviors that may be leading to negative outcomes.

Crisis Intervention Model

The crisis intervention model is used when clients are experiencing an acute crisis situation. To help social workers evaluate and mitigate the crisis, this model breaks down crisis intervention into seven stages:

Conduct a psychosocial and lethality assessment.
Work to quickly build rapport.
Identify what created the crisis.
Allow the client to express their thoughts and emotions.
Offer the client alternative ways to cope.
Develop an action plan for coping with the crisis.
Follow up with the client after initial intervention.

This model is often used for clients that need immediate intervention to prevent self-harm.

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Oct 2, 2020

Practice Model: Problem Solving

Perlman’s model, planned change process model, practice approach based on planned change model

This page has three sections:

Background Material that provides the context for the topic

A suggested Practice Approach

A list of Supporting Material / References

Feedback welcome!

Background Material

Different authors look at the problem-solving model in varying ways.

Murdach (2007) suggests the principal stages of Perlman’s problem-solving model are simply:

problem definition,

problem analysis (including the generation and review of alternatives), and

the need for specific decision about a course of action (including methods of monitoring and evaluating the results of such action).

Chenowith and Lehmann (2008) describe a planned change process model:

Chenowith and Lehman also suggest the model outlined in the Practice Approach that follows. It consists of four phases:

The engagement phase involves making contact, exploring needs and setting preliminary goals.

The assessment phase involves collecting information, prioritising issues and agreeing on action.

The intervention phase involves implementing and modifying strategies to achieve goals.

The evaluation phase involves reviewing what has happened, celebrating progress and either concluding the work or negotiating a continued relationship.

Practice Approach

Supporting Material

(available on request)

Chenoweth, L. M. D. (2014). Road to Social Work and Human Service Practice. South Melbourne: Cengage Learning Australia. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/une/detail.action?docID=1696405

Coady, N, & Lehmann, P. (2008). The problem-solving model: A framework for integrating science and art of practice. In N. Coady & P. Lehmann, Theoretical Perspectives for Direct Social Work Practice (pp. 67-86). New York: Springer Publishing Company. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/une/detail.action?docID=326279

Murdach, A. D. (2007). Helen Harris Perlman and the problem solving method. Retrieved from https://allisonmurdach.wordpress.com/2011/05/05/helen-harris-perlman-and-the-problem-solving-model/

The social worker's role in the problem-solving process

First, a question: what's that mean exactly?

The Problem-Solving Process

The problem-solving process is a systematic approach used to identify, analyze, and resolve issues or challenges. It typically involves several steps:

Identification of the Problem: The first step is to clearly define and identify the problem or issue that needs to be addressed. This involves understanding the symptoms and root causes of the problem, as well as its impact on individuals, groups, or the community.

Gathering Information: Once the problem is identified, relevant information and data are gathered to gain a deeper understanding of the issue. This may involve conducting research, collecting data, or consulting with stakeholders who are affected by or have expertise in the problem.

Analysis of the Problem: In this step, the information collected is analyzed to identify patterns, underlying causes, and contributing factors to the problem. This helps in developing a comprehensive understanding of the problem and determining possible solutions.

Generation of Solutions: Based on the analysis, a range of potential solutions or strategies is generated to address the problem. Brainstorming, creative thinking techniques, and consultation with others may be used to generate diverse options.

Evaluation of Solutions: Each potential solution is evaluated based on its feasibility, effectiveness, and potential impact. This involves considering factors such as available resources, potential risks, and alignment with goals and values.

Decision-Making: After evaluating the various solutions, a decision is made regarding which solution or combination of solutions to implement. This decision-making process may involve weighing the pros and cons of each option and considering input from stakeholders.

Implementation: Once a decision is made, the chosen solution is put into action. This may involve developing an action plan, allocating resources, and assigning responsibilities to ensure the effective implementation of the solution.

Monitoring and Evaluation: Throughout the implementation process, progress is monitored, and the effectiveness of the solution is evaluated. This allows for adjustments to be made as needed and ensures that the desired outcomes are being achieved.

Reflection and Learning: After the problem-solving process is complete, it's important to reflect on what was learned from the experience. This involves identifying strengths and weaknesses in the process, as well as any lessons learned that can be applied to future challenges.

The Social Worker's Role

Okay, so social worker's assist with all of that. The trickiest part (and the part most likely to show up on the ASWB exam) is decision making. Do social workers make decisions for clients, give advice, gently suggest...? The answer is no, sometimes, and sort-of. Client self-determination is a key component of social work ethics. Problem-solving and decision-making in social work are guided by these general principles:

Client-Centered Approach: Social workers prioritize the autonomy and self-determination of their clients. They empower clients to make informed decisions by providing them with information, options, and support rather than imposing their own opinions or solutions.

Collaborative Problem-Solving: Social workers engage in collaborative problem-solving with their clients. They work together to explore the client's concerns, goals, and available resources, and then develop strategies and plans of action that are mutually agreed upon.

Strengths-Based Perspective: Social workers focus on identifying and building upon the strengths and resources of their clients. They help clients recognize their own abilities and resilience, which can empower them to find solutions to their problems.

Non-Directive Approach: While social workers may offer suggestions or recommendations, they typically do so in a non-directive manner. They encourage clients to explore various options and consequences, and they respect the client's ultimate decisions.

Cultural Sensitivity: Social workers are sensitive to the cultural backgrounds, beliefs, and values of their clients. They recognize that advice-giving may need to be tailored to align with the cultural norms and preferences of the client.

Ethical Considerations: Social workers adhere to ethical principles, including the obligation to do no harm, maintain confidentiality, and respect the dignity and rights of their clients. They avoid giving advice that may potentially harm or exploit their clients.

Professional Boundaries: Social workers maintain professional boundaries when giving advice, ensuring that their recommendations are based on professional expertise and not influenced by personal biases or conflicts of interest.

On the Exam

ASWB exam questions on this material may look like this:

During which step of the problem-solving process are potential solutions evaluated based on feasibility, effectiveness, and potential impact?
In the problem-solving process, what is the purpose of gathering information?
Which ethical principle guides social workers in giving advice during the problem-solving process?

Or may be a vignette in which client self-determination (eg re sleeping outside) is paramount.

Get ready for questions on this topic and many, many others with SWTP's full-length practice tests. Problem: need to prepare for the social work licensing exam. Solution: practice!

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Wk 5 From Theory to Practice Lecture

Student Life
Internship Roles and Responsibilities
Practitioner Advisory Committee
Core Competencies
Philosophy & Theoretical Framework
Admission to the Social Work Program
On-Campus BSW
Addictions Minor
Addictions Certificate
Liberal Education and Social Work Courses Overlap
Continuing Education/Grad School
Addictions Certificate (LADC) Internship
Student Intern Evaluation (Social Work)
Student Intern Evaluation (LADC)
Prospective Social Work Internship Agencies
Child Welfare Scholars
Scholarships
Social Work Club
Substance Education Addiction Recovery Club (SEAR)
Transfer Pathways
Faculty & Staff

An internship collaborates between the intern, the internship placement agency and the Department of Social Work. Each party has its roles and responsibilities.

Responsibilities of The Department of Social Work and the Field Director

To facilitate the placement of students in agencies for the internship experience.
To reduce the development of an internship contract negotiated with the field instructor.
To provide a liaison between the school and the agency. 2 to 3 site visits or teleconferences will be made. The purpose of the first visit is to review the intern’s contract and address any questions about the Department of Social Work and the internship that might arise. During the second and third visits, the faculty liaison, with the intern and the field instructor, will facilitate the midterm and final evaluations.
To provide orientation for field instructors and agency directors each term.
To facilitate the two internship seminars, providing feedback to interns on presentations and papers.
To provide ongoing consultation with the placement agencies as needed.
To maintain a continuous Practitioners Advisory Council that reviews and evaluates the overall Social Work Department, particularly the internship component.
To carry liability insurance for the Social Work interns.

Responsibilities of the Agency

Establish a process to interview and select prospective interns.
To demonstrate an interest and commitment to student education, shown by a willingness to assign staff time and energy to intern supervision, attend workshops for field instructors and consult with faculty liaison.
To set one specific agency worker, a licensed BSW//MSW, known as a field instructor, to supervise the intern.
In conjunction with the prospective intern and Field Director, develop an internship contract to guide students during the internship.
To complete, sign and return the Agency Data form (Appendix F).
Orientation Schedule
“Nitty Gritty” info includes: parking, bathrooms, dining facilities, dress requirements, break times, holidays, telephone instructions, signing in and out, introductions to staff and how an intern should identify themselves.
Instructions regarding technology.
Specific recording instructions.
Specific confidentiality instructions.
Access intra-agency and community phone directories, procedure manuals, human resources are within the community and any special reference books.
Information on any special security precautions.
Discuss the human elements of the work, stress, fears, anxieties, frustrations, failures and the need to process with someone. What can be processed with persons outside the agency.
Describe supervisory approach. What the agency expects from the student.
Provide the student with a glossary of acronyms, symbols, jargon and technical terms unique to the agency.
Review the student’s coursework and discuss the knowledge and skills acquired in consideration of that required to perform the social work duties within the agency. Note the emphasis on the systems approach.
To provide a minimum of one hour per week of scheduled individual supervision that includes a review of the intern’s assignments with constructive feedback and creates an opportunity to integrate theory with practice experience.

Responsibilities of the Intern

To obtain at least an 80% grade on written and oral assignments in the internship.
To negotiate the internship contract with the Field Instructor and the Field Director.
To follow agency policies about time schedules, regulations and matters of dress.
To prepare agendas for discussions with the Field Director and Field Instructor.
To leave word with the agency secretary and or supervisor as to where you are and when you will return.
To report absences and reasons for absences immediately to the Field Instructor.
To participate in her/his midterm and final evaluations with the Field Instructor.
To participate in an assessment of the Social Work Department.
To write a short evaluation of the internship placement at the end of her/his internship (Appendix I).
To evaluate the Field Instructor (Appendix J).
To complete assignments for the internship seminar.
Participate in an end-of-term discussion and complete the Skills and Services Feedback form (Appendix K).
To evaluate the Field Director / Course Evaluation (Appendix L).
To provide evidence of having completed the 480 hours, including attendance at a minimum of one workshop or conference and two agency visits.

Problem Solving Expectations

Suppose the agency site supervisor or the student experiences a problem during the internships. In that case, the first step is to talk about it. The most common problems related to job duties, relationships with co-workers or misunderstandings between the supervisor and the intern.
If the problem is not resolved promptly, the Faculty Liaison should be notified as soon as possible.
The Faculty Liaison will collaborate with the Field Instructor, site supervisor and intern to resolve the problem professionally and expediently.

Training Industry

Smart thinking: metacognitive strategies for lasting learning.

In the ever-escalating pursuit of efficiency and effectiveness in learning, there lies a powerful yet often overlooked tool: metacognition . Metacognition, or thinking about thinking, is not just an academic exercise relegated to the confines of school classrooms; it’s a critical element in enhancing workplace training and overall professional development.

Metacognition involves three core activities: planning, monitoring and evaluating. Imagine an employee, let’s call him Jeff, embarks on a new project. Jeff first plans by setting goals and strategizing how to use his existing knowledge. As he progresses, he monitors his understanding and pace, adjusting as necessary. Finally, he evaluates his outcomes, reflecting on what he learned and how it can be applied in the future.

Why Metacognition Matters at Work

But why should a bustling business, more interested in bottom lines than cognitive science, care about such an introspective approach? The answer is simple yet profound: metacognition leads to smarter, more adaptable employees who can learn from past experiences and apply their insights to complex problems. It’s the secret sauce for fostering a learning culture that thrives on continuous improvement and innovation.

The Science of Metacognition

Metacognition is a higher-order thinking skill that involves self-regulation of cognition through planning, monitoring and evaluation. At its core, metacognition encompasses both knowledge about cognitive processes and the regulation of these processes in learning.

Metacognitive practices enhance learning by helping individuals take a more strategic approach to their tasks. This concept, which involves thinking about how we think, has been around for a while and has been thoroughly researched. It turns out that people who use metacognitive strategies are generally better at solving problems and picking up new information.

Metacognitive practices can help learners recognize the limits of their knowledge, which is the first step in addressing misunderstandings and acquiring new skills. This is especially important in fast-paced, ever-changing work environments where continuous learning is crucial.

The effectiveness of metacognition has been seen in various settings, from classrooms to corporate training programs. Research shows that those who engage in metacognitive strategies often outperform those who don’t.

In the workplace, where learning is often self-directed, metacognition becomes even more important. Being aware of your own competencies and knowledge is essential for professional growth. While many adults may lack these skills, incorporating metacognitive strategies into training can significantly improve both the retention of skills and the ability to apply them effectively.

Benefits of Metacognitive Practices

1. improved problem-solving skills.

Metacognitive strategies empower employees to analyze and adapt their problem-solving tactics. By reflecting on their thought processes, employees can identify inefficiencies and optimize their approach. Metacognitive reflection leads to improved problem-solving abilities as individuals learn to evaluate and adjust their strategies based on feedback and outcomes.

2. Enhanced Ability to Adapt to New Roles and Challenges:

Employees equipped with metacognitive skills can better navigate the steep learning curves associated with new roles or evolving job requirements. Metacognitive skills can facilitate quicker adaptation and competence in new and complex tasks, as learners are more adept at identifying their learning gaps and seeking out necessary resources and strategies.

3. Increased Efficiency in Learning:

Metacognitive practices lead to more efficient learning processes because employees plan their learning, monitor their progress, and evaluate the effectiveness of their learning strategies. Metacognitive strategies can significantly reduce the time needed to achieve proficiency in new skills, as learners are better at avoiding ineffective learning paths and focusing on strategies that yield results.

Metacognitive Approaches for Training and Development

To weave these practices into the fabric of workplace training, consider the following strategies:

Visible Thinking Routines

Inspired by educational research, these routines can be adapted for adult learners in the workplace. They encourage employees to articulate their thought processes, question their assumptions and reflect on their learning journey .

Digital Tools and Resources

Leverage technology to enhance metacognitive practices. Use digital platforms that allow employees to plan, monitor and evaluate their learning processes. Apps that enable notetaking, scheduling and feedback can be particularly effective.

Structured Reflection Sessions

Incorporate regular intervals of reflection in training sessions where employees can discuss what strategies worked, what didn’t, and why. This can be guided by questions designed to provoke metacognitive thinking, such as “What would you do differently next time?”

Training for Trainers

Equip trainers with the skills to foster metacognition among learners. This includes training them to encourage self-questioning, facilitate reflective discussions, and help learners set specific, measurable, and achievable goals.

Problem-Solving

During training sessions, simulate real-world problems that employees might face. This not only enhances their problem-solving skills but also allows them to practice applying metacognitive strategies in a controlled, supportive environment.

Self-Evaluation and Self-Correction

Incorporate activities that require learners to assess their own work and identify areas for improvement. This could be through reflective journals, peer reviews or self-scoring quizzes. These activities foster a habit of self-reflection and continuous improvement.

The Metacognitive Organization

Envision a workplace where employees are engaged not only in completing tasks but also in critically analyzing how they approach and solve problems. This is the practical benefit of applying metacognitive strategies in a business setting. By fostering an environment that emphasizes thinking about thinking, companies can enhance how they train and develop their workforce.

Implementing metacognitive practices within workplace training doesn’t just tap into untapped potential; it provides a structured approach to continuous improvement and problem-solving. This shift transforms everyday work challenges into opportunities for personal and professional growth , encouraging a proactive rather than reactive approach to tasks.

Ultimately, the integration of metacognition into business practices is about leveraging the human capacity for self-reflection and adaptation. It’s not just about creating a more dynamic workplace but about building a workforce that is better equipped to handle the complexities of modern business landscapes. By prioritizing metacognitive skills, organizations can cultivate a more resilient and innovative team, proving that the most significant assets in business are not just physical or financial resources but the cultivated intellect and reflective abilities of its people.

#cognitive skills in training
#employee problem-solving skills
#improving training with metacognition

Joseph Atkinson

Joseph Atkinson , an experienced learning and development manager, specializes in developing practical strategies for impactful self-paced and facilitated learning. His passion lies in innovating ways to make learning practical and applicable, blending insights from his high school and corporate training background.

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What Are The Theories & Practice Models Used in Social Work?
Inspired by the scientific method, social work theories uncover the why of human behavior, while social work practice models reveal how you can effect change for individuals, couples, families, and communities at large. ... Proposed by Helen Harris Perlman in her book Social Casework: A Problem-solving Process, the problem solving model. Ms.
The problem-solving model: A framework for integrating the science and
In this chapter we (a) review the early development of the problem-solving model for social work practice; (b) discuss the later development of the problem solving model in terms of its extension to and further elaboration by generalist models of social work practice; (c) provide an overview of how the problem-solving model allows for the integration of the scientific and artistic elements of ...
Problem-Solving Theory: The Task-Centred Model
In social work, problem-solving theories have informed the development and evolution of social work practice throughout the history of the profession. Since the beginning, a main focus of social work has been the resolution or amelioration of problems at both the individual and societal levels (Brieland 1977).
Theories Used in Social Work
Helen Harris Perlman proposed the problem-solving model in the 1950s specifically for the field of social work. At the time, many social work theories and therapies relied on psychotherapy; Perlman instead argued that social workers could more effectively help clients by focusing on one problem at a time.
Helen Harris Perlman and the Problem Solving Model
Perlman was the first social work author to use the term "problem-solving" in a social work context and credits Dewey's writings as her inspiration for the concept (Perlman, 1971). Social work was at first slow to adopt the pragmatic idea of problem-solving as a style of intervention.
PDF Theories, models and perspectives
Note: Payne ( 1997) argues that social work theory succeeds best when it contains all three elements of perspective, theory and model. Example: Men who batter their partners ... Current Social Work Practice Models Problem Solving - The problem solving model focuses on understanding the problem, brainstorming possible solutions, having the ...
Theories Used in Social Work Practice & Practice Models
Social work theories are general explanations that are supported by evidence obtained through the scientific method. A theory may explain human behavior, for example, by describing how humans interact or how humans react to certain stimuli. ... Problem solving assists people with the problem solving process. Rather than tell clients what to do ...
6 Important Theories in Social Work & 6 Practice Models
The problem-solving model was created by Helen Harris Perlman, a social worker and author of "Social Casework: A Problem-solving Process." Using the problem-solving model, a social worker helps an individual identify a problem, create an action plan to solve it, and implement the solution.
PDF Problem-Solving Theory: The Task-Centred Model
In social work, problem-solving theories have informed the development and evolution of social work practice throughout the history of the profession. Since the beginning, a main focus of social work has been the resolution or amelioration of problems at both the individual and societal levels (Brieland
Problem Solving in Social Work Practice: Implications for Knowledge
This approach has important implications for moving the profession toward greater accountability in the practice of social work. Unless educators can motivate practitioners to change the way in which they ask questions and make predictions, it is unlikely that practitioners will use scientific information in their problem-solving processes.
Social Work and Theories
Social work theories provide social workers with unified methods for understanding and describing the motivations, impulses, personalities and forces that affect how a person behaves. ... Problem solving is a practice model that focuses on identifying and solving specific problems in a client's life. Using this model, the social worker and ...
(PDF) Problem Solving in Social Work Practice ...
Problem Solving in Social Work Practice: Implications for Knowledge Utilization. July 1991. Research on Social Work Practice 1 (3):306-318. DOI: 10.1177/104973159100100306. Authors: José Ashford ...
(PDF) Social Problem Solving: Theory and Assessment.
One major variable is problem-solving skills (Durak-Batıgün & Atay-Kayış, 2014). Problem-solving skills are defined as a deliberative, rational, effortrequiring and intentional coping process ...
Problem Solving
Murdach (2007) suggests the principal stages of Perlman's problem-solving model are simply: problem definition, problem analysis (including the generation and review of alternatives), and. the need for specific decision about a course of action (including methods of monitoring and evaluating the results of such action).
Best Social Work Theories, Practices and Cheat Sheet
Social Work Theories Cheat Sheet. Person in the Environment (PIE) Theory. The person in the environment (PIE) theory is a problem-solving theory social work practitioners use to assess a client's situation. It looks beyond the mental or emotional state of a person to other factors in their environment that may be contributing to a problem.
Full article: Using Theory in Practice
Applying and experimenting with theories opens new perspectives for the problem-solving process where the practitioner is experimenting, reflecting and seeking to improve practice. ... Social work theories help to understand the nature of social work practice along with the perspectives of clients being served (ibid., 6). In the group, theory ...
The social worker's role in the problem-solving process
Collaborative Problem-Solving: Social workers engage in collaborative problem-solving with their clients. They work together to explore the client's concerns, goals, and available resources, and then develop strategies and plans of action that are mutually agreed upon. Strengths-Based Perspective: Social workers focus on identifying and ...
Social Problem Solving: Theory and Assessment.
In this chapter we describe the social problem-solving model that has generated most of the research and training programs presented in the remaining chapters of this volume. We also describe the major assessment methods and instruments that have been used to measure social problem-solving ability and performance in research as well as clinical practice.
3.2: Problem Solving Approaches and Interventions
A social systems approach examines the social structure surrounding the problem or issue. This approach requires macro, meso, and micro levels of analysis (see pages 12-13) to help understand the structure of the problem and the arrangement of individuals and social groups involved. Analysis requires comprehension of the entire issue and parts ...
Social problem solving: Theory, research, and training.
Abstract. We put together a book that would offer readers multiple perspectives, insights, and directions in understanding social problem solving as an important theory that has driven wide-ranging scientific research and as an important means of training to empower and elevate the lives of individuals. We believe that social problem solving ...
PDF Social Work: A Problem Solving Profession
Keywords: Social Work Profession, Theories of Social Work, Problem solving, Process in Social Work. 1. Introduction Social Work is a Profession in 21st century's Professions. According to a belief that has just emerged, it is like an Akshay container that gives whatever is asked, and it is like
Social problem-solving
Social problem-solving, in its most basic form, is defined as problem solving as it occurs in the natural environment. [1] More specifically it refers to the cognitive-behavioral process in which one works to find adaptive ways of coping with everyday situations that are considered problematic. This process in self-directed, conscious ...
Wk 5 From Theory to Practice Lecture (pptx)
Working with Immigrant Families Using Ecological Systems Theory Implicati ons By applying ecological systems theory, social workers can adopt a holistic approach that considers the multiple levels of influence on immigrant families' lives. This approach involves understanding the interconnectedness of various systems, recognizing the influence of broader social contexts, and adapting ...
Internship Roles and Responsibilities
Problem Solving Expectations. Suppose the agency site supervisor or the student experiences a problem during the internships. In that case, the first step is to talk about it. The most common problems related to job duties, relationships with co-workers or misunderstandings between the supervisor and the intern.
Social problem solving: Theory, research, and training.
We put together a book that would offer readers multiple perspectives, insights, and directions in understanding social problem solving as an important theory that has driven wide-ranging scientific research and as an important means of training to empower and elevate the lives of individuals. We believe that social problem solving can help individuals free themselves from the problems they ...
Smart Thinking: Metacognitive Strategies for Employee Training
Implementing metacognitive practices within workplace training doesn't just tap into untapped potential; it provides a structured approach to continuous improvement and problem-solving. This shift transforms everyday work challenges into opportunities for personal and professional growth , encouraging a proactive rather than reactive approach ...

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Theories Used in Social Work Practice & Practice Models

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Social Work and Theories

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