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HRM Dissertation Topics

Published by Carmen Troy at January 6th, 2023 , Revised On April 16, 2024

Introduction

Human resource management studies stated that employees should be hired, retained and managed. It is an extensive field that requires an in-depth understanding of the underlying factors and concepts.

As a human resource management student, you will study many different concepts, frameworks, and theories related to employee management. However, before your graduation, you will be required to submit a dissertation on a human resource management research topic of your choice.

Even though several topics and concepts are yet to explore in the field of human resource management, you will want to make sure that your proposed topic has sufficient literature to support and justify the content of a theoretical framework , or else you might struggle with data collection .

This article provides you with a comprehensive list of HRM topics that are relevant to your field and identifies some interesting literature gaps.

Choosing from our list of topics will certainly improve your chances of submitting an outstanding dissertation. So, go ahead and choose an HRM dissertation topic of your interest. We can even customize these topics based on your project needs.

PhD qualified writers of our team have developed the proposed topics, so you can trust to use these topics for drafting your dissertation.

Note –

You may also want to start your dissertation by requesting  a brief research proposal  from our writers on any of these topics, which includes an  introduction  to the topic,  research question ,  aim and objectives ,  literature review  along with the proposed  methodology  of research to be conducted.  Let us know  if you need any help in getting started.

Check our  dissertation examples  to get an idea of  how to structure your dissertation .

Review the full list of  dissertation topics for here.

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2024 HRM Dissertation Topics

Topic 1: how human resources departments achieve equal employment opportunities.

Research Aim: The research will aim to investigate how HR departments achieve equal employment opportunity in organizations. EEO, or Equal Employment Opportunity, is the notion everybody has an equal chance to pursue a job on the basis of merit, regardless of skin color, gender, or gender identity. It is the duty of HR department to give every employee and equal right in the organization. The research will examine how HR department keep the organization environment friendly by controlling equal employment opportunities.

Topic 2: The effect of motivating strategies on employee performance

Research Aim: The research will aim to find the impact of motivating strategies on employee performance. Employee motivation plays a huge part on performance. Employee engagement cannot be substituted by anything else in order for any organisation to run efficiently and without interruption. It is critical that a company and its employees not only have a strong connection with the top management, but also have a good and healthy relationship with their colleagues. The study will also make recommendations on what further might be done to obtain optimal results utilising motivating methods for the benefit of both the company and the individual.

Topic 3: Organizational Conflicts as Antecedents of Staff Turnover: Evidence from the UK Food Sector

Research Aim: The research will aim to review recent available literature on employee turnover in order to determine organizational conflicts as antecedents of employee turnover in the UK food sector in order to close gaps in the literature and present a broader range of turnover factors and understanding of employee motivational factors in their job decision.

Topic 4: How does AI involvement in HRM provide Zara with a competitive advantage?

Research Aim: The research will aim to inspect the benefit of competitive advantage at Zara through the involvement of artificial intelligence in their HRM. AI assists the human resources department in identifying their personnel’ skill sets and recommending a training programme based on their work positions. It combines all of the data and assists the HR staff in making succinct decisions about what training to do in which sector to boost abilities. The study will also explain the importance of AI in organizations and organizations success. It will also look into strategies and policies Zara used to achieve competitive advantage.

Topic 5: The role of HR in creating a respected working environment that contributes in sustainable revenue growth

Research Aim: The research aims to examine the role of HR in creating a respected working environment and sustainable revenue growth. The study will identify current misunderstandings and disparities in understanding of topics such as sustainable development, corporate social responsibility, and the link between strategic human resource management and sustainable HRM through a comprehensive literature review. It will also identify and recognise the challenges that sustainable HRM encounters in reality, with a particular emphasis on the prevalent strategic HRM schema and the misunderstanding of corporate social responsibility.

Covid-19 HRM Research Topics

The role of managers during the pandemic.

Research Aim: In this study, the Human resource management techniques which HR managers will adopt for performing their operations during the COVID -19 will be discussed.

The management techniques for employees.

Research Aim: This study will focus on how the employees are trained during the Coronavirus pandemic.

The economic Crisis for HR Managers during Covid-19

Research Aim: This study will discuss how the economic crisis will disturb the payroll and how the managers will work.

The policies of HR for affected employees.

Research Aim: In this study, HR will design policies on how HR will manage when there is a gap between employees working. How will the ill patients be provided with support by companies through HR?

The employees' cooperation for HR

Research Aim: This study will highlight how well the employees support the decisions of the HR policymakers during the pandemic.

HRM Dissertation Topics for 2023

Topic 1: effect of employee engagement on customer loyalty in the service-based industry.

Research Aim: Employees engagement means that employees are passionate and committed to their work. In the service industry, where employees’ performance can greatly influence the quality of service, it is worth exploring employee engagement in customer loyalty in the service-based industry. Therefore, in this study, survey-based research will be conducted to identify employee engagement in customer loyalty.

Topic 2: Contingent workforce and its impact on organisation’s performance – Evaluating the IT Industry

Research Aim: Nowadays, companies hire freelancers and contractual workers, unlike permanent payroll employees. Various cost benefits can be obtained by hiring such a workforce. However, such a workforce may not have the required skills to do a job as effectively as a trained staff would have done. Thus, the present study focuses on identifying the impact of a contingent workforce on its performance in the IT industry.

Topic 3: Factors of growing mental health issues of employees at workplace in service-based industries

Research Aim: The wellness of employees at the workplace is necessary for their mental health and work performance. This study will identify the factors that can increase employees’ mental health issues at the workplace based on survey-based of employees and managers of service-based industries.

Topic 4: Analysing the importance and impact of training and development on an organisation’s sustainability during economic crises.

Research Aim: to achieve organizational objectives and milestones, leaders and business owners have realized the importance of training and developing their workforce to align with the organizational objectives. This research aims to analyze the importance and impact of employee training and development on the organization’s sustainability during economic downturns.

Topic 5: How online digital platforms have helped organisations in recruiting effectively and efficiently

Research Aim: With the advent of technology, firms have revolutionized their business operations. Under this revolution, many organizations have adopted different techniques and methods to recruit talented employees. Therefore, this research intends to determine how online digital platforms have helped organizations find employees more efficiently and effectively.

Topic 6: Analysing the factors which directly impact an employee's personal decision to leave employment

Research Aim: Employee turnover rate has always been a major concern for many organizations regardless of their size and nature. A valuable and talented employee is usually hard to find and retain. However, it has been found out that different factors motivate an employee to search for a new job. Keeping this phenomenon in mind, the current research will be analyzing the factors that directly impact the employee’s personal decision to leave employment.

Topic 7: Critically analysing the concept of workplace flexibility and how it impacts employee and organisational performance

Research Aim: In today’s modern era, the workplace environment has been transformed drastically from a strict and conventional style to a more flexible one. Therefore, this research aims to critically analyze the concept of workplace flexibility and how it impacts employee and organizational performance.

Topic 8: A comparative analysis of employees' job satisfaction and motivational factors in public versus private organisations.

Research Aim: Job satisfaction and employee motivation are regarded as the most important element of HR practices. The main aim of HR policies is to satisfy, retain, and motivate employees. Therefore, this research aims to conduct a comparative analysis of the employee’s job satisfaction and motivational factors in public versus private organizations.

Topic 9: The influence of COVID-19 on virtual employee management practices by organisations

Research Aim: This research is highly useful in the current context of COVID-19. Organisations all around the world are getting impacted by the COVID-19 and are closed at the moment. The current study will focus on using different virtual employee management practices that companies can use in the current context of COVID-19. These practices will be beneficial for organizations in almost all business sectors.

Topic 10: The role of using transformational leadership style in the improvement of organisational creativity at Morrisons

Research Aim: The aim of this research will be the benefits of using the transformational leadership style by Morrisons’ leaders to improve organizational creativity. This study will research how leaders can get the advantage of a transformational leadership style for increasing creativity at the organization.

Topic 11: The green HRM practices and their impacts on the corporate image of IKEA

Research Aim: This study will aim to study different green HRM practices and their role in improving IKEA’s corporate image and reputation. It will be researched how companies can improve their corporate image by focusing on green HRM practices and processes. The findings will be beneficial for the management, customers as well as employees.

Topic 12: Involving employees in the decision-making process and its influence on employee productivity at Subway

Research Aim: It will be researched in this study how Subway and other companies in this industry can involve the workers in the decision-making process to improve employee productivity. It will be studied that employee productivity is increased by involving the employees in the decision-making process. The findings will be useful in designing useful HR practices by Subway.

Topic 13: The impact of a flat organisational structure on the decision-making process

Research Aim: The main objective of this study is to evaluate the decision-making difficulties and issues faced by HR managers of companies with a flat organizational structure. This study will also investigate the benefits and challenges related to the flat organizational structures used by companies. A case study approach will be used.

Topic 14: The role of workforce diversity in improving organisational capability and innovation at Toyota Motors

Research Aim: To carry out this study, an innovative company named Toyota Motors will be selected. The main objective for carrying out this study will be to analyze how the organizational capability and innovation at Toyota Motors are improved due to workforce diversity. The main emphasis will be on studying the workforce diversity present at Toyota Motors and its significance in improving innovation and organizational capability. The success factors of Toyota Motors for HR will be studied.

Topic 15: The impact of digitalization on changing HRM practices at Aviva

Research Aim: The contemporary business world moves towards digitalization due to technological advancements. This research will study the different impacts of digitalization in changing various HRM practices at Aviva. Different HRM practices used by Aviva before and after the digitalization era will be discussed, and the changes will be analyzed. This study will show how digitalization has changed HRM practices in the contemporary business world.

Topic 16: The influence of employee learning and development opportunities on employee satisfaction at British Airways

Research Aim: It will be studied in this research that how employee satisfaction at British Airways is influenced by employee learning and development opportunities. Different employee learning and development opportunities at BA will be studied, along with their impact on workforce satisfaction.

Topic 17: The impact of recognizing employee contributions on employee retention at Shell

Research Aim: This study’s main objective is to analyse whether Shell can retain its employees by recognizing their contributions or not. Different strategies used by Shell for recognizing employee contributions will be studied that lead towards motivating the employees, which ultimately impact the retention of workers.

Topic 18: The role of green HR practices in employee engagement and retention

Research Aim: Green HR practices is a newly emerged concept in HRM. The study will aim to research the impact of green HR practices on employee engagement and retention. It will be studied how companies can improve employee engagement and retention by focusing on green HR practices.

Topic 19: The role of providing daycare facilities in increasing the productivity of female employees

Research Aim: This study will be focusing on the productivity of female workers. It will be studied how female workers’ productivity is increased by providing daycare facilities for their children. The impact on the satisfaction level of female employees due to the daycare facility will also be explored.

Topic 20: The impact of artificial intelligence on enhancing the human resource practices of Zara

Research Aim: For this study, the researcher will focus on the concept of artificial intelligence and use it in the HR context. It will be studied that either the HR practices at Zara can be enhanced by implementing AI. The benefits and implications of implementing AI in the HR context will also be part of this study.

Topic 21: The role of e-leadership in improving employee productivity and motivation.

Research Aim: The contemporary business world has become highly advanced due to technological capabilities. The concept of e-leadership has emerged due to advancements in technology. The purpose of this study will be to analyse the impact of e-leadership in improving the productivity and motivation level of the workforce.

Topic 22: The role of effective HR planning in a successful strategic alliance process.

Research Aim: This study will study the importance of effective HR planning for the strategic alliance process. It will be studied how HR management can mould the HR practices and focus on effective HR planning to make the strategic alliance process successful.

Topic 23: The impact of different personality traits on teamwork at Microsoft

Research Aim: The main focus of this research will be studying Microsoft’s teamwork. It will be further analyzed how Microsoft’s teamwork is influenced by the personality traits possessed by different team members. Different types of personality traits will be studied in this research that impacts teamwork positively and negatively.

Topic 24: The impact of career growth opportunities on employee loyalty at HSBC Holdings.

Research Aim: This study will aim to review different types of career growth opportunities offered by HBSC Holdings to its employees. Moreover, it will also be studied how employee loyalty is improved due to various career growth opportunities. The findings of this study will be beneficial for the banking sector.

Topic 25: The role of adapted HR practices in improving organisational performance at the international branch of DHL.

Research Aim: The study’s main objective will be to analyse companies’ changes in their HR practices for international branches. How and why the HR practices are adapted by HR management for improving the organisational performance at the company’s branch, which is located outside the country. For this, the DHL case study will be selected, and it will be assessed how and why DHL has used adapted HR practices across different countries.

HR Learning and Development Dissertation Topics

All organisational activities aimed at improving the productivity and performance of groups and individuals can be classified as HRM’s learning and development function elements. Learning and development encompass three pivotal activities, including education, training, and development.

As such, the training activities help to evaluate an employee based on his existing job responsibilities. Educational activities include those focusing on jobs that an employee can expect to carry out in the future.

Finally, the development activities are those that the employer may partake in the future. If you’re interested in exploring this human resource topic in-depth, we have some interesting dissertation topics for you:

Topic 1:The importance of appreciative inquiry with respect to organisational learning and development culture – A case study of ExxonMobil

Research Aim: This research will discuss the importance of appreciative inquiry and its impact on organisational learning and development culture with a specific focus on ExxonMobil.

Topic 2:To establish the correlation between organisation competency development and learning activities & programmes

Research Aim: This research will discuss how organisational competency development and organisational learning activities are correlated.

Topic 3:An examination of knowledge management and organisational learning for sustained firm performance. A case study of British Telecom

Research Aim: This research will examine how organisational learning and knowledge management helped British Telecom sustain their firm performance.

Topic 4:Investigating learning and development of human resources in the public sector in the UK

Research Aim: This dissertation will evaluate the different ways of achieving the learning and development of human resources in the UK’s public sector.

Topic 32:The importance of HR learning and development activities for SMEs

Research Aim: This research will focus on how SMEs utilize HR learning and developmental activities to improve their employees’ performance.

Topic 33:Human resource practices and employees’ decision to quit – Does Lack of Learning and Development play a Role.

Research Aim: This research will focus on whether or not lack of learning and development in an organization leads to employee turnover,

Topic 34:Developing organisational competitive advantage through strategic employee training in computer knowledge

Research Aim: This dissertation will explore how companies can gain a strategic advantage over their competitors through employee training.

Topic 35:The impact of various training and learning based activities on employees’ productivity

Research Aim: The main aim of this research will be to determine the impact of different pieces of training and learnings on employees’ productivity.

Topic 36: The role of HR analytics and metrics in improving organizational performance at Tesco

Research Aim: This study aims to research a new concept in human resource management, named HR analytics and metrics. Moreover, their impact on improving organizational performance will also be studied. This study will be beneficial for Tesco in using HR analytics and metrics in different HR practices that can lead to improved organizational performance.

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HR Performance Review Dissertation Topics

A performance review, also known as a career development discussion, performance evaluation and employee appraisal, can be defined as a method to evaluate an employee based on their job performance, mainly for appraisals. This might be an interesting area to focus your dissertation on. Here are some interesting topics in this area of HRM:

Topic 37:To understand the relationship between performance review and employee motivation in large and diversified business organisations

Research Aim: This research will understand the relationship between employee motivation and employee performance review. Large and diversified businesses will be the main focus of this study.

Topic 38:Effective performance appraisal – A study to establish a correlation between employer satisfaction and optimising business results

Research Aim: This research will analyse the impact of performance appraisal on employer satisfaction and how it optimises business results.

Topic 39: Investigating the efficacy of performance appraisal from the perception of employees in UK retail industry – A case study of Tesco

Research Aim: This research will analyse the efficacy of performance appraisal concerning employees, with a specific focus on Tesco.

Topic 40: Employee performance appraisal and the role of fairness and satisfaction

Research Aim: This dissertation will explore whether employees report satisfaction and fairness when performance appraisal is conducted.

Topic 41:Investigating performance review and appraisal methods employed by human resource department of any large oil and gas company

Research Aim: This research will study the human resource department of a large oil and gas company and will investigate how “performance review” and appraisals are conducted.

Topic 42: Job satisfaction and performance appraisals – Are they Interconnected?

Research Aim: This research will study in-depth whether job satisfaction and performance appraisals are interconnected or not.

Topic 43:Investigating the relationship between public sector appraisals and the spinal pay reward

Research Aim: This research will talk about the spinal pay reward system and evaluate its effectiveness in the public sector.

Topic 44:Analysing the impact of performance management on employee performance improvement

Research Aim: This research will investigate how performance management helps companies improve their employees’ performance.

Topic 45: Can HR performance drive employee engagement? Studying the UK banking industry

Research Aim: This research will talk about the different ways through which HR performance review helps in improving employee engagement. The UK banking industry will be in focus in this study.

Topic 46:The role of HR performance review in increasing employee retention and productivity

Research Aim: This research will investigate how organisations utilize performance reviews as a tool to improve employee retention and productivity.

HR Employee Motivation Dissertation Topics

Employees need objectives and goals to remain focused. The quality of work may significantly drop if they are not constantly motivated by their employers.

Business organizations employ various employee motivation methods and techniques to keep their employees motivated. Thus, this is an interesting topic to explore for your final year dissertation. Here are some HRM dissertation topics related to employee motivation.

Topic 47:To investigate the role of motivation in HRM – A study highlighting the most important motivation factors for future business leaders

Research Aim: This research will discuss the different motivation factors organisations should use to develop future leaders. In addition to this, the role of motivation throughout HRM will be discussed.

Topic 48:Employee satisfaction and work motivation – Are they both related?

Research Aim: This research will understand the relationship between motivation and employee satisfaction and the different motivation techniques companies can employ to increase employee satisfaction.

Topic 49: Evaluating the Role of Employee motivation in performance Enhancement

Research Aim: This study will discuss the role of employee motivation concerning employee performance, i.e. whether it enhances performance or not.

Topic 50:Human resource management – Motivation among workers in large and diversified business organisations

Research Aim: This dissertation will talk about motivation in large and diversified organisations and how these companies ensure that their employees are motivated at all times.

Topic 51:Effects of motivational programmes and activities on employee performance

Research Aim: This research will focus on the different motivational techniques and programs that impact employee performance.

Topic 52: Does motivation play a role in decreasing employee turnovers? A case study of British Airways

Research Aim: This research will discuss the role of motivation in decreasing employee turnover with a specific focus on British airways.

Topic 53:Motivation and performance reward – Are the two interrelated?

Research Aim: This research will talk about motivation and performance rewards and will assess whether the two are interrelated and directly related.

Topic 54: Work productivity and the role of employee motivation programmes and activities

Research Aim: This study will assess employee motivation programs’ impact on employee productivity, i.e. if it increases or decreases.

Topic 55:To discuss the role of employee motivation in relation to retention levels

Research Aim: This research will analyze employee motivation’s role to help companies retain employees.

Topic 56:Differences and similarities between traditional and contemporary theories

Research Aim: This research will discuss and compare traditional and contemporary motivation theories implemented by companies.

Topic 57: The role of employee empowerment in employee motivation and satisfaction at British Petroleum.

Research Aim: This study will aim to analyse different strategies of employee empowerment carried out by British Petroleum and their impact on workers’ motivation and satisfaction. The research will be studied that either different employee empowerment strategies improve employee motivation and satisfaction. The findings will be beneficial for companies working in the petroleum sector.

Topic 58: The impact of open communication in improving employee engagement at Zara

Research Aim: In this research, different modes of communication used by organisations will be studied and especially the impact of open communication in improving employee engagement at Zara will be analyzed. The importance of open communication for different organisations in the fashion and retail sectors will be discussed. Moreover, different communication strategies that can help improve employee engagement at Zara will be discussed based on past literature, theories, and framework.

HR Performance Management Dissertation Topics

All processes and activities to consistently meet organisational goals and objectives can be considered the HR performance management mechanism elements. Different organisations employ different performance management strategies to gain a competitive advantage. To explore this area of human resources, here are some intriguing topics for you:

Topic 59:Investigating different performance management techniques for retaining employees

Research Aim: This research will talk about companies’ various performance management techniques to retain employees.

Topic 60:The role of performance management activities in improving employees’ skills and abilities

Research Aim: This research will discuss how performance management helps employees improve their skills and abilities and how it ultimately helps companies.

Topic 61:Managing performance of workers through performance management techniques – A Case Study of Google

Research Aim: This research will explore how organisations use different performance management techniques to manage employees and their performance. A specific focus of this study will be Google Incorporation.

Topic 62:Employee performance and performance management systems – A qualitative study

Research Aim: This study will conduct a qualitative study to understand the different performance management systems for improving employee performance.

Topic 63:Performance management examinations in human resource management of profit-oriented organisations

Research Aim: This research will understand performance management in profit-oriented companies regarding how their human resource department ensures optimal performance.

Topic 64:Exploring the essentials elements of the performance management framework

Research Aim: This research will explore its vital features and performance management framework.

Topic 65:Human resource management practices and business performance – The role of environmental uncertainties and strategies

Research Aim: This research will explore whether environment uncertainties and strategies play a role in employee and business performance.

Topic 66:The efficacy of performance management systems in the UK’s retail industry

Research Aim: This research will explore the UK’s retail industry’s performance management efficacy.

Topic 67:Towards a framework for performance management in a higher education institution

Research Aim: This research will investigate performance management in the educational setting.

Topic 68:Should wages be capped through performance management – A qualitative study

Research Aim: This research will analyse whether wages should be adjusted and capped concerning performance management with a focus on its effects.

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Strategic Human Resource Management Dissertation Topics

Strategic human resource management is tying the human resource management objective to the company’s goals and objectives. This helps companies in innovating and staying ahead of their competitors by gaining a competitive advantage.

Being a relatively new concept, there are various aspects of strategic HRM that are left to be explored. Here are some interesting strategic HRM dissertation topics for you:

Topic 69:The efficacy of communication processes and employees’ involvement plans to improve employee commitment towards organisational goals – A case study of Sainsbury

Research Aim: This research will study the role and efficacy of the communication processes and employees’ involvement in order to improve employees’ commitment towards organisational goals.

Topic 70:To investigate SHRM theory and practice in a call centre – A case study of any UK call centre

Research Aim: This dissertation will discuss the various SHRM theories and how it is implemented. A UK-based call center will be focused on this study.

Topic 71: Differences and similarities between SHRM strategies and policies employed by German and Japanese automobile companies

Research Aim: This research will compare the different SHRM techniques and policies implemented by German and Japanese automobile companies.

Topic 72: A resource-based view assessment of strategic human resources quality management systems

Research Aim: This research will understand the resource-based view of strategic human resources quality management systems.

Topic 73: To understand and critically evaluate the HRM strategies employed by small and medium sized enterprises in the UK

Research Aim: This research will discuss and evaluate the different strategic HRM strategies employed by small and medium-sized enterprises in the UK.

Topic 74: Relating organisational performance to strategic human resource management – A study of small scale businesses in the UK

Research Aim: This study will analyse whether organisational performance and strategic human resource management are interconnected by assessing small scale businesses in the UK.

Topic 75: Investigating strategic human resource management in Singapore – A qualitative study

Research Aim: This research will analyse strategic human resource management in Singapore by undertaking a qualitative method.

Topic 76: The role of organisational support programmes to enhance work outcome and employees behaviour

Research Aim: This research will understand the organisational support program in order to enhance employee work outcome and their behaviour.

Topic 77: To establish the most important components of strategic HRM for SMEs in the UK to develop a competitive advantage

Research Aim: This research will talk about the relationship between the different SHRM components for SMEs in the UK in order to gain a competitive advantage.

Topic 78: To establish the significance of the relationship between organisational performance and strategic human resource management

Research Aim: This research will explore the relationship between organisational performance and strategic human resource management and how it helps companies achieve their objectives.

Human Resource Theory Dissertation Topics

The human resource theory framework consists of a soft and hard approach to human resources management. Various theories cover the different aspects of the soft and hard human resource approach.

Exploring this area of HRM will help in understanding more about the soft and hard HRM approaches. Here are some dissertation topics in this area that you can choose from.

Topic 79: A comparative analysis of various human resources theory approaches

Research Aim: This research will discuss various human resource theories and approaches and provide a comparative analysis.

Topic 80:To study human resources systems practiced by Multinationals in the UK

Research Aim: This research will discuss the various human resource systems as practised by multinational companies operating in the UK.

Topic 81:The role of human resources management (HRM) in regards to addressing workers’ concerns.

Research Aim: This research will discuss the importance of human resources in understanding and addressing worker’s concerns.

Topic 82: Can HRM have a negative influence on the performance of business organisations – A qualitative study?

Research Aim: This research will discuss a unique aspect of human resource management, i.e. whether it harms the company’s performance or not.

Topic 83: Is Human resources the only option for employees? An exploratory study

Research Aim: This study will analyze human resources’ role in solving employee issues and assess whether it is the only option for employees.

Topic 84:Exploring the contribution of human resource to the success of organisations

Research Aim: This research will aim to understand the role and contribution of the human resource department in companies’ success.

Topic 85:To investigate the most predominant human HRM and control strategies employed by business organisations

Research Aim: This research will discuss an interesting topic, i.e. the most predominant HRM strategies organisations implement.

Topic 86:To investigate the role of HR as a shared service.

Research Aim: This study will discuss human resources’ role as a shared service in the organisation.

Topic 87:Does a supervisor has a role to play in implementing HR practices – A critical study

Research Aim: This study will critically analyze supervisors’ role in implementing human resource practices in an organization.

Topic 88:The ethics of firing employees – Do companies really follow it?

Research Aim: This research will focus on how employees are fired at organizations and whether human resources follow the ethics of firing or not.

HR Organisational Culture Dissertation Topics

Organisational culture, also known as organisational climate, is defined as the process by which an organisation’s culture can be quantified. The properties of the work environment that are either considered positive or negative by the employees (and that may influence their behaviour) are the most important components of the organisational culture framework.

Studying this aspect of human resources will help you gain an in-depth knowledge of the role of culture in human resource management. Here are some interesting dissertation topics in this area:

Topic 89:The role of leadership, HRM and culture in vitalising management systems in firms

Research Aim: This research will understand the role of leadership and culture in human resource management and how it helps companies manage their systems.

Topic 90:Finding the right balance between differentiation and standardisation of HRM practices and policies – HRM of multinational companies operating within the European Union

Research Aim: There are certain human resource practices that are standardized throughout the world. This research will investigate the differences between such standard policies with respect to culture. Multinationals operating in the European Union will be focused.

Topic 91:Cross-cultural human resource management – The role it plays in the success of different organisations

Research Aim: This research will study the role of cross-cultural human resource management in the success of companies.

Topic 92:The impact of cross-cultural competencies in start-up companies

Research Aim: A lot of companies do not encourage cross-cultural human resources in the workplace. This research will analyse how cross-cultural competencies help startups grow and succeed.

Topic 93:The role of organisational cultural on HRM policies and practices – A case study of Cambridge University

Research Aim: This research will aim to understand the role of organisational culture on human resource policies and practices. The main focus of this study will be at Cambridge University.

Topic 94:The relationship between human resource management practices and organisational culture towards organisational commitment

Research Aim: This research will assess the relationship between different cultures and human resource practices with respect to organisational commitment.

Topic 95: Investigating cultural differences between the work values of employees and the implications for managers

Research Aim: This study will conduct an investigation related to the work values of employees based on their various cultural differences. It will then be concluded what this means for the managers.

Topic 96:To effectively manage cultural change without affecting work productivity

Research Aim: This research will discuss an interesting topic as to how managers should manage organisational cultural change without harming productivity.

Topic 97:Inducting new employees into the culture – Does it help organisations?

Research Aim: This research will discuss whether or not it is feasible for organisations to hire employees when the company is undergoing a cultural change.

Topic 98:Recruiting to change the culture – The Impact it has on the Profitability of the Company

Research Aim: This research will discuss whether companies should hire to lead change in the organisation, i.e. whether hiring should be done for this specific purpose, and what this new hiring means for the company in terms of profitability.

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HR Diversity Dissertation Topics

The changing corporate world has provoked organisations to develop and implement diversity management systems as part of their human resource management system. Although relatively new, diversity management is an important research area of human resource management that brings challenges and learning to employees.

With many areas unexplored and literature gaps in this subject, there are some extremely interesting dissertation topics you can select for your final year project. Some of them are listed here:

Topic 99: Investigating the difference between discrimination and diversity – How Do they Impact Organisations

Research Aim: This research will discuss the differences between the two concepts, diversity and discrimination and their impact on organisations.

Topic 100:Managing diversity through HRM: A conceptual framework and an international perspective

Research Aim: This study will discuss how the human resource department can manage diversity. The study will be conducted in an international setting.

Topic 101:Managing diversity in the public sector – How do companies manage to remain successful

Research Aim: This research will explore managing diversity in the public sector and how these companies can be successful even through diversity.

Topic 102:Managing cultural diversity in human resource management

Research Aim: As much as a human resource helps companies manage diversity, how will companies manage diversity in their main HR department. This research will answer this exact question.

Topic 103:The managerial tools, opportunities, challenges and benefits associated with diversity in the workplace

Research Aim: This research will focus on the tools available to human resources in managing diversity, and how they change it to opportunities and overcome diversity-related challenges.

Topic 104: Investigating the challenges of exclusion and inequality in organisations – Assessing HR’s role.

Research Aim: This research will first investigate the exclusion and inequality challenges that organisations face and how human resources overcome these challenges.

Topic 105:How does HRM Help in managing cultural differences and diversity

Research Aim: This research will discuss HR’s role in managing cultural differences and diversity in organisations.

Topic 106: Can HR eliminate diversity-related discrimination from workplaces? Assessing its role

Research Aim: This research will talk about HR’s role in eliminating diversity-related discrimination from organisations, and whether it will be successful in doing so or not.

Topic 107:Training managers for diversity – How difficult is it for companies and HR

Research Aim: This research will discuss and analyse the role of HR and companies in ensuring manager’s learning and development for diversity.

Topic 108:Training the newly hired staff for diversity in a large and diversified business organisation

Research Aim: This research will investigate the role of HR in training employees and staff to deal with, manage and coexist with diverse employees.

Important Notes:

As a human resource management student looking to get good grades, it is essential to develop new ideas and experiment with existing human resource management theories – i.e., to add value and interest to your research topic.

Human resource management is vast and interrelated to many other academic disciplines like management , operations management , project management , business , international business , MBA and more. That is why it is imperative to create a human resource management dissertation topic that is articular, sound, and actually solves a practical problem that may be rampant in the field.

We can’t stress how important it is to develop a logical research topic based on your entire research. There are several significant downfalls to getting your topic wrong; your supervisor may not be interested in working on it, the topic has no academic creditability, the research may not make logical sense, there is a possibility that the study is not viable.

This impacts your time and efforts in writing your dissertation , as you may end up in the cycle of rejection at the initial stage of the dissertation. That is why we recommend reviewing existing research to develop a topic, taking advice from your supervisor, and even asking for help in this particular stage of your dissertation.

While developing a research topic, keeping our advice in mind will allow you to pick one of the best human resource management dissertation topics that fulfil your requirement of writing a research paper and add to the body of knowledge.

Therefore, it is recommended that when finalizing your dissertation topic, you read recently published literature to identify gaps in the research that you may help fill.

Remember- dissertation topics need to be unique, solve an identified problem, be logical, and be practically implemented. Please look at some of our sample human resource management dissertation topics to get an idea for your own dissertation.

How to Structure your HRM Dissertation

A well-structured dissertation can help students to achieve a high overall academic grade.

• A Title Page
• Acknowledgements
• Declaration
• Abstract: A summary of the research completed
• Table of Contents
• Introduction : This chapter includes the project rationale, research background, key research aims and objectives, and the research problems. An outline of the structure of a dissertation can also be added to this chapter.
• Literature Review : This chapter presents relevant theories and frameworks by analyzing published and unpublished literature on the chosen research topic to address research questions . The purpose is to highlight and discuss the selected research area’s relative weaknesses and strengths while identifying research gaps. Break down the topic and key terms that can positively impact your dissertation and your tutor.
• Methodology : The data collection and analysis methods and techniques employed by the researcher are presented in the Methodology chapter, which usually includes research design , research philosophy, research limitations, code of conduct, ethical consideration, data collection methods, and data analysis strategy .
• Findings and Analysis : Findings of the research are analysed in detail under the Findings and Analysis chapter. All key findings/results are outlined in this chapter without interpreting the data or drawing any conclusions. It can be useful to include graphs, charts, and tables in this chapter to identify meaningful trends and relationships.
• Discussion and Conclusion : The researcher presents his interpretation of the results in this chapter and state whether the research hypothesis has been verified or not. An essential aspect of this section is establishing the link between the results and evidence from the literature. Recommendations with regards to the implications of the findings and directions for the future may also be provided. Finally, a summary of the overall research, along with final judgments, opinions, and comments, must be included in the form of suggestions for improvement.
• References : Make sure to complete this following your University’s requirements
• Bibliography
• Appendices : Any additional information, diagrams, and graphs used to complete the dissertation but not part of the dissertation should be included in the Appendices chapter. Essentially, the purpose is to expand the information/data.

About ResearchProspect Ltd

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Our team of writers  is highly qualified. They are experts in their respective fields. They have been working for us for a long time. Thus, they are well aware of the issues and the trends of the subject they specialize in.

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Home » 500+ Qualitative Research Titles and Topics

500+ Qualitative Research Titles and Topics

Table of Contents

Qualitative research is a methodological approach that involves gathering and analyzing non-numerical data to understand and interpret social phenomena. Unlike quantitative research , which emphasizes the collection of numerical data through surveys and experiments, qualitative research is concerned with exploring the subjective experiences, perspectives, and meanings of individuals and groups. As such, qualitative research topics can be diverse and encompass a wide range of social issues and phenomena. From exploring the impact of culture on identity formation to examining the experiences of marginalized communities, qualitative research offers a rich and nuanced perspective on complex social issues. In this post, we will explore some of the most compelling qualitative research topics and provide some tips on how to conduct effective qualitative research.

Qualitative Research Titles

Qualitative research titles often reflect the study’s focus on understanding the depth and complexity of human behavior, experiences, or social phenomena. Here are some examples across various fields:

• “Understanding the Impact of Project-Based Learning on Student Engagement in High School Classrooms: A Qualitative Study”
• “Navigating the Transition: Experiences of International Students in American Universities”
• “The Role of Parental Involvement in Early Childhood Education: Perspectives from Teachers and Parents”
• “Exploring the Effects of Teacher Feedback on Student Motivation and Self-Efficacy in Middle Schools”
• “Digital Literacy in the Classroom: Teacher Strategies for Integrating Technology in Elementary Education”
• “Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices: A Case Study in Diverse Urban Schools”
• “The Influence of Extracurricular Activities on Academic Achievement: Student Perspectives”
• “Barriers to Implementing Inclusive Education in Public Schools: A Qualitative Inquiry”
• “Teacher Professional Development and Its Impact on Classroom Practice: A Qualitative Exploration”
• “Student-Centered Learning Environments: A Qualitative Study of Classroom Dynamics and Outcomes”
• “The Experience of First-Year Teachers: Challenges, Support Systems, and Professional Growth”
• “Exploring the Role of School Leadership in Fostering a Positive School Culture”
• “Peer Relationships and Learning Outcomes in Cooperative Learning Settings: A Qualitative Analysis”
• “The Impact of Social Media on Student Learning and Engagement: Teacher and Student Perspectives”
• “Understanding Special Education Needs: Parent and Teacher Perceptions of Support Services in Schools

Health Science

• “Living with Chronic Pain: Patient Narratives and Coping Strategies in Managing Daily Life”
• “Healthcare Professionals’ Perspectives on the Challenges of Rural Healthcare Delivery”
• “Exploring the Mental Health Impacts of COVID-19 on Frontline Healthcare Workers: A Qualitative Study”
• “Patient and Family Experiences of Palliative Care: Understanding Needs and Preferences”
• “The Role of Community Health Workers in Improving Access to Maternal Healthcare in Rural Areas”
• “Barriers to Mental Health Services Among Ethnic Minorities: A Qualitative Exploration”
• “Understanding Patient Satisfaction in Telemedicine Services: A Qualitative Study of User Experiences”
• “The Impact of Cultural Competence Training on Healthcare Provider-Patient Communication”
• “Navigating the Transition to Adult Healthcare Services: Experiences of Adolescents with Chronic Conditions”
• “Exploring the Use of Alternative Medicine Among Patients with Chronic Diseases: A Qualitative Inquiry”
• “The Role of Social Support in the Rehabilitation Process of Stroke Survivors”
• “Healthcare Decision-Making Among Elderly Patients: A Qualitative Study of Preferences and Influences”
• “Nurse Perceptions of Patient Safety Culture in Hospital Settings: A Qualitative Analysis”
• “Experiences of Women with Postpartum Depression: Barriers to Seeking Help”
• “The Impact of Nutrition Education on Eating Behaviors Among College Students: A Qualitative Approach”
• “Understanding Resilience in Survivors of Childhood Trauma: A Narrative Inquiry”
• “The Role of Mindfulness in Managing Work-Related Stress Among Corporate Employees: A Qualitative Study”
• “Coping Mechanisms Among Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder”
• “Exploring the Psychological Impact of Social Isolation in the Elderly: A Phenomenological Study”
• “Identity Formation in Adolescence: The Influence of Social Media and Peer Groups”
• “The Experience of Forgiveness in Interpersonal Relationships: A Qualitative Exploration”
• “Perceptions of Happiness and Well-Being Among University Students: A Cultural Perspective”
• “The Impact of Art Therapy on Anxiety and Depression in Adult Cancer Patients”
• “Narratives of Recovery: A Qualitative Study on the Journey Through Addiction Rehabilitation”
• “Exploring the Psychological Effects of Long-Term Unemployment: A Grounded Theory Approach”
• “Attachment Styles and Their Influence on Adult Romantic Relationships: A Qualitative Analysis”
• “The Role of Personal Values in Career Decision-Making Among Young Adults”
• “Understanding the Stigma of Mental Illness in Rural Communities: A Qualitative Inquiry”
• “Exploring the Use of Digital Mental Health Interventions Among Adolescents: A Qualitative Study”
• “The Psychological Impact of Climate Change on Young Adults: An Exploration of Anxiety and Action”
• “Navigating Identity: The Role of Social Media in Shaping Youth Culture and Self-Perception”
• “Community Resilience in the Face of Urban Gentrification: A Case Study of Neighborhood Change”
• “The Dynamics of Intergenerational Relationships in Immigrant Families: A Qualitative Analysis”
• “Social Capital and Economic Mobility in Low-Income Neighborhoods: An Ethnographic Approach”
• “Gender Roles and Career Aspirations Among Young Adults in Conservative Societies”
• “The Stigma of Mental Health in the Workplace: Employee Narratives and Organizational Culture”
• “Exploring the Intersection of Race, Class, and Education in Urban School Systems”
• “The Impact of Digital Divide on Access to Healthcare Information in Rural Communities”
• “Social Movements and Political Engagement Among Millennials: A Qualitative Study”
• “Cultural Adaptation and Identity Among Second-Generation Immigrants: A Phenomenological Inquiry”
• “The Role of Religious Institutions in Providing Community Support and Social Services”
• “Negotiating Public Space: Experiences of LGBTQ+ Individuals in Urban Environments”
• “The Sociology of Food: Exploring Eating Habits and Food Practices Across Cultures”
• “Work-Life Balance Challenges Among Dual-Career Couples: A Qualitative Exploration”
• “The Influence of Peer Networks on Substance Use Among Adolescents: A Community Study”

Business and Management

• “Navigating Organizational Change: Employee Perceptions and Adaptation Strategies in Mergers and Acquisitions”
• “Corporate Social Responsibility: Consumer Perceptions and Brand Loyalty in the Retail Sector”
• “Leadership Styles and Organizational Culture: A Comparative Study of Tech Startups”
• “Workplace Diversity and Inclusion: Best Practices and Challenges in Multinational Corporations”
• “Consumer Trust in E-commerce: A Qualitative Study of Online Shopping Behaviors”
• “The Gig Economy and Worker Satisfaction: Exploring the Experiences of Freelance Professionals”
• “Entrepreneurial Resilience: Success Stories and Lessons Learned from Failed Startups”
• “Employee Engagement and Productivity in Remote Work Settings: A Post-Pandemic Analysis”
• “Brand Storytelling: How Narrative Strategies Influence Consumer Engagement”
• “Sustainable Business Practices: Stakeholder Perspectives in the Fashion Industry”
• “Cross-Cultural Communication Challenges in Global Teams: Strategies for Effective Collaboration”
• “Innovative Workspaces: The Impact of Office Design on Creativity and Collaboration”
• “Consumer Perceptions of Artificial Intelligence in Customer Service: A Qualitative Exploration”
• “The Role of Mentoring in Career Development: Insights from Women in Leadership Positions”
• “Agile Management Practices: Adoption and Impact in Traditional Industries”

Environmental Studies

• “Community-Based Conservation Efforts in Tropical Rainforests: A Qualitative Study of Local Perspectives and Practices”
• “Urban Sustainability Initiatives: Exploring Resident Participation and Impact in Green City Projects”
• “Perceptions of Climate Change Among Indigenous Populations: Insights from Traditional Ecological Knowledge”
• “Environmental Justice and Industrial Pollution: A Case Study of Community Advocacy and Response”
• “The Role of Eco-Tourism in Promoting Conservation Awareness: Perspectives from Tour Operators and Visitors”
• “Sustainable Agriculture Practices Among Smallholder Farmers: Challenges and Opportunities”
• “Youth Engagement in Climate Action Movements: Motivations, Perceptions, and Outcomes”
• “Corporate Environmental Responsibility: A Qualitative Analysis of Stakeholder Expectations and Company Practices”
• “The Impact of Plastic Pollution on Marine Ecosystems: Community Awareness and Behavioral Change”
• “Renewable Energy Adoption in Rural Communities: Barriers, Facilitators, and Social Implications”
• “Water Scarcity and Community Adaptation Strategies in Arid Regions: A Grounded Theory Approach”
• “Urban Green Spaces: Public Perceptions and Use Patterns in Megacities”
• “Environmental Education in Schools: Teachers’ Perspectives on Integrating Sustainability into Curricula”
• “The Influence of Environmental Activism on Policy Change: Case Studies of Grassroots Campaigns”
• “Cultural Practices and Natural Resource Management: A Qualitative Study of Indigenous Stewardship Models”

Anthropology

• “Kinship and Social Organization in Matrilineal Societies: An Ethnographic Study”
• “Rituals and Beliefs Surrounding Death and Mourning in Diverse Cultures: A Comparative Analysis”
• “The Impact of Globalization on Indigenous Languages and Cultural Identity”
• “Food Sovereignty and Traditional Agricultural Practices Among Indigenous Communities”
• “Navigating Modernity: The Integration of Traditional Healing Practices in Contemporary Healthcare Systems”
• “Gender Roles and Equality in Hunter-Gatherer Societies: An Anthropological Perspective”
• “Sacred Spaces and Religious Practices: An Ethnographic Study of Pilgrimage Sites”
• “Youth Subcultures and Resistance: An Exploration of Identity and Expression in Urban Environments”
• “Cultural Constructions of Disability and Inclusion: A Cross-Cultural Analysis”
• “Interethnic Marriages and Cultural Syncretism: Case Studies from Multicultural Societies”
• “The Role of Folklore and Storytelling in Preserving Cultural Heritage”
• “Economic Anthropology of Gift-Giving and Reciprocity in Tribal Communities”
• “Digital Anthropology: The Role of Social Media in Shaping Political Movements”
• “Migration and Diaspora: Maintaining Cultural Identity in Transnational Communities”
• “Cultural Adaptations to Climate Change Among Coastal Fishing Communities”

Communication Studies

• “The Dynamics of Family Communication in the Digital Age: A Qualitative Inquiry”
• “Narratives of Identity and Belonging in Diaspora Communities Through Social Media”
• “Organizational Communication and Employee Engagement: A Case Study in the Non-Profit Sector”
• “Cultural Influences on Communication Styles in Multinational Teams: An Ethnographic Approach”
• “Media Representation of Women in Politics: A Content Analysis and Audience Perception Study”
• “The Role of Communication in Building Sustainable Community Development Projects”
• “Interpersonal Communication in Online Dating: Strategies, Challenges, and Outcomes”
• “Public Health Messaging During Pandemics: A Qualitative Study of Community Responses”
• “The Impact of Mobile Technology on Parent-Child Communication in the Digital Era”
• “Crisis Communication Strategies in the Hospitality Industry: A Case Study of Reputation Management”
• “Narrative Analysis of Personal Stories Shared on Mental Health Blogs”
• “The Influence of Podcasts on Political Engagement Among Young Adults”
• “Visual Communication and Brand Identity: A Qualitative Study of Consumer Interpretations”
• “Communication Barriers in Cross-Cultural Healthcare Settings: Patient and Provider Perspectives”
• “The Role of Internal Communication in Managing Organizational Change: Employee Experiences”

Information Technology

• “User Experience Design in Augmented Reality Applications: A Qualitative Study of Best Practices”
• “The Human Factor in Cybersecurity: Understanding Employee Behaviors and Attitudes Towards Phishing”
• “Adoption of Cloud Computing in Small and Medium Enterprises: Challenges and Success Factors”
• “Blockchain Technology in Supply Chain Management: A Qualitative Exploration of Potential Impacts”
• “The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Personalizing User Experiences on E-commerce Platforms”
• “Digital Transformation in Traditional Industries: A Case Study of Technology Adoption Challenges”
• “Ethical Considerations in the Development of Smart Home Technologies: A Stakeholder Analysis”
• “The Impact of Social Media Algorithms on News Consumption and Public Opinion”
• “Collaborative Software Development: Practices and Challenges in Open Source Projects”
• “Understanding the Digital Divide: Access to Information Technology in Rural Communities”
• “Data Privacy Concerns and User Trust in Internet of Things (IoT) Devices”
• “The Effectiveness of Gamification in Educational Software: A Qualitative Study of Engagement and Motivation”
• “Virtual Teams and Remote Work: Communication Strategies and Tools for Effectiveness”
• “User-Centered Design in Mobile Health Applications: Evaluating Usability and Accessibility”
• “The Influence of Technology on Work-Life Balance: Perspectives from IT Professionals”

Tourism and Hospitality

• “Exploring the Authenticity of Cultural Heritage Tourism in Indigenous Communities”
• “Sustainable Tourism Practices: Perceptions and Implementations in Small Island Destinations”
• “The Impact of Social Media Influencers on Destination Choice Among Millennials”
• “Gastronomy Tourism: Exploring the Culinary Experiences of International Visitors in Rural Regions”
• “Eco-Tourism and Conservation: Stakeholder Perspectives on Balancing Tourism and Environmental Protection”
• “The Role of Hospitality in Enhancing the Cultural Exchange Experience of Exchange Students”
• “Dark Tourism: Visitor Motivations and Experiences at Historical Conflict Sites”
• “Customer Satisfaction in Luxury Hotels: A Qualitative Study of Service Excellence and Personalization”
• “Adventure Tourism: Understanding the Risk Perception and Safety Measures Among Thrill-Seekers”
• “The Influence of Local Communities on Tourist Experiences in Ecotourism Sites”
• “Event Tourism: Economic Impacts and Community Perspectives on Large-Scale Music Festivals”
• “Heritage Tourism and Identity: Exploring the Connections Between Historic Sites and National Identity”
• “Tourist Perceptions of Sustainable Accommodation Practices: A Study of Green Hotels”
• “The Role of Language in Shaping the Tourist Experience in Multilingual Destinations”
• “Health and Wellness Tourism: Motivations and Experiences of Visitors to Spa and Retreat Centers”

Qualitative Research Topics

Qualitative Research Topics are as follows:

• Understanding the lived experiences of first-generation college students
• Exploring the impact of social media on self-esteem among adolescents
• Investigating the effects of mindfulness meditation on stress reduction
• Analyzing the perceptions of employees regarding organizational culture
• Examining the impact of parental involvement on academic achievement of elementary school students
• Investigating the role of music therapy in managing symptoms of depression
• Understanding the experience of women in male-dominated industries
• Exploring the factors that contribute to successful leadership in non-profit organizations
• Analyzing the effects of peer pressure on substance abuse among adolescents
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with disabilities in the workplace
• Understanding the factors that contribute to burnout among healthcare professionals
• Examining the impact of social support on mental health outcomes
• Analyzing the perceptions of parents regarding sex education in schools
• Investigating the experiences of immigrant families in the education system
• Understanding the impact of trauma on mental health outcomes
• Exploring the effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy for individuals with anxiety
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful intergenerational relationships
• Investigating the experiences of LGBTQ+ individuals in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of online gaming on social skills development among adolescents
• Examining the perceptions of teachers regarding technology integration in the classroom
• Analyzing the experiences of women in leadership positions
• Investigating the factors that contribute to successful marriage and long-term relationships
• Understanding the impact of social media on political participation
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with mental health disorders in the criminal justice system
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful community-based programs for youth development
• Investigating the experiences of veterans in accessing mental health services
• Understanding the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health outcomes
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood obesity prevention
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful multicultural education programs
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of poverty on academic achievement
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with autism spectrum disorder in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful employee retention strategies
• Investigating the experiences of caregivers of individuals with Alzheimer’s disease
• Understanding the impact of parent-child communication on adolescent sexual behavior
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding mental health services on campus
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful team building in the workplace
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with eating disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of mentorship on career success
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with physical disabilities in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful community-based programs for mental health
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with substance use disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of social media on romantic relationships
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding child discipline strategies
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful cross-cultural communication in the workplace
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with anxiety disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on healthcare delivery
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with hearing loss in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful parent-teacher communication
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with depression in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of childhood trauma on adult mental health outcomes
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding alcohol and drug use on campus
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful mentor-mentee relationships
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with intellectual disabilities in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of work-family balance on employee satisfaction and well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with autism spectrum disorder in vocational rehabilitation programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful project management in the construction industry
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with substance use disorders in peer support groups
• Understanding the impact of mindfulness meditation on stress reduction and mental health
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood nutrition
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful environmental sustainability initiatives in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with bipolar disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of job stress on employee burnout and turnover
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with physical disabilities in recreational activities
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful strategic planning in nonprofit organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with hoarding disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of culture on leadership styles and effectiveness
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding sexual health education on campus
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain management in the retail industry
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with personality disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of multiculturalism on group dynamics in the workplace
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in mindfulness-based pain management programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful employee engagement strategies in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with internet addiction disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of social comparison on body dissatisfaction and self-esteem
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood sleep habits
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful diversity and inclusion initiatives in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with schizophrenia in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of job crafting on employee motivation and job satisfaction
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with vision impairments in navigating public spaces
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful customer relationship management strategies in the service industry
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with dissociative amnesia in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural intelligence on intercultural communication and collaboration
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding campus diversity and inclusion efforts
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain sustainability initiatives in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of transformational leadership on organizational performance and employee well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with mobility impairments in public transportation
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful talent management strategies in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with substance use disorders in harm reduction programs
• Understanding the impact of gratitude practices on well-being and resilience
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood mental health and well-being
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful corporate social responsibility initiatives in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with borderline personality disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of emotional labor on job stress and burnout
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with hearing impairments in healthcare settings
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful customer experience strategies in the hospitality industry
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with gender dysphoria in gender-affirming healthcare
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on cross-cultural negotiation in the global marketplace
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding academic stress and mental health
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain agility in organizations
• Understanding the impact of music therapy on mental health and well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with dyslexia in educational settings
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful leadership in nonprofit organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in online support groups
• Understanding the impact of exercise on mental health and well-being
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood screen time
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful change management strategies in organizations
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on international business negotiations
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with hearing impairments in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful team building in corporate settings
• Understanding the impact of technology on communication in romantic relationships
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful community engagement strategies for local governments
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of financial stress on mental health and well-being
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful mentorship programs in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with gambling addictions in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of social media on body image and self-esteem
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood education
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful virtual team management strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with dissociative identity disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on cross-cultural communication in healthcare settings
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in cognitive-behavioral therapy programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful community-building strategies in urban neighborhoods
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with alcohol use disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of personality traits on romantic relationships
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding mental health stigma on campus
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful fundraising strategies for political campaigns
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with traumatic brain injuries in rehabilitation programs
• Understanding the impact of social support on mental health and well-being among the elderly
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in medical treatment decision-making processes
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful innovation strategies in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with dissociative disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on cross-cultural communication in education settings
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood physical activity
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful conflict resolution in family relationships
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with opioid use disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of emotional intelligence on leadership effectiveness
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with learning disabilities in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful change management in educational institutions
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with eating disorders in recovery support groups
• Understanding the impact of self-compassion on mental health and well-being
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding campus safety and security measures
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful marketing strategies for nonprofit organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with postpartum depression in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of ageism in the workplace
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with dyslexia in the education system
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with anxiety disorders in cognitive-behavioral therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of socioeconomic status on access to healthcare
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood screen time usage
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain management strategies
• Understanding the impact of parenting styles on child development
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with addiction in harm reduction programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful crisis management strategies in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with trauma in trauma-focused therapy programs
• Examining the perceptions of healthcare providers regarding patient-centered care
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful product development strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with autism spectrum disorder in employment programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural competence on healthcare outcomes
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in healthcare navigation
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful community engagement strategies for non-profit organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with physical disabilities in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of childhood trauma on adult mental health
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain sustainability strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with personality disorders in dialectical behavior therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of gender identity on mental health treatment seeking behaviors
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with schizophrenia in community-based treatment programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful project team management strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder in exposure and response prevention therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural competence on academic achievement and success
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding academic integrity
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful social media marketing strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with bipolar disorder in community-based treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of mindfulness on academic achievement and success
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with substance use disorders in medication-assisted treatment programs
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with anxiety disorders in exposure therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of healthcare disparities on health outcomes
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain optimization strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with borderline personality disorder in schema therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of culture on perceptions of mental health stigma
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with trauma in art therapy programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful digital marketing strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with eating disorders in online support groups
• Understanding the impact of workplace bullying on job satisfaction and performance
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding mental health resources on campus
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain risk management strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in mindfulness-based pain management programs
• Understanding the impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social anxiety disorder
• Understanding the impact of COVID-19 on mental health and well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with eating disorders in treatment programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful leadership in business organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in cognitive-behavioral therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on intercultural communication
• Examining the perceptions of teachers regarding inclusive education for students with disabilities
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with depression in therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of workplace culture on employee retention and turnover
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with traumatic brain injuries in rehabilitation programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful crisis communication strategies in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with anxiety disorders in mindfulness-based interventions
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in healthcare settings
• Understanding the impact of technology on work-life balance
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with learning disabilities in academic settings
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful entrepreneurship in small businesses
• Understanding the impact of gender identity on mental health and well-being
• Examining the perceptions of individuals with disabilities regarding accessibility in public spaces
• Understanding the impact of religion on coping strategies for stress and anxiety
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in complementary and alternative medicine treatments
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful customer retention strategies in business organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with postpartum depression in therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of ageism on older adults in healthcare settings
• Examining the perceptions of students regarding online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful team building in virtual work environments
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with gambling disorders in treatment programs
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in peer support groups
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful social media marketing strategies for businesses
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with ADHD in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of sleep on cognitive and emotional functioning
• Examining the perceptions of individuals with chronic illnesses regarding healthcare access and affordability
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with borderline personality disorder in dialectical behavior therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of social support on caregiver well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in disability activism
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful cultural competency training programs in healthcare settings
• Understanding the impact of personality disorders on interpersonal relationships
• Examining the perceptions of healthcare providers regarding the use of telehealth services
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with dissociative disorders in therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of gender bias in hiring practices
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with visual impairments in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful diversity and inclusion programs in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of online dating on romantic relationships
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood vaccination
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful communication in healthcare settings
• Understanding the impact of cultural stereotypes on academic achievement
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with substance use disorders in sober living programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful classroom management strategies
• Understanding the impact of social support on addiction recovery
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding mental health stigma
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful conflict resolution in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of race and ethnicity on healthcare access and outcomes
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder in treatment programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful project management strategies
• Understanding the impact of teacher-student relationships on academic achievement
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful customer service strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with social anxiety disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of workplace stress on job satisfaction and performance
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with disabilities in sports and recreation
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful marketing strategies for small businesses
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with phobias in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of culture on attitudes towards mental health and illness
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding sexual assault prevention
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful time management strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with addiction in recovery support groups
• Understanding the impact of mindfulness on emotional regulation and well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in treatment programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful conflict resolution in romantic relationships
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with autism spectrum disorder in social skills training programs
• Understanding the impact of parent-child communication on adolescent substance use
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood mental health services
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful fundraising strategies for non-profit organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in support groups
• Understanding the impact of personality traits on career success and satisfaction
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with disabilities in accessing public transportation
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful team building in sports teams
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in alternative medicine treatments
• Understanding the impact of stigma on mental health treatment seeking behaviors
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding diversity and inclusion on campus.

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Qualitative Research Methods for Human Resources Management

• Human Resource Management and Strategic Management

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• https://methods.sagepub.com/foundations/qualitative-research-methods-for-human-resources-management

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• human resources management Social Sciences 100%
• human resource management Social Sciences 65%
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T1 - Qualitative Research Methods for Human Resources Management

AU - Mohyuddin, Syed

AU - Cameron, Roslyn

AU - Wijeratne, Aaron

N2 - Human resource management (HRM) is a broad field and tends to overlap with strategic management, organisational behaviour, sociology of work, leadership, occupational therapy, labour economics, and gender studies, to name just a few. The study of HRM tends to follow the employment cycle and includes the following topics: attraction and recruitment, onboarding, the psychological contract, training and development, performance management, career development, retention and engagement, talent management, leadership development, and succession planning. Other topics related to the HRM function focus on industrial relations/employment relations, employee voice, job design, workforce planning and HR metrics, diversity management, discrimination, equal employment opportunity, occupational health and safety, wellness and well-being, work-life balance, and compensation management and remuneration.

AB - Human resource management (HRM) is a broad field and tends to overlap with strategic management, organisational behaviour, sociology of work, leadership, occupational therapy, labour economics, and gender studies, to name just a few. The study of HRM tends to follow the employment cycle and includes the following topics: attraction and recruitment, onboarding, the psychological contract, training and development, performance management, career development, retention and engagement, talent management, leadership development, and succession planning. Other topics related to the HRM function focus on industrial relations/employment relations, employee voice, job design, workforce planning and HR metrics, diversity management, discrimination, equal employment opportunity, occupational health and safety, wellness and well-being, work-life balance, and compensation management and remuneration.

M3 - Chapter

BT - SAGE Research Methods Foundations

PB - SAGE Publications Ltd

Human Resources Research Paper Topics For 2024

Table of contents

• 1.1 Human Resources Management Research Topics
• 1.2 Equal Employment Opportunity HR Research Topics
• 1.3 Career Development HR Research Topics
• 1.4 Research Topics on Recruitment and Selection
• 1.5 HR Risk Management Topics
• 1.6 Workplace Safety HR Topics
• 1.7 Trending HR Topics

Human Resources is one of the most popular and essential topics for the business minded. If you remember your basic economics, you may remember that the basic components necessary for production in any kind of economy are Land, Capital, and Labor.

Human labor is an essential resource that keeps a business running. Like any other resource, it must be managed. This is where the term “Human Resources” and Human resources research topics come in.

Having relevant data for research paper is easy if you know where to look. There are lots of online sources and books in libraries to use in your task. Make sure you spend enough time on planning before writing your task.

How to choose a Human Resources topic for your project?

Selecting research topics in human resource management is not as simple as simply choosing the title and proceeding to write it. In order to get a good grade, the paper must be original and well researched. It needs to cover all relevant aspects of the chosen HR topics. Writing a hr related research topics is a very structured and analytical process. This is true for all fields, including human resources research topics.

The first step is topic selection . This is where we can help you. This page features a list of over 90 human resources topics. If you are having problems coming up with your own ideas, please choose hr related research topics from this list instead.

These titled papers all have a great deal of material about human resource management research topics out there. They are each trending topics in hrm topics for research and have plenty of resources available out there on the internet. Each of them is also relevant to the actual field of human resources management.

So, while writing a hr related research topics is not a typical or common activity for an HR employee, it will give you a lot of insights and information. These insights could give you a leg up in the future when you have graduated from School and College.

Human Resources Management Research Topics

At most large companies, ‘Human Resources’ is an entire department of its own. Most other departments at the company typically deal with producing a good or service. Others, like the public relations department, work with the media and other external affairs. Hence, there are many ways to approach HR research topics.

• How HR helps companies remain competitive in a global market.
• Managing part-time, full time, and freelancing employees.
• How much paid leave is optimal?
• What occasions deserve raises and bonuses?
• The simplest way to resolve interpersonal conflicts.
• The most effective team-building strategies.
• Organizing teams according to personalities.
• Can an introverted employee be a good team leader?
• How to improve productivity through a goal-oriented approach.
• The agile method and how it helps.
• The best way to utilize productivity metrics.
• Methods for disciplining employees.
• How to manage international employees.
• Preventing workplace violence.
• Benefits of regular psychological counseling for all employees.

Need help with your research paper? Get your paper written by a professional writer Get Help Reviews.io 4.9/5

Equal Employment Opportunity HR Research Topics

• Are women more likely to get paid less for the same position as a man?
• Do men and women deserve the same pay?
• How to manage equal opportunity employment?
• The best tactics for implementing equal opportunity.
• Recruiting as an equal opportunity employer.
• How to recognize and manage discrimination in the workplace.
• The glass ceiling and how to break it.
• Best practices for mediating disputes between employees.
• Dealing with intimate relationships between employees.
• How to create a diverse workplace?
• Making the workplace an inclusive and accessible place for disabled employees.
• Preventing unfair discrimination against LGBT+ employees.
• The costs of an unequal workplace.
• The benefits of a diverse and inclusive workplace.
• Government requirements for equal opportunity.

Career Development HR Research Topics

Those who are interested in working in the field could take their first steps by writing a paper on human resource management topics. There is a huge variety of possible human resource topics for research papers, so it is likely that everyone will find some aspect of it they enjoy.

• Creating leaders among employees.
• Why does professional career development matter?
• How career development helps both employees and organizations.
• The best approaches to on-the-job training.
• Should training be prioritized over completed current work?
• Best practices for training interns.
• Should interns be paid more?
• Professional certification training for employees.
• How does active professional development affect productivity?
• Is it worth it to help an employee develop if they find a new, better-paid job afterward?
• Skills that all employees should develop.
• Must-have training and development for all employees.
• Advantages and disadvantages of paying for an employee’s professional training.
• Advantages and disadvantages of leading professional development sessions.
• Should companies help employees pay for school?

Research Topics on Recruitment and Selection

Studying human resources is a crucial part of management studies. Whether you are a college or university student, you can buy paper online to save time and effort. There are lots of reputable services that can provide excellent assignments to boost your academic performance.

• What does the ideal new employee look like?
• When is the best time to recruit a new employee?
• When is the worst time to recruit a new employee?
• Should highly skilled but untested individuals be recruited for senior positions?
• Best practices for improving employee retention.
• How to attract good employees?
• The best platforms to recruit on.
• Is social media an effective way to recruit?
• What kind of employees should small businesses look for?
• What kind of employees are needed for a large company?
• Criminal background checks – Do’s and Don’ts.
• How to effectively assess skills during an interview.
• How does HR evaluate a potential new recruit?
• Is it better to recruit an employee with experience but no skill, or the other way around?
• Recruiting university graduates directly – a good idea or a bad one?

HR Risk Management Topics

With so many moving parts working together in one company, it is natural for confusion or conflicts to arise. In order to make sure all these departments, employees, and managers work together, Human Resources is essential. In companies with hundreds of employees, their job simply cannot be understated.

• What kind of risks does HR have to manage?
• What role does HR take in risk management?
• How does HR ensure worker protection?
• Is HR there to protect employees or protect the company?
• Legal measures HR can take.
• Risk management during the covid-19 pandemic.
• How HR managed risks revolving around covid-19.
• Reasons to carry out regular internal audits.
• Risk management among the ‘#metoo’ movement.
• Training the workplace to minimize potential risks.
• Risk management when working from home.
• Ways to ensure all your employees follow masking and social distancing rules.
• Ways to ensure all employees get vaccinated.
• Responding to a legal action taken by an employee.
• When should HR take legal action?

Workplace Safety HR Topics

• How to ensure compliance with workplace safety rules.
• The consequences of not following workplace safety.
• Ways to prevent osha violations.
• How to ensure all employees follow health and safety protocols?
• How to ensure all employees get vaccines?
• Fines and penalties for violating workplace safety rules.
• Consequences of violating safety rules.
• Steps to minimize or prevent burnout.
• Bringing dangerous weapons into the workplace.
• Steps to take when an employee is assaulted at work.
• How to ensure psychological wellbeing during remote work.
• Ensuring company leadership also follows safety roles.
• Combating sexual harassment at the workplace.
• Monitoring employees during remote work – is it ethical?
• Developing specialized safety standards for the workplace.

Trending HR Topics

• Unique ways to keep morale up during the pandemic.
• Online recreational activities to develop teamwork during remote work.
• Use of VR and AR in the workplace.
• Famous figures or celebrities in the workplace.
• Analyzing and updating how much a particular job is worth.
• Steps to take to improve long-term retention.
• Ways to handle overqualified employees or applicants.
• Is an HR department necessary for smaller, family-owned businesses?
• Defusing a tense and volatile moment in the workplace.
• DRM tools for keeping in-house training methods proprietary.
• Use of artificial intelligence for HR topics and tasks.
• How big data is useful to human resources.
• Virtual and online onboarding and orientation.
• Hiring the most talented personnel from a global marketplace.
• Are virtual interviews better than in-person interviews?

Conducting research on human resources is essential for any business looking to enhance their staff’s productivity, skills, and management. Accessing the most effective resources is critical to achieving this goal. This is where an online essay writer can be an invaluable asset in producing high-quality research papers related to human resources. By leveraging the knowledge and expertise of an online essay writer , you can conduct thorough research and create a top-notch human resources research paper that meets your needs.

HR is one of the most dynamic fields of work currently available. It is at the crossroads of psychology, sociology, accounting, and business. In the last few years, there have been many exciting changes in how human resources are handled, due to the rise of virtual platforms and working from home.

Only time will tell if these changes are temporary or permanent. But whichever way they go, our list of HR topics for research project 2023 will always be here for perusal.

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Article contents

Qualitative designs and methodologies for business, management, and organizational research.

• Robert P. Gephart Robert P. Gephart Alberta School of Business, University of Alberta
•  and  Rohny Saylors Rohny Saylors Carson College of Business, Washington State University
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190224851.013.230
• Published online: 28 September 2020

Qualitative research designs provide future-oriented plans for undertaking research. Designs should describe how to effectively address and answer a specific research question using qualitative data and qualitative analysis techniques. Designs connect research objectives to observations, data, methods, interpretations, and research outcomes. Qualitative research designs focus initially on collecting data to provide a naturalistic view of social phenomena and understand the meaning the social world holds from the point of view of social actors in real settings. The outcomes of qualitative research designs are situated narratives of peoples’ activities in real settings, reasoned explanations of behavior, discoveries of new phenomena, and creating and testing of theories.

A three-level framework can be used to describe the layers of qualitative research design and conceptualize its multifaceted nature. Note, however, that qualitative research is a flexible and not fixed process, unlike conventional positivist research designs that are unchanged after data collection commences. Flexibility provides qualitative research with the capacity to alter foci during the research process and make new and emerging discoveries.

The first or methods layer of the research design process uses social science methods to rigorously describe organizational phenomena and provide evidence that is useful for explaining phenomena and developing theory. Description is done using empirical research methods for data collection including case studies, interviews, participant observation, ethnography, and collection of texts, records, and documents.

The second or methodological layer of research design offers three formal logical strategies to analyze data and address research questions: (a) induction to answer descriptive “what” questions; (b) deduction and hypothesis testing to address theory oriented “why” questions; and (c) abduction to understand questions about what, how, and why phenomena occur.

The third or social science paradigm layer of research design is formed by broad social science traditions and approaches that reflect distinct theoretical epistemologies—theories of knowledge—and diverse empirical research practices. These perspectives include positivism, interpretive induction, and interpretive abduction (interpretive science). There are also scholarly research perspectives that reflect on and challenge or seek to change management thinking and practice, rather than producing rigorous empirical research or evidence based findings. These perspectives include critical research, postmodern research, and organization development.

Three additional issues are important to future qualitative research designs. First, there is renewed interest in the value of covert research undertaken without the informed consent of participants. Second, there is an ongoing discussion of the best style to use for reporting qualitative research. Third, there are new ways to integrate qualitative and quantitative data. These are needed to better address the interplay of qualitative and quantitative phenomena that are both found in everyday discourse, a phenomenon that has been overlooked.

• qualitative methods
• research design
• methods and methodologies
• interpretive induction
• interpretive science
• critical theory
• postmodernism
• organization development

Introduction

Qualitative research uses linguistic symbols and stories to describe and understand actual behavior in real settings (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994 ). Understanding requires describing “specific instances of social phenomena” (Van Maanen, 1998 , p. xi) to determine what this behavior means to lay participants and to scientific researchers. This process produces “narratives-non-fiction division that link events to events in storied or dramatic fashion” to uncover broad social science principles at work in specific cases (p. xii).

A research design and/or proposal is often created at the outset of research to act as a guide. But qualitative research is not a rule-governed process and “no one knows” the rules to write memorable and publishable qualitative research (Van Maanen, 1998 , p. xxv). Thus qualitative research “is anything but standardized, or, more tellingly, impersonal” (p. xi). Design is emergent and is often created as it is being done.

Qualitative research is also complex. This complexity is addressed by providing a framework with three distinct layers of knowledge creation resources that are assembled during qualitative research: the methods layer, the logic layer, and the paradigmatic layer. Research methods are addressed first because “there is no necessary connection between research strategies and methods of data collection and analysis” (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 227). Research methods (e.g., interviews) must be adapted for use with the specific logical strategies and paradigmatic assumptions in mind.

The first, or methods, layer uses qualitative methods to “collect data.” That is, to observe phenomena and record written descriptions of observations, often through field notes. Established methods for description include participant and non-participant observation, ethnography, focus groups, individual interviews, and collection of documentary data. The article explains how established methods have been adapted and used to answer a range of qualitative research questions.

The second, or logic, layer involves selecting a research strategy—a “logic, or set of procedures, for answering research questions” (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 18). Research strategies link research objectives, data collection methods, and logics of analysis. The three logical strategies used in qualitative organizational research are inductive logic, deductive logic and abductive logic (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 79). 1 Each logical strategy makes distinct assumptions about the nature of knowledge (epistemology), the nature of being (ontology), and how logical strategies and assumptions are used in data collection and analysis. The task is to describe important methods suitable for each logical strategy, factors to consider when selecting methods (Blaikie, 2010 ), and illustrates how data collection and analysis methods are adapted to ensure for consistency with specific logics and paradigms.

The third, or paradigms, layer of research design addresses broad frameworks and scholarly traditions for understanding research findings. Commitment to a paradigm or research tradition entails commitments to theories, research strategies, and methods. Three paradigms that do empirical research and seek scientific knowledge are addressed first: positivism, interpretive induction, and interpretive abduction. Then, three scholarly and humanist approaches that critique conventional research and practice to encourage organizational change are discussed: critical theory and research, postmodern perspectives, and organization development (OD). Paradigms or traditions provide broad scholarly contexts that make specific studies comprehensible and meaningful. Lack of grounding in an intellectual tradition limits the ability of research to contribute: contributions always relate to advancing the state of knowledge in specific unfolding research traditions that also set norms for assessing research quality. The six research designs are explained to show how consistency in design levels can be achieved for each of the different paradigms. Further, qualitative research designs must balance the need for a clear plan to achieve goals with the need for adaptability and flexibility to incorporate insights and overcome obstacles that emerge during research.

Our general goal has been to provide a practical guide to inspire and assist readers to better understand, design, implement, and publish qualitative research. We conclude by addressing future challenges and trends in qualitative research.

The Substance of Research Design

A research design is a written text that can be prepared prior to the start of a research project (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 4) and shared or used as “a private working document.” Figure 1 depicts the elements of a qualitative research design and research process. Interest in a topic or problem leads researchers to pose questions and select relevant research methods to fulfill research purposes. Implementation of the methods requires use of logical strategies in conjunction with paradigms of research to specify concepts, theories, and models. The outcomes, depending on decisions made during research, are scientific knowledge, scholarly (non-scientific) knowledge, or applied knowledge useful for practice.

Figure 1. Elements of qualitative research design.

Research designs describe a problem or research question and explain how to use specific qualitative methods to collect and analyze qualitative data that answer a research question. The purposes of design are to describe and justify the decisions made during the research process and to explain how the research outcomes can be produced. Designs are thus future-oriented plans that specify research activities, connect activities to research goals and objectives, and explain how to interpret the research outcomes using paradigms and theories.

In contrast, a research proposal is “a public document that is used to obtain necessary approvals for a research proposal to proceed” (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 4). Research designs are often prepared prior to creating a research proposal, and research proposals often require the inclusion of research designs. Proposals also require greater formality when they are the basis for a legal contract between a researcher and a funding agency. Thus, designs and proposals are mutually relevant and have considerable overlap but are addressed to different audiences. Table 1 provides the specific features of designs and proposals. This discussion focuses on designs.

Table 1. Decisions Necessitated by Research Designs and Proposals

Source: Based on Blaikie ( 2010 ), pp. 12–34.

The “real starting point” for a research design (or proposal) is “the formulation of the research question” (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 17). There are three types of research questions: “what” questions seek descriptions; “why” questions seek answers and understanding; and “how” questions address conditions where certain events occur, underlying mechanisms, and conditions necessary for change interventions (p. 17). It is useful to start with research questions rather than goals, and to explain what the research is intended to achieve (p. 17) in a technical way.

The process of finding a topic and formulating a useful research question requires several considerations (Silverman, 2014 , pp. 31–33, 34–40). Researchers must avoid settings where data collection will be difficult (pp. 31–32); specify an appropriate scope for the topic—neither too wide or too narrow—that can be addressed (pp. 35–36); fit research questions into a relevant theory (p. 39); find the appropriate level of theory to address (p. 42); select appropriate designs and research methods (pp. 42–44); ensure the volume of data can be handled (p. 48); and do an effective literature review (p. 48).

A literature review is an important way to link the proposed research to current knowledge in the field, and to explain what was previously known or what theory suggests to be the case (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 17). Research questions can used to bound and frame the literature review while the literature review often inspires research questions. The review may also provide bases for creating new hypotheses and for answering some of the initial research questions (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 18).

Layers of Research Design

There are three layers of research design. The first layer focuses on research methods for collecting data. The second layer focuses on the logical frameworks used for analyzing data. The third layer focuses on the paradigm used to create a coherent worldview from research methods and logical frameworks.

Layer One: Design as Research Methods

Qualitative research addresses the meanings people have for phenomena. It collects narratives of organizational activity, uses analytical induction to create coherent representations of the truths and meanings in organizational contexts, and then creates explanations of this conduct and its prevalence (Van Maanan, 1998 , pp. xi–xii). Thus qualitative research involves “doing research with words” (Gephart, 2013 , title) in order to describe the linguistic symbols and stories that members use in specific settings.

There are four general methods for collecting qualitative data and creating qualitative descriptions (see Table 2 ). The in-depth case study approach provides a history of an event or phenomenon over time using multiple data sources. Observational strategies use the researcher to observe and describe behavior in actual settings. Interview strategies use a format where a researcher asks questions of an informant. And documentary research collects texts, documents, official records, photographs, and videos as data—formally written or visually recorded evidence that can be replayed and reviewed (Creswell, 2014 , p. 190). These methods are adapted to fit the needs of specific projects.

Table 2. Qualitative Data Collection Methods

The in-depth case study method.

The in-depth case study is a key strategy for qualitative research (Piekkari & Welch, 2012 ). It was the most common qualitative method used during the formative years of the field, from 1956 to 1965 , when 48% of qualitative papers published in the Administrative Science Quarterly used the case study method (Van Maanen, 1998 , p. xix). The case design uses one or more data collection strategies to describe in detail how a single event or phenomenon, selected by a researcher, has changed over time. This provides an understanding of the processes that underlie changes to the phenomenon. In-depth case study methods use observations, documents, records, and interviews that describe the events in the case unfolded and their implications. Case studies contextualize phenomena by studying them in actual situations. They provide rich insights into multiple dimensions of a single phenomenon (Campbell, 1975 ); offer empirical insights into what, how, and why questions related to phenomena; and assist in the creation of robust theory by providing diverse data collected over time (Gephart & Richardson, 2008 , p. 36).

Maniha and Perrow ( 1965 ) provide an example of a case study concerned with organizational goal displacement, an important issue in early organizational theorizing that proposed organizations emerge from rational goals. Organizational rationality was becoming questioned at the time that the authors studied a Youth Commission with nine members in a city of 70,000 persons (Maniha & Perrow, 1965 ). The organization’s activities were reconstructed from interviews with principals and stakeholders of the organization, minutes from Youth Commission meetings, documents, letters, and newspaper accounts (Maniha & Perrow, 1965 ).

The account that emerged from the data analysis is a history of how a “reluctant organization” with “no goals to guide it” was used by other aggressive organizations for their own ends. It ultimately created its own mission (Maniha & Perrow, 1965 ). Thus, an organization that initially lacked rational goals developed a mission through the irrational process of goal slippage or displacement. This finding challenged prevailing thinking at the time.

Observational Strategies

Observational strategies involve a researcher present in a situation who observes and records, the activities and conversations that occur in the setting, usually in written field notes. The three observational strategies in Table 2 —participant observation, ethnography, and systematic self-observation—differ in terms of the role of the researcher and in the data collection approach.

Participant observation . This is one of the earliest qualitative methods (McCall & Simmons, 1969 ). One gains access to a setting and an informant holding an appropriate social role, for example, client, customer, volunteer, or researcher. One then observes and records what occurs in the setting using field notes. Many features or topics in a setting can become a focus for participant observers. And observations can be conducted using continuum of different roles from the complete participant, observer as participant, and participant observer, to the complete observer who observes without participation (Creswell, 2014 , Table 9.2, p. 191).

Ethnography . An ethnography is “a written representation of culture” (Van Maanen, 1988 ) produced after extended participation in a culture. Ethnography is a form of participant observation that focuses on the cultural aspects of the group or organization under study (Van Maanen, 1988 , 2010 ). It involves prolonged and close contact with group members in a role where the observer becomes an apprentice to an informant to learn about a culture (Agar, 1980 ; McCurdy, Spradley, & Shandy, 2005 ; Spradley, 1979 ).

Ethnography produces fine-grained descriptions of a micro-culture, based on in-depth cultural participation (McCurdy et al., 2005 ; Spradley, 1979 , 2016 ). Ethnographic observations seek to capture cultural members’ worldviews (see Perlow, 1997 ; Van Maanen, 1988 ; Watson, 1994 ). Ethnographic techniques for interviewing informants have been refined into an integrated developmental research strategy—“the ethno-semantic method”—for undertaking qualitative research (Spradley, 1979 , 2016 ; Van Maanen, 1981 ). The ethnosemantic method uses a structured approach to uncover and confirm key cultural features, themes, and cultural reasoning processes (McCurdy et al., 2005 , Table 3 ; Spradley, 1979 ).

Systematic Self-Observation . Systematic self-observation (SSO) involves “training informants to observe and record a selected feature of their own everyday experience” (Rodrigues & Ryave, 2002 , p. 2; Rodriguez, Ryave, & Tracewell, 1998 ). Once aware that they are experiencing the target phenomenon, informants “immediately write a field report on their observation” (Rodrigues & Ryave, 2002 , p. 2) describing what was said and done, and providing background information on the context, thoughts, emotions, and relationships of people involved. SSO generates high-quality field notes that provide accurate descriptions of informants’ experiences (pp. 4–5). SSO allows informants to directly provide descriptions of their personal experiences including difficult to capture emotions.

Interview Strategies

Interviews are conversations between researchers and research participants—termed “subjects” in positivist research and informants in “interpretive research.” Interviews can be conducted as individual face-to-face interactions (Creswell, 2014 , p. 190) or by telephone, email, or through computer-based media. Two broad types of interview strategies are (a) the individual interview and (b) the group interview or focus group (Morgan, 1997 ). Interviews elicit informants’ insights into their culture and background information, and obtain answers and opinions. Interviews typically address topics and issues that occur outside the interview setting and at previous times. Interview data are thus reconstructions or undocumented descriptions of action in past settings (Creswell, 2014 , p. 191) that provide descriptions that are less accurate and valid descriptions than direct, real-time observations of settings.

Structured and unstructured interviews. Structured interviews pose a standardized set of fixed, closed-ended questions (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe, & Jackson, 2012 ) to respondents whose responses are recorded as factual information. Responses may be forced choice or open ended. However, most qualitative research uses unstructured or partially structured interviews that pose open-ended questions in a flexible order that can be adapted. Unstructured interviews allow for detailed responses and clarification of statements (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012 ; McLeod, 2014 )and the content and format can be tailored to the needs and assumptions of specific research projects (Gephart & Richardson, 2008 , p. 40).

The informant interview (Spradley, 1979 ) poses questions to informants to elicit and clarify background information about their culture, and to validate ethnographic observations. In interviews, informants teach the researcher their culture (Spradley, 1979 , pp. 24–39). The informant interview is part of a developmental research sequence (McCurdy et al., 2005 ; Spradley, 1979 ) that begins with broad “grand tour” questions that ask an informant to describe an important domain in their culture. The questions later narrow to focus on details of cultural domains and members’ folk concepts. This process uncovers semantic relationships among concepts of members and deeper cultural themes (McCurdy et al., 2005 ; Spradley, 1979 ).

The long interview (McCracken, 1988 ) involves a lengthy, quasi-structured interview sessions with informants to acquire rapid and efficient access to cultural themes and issues in a group. Long interviews differ ethnographic interviews by using a “more efficient and less obtrusive format” (p. 7). This creates a “sharply focused, rapid and highly intense interview process” that avoids indeterminate and redundant questions and pre-empts the need for observation or involvement in a culture. There are four stages in the long interview: (a) review literature to uncover analytical categories and design the interview; (b) review cultural categories to prepare the interview guide; (c) construct the questionnaire; and (d) analyze data to discover analytical categories (p. 30, fig. 1 ).

The active interview is a dynamic process where the researcher and informant co-construct and negotiate interview responses (Holstein & Gubrium, 1995 ). The goal is to uncover the subjective meanings that informants hold for phenomenon, and to understand how meaning is produced through communication. The active approach is common in interpretive, critical, and postmodern research that assumes a negotiated order. For example, Richardson and McKenna ( 2000 ) explored how ex-patriate British faculty members themselves interpreted and explained their expatriate experience. The researchers viewed the interview setting as one where the researchers and informants negotiated meanings between themselves, rather than a setting where prepared questions and answers were shared.

Documentary, Photographic, and Video Records as Data

Documents, records, artifacts, photographs, and video recordings are physically enduring forms of data that are separable from their producers and provide mute evidence with no inherent meaning until they are read, written about, and discussed (Hodder, 1994 , p. 393). Records (e.g., marriage certificate) attest to a formal transaction, are associated with formal governmental institutions, and may have legally restricted access. In contrast, documents are texts prepared for personal reasons with fewer legal restrictions but greater need for contextual interpretation. Several approaches to documentary and textual data analysis have been developed (see Table 3 ). Documents that researchers have found useful to collect include public documents and minutes of meetings; detailed transcripts of public hearings; corporate and government press releases; annual reports and financial documents; private documents such as diaries of informants; and news media reports.

Photographs and videos are useful for capturing “accurate” visual images of physical phenomena (Ray & Smith, 2012 ) that can be repeatedly reexamined and used as evidence to substantiate research claims (LeBaron, Jarzabkowski, Pratt, & Fetzer, 2018 ). Photos taken from different positions in space may also reveal different features of phenomena. Videos show movement and reveal activities as processes unfolding over time and space. Both photos and videos integrate and display the spatiotemporal contexts of action.

Layer Two: Design as Logical Frameworks

The second research design layer links data collection and analysis methods (Tables 2 and 3 ) to three logics of enquiry that answer specific questions: inductive, deductive, and abductive logical strategies (see Table 4 ). Each logical strategy focuses on producing different types of knowledge using distinctive research principles, processes, and types of research questions they can address.

Table 3. Data Analysis and Integrated Data Collection and Analysis Strategies

Table 4. logical strategies for answering qualitative research questions with evidence.

Based in part on Blaikie ( 1993 ), ch. 5 & 6; Blaikie ( 2010 ), p. 84, table 4.1

The Inductive Strategy

Induction is the scientific method for many scholars (Blaikie, 1993 , p. 134), and an essential logic for qualitative management research (Pratt, 2009 , p. 856). Inductive strategies ask “what” questions to explore a domain to discover unknown features of a phenomenon (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 83). There are four stages to the inductive strategy: (a) observe and record all facts without selection or anticipating their importance; (b) analyze, compare, and classify facts without employing hypotheses; (c) develop generalizations inductively based on the analyses; and (d) subject generalizations to further testing (Blaikie, 1993 , p. 137).

Inductive research assumes a real world outside human thought that can be directly sensed and described (Blaikie, 2010 ). Principles of inductive research reflect a realist and objectivist ontology. The selection, definition, and measurement of characteristics to be studied are developed from an objective, scientific point of view. Facts about organizational features need to be obtained using unbiased measurement. Further, the elimination method is used to find “the characteristics present in all the positive cases, which are absent in all the negative cases, and which vary in appropriate degrees” (Blaikie, 1993 , p. 135). This requires data collection methods that provide unbiased evidence of the objective facts without pre-supposing their importance.

Induction can establish limited generalizations about phenomena based solely on the observations collected. Generalizations need to be based on the entire sample of data, not on selected observations from large data sets, to establish their validity. The scope of generalization is limited to the sample of data itself. Induction creates evidence to increase our confidence in a conclusion, but the conclusions do not logically follow from premises (Blaikie, 1993 , p. 164). Indeed, inferences from induction cannot be extended beyond the original set of observations and no logical or formal process exists to establish the universality of inferences.

Key data collection methods for inductive designs include observational strategies that allow the researcher to view behavior without making a priori hypotheses, to describe behavior that occurs “naturally” in settings, and to record non-impressionistic descriptions of behavior. Interviews can also elicit descriptions of settings and behavior for inductive qualitative research. Data analysis methods need to describe actual interactions in real settings including discourse among members. These methods include ethnosemantic analysis to uncover key terms and validate actual meanings used by members; analyses of conversational practices that show how meaning is negotiated through sequential turn taking in discourse; and grounded theory-based concept coding and theory development that use the constant comparative method.

Facts or descriptions of events can be compared to one another and generalizations can be made about the world using induction (Blaikie, 2010 ). Outcomes from inductive analysis include descriptions of features in a limited domain of social action that are inferred to exist in other similar settings. Propositions and broader insights can be developed inductively from these descriptions.

The Deductive Strategy

Deductive logic (Blaikie, 1993 , 2010 ) addresses “why” questions to explain associations between concepts that represent phenomena of interest. Researchers can use induction, abduction, or any means, to develop then test the hypotheses to see if they are valid. Hypotheses that are not rejected are temporarily corroborated. The outcomes from deduction are tested hypotheses. Researchers can thus be very creative in hypothesis construction but they cannot discover new phenomena with deduction that is based only on phenomena known in advance (Blaikie, 2010 ). And there is also no purely logical or mechanical process to establish “the validity of [inductively constructed] universal statements from a set of singular statements” from which deductive hypotheses were formed (Hempel, 1966 , p. 15 cited in Blaikie, 1993 , p. 140).

The deductive strategy uses a realist and objectivist ontology and imitates natural science methods. Useful data collection methods include observation, interviewing, and collection of documents that contain facts. Deduction addresses the assumedly objective features of settings and interactions. Appropriate data analysis methods include content coding to identify different types, features, and frequencies of observed phenomena; grounded theory coding and analytical induction to create categories in data, determine how categories are interrelated, and induce theory from observations; and pattern recognition to compare current data to prior models and samples. Content analysis and non-parametric statistics can be used to quantify qualitative data and make it more amenable to analysis, although quantitative analysis of qualitative data is not, strictly speaking, qualitative research (Gephart, 2004 ).

The Abductive Strategy

Abduction is “the process used to produce social scientific accounts of social life by drawing on the concepts and meanings used by social actors, and the activities in which they engage” (Blaikie, 1993 , p. 176). Abductive reasoning assumes that the socially meaningful world is the world experienced by members. The first abductive task is to discover the insider view that is basic to the actions of social actors (p. 176) by uncovering the subjective meanings held by social actors. Subjective meaning (Schutz, 1973a , 1973b ) refers to the meaning that actions hold for the actors themselves and that they can express verbally. Subjective meaning is not inexpressible ideas locked in one’s mind. Abduction starts with lay descriptions of social life, then moves to technical, scientific descriptions of social life (Blaikie, 1993 , p. 177) (see Table 4 ). Abduction answers “what” questions with induction, why questions with deduction, and “how” questions with hypothesized processes that explain how, and under what conditions, phenomena occur. Abduction involves making a logical leap that infers an explanatory process to explain an outcome in an oscillating logic. Deductive, inductive, and inferential processes move recursively from actors’ accounts to social science accounts and back again in abduction (Gephart, 2018 ). This process enables all theory and second-order scientific concepts to be grounded in actors’ first-order meanings.

The abductive strategy contains four layers: (a) everyday concepts and meanings of actors, used for (b) social interaction, from which (c) actors provide accounts, from which (d) social scientific descriptions are made, or theories are generated and applied, to interpret phenomena (Blaikie, 1993 , p. 177). The multifaceted research process, described in Table 4 , requires locating and comprehending members’ important everyday concepts and theories before observing or creating disruptions that force members to explain the unstated knowledge behind their action. The researcher then integrates members’ first-order concepts into a general, second-order scientific theory that makes first-order understandings recoverable.

Abduction emerged from Weber’s interpretive sociology ( 1978 ) and Peirce’s ( 1936 ) philosophy. But Alfred Schutz ( 1973a , 1973b ) is the contemporary scholar who did the most to extend our understanding of abduction, although he never used the term “abduction” (Blaikie, 1993 , 2010 ; Gephart, 2018 ). Schutz conceived abduction as an approach to verifiable interpretive knowledge that is scientific and rigorous (Blaikie, 1993 ; Gephart, 2018 ). Abduction is appropriate for research that seeks to go beyond description to explanation and prediction (Blaikie, 1993 , p. 163) and discovery (Gephart, 2018 ). It employs an interpretive ontology (Schutz, 1973a , 1973b ) and social constructionist epistemology (Berger & Luckmann, 1966 ), using qualitative methods to discover “why people do what they do” (Blaikie, 1993 ).

Dynamic data collection methods are needed for abductive research to capture descriptions of interactions in actual settings and their meanings to members. Observational and interview approaches that elicit members’ concepts and theories are particularly relevant to abductive understanding (see Table 2 ). Data analysis methods must analyze situated, first-order (common sense) discourse as it unfolds in real settings and then systematically develop second-order concepts or theories from data. Relevant approaches to produce and validate findings include ethnography, ethnomethodology, and grounded theorizing (see Table 3 ). The combination of what, why, and how questions used in abduction produces a broader understanding of phenomena than do what and why deductive and inductive questions.

Layer Three: Paradigms of Research

Scholarly paradigms integrate methods, logics, and intellectual worldviews into coherent theoretical perspectives and form the most abstract level of research design. Six paradigms are widely used in management research (Burrell & Morgan, 1979 ; Cunliffe, 2011 ; Gephart, 2004 , 2013 ; Gephart & Richardson, 2008 ; Hassard, 1993 ). The first three perspectives—positivism, interpretive induction, and interpretive abduction—build on logics of design and seek to produce rigorous empirical research that constitutes evidence (see Table 5 ). Three additional perspectives pursue philosophical, critical, and practical knowledge: critical theory, postmodernism, and organization development (see Table 6 ). Tables 5 and 6 describe important features of each research design to show similarities and differences in the processes through which theoretical meaning is bestowed on research results in management and organization studies.

Table 5. Paradigms, Logical Strategies, and Methodologies for Empirical Research

Sources: Based on and adapted and extended from Blaikie ( 1993 , pp. 137, 145, & 152); Blaikie ( 2010 , Table 4.1, p. 84); Gephart ( 2013 , Table 9.1, p. 291) and Gephart ( 2018 , Table 3.1, pp. 38–39).

Table 6. Alternative Paradigms, Logical Strategies, and Methodologies

Based in part on Gephart ( 2004 , 2013 , 2018 ).

The Positivist Approach

The qualitative positivist approach makes assumptions equivalent to those of quantitative research (Gephart, 2004 , 2018 ). It assumes the world is objectively describable and comprehensible using inductive and deductive logics. And rigor is important and achieved by reliability, validity, and generalizability of findings (Kirk & Miller, 1986 ; Malterud, 2001 ). Qualitative positivism mimics natural science logics and methods using data recorded as words and talk rather than numerals.

Positivist research (Bitektine, 2008 ; Su, 2018 ) starts with a hypothesis. This can, but need not, be based in data or inductive theory. The research process, aimed at publication in peer-reviewed journals, requires researchers to (a) identify variables to measure, (b) develop operational definitions of the variables, (c) measure (describe) the variables and their inter-relationships, (d) pose hypotheses to test relationships among variables, then (e) compare observations to hypotheses for testing (Blaikie, 2010 ). When data are consistent with theory, theory passes the test. Otherwise the theory fails. This theory is also assessed for its logical correctness and value for knowledge. The positivist approach can assess deductive and inductive generalizations and provide evidence concerning why something occurs—if proposed hypotheses are not rejected.

Positivists view qualitative research as highly subject to biases that must be prevented to ensure rigor, and 23 methodological steps are recommended to enhance rigor and prevent bias (Gibbert & Ruigrok, 2010 , p. 720). Replicability is another concern because methodology descriptions in qualitative publications “insufficiently describe” how methods are used (Lee, Mitchell, & Sablynski, 1999 , p. 182) and thereby prevent replication. To ensure replicability, a qualitative “article’s description of the method must be sufficiently detailed to allow a reader . . . to replicate that reported study either in a hypothetical or actual manner.”

Qualitative research allows positivists to observe naturally unfolding behavior in real settings and allow “the real world” of work to inform research and theory (Locke & Golden-Biddle, 2004 ). Encounters with the actual world provide insights into meaning construction by members that cannot be captured with outsider (etic) approaches. For example, past quantitative research provided inconsistent findings on the importance of pre- and post-recruitment screening interviews for job choices of recruits. A deeper investigation was thus designed to examine how recruitment impacts job selection (Rynes, Bretz, & Gerhart, 1991 ). To do so, students undergoing recruitment were asked to “tell us in their own words” how their recruiting and decision processes unfolded (Rynes et al., 1991 , p. 399). Using qualitative evidence, the researchers found that, in contrast to quantitative findings, “people do make choices based on how they are treated” (p. 509), and the choices impact recruitment outcomes. Rich descriptions of actual behavior can disconfirm quantitative findings and produce new findings that move the field forward.

An important limitation of positivism is its common emphasis on outsiders’ or scientific observers’ objective conceptions of the world. This limits the attention positivist research gives to members’ knowledge and allows positivist research to impose outsiders’ meanings on members’ everyday behavior, leading to a lack of understanding of what the behavior means to members. Another limitation is that no formal, logical, or proven techniques exist to assess the strength of “relationships” among qualitative variables, although such assessments can be formally done using well-formed quantitative data and techniques. Thus, qualitative positivists often provide ambiguous or inexplicit quantitative depictions of variable relations (e.g., “strong relationship”). Alternatively, the analysts quantify qualitative data by assigning numeric codes to categories (Greckhamer, Misngyi, Elms, & Lacey, 2008 ), using non-parametric statistics, or quantitative content analysis (Sonpar & Golden-Biddle, 2008 ) to create numerals that depict associations among variables.

An illustrative example of positivist research . Cole ( 1985 ) studied why and how organizations change their working structures from bureaucratic forms to small, self-supervised work teams that allow for worker participation in shop floor activities. Cole found that existing research on workplace change focused on the micropolitical level of organizations. He hypothesized that knowledge could be advanced differently, by examining the macropolitical change in industries or nations. Next, a testable conclusion was deduced: a macro analysis of the politics of change can better predict the success of work team implementation, measured as the spread of small group work structures, than an examination of the micropolitics of small groups ( 1985 ). Three settings were selected for the research: Japan, Sweden, and the United States. Japanese data were collected from company visits and interviews with employment officials and union leaders. Swedish documentary data on semiautonomous work groups were used and supplemented by interviews at Volvo and Saab, and prior field research in Sweden. U.S. data were collected through direct observations and a survey of early quality circle adopters.

Extensive change was observed in Sweden and Japan but changes to small work groups were limited in the United States (Cole, 1985 ). This conclusion was verified using records of the experiences of the three nations in work reform, compared across four dimensions: timing and scope of changes, managerial incentives to innovate, characteristics of mobilization, and political dimensions of change. Data revealed the United States had piecemeal experimentation and resistance to reform through the 1970s; diffusion emerged in Japan in the early 1960s and became extensive; and Swedish workplace reform started in the 1960s and was widely and rapidly diffused.

Cole then answered the questions of “why” and “how” the change occurred in some countries but not others. Regarding why Japanese and Swedish managers were motivated to introduce workplace change due to perceived managerial problems and the changing national labor market. Differences in the political processes also influenced change. Management, labor, and government interest in workplace change was evident in Japan and Sweden but not in the United States where widespread resistance occurred. As to how, the change occurred through macropolitical processes (Cole, 1985 , p. 120), specifically, the commitment of the national business leadership to the change and whether or not the change was contested or uncontested by labor impacted the adoption of change. Organizational change usually occurs through broad macropolitical processes, hence “the importance of macro-political variables in explaining these outcomes” (p. 122).

Interpretive Induction

Two streams of qualitative research claim the label of “interpretive research” in management and organization studies. The first stream, interpretive induction, emphasizes induction as its primary logical strategy (e.g., Locke, 2001 , 2002 ; Pratt, 2009 ). It assumes a “real world” that is inherently objective but interpreted through subjective lenses, hence different people can perceive or report different things. This research is interpretive because it addresses the meanings and interpretations people give to organizational phenomena, and how this meaning is provided and used. Interpretive induction contributes to scientific knowledge by providing empirical descriptions, generalizations, and low-level theories about specific contexts based on thick descriptions of members’ settings and interactions (first-order understandings) as data.

The interpretive induction paradigm addresses “what” questions that describe and explain the existence and features of phenomena. It seeks to uncover the subjective, personal knowledge that subjects have of the objective world and does so by creating descriptive accounts of the activities of organizational members. Interpretive induction creates inductive theories based on limited samples that provide low-scope, abstract theory. Limitations (Table 5 ) include the fact that inductive generalizations are limited to the sample used for induction and need to be subjected to additional tests and comparisons for substantiation. Second, research reports often fail to provide details to allow replication of the research. Third, formal methods for assessing the accuracy and validity of results and findings are limited. Fourth, while many features of scientific research are evident in interpretive induction research, the research moves closer to humanistic knowledge than to science when the basic assumptions of inductive analysis are relaxed—a common occurrence.

An illustrative example of interpretive induction research . Adler and Adler ( 1988 , 1998 ) undertook a five-year participant-observation study of a college basketball program (Adler, 1998 , p. 32). They sought to “examine the development of intense loyalty in one organization.” Intense loyalty evokes “devotional commitment of . . . (organizational) members through a subordination that sometime borders on subservience” (p. 32). The goal was to “describe and analyze the structural factors that emerged as most related” to intense loyalty (p. 32).

The researchers divided their roles. Peter Adler was the active observer and “expert” who undertook direct observations while providing counsel to players (p. 33). Patricia Adler took the peripheral role of “wife” and debriefed the observer. Two research questions were posed: (a) “what” kinds of organizational characteristics foster intense loyalty? (b) “how” do organizations with intense loyalty differ structurally from those that lack intense loyalty?

The first design stage (Table 5 ) recorded unbiased observations in extensive field notes. Detailed “life history” accounts were obtained from 38 team members interviewed (Adler & Adler, 1998 , p. 33). Then analytical induction and the constant comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967 ) were used to classify and compare observations (p. 33). Once patterns emerged, informants were questioned about variations in patterns (p. 34) to develop “total patterns” (p. 34) reflecting the collective belief system of the group. This process required a “careful and rigorous means of data collection and analysis” that was “designed to maximize both the reliability and validity of our findings” (p. 34). The study found five conceptual elements were essential to the development of intense loyalty: domination, identification, commitment, integration, and goal alignment (p. 35).

The “what” question was answered by inducing a generalization (stage 3): paternalistic organizations with charismatic leadership seek people who “fit” the organization’s style and these people require extensive socialization to foster intense loyalty. This description contrasts with rational bureaucratic organizations that seek people who fit specific, generally known job descriptions and require limited socialization (p. 46). The “how” question is answered by inductive creation of another generalization: organizations that control the extra-organizational activities of members are more likely to evoke intense loyalty by forcing members to subordinate all other interests to those of the organization (p. 46).

The Interpretive Abduction Approach

The second stream of interpretive research—interpretive abduction—produces scientific knowledge using qualitative methods (Gephart, 2018 ). The approach assumes that commonsense knowledge is foundational to how actors know the world. Abductive theory is scientifically built from, and refers to, everyday life meanings, in contrast to positivist and interpretive induction research that omits concern with the worldview of members. Further, interpretive abduction produces second-order or scientific theory and concepts from members’ first-order commonsense concepts and meanings (Gephart, 2018 , p. 34; Schutz, 1973a , 1973b ).

The research process, detailed in Table 5 (process and stages), focuses on collecting thick descriptive data on organizations, identifying and interpreting first-order lay concepts, and creating abstract second-order technical constructs of science. The second-order concepts describe the first-order principles and terms social actors use to organize their experience. They compose scientific concepts that form a theoretical system to objectively describe, predict, and explain social organization (Gephart, 2018 , p. 35). This requires researchers to understand the subjective view of the social actors they study, and to develop second-order theory based on actors’ subjective meanings. Subjective meaning can be shared with others through language use and communication and is not private knowledge.

A central analytical task for interpretive abduction is creating second-order, ideal-type models of social roles, motives, and interactions that describe the behavioral trajectories of typical actors. Ideal-type models can be objectively compared to one another and are the special devices that social science requires to address differences between social phenomena and natural phenomena (Schutz, 1973a , 1973b ). The models, once built, are refined to preserve actors’ subjective meanings, to be logically consistent, and to present human action from the actor’s point of view. Researchers can then vary and compare the models to observe the different outcomes that emerge. Scientific descriptions can then be produced, and theories can be created. Interpretive abduction (Gephart, 2018 , p. 35) allows one to addresses what, why, and how questions in a holistic manner, to describe relationships among scientific constructs, and to produce “empirically ascertainable” and verifiable relations among concepts (Schutz, 1973b , p. 65) that are logical, hold practical meaning to lay actors, and provide abstract, objective meaning to interpretive scientists (Gephart, 2018 , p. 35). Abduction produces knowledge about socially shared realities by observing interactions, uncovering members’ first-order meanings, and then developing technical second-order or scientific accounts from lay accounts.

Interpretive abduction (Gephart, 2018 ) uses well-developed methods to create, refine, test, and verify second-order models, and it provides well-developed tools to support technical, second-level analyses. Research using the interpretive abduction approach includes a study of how technology change impacts sales automobile practices (Barley, 2015 ) and an investigation study of how abduction was used to develop new prescription drugs (Dunne & Dougherty, 2016 ).

An illustrative example of the interpretive abduction approach . Perlow ( 1997 ) studied time management among software engineers facing a product launch deadline. Past research verified the widespread belief that long working hours for staff are necessary for organizational success. This belief has adversely impacted work life and led to the concept of a “time bind” faced by professionals (Hochschild, 1997 ). One research question that subsequently emerged was, “what underlies ‘the time bind’ experienced by engineers who face constant deadlines and work interruptions?” (Perlow, 1997 , p. xvii). This is an inductive question about the causes and consequences of long working hours not answered in prior research that is hard to address using induction or deduction. Perlow then explored assumption underlying the hypothesis, supported by lay knowledge and management literature, that even if long working hours cause professionals to destroy their life style, long work hours “further the goals of our organizations” and “maximize the corporation’s bottom line” (Perlow, 1997 , p. 2).

The research commenced (Table 5 , step 1) when Perlow gained access to “Ditto,” a leader in implementing flexible work policies (Perlow, 1997 , p. 141) and spent nine months doing participant observation four days a week. Perlow collected descriptive data by walking around to observe and converse with people, attended meetings and social events, interviewed engineers at work and home and spouses at home, asked participants to record activities they undertook on selected working days (Perlow, 1997 , p. 143), and made “thousands of pages of field notes” (p. 146) to uncover trade-offs between work and home life.

Perlow ( 1997 , pp. 146–147) analyzed first-order concepts uncovered through his observations and interviews from 17 stories he wrote for each individual he had studied. The stories described workstyles, family lives, and traits of individuals; provided objective accounts of subjective meanings each held for work and home; offered background information; and highlighted first-order concepts. Similarities and differences in informant accounts were explored with an empirically grounded scheme for coding observations into categories using grounded theory processes (Gioia, Corley, & Hamilton, 2012 ). The process allowed Perlow to find key themes in stories that show work patterns and perceptions of the requirements of work success, and to create ideal-type models of workers (step 3). Five stories were selected for detailed analysis because they reveal important themes Perlow ( 1997 , p. 147). For example, second-order, ideal-type models of different “roles” were constructed in step 3 including the “organizational superstar” (pp. 15–21) and “ideal female employee” (pp. 22–32) based on first-order accounts of members. The second-order ideal-type scientific models were refined to include typical motives. The models were compared to one another (step 4) to describe and understand how the actions of these employee types differed from other employee types and how these variations produced different outcomes for each trajectory of action (steps 4 and 5).

Perlow ( 1997 ) found that constant help-seeking led engineers to interrupt other engineers to get solutions to problems. This observation led to the abductively developed hypothesis that interruptions create a time crisis atmosphere for engineers. Perlow ( 1997 ) then created a testable, second-order ideal-type (scientific) model of “the vicious working cycle” (p. 96), developed from first-order data, that explains the productivity problems that the firm (and other research and development firms)—commonly face. Specifically, time pressure → crisis mentality → individual heroics → constant interruptions of others’ work to get help → negative consequences for individual → negative consequences for the organization.

Perlow ( 1997 ) then tested the abductive hypothesis that the vicious work cycle caused productivity problems (stage 5). To do so, the vicious work cycle was transformed into a virtuous cycle using scheduling quiet times to prevent work interruptions: relaxed work atmosphere → individuals focus on own work completion → few interruptions → positive consequences for individual and organization. To test the hypothesis, an experiment was conducted (research process 2 in Table 5 ) with engineers given scheduled quiet times each morning with no interruptions. The experiment was successful: the project deadline was met. The hypothesis about work interruptions and the false belief that long hours are needed for success were supported (design stage 6). Unfortunately, the change was not sustained and engineers reverted to work interruptions when the experiment ended.

There are three additional qualitative approaches used in management research that pursue objectives other than producing empirical findings and developing or testing theories. These include critical theory and research, postmodernism, and change intervention research (see Table 6 ).

The Critical Theory and Research Approach

The term “critical” has many meanings including (a) critiques oriented to uncovering ideological manifestations in social relations (Gephart, 2013 , p. 284); (b) critiques of underlying assumptions of theories; and (c) critique as self-reflection that reflexively encapsulates the investigator (Morrow, 1994 , p. 9). Critical theory and critical management studies bring these conceptions of critical to bear on organizations and employees.

Critical theory and research extend the theories Karl Marx, and the Frankfurt School in Germany (Gephart & Kulicki, 2008 ; Gephart & Pitter, 1995 ; Habermas, 1973 , 1979 ; Morrow, 1994 ; Offe, 1984 , 1985 ). Critical theory and research assume that social science research differs from natural science research because social facts are human creations and social phenomena cannot be controlled as readily as natural phenomena (Gephart, 2013 , p. 284; Morrow, 1994 , p. 9). As a result, critical theory often uses a historical approach to explore issues that arise from the fundamental contradictions of capitalism. Critical research explores ongoing changes within capitalist societies and organizations, and analyzes the objective structures that constrain human imagination and action (Morrow, 1994 ). It seeks to uncover the contradictions of advanced capitalism that emerge from the fundamental contradiction of capitalism: owners of capital have the right to appropriate the surplus value created by workers. This basic contradiction produces further contradictions that become sources of workplace oppression and resistance that create labor issues. Thus contradictions reveal how power creates consciousness (Poutanen & Kovalainen, 2010 ). Critical reflection is used to de-reify taken-for-granted structures that create power inequities and to motivate resistance and critique and escape from dominant structures (see Table 6 ).

Critical management studies build on critical theory in sociology. It seeks to transform management and provide alternatives to mainstream theory (Adler, Forbes, & Willmott, 2007 ). The focus is “the social injustice and environmental destruction of the broader social and economic systems” served by conventional, capitalist managers (Adler et al., 2007 , p. 118). Critical management research examines “the systemic corrosion of moral responsibility when any concern for people or for the environment . . . requires justification in terms of its contribution to profitable growth” (p. 4). Critical management studies goes beyond scientific skepticism to undertake a radical critique of socially divisive and environmentally destructive patterns and structures (Adler et al., 2007 , p. 119). These studies use critical reflexivity to uncover reified capitalist structures that allow certain groups to dominate others. Critical reflection is used to de-reify and challenge the facts of social life that are seen as immutable and inevitable (Gephart & Richardson, 2008 , p. 34). The combination of dialogical inquiry, critical reflection, and a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods and data are common in this research (Gephart, 2013 , p. 285). Some researchers use deductive logics to build falsifiable theories while other researchers do grounded theory building (Blaikie, 2010 ). Validity of critical research is assessed as the capability the research has to produce critical reflexivity that comprehends dominant ideologies and transforms repressive structures into democratic processes and institutions (Gephart & Richardson, 2008 ).

An illustrative example of critical research . Barker ( 1998 , p. 130) studied “concertive control” in self-managed work teams in a small manufacturing firm. Concertive control refers to how workers collaborate to engage in self-control. Barker sought to understand how control practices in the self-managed team setting, established to allow workers greater control over their work, differed from previous bureaucratic processes. Interviews, observations, and documents were used as data sources. The resultant description of work activities and control shows that rather than allowing workers greater control, the control process enacted by workers themselves became stronger: “The iron cage becomes stronger” and almost invisible “to the workers it incarcerates” (Barker, 1998 , p. 155). This study shows how traditional participant observation methods can be used to uncover and contest reified structures and taken-for-granted truths, and to reveal the hidden managerial interests served.

Postmodern Perspectives

The postmodern perspective (Boje, Gephart, & Thatchenkery, 1996 ) is based in philosophy, the humanities, and literary criticism. Postmodernism, as an era, refers to the historical stage following modernity that evidences a new cultural worldview and style of intellectual production (Boje et al., 1996 ; Jameson, 1991 ; Rosenau, 1992 ). Postmodernism offers a humanistic approach to reconceptualize our experience of the social world in an era where it is impossible to establish any foundational underpinnings for knowledge. The postmodern perspective assumes that realities are contradictory in nature and value-laden (Gephart & Richardson, 2008 ; Rosenau, 1992 , p. 6). It addresses the values and contradictions of contemporary settings, how hidden power operates, and how people are categorized (Gephart, 2013 ). Postmodernism also challenges the idea that scientific research is value free, and asks “whose values are served by research?”

Postmodern essays depart from concerns with systematic, replicable research methods and designs (Calas, 1987 ). They seek instead to explore the values and contradictions of contemporary organizational life (Gephart, 2013 , p. 289). Research reports have the character of essays that seek to reconceptualize how people experience the world (Martin, 1990 ; Rosenau, 1992 ) and to disrupt this experience by producing “reading effects” that unsettle a community (Calas & Smircich, 1991 ).

Postmodernism examines intertextual relations—how texts become embedded in other texts—rather than causal relations. It assumes there are no singular realities or truths, only multiple realities and multiple truths, none of which are superior to other truths (Gephart, 2013 ). Truth is conceived as the outcome of language use in a context where power relations and multiple realities exist.

From a methodological view, postmodern research tends to focus on discourse: texts and talk. Data collection (in so far as it occurs) focuses on records of discourse—texts of spoken and written verbal communication (Fairclough, 1992 ). Use of formal or official records including recordings, texts and transcripts is common. Analytically, scholars tend to use critical discourse analysis (Fairclough, 1992 ), narrative analysis (Czarniawska, 1998 ; Ganzin, Gephart, & Suddaby, 2014 ), rhetorical analysis (Culler, 1982 ; Gephart, 1988 ; McCloskey, 1984 ) and deconstruction (Calais & Smircich, 1991 ; Gephart, 1988 ; Kilduff, 1993 ; Martin, 1990 ) to understand how categories are shaped through language use and come to privilege or subordinate individuals.

Postmodernism challenges models of knowledge production by showing how political discourses produce totalizing categories, showing how categorization is a tool for social control, and attempting to create opportunities for alternative representations of the world. It thus provides a means to uncover and expose discursive features of domination, subordination, and resistance in society (Locke & Golden-Biddle, 2004 ).

An illustrative example of postmodern research . Martin ( 1990 ) deconstructed a conference speech by a company president. The president was so “deeply concerned” about employee well-being and involvement at work that he encouraged a woman manager “to have her Caesarian yesterday” so she could participate in an upcoming product launch. Martin deconstructs the story to reveal the suppression of gender conflict in the dialogue and how this allows gender conflict and subjugation to continue. This research established the existence of important domains of organizational life, such as tacit gender conflict, that have not been adequately addressed and explored the power dynamics therein.

The Organization Development Approach

OD involves a planned and systematic diagnosis and intervention into an organizational system, supported by top management, with the intent of improving the organization’s effectiveness (Beckhard, 1969 ; Palmer, Dunford, & Buchanan, 2017 , p. 282). OD research (termed “clinical research” by Schein, 1987 ) is concerned with changing attitudes and behaviors to instantiate fundamental values in organizations. OD research often follows the general process of action research (Lalonde, 2019 ) that involves working with actors in an organization to help improve the organization. OD research involves a set of stages the OD practitioner (the leader of the intervention) uses: (a) problem identification; (b) consultation between OD practitioner and client; (c) data collection and problem diagnosis; (d) feedback; (e) joint problem diagnosis; (f) joint action planning; (g) change actions; and (h) further data gathering to move recursively to a refined step 1.

An illustrative example of the organization development approach . Numerous OD techniques exist to help organizations change (Palmer et al., 2017 ). The OD approach is illustrated here by the socioeconomic approach to management (SEAM) (Buono & Savall, 2007 ; Savall, 2007 ). SEAM provides a scientific approach to organizational intervention consulting that integrates qualitative information on work practices and employee and customer needs (socio) with quantitative and financial performance measures (economics). The socioeconomic intervention process commences by uncovering dysfunctions that require attention in an organization. SEAM assumes that organizations produce both (a) explicit benefits and costs and (b) hidden benefits and costs. Hidden costs refer to economic implications of organizational dysfunctions (Worley, Zardet, Bonnet, & Savall, 2015 , pp. 28–29). These include problems in working conditions; work organization; communication, co-ordination, and co-operation; time management; integrated training; and strategy implementation (Savall, Zardet, & Bonnet, 2008 , p. 33). Explicit costs are emphasized in management decision-making but hidden costs are ignored. Yet hidden costs from dysfunctions often greatly outstrip explicit costs.

For example, a fishing company sought to protect its market share by reducing the price and quality of products, leading to the purchase of poor-quality fish (Savall et al., 2008 , pp. 31–32). This reduced visible costs by €500,000. However, some customers stopped purchasing because of the lower-quality product, producing a loss of sales of €4,000,000 in revenue or an overall drop in economic performance of €3,500,000. The managers then changed their strategy to focus on health and quality. They implemented the SEAM approach, assessed the negative impact of the hidden costs on value added and revenue received, and purchased higher-quality fish. Visible costs (expenses) increased by €1,000,000 due to the higher cost for a better-quality product, but the improved quality (performance) cut the hidden costs by increasing loyalty and increased sales by €5,000,000 leaving an increased profit of €4,000,000.

SEAM allows organizations to uncover hidden costs in their operations and to convert these costs into value-added human potential through a process termed “qualimetrics.” Qualimetrics assesses the nature of hidden costs and organizational dysfunctions, develops estimates of the frequencies and amounts of hidden costs in specific organizational domains, and develops actions to reduce the hidden costs and thereby release additional value added for the organization (Savall & Zardet, 2011 ). The qualimetric process is participative and involves researchers who use observations, interviews and focus groups of employees to (a) describe, qualitatively, the dysfunctions experienced at work (qualitative data); (b) estimate the frequencies with which dysfunctions occur (quantitative data); and (c) estimate the costs of each dysfunction (financial data). Then, strategic change actions are developed to (a) identify ways to reduce or overcome the dysfunction, (b) estimate how frequently the dysfunction can be remedied, and (c) estimate the overall net costs of removing the hidden costs to enhance value added. The economic balance is then assessed for changes to transform the hidden costs into value added.

OD research creates actionable knowledge from practice (Lalonde, 2019 ). OD intervention consultants use multistep processes to change organizations that are flexible practices not fixed research designs. OD plays an important role in developing evidence-based practices to improve organizational functioning and performance. Worley et al. ( 2015 ) provide a detailed example of the large-scale implementation of the SEAM OD approach in a large, international firm.

Here we discuss implication of qualitative research designs for covert research, reporting qualitative work and novel integrations of qualitative and quantitative work.

Covert Research

University ethics boards require researchers who undertake research with human participants to obtain informed consent from the participants. Consent requires that all participants must be informed of details of the research procedure in which they will be involved and any risks of participation. Researchers must protect subjects’ identities, offer safeguards to limit risks, and insure informant anonymity. This consent must be obtained in the form of a signed agreement from the participant, obtained prior to the commencement of research observations (McCurdy et al., 2005 , pp. 29–32).

Covert research that fails to fully disclose research purposes or practices to participants, or that is otherwise deceptive by design or tacit practice, has long been considered “suspect” in the field (Graham, 1995 ; Roulet, Gill, Stenger, & Gill, 2017 ). This is changing. Research methodologists have shown that the over/covert dimension is a continuum, not a dichotomy, and that unintended covert elements occur in many situations (Roulet et al., 2017 ). Thus all qualitative observation involves some degree of deception due practical constraints on doing observations since it is difficult to do fully overt research, particularly in observational contexts with many people, and to gain advance consent from everyone in the organization one might encounter.

There are compelling benefits to covert research. It can provide insights not possible if subjects are fully informed of the nature or existence of the research. For example, the year-long, covert observational study of an asylum as a “total institution” (Goffman, 1961 ) showed how ineffective the treatment of mental illness was at the time. This opened the field of mental health to social science research (Roulet et al., 2017 , p. 493). Covert research can also provide access to institutions that researchers would otherwise be excluded from, including secretive and secret organizations (p. 492). This could allow researchers to collect data as an insider and to better see and experience the world from members’ perspective. It could also reduce “researcher demand effects” that occur when informants obscure their normal behavior to conform to research expectations. Thus, the inclusion of covert research data collection in research designs and proposals is an emerging trend and realistic possibility. Ethics applications can be developed that allow for aspects of covert research, and observations in many public settings do not require informed consent.

The Appropriate Style for Reporting Qualitative Work

The appropriate style for reporting qualitative research has become an issue of concern. For example, editors of the influential Academy of Management Journal have noted the emergence of an “AMJ style” for qualitative work (Bansal & Corley, 2011 , p. 234). They suggest that all qualitative work should use this style so that qualitative research can “benefit” from: “decades of refinement in the style of quantitative work.” The argument is that most scholars can assess the empirical and theoretical contributions of quantitative work but find it difficult to do so for qualitative research. It is easier for quantitatively trained editors and scholars “to spot the contribution of qualitative work that mimics the style of quantitative research.” Further, “the majority of papers submitted to . . . AMJ tend to subscribe to the paradigm of normal science that aims to find relationships among valid constructs that can be replicated by anyone” (Bansal, Smith, & Vaara, 2018 , p. 1193). These recommendations appear to explicitly encourage the reporting of qualitative results as if they were quantitatively produced and interpreted and highlights the advantage of conformity to the prevailing positivist perspective to gain publication in AMJ.

Yet AMJ editors have also called for researchers to “ensure that the research questions, data, and analysis are internally consistent ” (Bansal et al., 2018 , p. 1193) and to “Be authentic , detailed and clear in argumentation” (emphasis added) (Bansal et al., 2018 , p. 1193). These calls for consistency appear to be inconsistent with suggestions to present all qualitative research using a style that mimics quantitative, positivist research. Adopting the quantitative or positivist style for all qualitative reports may also confuse scholars, limit research quality, and hamper efforts to produce innovative, non-positivist research. This article provides six qualitative research designs to ensure a range of qualitative research publications are internally consistent in methods, logics, paradigmatic commitments, and writing styles. These designs provide alternatives to positivist mimicry in non-positivist scholarly texts.

Integrating Qualitative and Quantitative Research in New Ways

Qualitative research often omits consideration of the naturally occurring uses of numbers and statistics in everyday discourse. And quantitative researchers tend to ignore qualitative evidence such as stories and discourse. Yet knowledge production processes in society “rely on experts and laypeople and, in so doing, make use of both statistics and stories in their attempt to represent and understand social reality” (Ainsworth & Hardy, 2012 , p. 1649). Numbers and statistics are often used in stories to create legitimacy, and stories provide meaning to numbers (Gephart, 1988 ). Hence stories and statistics cannot be separated in processes of knowledge production (Ainsworth & Hardy, 2012 , p. 1697). The lack of attention to the role of quantification in everyday life means a huge domain of organizational discourse—all talk that uses numbers, quantities, and statistics—is largely unexplored in organizational research.

Qualitative research has, however, begun to study how words and numbers are mutually used for organizational storytelling (Ainsworth & Hardy, 2012 ; Gephart, 2016 ). This focus offers the opportunity to develop research designs to explore qualitative features and processes involved in quantitative phenomena such as financial crises (Gephart, 2016 ), to address how stories and numbers need to work together to create legitimate knowledge (Ainsworth & Hardy, 2012 ), and to show how statistics are used rhetorically to convince others of truths in organizational research (Gephart, 1988 ).

Ethnostatistics (Gephart, 1988 ; Gephart & Saylors, 2019 ) provides one example of how to integrate qualitative and quantitative research. Ethnostatistics examines how statistics are constructed and used by professionals. It explores how statistics are constructed in real settings, how violations of technical assumptions impact statistical outcomes, and how statistics are used rhetorically to convince others of the truth of research outcomes. Ethnostatistics has been used to reinterpret data from four celebrated network studies that themselves were reanalyzed (Kilduff & Oh, 2006 ). The ethnostatistical reanalyses revealed how ad hoc practices, including judgment calls and the imputation of new data into old data set for reanalysis, transformed the focus of network research from diffusion models to structural equivalence models.

Another innovative study uses a Bayesian ethnostatistical approach to understand how the pressure to produce sophisticated and increasingly complex theoretical narratives for causal models has impacted the quantitative knowledge generated in top journals (Saylors & Trafimow, 2020 ). The use of complex causal models has increased substantially over time due to a qualitative and untested belief that complex models are true. Yet statistically speaking, as the number of variables in a model increase, the likelihood the model is true rapidly decreases (Saylors & Trafimow, 2020 , p. 3).

The authors test the previously untested (qualitative) belief that complex causal models can be true. They found that “the joint probability of a six variable model is about 3.5%” (Saylors & Trafimow, 2020 , p. 1). They conclude that “much of the knowledge generated in top journals is likely false” hence “not reporting a (prior) belief in a complex model” should be relegated to the set of questionable research practices. This study shows how qualitative research that explores the lay theories and beliefs of statisticians and quantitative researchers can challenge and disrupt conventions in quantitative research, improve quantitative practices, and contribute qualitative foundations to quantitative research. Ethnostatistics thus opens the qualitative foundations of quantitative research to critical qualitative analyses.

The six qualitative research design processes discussed in this article are evident in scholarly research on organizations and management and provide distinct qualitative research designs and approaches to use. Qualitative research can provide research insights from several theoretical perspectives, using well-developed methods to produce scientific and scholarly insights into management and organizations. These approaches and designs can also inform management practice by creating actionable knowledge. The intended contribution of this article is to describe these well-developed methods, articulate key practices, and display core research designs. The hope is both to better equip researchers to do qualitative research, and to inspire them to do so.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of Karen Lund at The University of Alberta for carefully preparing Figure 1 . Thanks also to Beverly Zubot for close reading of the manuscript and helpful suggestions.

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1. The fourth logic is retroduction. This refers to the process of building hypothetical models of structures and mechanisms that are assumed to produce empirical phenomena. It is the primary logic used in the critical realist approach to scientific research (Avenier & Thomas, 2015 ; Bhaskar, 1978 ). Retroduction requires the use of inductive or abductive strategies to discover the mechanisms that explain regularities (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 87). There is no evident logic for discovering mechanisms and this requires disciplined scientific thinking aided by creative imagination, intuition, and guesswork (Blaikie, 2010 ). Retroduction is likr deduction in asking “what” questions and differs from abduction because it produces explanations rather than understanding, causes rather than reasons, and hypothetical conceptual mechanisms rather than descriptions of behavioral processes as outcomes. Retroduction is becoming important in the field but has not as yet been extensively used in management and organization studies (for examples of uses, see Avenier & Thomas, 2015 ); hence, we do not address it at length in this article.

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Exploring the gap between research and practice in human resource management (HRM): a scoping review and agenda for future research

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The call for evidence-based decisions in HR has become a heated debate in recent years. An alleged research-practice gap has been identified by a number of HRM scholars, leading to recommendations for practice. To what extent the assumption of this gap is justified, theoretically or empirically, remains vague, however. Thus, building on a systematic literature search and the formulation of eligibility criteria for articles, we conducted a scoping review of the current research landscape. Our aim was to explore the constituent components, causes and consequences of the gap. Overall, it was found that research activity has so far been heterogeneous, a significant number of articles were conceptually driven, and a large proportion related to knowledge deficits of HR practitioners. A subset of consistent survey-based studies indicated little awareness of empirically supported practices in personnel selection. The qualitative, mixed-method, and content-analysis studies revealed other influences, such as research with limited practical relevance or divergent interests between scholars and practitioners (e.g., employee motivation). Based on the conceptual contributions, three thematic clusters were identified as causes for the gap: (1) communication barriers (e.g., insufficient interfaces), (2) methodological issues (e.g., rigor-relevance tensions), (3) accessibility, visibility, and dissemination of HR research (e.g., oversimplification of practical implications). There was a strong emphasis on presumed causes and their resolution, with less consideration given to the expected consequences of the gap (e.g., poorer organizational outcomes). Despite preliminary empirical indications for the existence of a research-practice gap in particular areas of HRM, many articles tend to focus on overarching recommendations for practice. We conclude that the HRM research-practice gap in itself has not yet been sufficiently empirically investigated. In view of this, we discuss implications and develop an agenda for future research.

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1 Introduction

Over the last two decades, the increasing popularity of evidence-based decision-making has affected the field of HRM (e.g., Morell 2008 ; Rousseau and Barends 2011 ). The expectations of what HR departments should achieve are constantly growing (Roberts and Hirsch 2005 ; Schultz 2019 ). HR executives face expanding areas of responsibility (e.g., Claus 2019 ). For example, there is a trend emerging to incorporate anything around leadership to HR, which includes not only development and training, but also the construction of innovative management concepts for organizations (e.g., Davenport 2015 ; Maheshwari and Yadav 2019 ; Ulrich and Dulebohn 2015 ). As a result of an increased awareness of mental health issues (e.g., Rosado-Solomon et al. 2023 ), HR managers have also become concerned with implementing workplace-related interventions to improve employee well-being and to reduce absenteeism (e.g., Qamar et al. 2023 ; Ipsen et al. 2020 ).

HR departments are expected to promote employees' identification with company values to enhance emotional engagement, motivation, and creativity in the workplace (e.g., Young et al. 2018 ). Through the incorporation of marketing principles into HR departments, employer branding has become a vital tool in building sustainable HR policies (e.g., App et al. 2012 ). Overall, the future of HRM will increasingly be driven by sustainability issues. Beyond environmental and performance sustainability, companies will need to embrace the sustainable use of human resources as a key success factor (e.g., Aust et al. 2020 ; Ybema et al. 2020 ).

In recent years, workplaces have become more competitive, with companies fiercely battling for talent. Therefore, HR professionals have embraced the challenge of using data to clarify the relationship between personality traits, individual needs, behaviors, and organizational productivity. An overarching goal is to enhance decision-making procedures regarding team productivity, employee retention, or motivation (e.g., Marler and Boudreau 2017 ; Kryscynski et al. 2018 ). Given the cost and time required to effectively develop employees and leaders, the use of proven selection strategies has become essential. Poor hiring decisions or a mismanaged workforce can lead to both direct (e.g., salary) and indirect costs (e.g., reduced productivity) for an organization (e.g., Hoffman et al. 2018 ).

The central role of human resources in corporate success and innovation today coincides with a pronounced shortage of skilled workers in many sectors (e.g., Brunello and Wruuck 2021 ; Horbach and Rammer 2022 ). The pressure on companies to improve the effectiveness of their recruitment and retention practices is evident. It is therefore crucial to improve the interaction between the needs of the HR sector, the study of the effectiveness of HR measures in research, and the dissemination of the results in practice. There are signs, however, that HR practitioners are not always comfortable with the use of empirical research in decision-making processes (e.g., Beechler and Woodward 2009 ). The reasons for this are rarely understood, but the consequences are potentially far-reaching in an ever-tightening candidate pool (e.g., Muehlemann and Strupler Leiser 2018 ).

In view of the challenging demands on a ‘modern’ HRM, the call for empirically proven effective measures has increased. However, there were first indications that HR practitioners may regard aspects other than those suggested by empirical studies as important for their working environment (e.g., Rynes et al. 2002 ). This has opened a debate on whether there is a pervasive gap between research and practice in HRM. Until now, it is still not always clear on what basis an overarching gap is assumed and what it might consist of. But this clarity is necessary in order to close a potential gap in the future. Therefore, this article aims to provide an overview of the current research landscape on the research-practice gap in HRM. In the following sections, we offer a more detailed introduction to evidence-based decision-making in HRM and outline the resulting questions of the review. We then explain the procedures used for article inclusion and mapping of the findings. Finally, we present and discuss the results, place them in a broader context, and suggest avenues for future research.

2 A brief history of the evidence-based approach in HRM

The evidence-based approach has its origins in medicine and is now the essential paradigm for decision-making in medical care (e.g., Claridge and Fabian 2005 ). It is based on the principle that medical decisions should be made using the best available evidence on efficacy, side effects, and cost-effectiveness (Guyatt et al. 1992 ). As early advocates, Sackett and Rosenberg ( 1995 ) pointed out that physicians' individual habits, experiences, and intuitions tend to be biased. Conversely, an empirically-based approach to decision-making more objectively incorporates the current evidence on the effectiveness of certain interventions.

A few authors have compared the situation for doctors before the evolution of evidence-based practice to the actions of (HR-) managers today (e.g., Rousseau and McCarthy 2007 ). It has been supposed that HR managers rely on heuristics, expert opinions, and personal experiences to draw widespread conclusions (e.g., Highhouse 2008 ). Indeed, empirical studies suggest that HR practitioners consider the subjective judgment of experts to be more effective in predicting job performance than standardized tests (e.g., Lievens et al. 2005 ).

As companies' HR departments have grown during the past decades, so has the scientific investigation of certain HR practices. Thus, the empirical evidence on the efficacy of HR practices has increasingly matured. Meaningful and robust study results can now be found for almost all HR-relevant topics, such as personnel selection (e.g., Sackett et al. 2022 ), leadership development (e.g., Reyes et al. 2019 ), or the effective composition of teams (e.g., Bell et al. 2011 ), often even accumulated in meta-analyses.

More than 20 years ago, however, academics and practitioners raised doubts about whether some of these evidence-based practices would be adopted by organizations (e.g., Pfeffer and Sutton 1999 ). Meanwhile, there are indications that unstructured interviews continue to be widely used in employee selection (e.g., Dana et al. 2013 ; Kausel et al. 2016 ), although evidence emphasizes the benefits of structured and behavior-oriented interviews (e.g. Alonso et al. 2017 ). Almost the same can be found for emotional intelligence and general cognitive performance. While the predictive validity of emotional intelligence for professional performance is low (e.g., O’Connor and Little 2003 ), the predictive power of general cognitive performance has proven to be good in many studies (e.g., Kotsou et al. 2019 ; Morris et al. 2015 ; Salgado et al. 2003 ). Nonetheless, HR managers' interest in the construct of emotional intelligence remains high (e.g., Devonish 2016 ). In contrast, various authors have pointed to the low prevalence and use of psychometric tests on general cognitive performance in the personnel sector (e.g., Neumann et al. 2021 ).

Hamlin ( 2002 ) was among the first to define evidence-based HR as follows: “Evidence-based HRD is the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the development of individuals, groups, and organizations integrating individual HRD practitioner expertise with the best available external evidence derived from systematic research” (p. 97). Even if Hamlin ( 2002 ) used the term HRD in his definition, there are almost identical definitions for HRM (e.g., Briner 2000 ).

Early studies found that companies with greater consideration of scientific knowledge were associated with greater economic success (Terpstra and Rozell 1997 ; Terpstra and Limpaphayom 2012 ). There are indications to suggest that HR departments are increasingly expected to provide evidence relating to the efficacy of a planned measure before receiving financial support from senior management (e.g., Bélanger et al. 2018 ). However, although the long-term benefits and cost effectiveness of several HR interventions has been proven (Huselid 1995 ; Ock and Oswald 2018 ; Renaud et al. 2014 ; Wright et al. 2003 ), this knowledge is rarely translated into practical action (e.g., Short 2006 ; Latham 2007 ). Consequently, a gap has been identified between HRM research and practice, indicating that these two worlds coexist without any meaningful connections.

From an epistemological perspective, there is a growing concern about the extent to which the restriction to certain methods in management and organizational research affects the transferability of results (e.g., Gilad 2019 ; Frederiksen and Kringelum 2021 ). This also applies to studying decision-making processes in organizations, which is a key indicator of the HRM research-practice gap. While positivist research traditions tend to investigate whether associations between certain variables exist, more qualitative approaches often aim to explore why these associations have occurred (e.g., Brannan et al. 2017 ). Therefore, we believe that a research synthesis on the gap should incorporate a range of methodological approaches to gain a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon.

3 Scope and objectives

While the existence of a research-practice gap in HRM is intensively discussed, it is not always clear whether this gap results from opinions and theoretical considerations, or whether it is grounded in empirical data. Therefore, it is necessary to establish more clarity regarding the nature of the gap and identify potential changes required at the HRM research-practice interface. We are unaware of any systematic attempt to collate conceptual and empirical contributions to evaluate them more holistically in terms of a research synthesis. Two previous reviews have either focused on a broader context of research-practice gaps (Tkachenko et al. 2017 ), or on more theoretical aspects of the topic in HRM (Gill 2018 ). Furthermore, some empirical studies on the subject have only been published recently (e.g., Kirk et al. 2023 ; Risavy et al. 2021 ).

The purpose of this review is to explore the current research landscape on the HRM research-practice gap. It expands upon previous research in three ways. First, we narrow the analytical focus of the review to the specific characteristics of HRM. Despite similarities to other management disciplines, we believe that there are unique challenges in HRM (e.g., position in companies) that warrant specific attention. Second, we strive for a methodological breadth of approaches to the gap. In this way, we hope to uncover as many facets of the gap as possible. It will further be feasible to identify findings that may be dependent on the chosen method. Third, we develop an agenda for future research. This is crucial as there is discussion about changes in research or practice to close the gap, while little attention is paid to studying the gap itself. With this in mind, we aim to address the following questions:

On what theoretical (e.g., concepts and definitions) or empirical basis (e.g., methodological approaches) is the HRM research-practice gap currently investigated?

What causes and consequences of the gap can be identified in light of the current state of research?

Are there consistent study designs with similar findings regarding certain characteristics of the HRM research-practice gap?

Do studies with different methodological approaches reveal different facets of the HRM research-practice gap?

Which research gaps might emerge from the research landscape to date?

According to the questions set out above, we conducted a scoping review of the literature on the HRM research-practice gap. The objective of this type of review is to categorize and map articles on a circumscribed topic, which has so far been investigated to a limited extent (e.g., Arksey and O’Melley 2005 ). To facilitate the configuration of a body of evidence, scoping reviews enable the integration of more heterogeneous research approaches (e.g., Pham et al. 2014 ; Tricco et al. 2016 ). This includes an examination of the extent, range, and nature of research activity, a clarification of key concepts and definitions, a summary of current research findings, and the identification of research gaps (Arksey and O’Melley 2005 ; Munn et al. 2018 ). The approach is characterized by an iterative process of literature search and article inclusion (Sucharew and Macaluso 2019 ; Westphaln et al. 2021 ). Meanwhile, scoping reviews have been increasingly used for a variety of HRM-related issues, such as performance management (Brown et al. 2019 ), HR analytics (Tursunbayeva et al. 2018 ), or growth mindset in HRD (Han and Stieha 2020 ). We followed the PRISMA guidelines for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR; Tricco et al. 2018 ), while also incorporating elements of more narrative reviews (e.g., Fisch and Block 2018 ).

4.1 Criteria of eligibility

To be included, articles needed to fulfil the following criteria: (1) The paper should address research-practice gaps in the context of HRM. Therefore, the articles should provide a detailed description of how the phenomenon was defined. (2) The article should fall into one of three methodological categories: (a) Conceptual articles were defined as contributions related to theoretical frameworks for the HRM research-practice divide. This included narrative reviews in which certain questions were discussed with reference to the empirical work of others. (b) Empirical studies with a survey-based quantitative focus were defined as investigations in which the relationship of research and practice in HRM was examined by using standardized measurement methods and survey instruments. (c) Empirical studies with a qualitative or mixed-method focus were defined as those studies in which a more in-depth investigation was conducted either using established qualitative research methods (e.g., in-depth interviews with HR experts) or a combination of quantitative and qualitative data-analysis. A targeted population of HR respondents (e.g., HR executives) was not specified for inclusion of empirical studies. (3) Both empirical (e.g., Bartunek and Rynes 2010 ) and non-empirical articles (e.g., Anderson et al. 2001 ; Kieser and Leiner 2009 ) were excluded if no specific focus on HRM was detected. (4) The articles had to be available in English.

4.2 Information sources and search strategies

The literature search was conducted by creating a list of terms in an iterative process. A preliminary list of search terms was created based on the first articles identified. As the search progressed, new terms that might be indicative of the underlying topic were supplemented. If the addition of further search terms resulted in no hits, neither in the title nor in the abstract, no further new search terms were added. The preliminary list of search terms was presented to a professional librarian for review. Using the complete set of search terms, Footnote 1 five literature databases (Business Source Elite/EBSCO Host; PsycInfo; ScienceDirect; Scopus; web of science) were comprehensively explored.

Figure  1 illustrates the process of article inclusion. The databases were searched between the first available entry and August 2023. Titles and abstracts of the articles were screened for eligibility. If an article appeared to be eligible, it was evaluated at the full-text level. An initial decision was made by the first author of this article (PN). However, in cases of ambiguity, the second author (AH) or even another research assistant was asked to evaluate the article for eligibility. To uncover unpublished studies (e.g., unpublished dissertations), a literature search in open databases (google scholar; dissertation abstracts; open grey) was added. The final database search was conducted on August 31st, 2023.

Flow chart of the article selection and inclusion process

4.3 Data extraction, coding, and synthesis

To extract relevant information from eligible articles, a charting form was developed. After articles were classified as eligible, the following characteristics were extracted: (a) authors, year of publication, country; (b) type of article (conceptual, empirical); (c) research design (qualitative, quantitative, mixed methods); (d) type of data collection and evaluation (e.g., survey, in-depth interview, content analysis); (e) sample (e.g., HR practitioners, HR scholars, published journal articles); and (f) main results of the article. The coding was done by the first author (PN), with a random sample of one-third of the eligible articles being coded independently by another research fellow. A complete match of over 92% was achieved during the first coding pass. In the event of a discrepancy, the respective article was further discussed to reach a consensual decision.

The empirical articles were grouped by their methodology and main findings. A slightly different approach was taken for the conceptual articles. The pool of these articles was analyzed for common themes, especially along the question of causes and consequences of the research-practice gap in HRM. This resulted in a thematic structure of common and overlapping themes.

5.1 Bibliographic analysis and descriptive features of the included articles

A summary of the main article characteristics is given in Table  1 . The articles were published between 1998 and 2023, entirely in peer-reviewed journals. Conceptual papers were published more frequently between 2006 and 2009, while in the last 10 years an increase in method-diverse studies emerged (e.g., qualitative, mixed-method). An overview of the journals in which the articles were published is depicted in Fig.  2 .

Frequency of publications on the HRM research-practice gap by journal

Of the 42 articles, 18 were identified as non-empirical evidence (e.g., conceptual contributions), as the 24 others were quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method empirical studies. Most of the articles addressed the HR practitioners' side of the gap (e.g., knowledge deficits), whereas only few studies explicitly focused on aspects rooted in scholarly practice (e.g., type of research; Kougiannou and Ridgway 2021 ; de Frutos-Belizón et al. 2021 ). Nineteen of the empirical studies were related to human samples (e.g., surveys among HR experts), five others were based on content analysis of journal articles (e.g., subject categorization as an indicator for areas of interest). Certain authors appeared more frequently as lead or co-authors in publications on the gap, as illustrated in Fig.  3 . For instance, DC Short or BE Kaufman have made conceptual contributions repeatedly, while SL Rynes or CJ König have conducted more empirical studies.

The size of terms depends on the frequency of the authors' involvement in publications related to the research-practice gap in HRM

Of the empirical studies, 16 foremostly investigated knowledge, attitudes, and decisions of HR practitioners towards evidence-based HR practices. In addition, three studies examined differences in qualification (e.g., I/O psychologists vs. other HR experts; Jackson et al. 2018 ), job level (Rynes et al. 2002 ), or HR work experience (Bezzina et al. 2017 ). Of the conceptual articles ( k  = 18), one referred to knowing-doing gaps in the field of HRM diversity management (Kulik 2014 ), 14 contained debates about the reasons for an overarching HRM research-practice divide and the resulting opportunities for improvement (Beer 2022 ; Cohen 2007 ; Gray et al. 2011 ; Gubbins and Rousseau 2015 ; Jewell et al. 2022 ; Kaufman 2022 ; Lawler and Benson 2022 ; Lawler 2007 ; Rousseau and Barends 2011 ; Short 2006 ; Short and Shindell 2009 ; Short et al. 2009 ; Timming and Macneil 2023 ; Vosburgh 2022 ), and three further articles summarized research related to the HRM research-practice gap (Gill 2018 ; Kaufman 2012 ; Tkachenko et al. 2017 ). The empirical studies were conducted in the USA, Canada, Australia, and Europe.

The sampling of the articles yielded an interesting result in that only 24 articles were empirical studies. Three distinguishable types of empirical evidence could be identified. First, one group of studies ( k  = 12) used quantitative survey data to analyze HR executives' attitudes, knowledge, and preferred sources of information regarding evidence-based practices in larger study samples. Second, a further group of studies ( k  = 7) focused on qualitative or mixed-method research to gain a deeper insight into the nature of the research-practice divide. A third group of studies ( k  = 5) included content analysis methods of written material (e.g., journal articles) to uncover different preferences of HR practitioners and scholars. A systematic overview of the 24 empirical studies is given in Table  2 .

5.2 Findings obtained from survey-based quantitative studies

The quantitative studies under review mostly refer to an early empirical finding. Rynes et al. ( 2002 ) examined the knowledge of 959 HR practitioners concerning empirical evidence in HR-related areas (e.g., management practice, recruitment and selection, compensation and benefits). A 35-item list of statements was developed, each of which had to be classified as true, false, or uncertain. HR practitioners were asked to indicate where they obtained information on HR practices. To sum up, substantial discrepancies between HR research-based endorsements and practitioners' knowledge were found, primarily in recruitment and selection. The predictive validity of general mental ability (GMA) on job performance has been consistently underestimated, whereas the importance of an applicant's conscientiousness or values have been overestimated.

This early study finding stimulated further investigations by others with comparable study designs. Meanwhile, the overall results were replicated several times in different regions (e.g., US, Canada: Fisher et al. 2021 ; Netherlands: Sanders et al. 2008 ; Finland, South Korea, Spain: Tenhiälä et al. 2016 ) and with various HR study samples (e.g., I/O psychologists vs other HR experts: Carless et al. 2009 ; Jackson et al. 2018 ). The largest discrepancy between what research would recommend and the actual knowledge and application of measures in HR practice constantly emerged in recruitment and selection, even in the most recent studies (Fisher et al. 2021 ; Kirk et al. 2023 ; Risavy et al. 2019 ).

In the above studies, there was a strong belief among HR practitioners that it was more important to consider aspects other than GMA as an indicator for employee selection (e.g., values: Carless et al. 2009 ). This in fact contrasts with the cumulative evidence regarding the predictive validity of certain recruitment and selection measures (e.g., Salgado et al. 2003 ). However, turning to other dimensions of HR practice (e.g., management practice, general employment, training and development), most of these studies do not provide strong evidence that an overarching gap exists.

While there is broad agreement that some of the empirical results on personnel selection are not well received in HR practice (e.g., GMA, Fisher et al. 2021 ; Tenhiälä et al. 2016 ; Kirk et al. 2023 ), it remains unclear whether this also applies to other HR dimensions. Some studies suggested that HR practitioners underestimate the predictive validity and usefulness of psychometrically proven integrity and personality tests in recruiting (e.g., Carless et al. 2009 ). With regard to the sources of information, most of the respondents stated that they obtain their information about HR practices from other HR practitioners (e.g., Tenhiälä et al. 2016 ), or public sources, such as the internet (e.g., Rynes et al. 2002 ). Both consulting academics and retrieving recommendations from scholarly journals were under the least preferred sources (e.g., Sanders et al. 2008 ). A few studies found a correlation between HR professionals' level of qualification (e.g., psychology degree) and their knowledge of evidence-based HR practices (Carless et al. 2009 ; Jackson et al. 2018 ; Sanders et al. 2008 ). However, the results were not consistent across studies.

Besides the above studies, which were consistent in terms of the study design and the overall results, other investigations were identified that had slightly different focuses. A more behavioral approach has revealed that HR professionals are most likely to rely on bias-prone sources (e.g., personal experience) to inform their decisions. In contrast, scientific sources have little influence on decision-making (Barends et al. 2017 ). Research-oriented information (e.g., neuroscientific information on a personality test) has even been found to result in HR experts’ higher rejection rates of certain selection tools rather than their approval (Diekmann et al. 2015 ).

It has also been shown in more specific HR fields (e.g., implementation of training courses on the prevention of sexual harassment) that a positive attitude towards research aligns with a positive reception of scholarly recommendations (Perry et al. 2012 ). This is consistent with the results of Colbert et al. ( 2005 ), who found that practitioners' regular reading of journal articles, higher job level, and perception of a specific HR strategy in the organization led to higher agreement with research findings. However, other factors might have a stronger impact on the actual implementation of evidence-based practices (e.g., management support, organizational resources) (Perry et al. 2012 ). Overall, studies have found that time constraints and a poor understanding are the main barriers to HR professionals' practical implementation of evidence-based information (e.g., Barends et al. 2017 ).

5.3 Findings obtained from qualitative and mixed-method studies

The qualitative and mixed-method studies used a variety of methodological adjustments. The approaches ranged from expert interviews (de Frutos-Belizón et al. 2021 ) and case studies (Hamlin et al. 1998 ), to the use of the repertory grid technique to explore thoughts and cognitive structures (König et al. 2011 ), and included combining survey data with in-depth interviews (e.g., Bezzina et al. 2017 ). While most of these studies also examined the practitioners’ side of the gap, some placed stronger emphasis on causes rooted in HR research (e.g., de Frutos-Belizón et al. 2021 ). Overall, the focus of this study pool is more on the justifications for the use or rejection of certain selection tools.

The survey-based parts of the mixed-method studies highlight similar findings as those reported above. Both frequent irregular beliefs about effective selection tools and infrequent use of evidence-based practices were uncovered (e.g., König et al. 2011 ). The importance of highly predictive selection measures was underestimated. There were indications that increased experience in HR practice leads to more biased attitudes towards evidence-based personnel selection (Bezzina et al. 2017 ). HR practitioners justified the use of certain selection procedures based on the applicant's suitability for the organization (e.g., compatibility with an organization's culture) rather than on validity concerns (Risavy et al. 2021 ). However, other qualitative studies showed that HR professionals consider a variety of dimensions when deciding whether to conduct a selection procedure, but certain aspects seem to be of particular importance to them (e.g., generalizability-specificity of job characteristics, breadth of focus, fakability; König et al. 2011 ).

In-depth interview studies conducted with HR scholars provided further important insights into the presumed causes of the HR research-practice gap. The type of research (e.g., data on highly specific questions to be easily published in top-tier journals) and the current climate at scholarly institutions (e.g., journal publications as the most valued output) are recognized by HR academics as influencing factors contributing to the low levels of research reception in HR practice (de Frutos-Belizón et al. 2021 ). This is consistent with other studies showing that HR practitioners value empirical evidence (e.g., Bailey 2022 ). However, the actual implementation is perceived as challenging due to difficulties in evaluating research results properly, lack of time, and limited access to journals (e.g., Risavy et al. 2021 ). In this context, an early case study has shown that by encouraging close collaborations between HR departments and academic institutions, companies can effectively remove certain barriers and facilitate evidence-based change processes (Hamlin et al. 1998 ). The importance of such collaboration has recently been demonstrated for the HR-relevant construct of employee engagement. While practitioners often adopt broader definitions, academics specify the construct more narrowly. This results in split perspectives, less overlap, and a potential widening of the rigor-relevance gap (Bailey 2022 ).

Scholars and practitioners may evaluate differently whether and why the convergence of research and practice in HRM is a goal to strive for. Practitioners (e.g., promote employee well-being) and scholars (e.g., implementation of best practices) provide partly different and partly overlapping reasons (e.g., reduce discrimination and pay inequality) regarding the importance of bridging the gap (Banks et al. 2016 ).

5.4 Findings obtained from content analysis studies

A few previous studies ( k  = 5) have yielded some important insights into the topic by applying content analysis methods to published articles in HR journals. The aim of this approach is to uncover different areas of interest that might indicate a divergence of research and practice. Following this procedure, Deadrick and Gibson ( 2007 , 2009 ) examined over 6000 journal articles that were published in four HR-focused journals. A total of 14 content categories consisting of specific HR issues (e.g., motivation-related issues, staff issues, compensation/ benefits) were used for the coding scheme. Out of the four journals, two were classified as more practice and two as more scholarly oriented. In the first study, Deadrick and Gibson ( 2007 ) collected a sample of 4.300 articles published over a time-period of 20 years to investigate different areas of interest that might indicate a research-practice gap in HRM. Although the magnitude of the respective gaps varied across topics, the authors saw evidence for substantial divides between research and practice in certain fields (e.g., organizational behavior issues more common in scholarly-oriented journals). The 2009 study extended on this scope by including an examination of changes over a time-period of 30 years to identify possible trends concerning the research-practice gap in HRM (Deadrick and Gibson 2009 ). Of note is the fact that neither of these studies revealed a significant divide for the dimension of staff issues (e.g., recruitment and selection). For the areas of HR development and staff issues, there was an enduring and equally high level of interest in both types of journals over the examined 30 years. The authors concluded that there was a pronounced research-practice gap in the areas of motivation-related issues and compensation/benefits.

According to other content analysis studies, practice-oriented HR journals seldom discuss the topics that leading HR scholars have identified as important for future practice (Rynes et al. 2007 ). In turn, there is evidence to suggest that HRM research journals, and related publications, fail to provide sufficient insights on matters of practical importance. For instance, using a word count approach, Kougiannou and Ridgway ( 2021 ) found that half of the articles published in the top-tier HR-associated journals in 2018 devoted less than 2% to practical implications. This finding leads to the question of how topics perceived as important by HR practitioners can be re-transferred into academic contexts. In this regard, a further content analysis study indicate that academic HR programs often disregard topics that are given high priority in practice-oriented journals (e.g., organizational culture, ethics, social learning; Ardichvili and Oh 2013 ).

5.5 Mapping of the non-empirical articles

Under the 42 articles included in this review, 18 were conceptual contributions. These articles were evaluated according to the discussed (1) causes and (2) consequences of the gap. There was a noticeable focus on the causes and how to overcome them. The expected consequences of the research-practice divide received considerably less conceptual attention. With regard to the causes, the following three thematic clusters were extracted: (a) communication barriers , (b) methodological issues , and (c) visibility, accessibility, and dissemination of HR research. The conceptual articles were collated based on these extracted thematic clusters.

Causes of the HRM research-practice gap

(a) Communication barriers at the HRM research-practice interface. The conceptual articles consistently pointed to the fact that HR scholars and practitioners are insufficiently connected, which has led to communication barriers. Lawler ( 2007 ) argued that much of today's HR research fails to address issues of practical relevance. Others indicated that the ever-increasing output of journal publications is accompanied by a growing complexity of the methods used to answer narrowly defined questions, often in highly specific contexts, making it difficult for non-academics to comprehend (e.g., Jewell et al. 2022 ; Short et al. 2009 ). Therefore, it can be challenging for practitioners to apply research findings to their work environments (e.g., Gray et al. 2011 ). There is consensus that the exchange between research and practice needs to improve (e.g., Cohen 2007 ; Short and Shindell 2009 ; Timming and MacNeil 2023 ; Vosburgh 2022 ).

The academic writing and publishing style is thought to affect communication hurdles (e.g., Beer 2022 ; Lawler and Benson 2022 ), including the use of technical language, the under-establishment of a practical orientation, and an overemphasis on numerical data (e.g., Gill 2018 ; Jewell et al. 2022 ; Timming and MacNeil 2023 ). Thus, HR practitioners could benefit from an expanded use of models, frameworks, and storytelling to receive research findings in a more inspiring and emotional way (Gubbins and Rousseau 2015 ; Short et al. 2009 ). To improve familiarity with journal publications, it has also been suggested that HR executives could promote a culture in their departments in which research findings are discussed more regularly (e.g., Short 2006 ).

To enhance communication in a sustainable way, HR academics and practitioners need to collaborate more closely by establishing networks (e.g., Gubbins and Rousseau 2015 ; Kaufman 2022 ; Short et al. 2009 ; Tkachenko et al. 2017 ). Researchers could attend HRM practice conferences more routinely to gain a deeper understanding of the issues HR executives face in their daily work (e.g., Short and Shindell 2009 ; Vosburgh 2022 ). These dialogues should occur before commencing research projects and after obtaining results (e.g., Cohen 2007 ; Timming and Macneil 2023 ).

Kaufman ( 2012 ) underlines the need for HR research to consider external dimensions (e.g., economics or politics), as these often pose challenges for HR practitioners (e.g., financial restrictions). However, over the past 30 years, HR research has been dominated by internal dimensions rooted in psychology and organizational behavior (e.g., staff selection). This overlooks that HR practitioners are strongly influenced by factors outside their organization. If HR research continues to neglect the needs of practice, communication barriers are likely to persist.

The role of business schools has been repeatedly discussed in the literature (e.g., Gubbins and Rousseau 2015 ; Lawler 2007 ; Tkachenko et al. 2017 ). Business schools focus on teaching theoretical management knowledge. On the other hand, training in the methods and results of the evidence-based approach is often insufficient (e.g., Short and Shindell 2009 ). Consequently, even MBA graduates may not be sufficiently informed about essential research findings. A project-related collaboration between universities, business schools and companies could therefore be beneficial for all sides (e.g., Cohen 2007 ). Although such collaborations exist to a certain extent, there is an urgent need to expand these networks (e.g., Short and Shindell 2009 ). Furthermore, it is deemed crucial to develop precise definitions of the knowledge required for HR practitioners in the future. These must be included in certified training programs (e.g., HRD scholar-practitioner , see Short and Shindell 2009 ; Short 2006 ).

Another point relates to the question of when relevant information is needed. HR studies require careful and lengthy planning (e.g., data collection, evaluation, peer-reviewed publication). However, practitioners encounter problems in day-to-day business for which they desire quick answers (e.g., Gray et al. 2011 ). From a practitioner’s perspective, the way research is published acts as a barrier (e.g., Lawler and Benson 2022 ). As a result, HR practitioners may turn to more popular sources of information (e.g., internet). To enhance their reception in HR practice, Gubbins and Rousseau ( 2015 ) suggested making research findings available in two different languages. Apart from being published in journals, results could be condensed and displayed in more convenient formats.

(b) Methodological issues at the HRM research-practice interface. Another thematic cluster concerns the nature of research in HRM. It has been suggested that more comparative research is needed to determine which programs work better under which circumstances (e.g., Kulik 2014 ). To advance the field, it could be beneficial to shift the research focus from studies that concentrate on the micro-employee level (e.g., job satisfaction) to the macro-organizational level (e.g., organizational performance). This level has been studied less comprehensively so far (e.g., Kaufman 2012 ; Kulik 2014 ).

The structures of organizations are complex and dynamic. Therefore, it is debated whether the narrow research focus on individual predictors (e.g., cognitive performance) or outcomes (e.g., turnover-rates) meets the challenges of HR practice (e.g., Cohen 2007 ; Jewell et al. 2022 ). Perhaps more attention should be paid to implementation research that considers contextual factors (e.g., organizational culture; Gill 2018 ; Lawler and Benson 2022 ). However, extending HR research to the macro level requires valid and reliable measures. This is not sufficiently guaranteed in today's HR research (e.g., Gubbins and Rousseau 2015 ; Kulik 2014 ).

In the literature, the rigor-relevance debate has been discussed as a critical factor in the research-practice gap. There is often a tension between the rigor of HR studies and their practical relevance (Tkachenko et al. 2017 ; Short and Shindell 2009 ). A trend has been observed that the rigor of studies steadily increased, whereas the relevance and transferability to HR practice has tended to decrease (e.g., Jewell et al. 2022 ; Lawler 2007 ). HR scholars and practitioners may hold fundamentally different epistemological perspectives on knowledge production and consumption. While scholars mostly strive for generalizations (e.g., GMA as predictor of job-performance), practitioners are more interested in finding specific problem solutions in their concrete work environment (e.g., Gray et al. 2011 ). Therefore, an expanded field of research aimed at a more holistic assessment of specific HR practices in authentic contexts might be needed (e.g., Jewell et al. 2022 ; Short 2006 ).

A broader implementation of intra-organizational research (e.g., use of metrics, internal assessments) could also contribute to a better understanding of what kind of evidence might be useful in practice. It has been pointed out consistently that more and partially different research is required to identify which HR practices work for whom (e.g., Gubbins and Rousseau 2015 ). The restriction of HR research to isolated phenomena, such as selection methods (e.g., intelligence tests) or other personnel measures (e.g., goal setting), is seen as a sustaining factor of the research-practice divide (e.g., Kaufman 2012 ). A more holistic evaluation of HR measures, including the influence of contextual factors (e.g., company size) on outcomes, could be further facilitated by conducting meta-analyses and systematic reviews more frequently (e.g., Gubbins and Rousseau 2015 ). Thereby, practitioners could obtain a comprehensive understanding of the accumulated evidence related to a particular HR practice, without the need to examine a confusing large number of individual studies (e.g., Gill 2018 ).

Under the terms mode 2 and action research, the demand has been formulated that knowledge production in HRM should be generated by a continuous and transdisciplinary exchange between research and practice (e.g., Beer 2022 ; Gray et al. 2011 ). Mode 2 research is collaborative, more contextually embedded, and practice-oriented (e.g., Tkachenko et al. 2017 ). It should be understood as a guiding attitude in HRM that has the potential to sustainably strengthen the relation of research and practice (e.g., Gray et al. 2011 ). To achieve this, it appears necessary that HR scholars increasingly focus on the concerns of HRM departments (e.g., Kaufman 2022 ; Short et al. 2009 ). Conversely, the interest of companies in participating in cooperative research projects could also increase (e.g., Short 2006 ).

(c) Visibility, accessibility, and dissemination of research results at the HRM research-practice interface. A central current issue appears to be the claim that research should be made more accessible to HR practitioners (e.g., Vosburgh 2022 ; Lawler and Benson 2022 ). The way results are presented is often contrary to the needs of practice (e.g., Cohen 2007 ; Gray et al. 2011 ; Short et al. 2009 ). Therefore, Gubbins and Rousseau ( 2015 ) suggested that core findings of rigorous HR research (e.g., controlled studies) could also be presented as case studies. By doing this, the successful implementation of certain HR strategies can be demonstrated using concrete examples (e.g., specific organization). This could enhance practitioners’ interest in and understanding of abstract research by transferring its implications to concrete working environments.

Developing strategies to make academic findings more accessible to HR practitioners also affects the area of publication practice (e.g., Gill 2018 ; Tkachenko et al. 2017 ). Influential HRM research journals could make important findings available to editors of practice-oriented journals in a condensed form (e.g., Cohen 2007 ). Since HRM is still an emerging profession, there are no standardized training curricula for specific areas of knowledge or professional competence yet. As a result, as Lawler ( 2007 ) argued, education and training within the organizations is notably relevant. Thus, HR executives are also responsible for disseminating evidence-based knowledge to HR employees (e.g., Rousseau and Barends 2011 ; Short 2006 ).

To improve the dissemination of scholarly knowledge, some authors have suggested to use abstracts and practical implications sections as an important channel of communication with HR practitioners (e.g., Gubbins and Rousseau 2015 ; Short et al. 2009 ; Vosburgh 2022 ). However, the practical implications sections of relevant HR publications are often oversimplified, so the importance of the work to practice might be overlooked (e.g., Gill 2018 ). To give the practical application of research greater consideration, it has been proposed to involve HR practitioners more frequently in peer-reviewing submitted articles (e.g., Cohen 2007 ).

The previous discussions focused on insufficient knowledge of HR practitioners as the primary cause of the gap. However, some authors have argued that issues of culture, values, and power in organizations may be more critical. As stated by Gill ( 2018 ), HR departments may not implement evidence-based practices because of their short-term and utilitarian focus. Today, companies must respond rapidly to changing requirements (e.g., government regulations). In favor of short-term benefits, companies may sacrifice the implementation of sustainable and evidence-based HR practices that often lead to success in the longer term.

The power of general management over HRM is considered a further critical factor that affects short-term focused HR strategies. According to Gill ( 2018 ), the envisioned strategic partnership between general management and HR departments often remains an unfinished endeavor. This impedes HR leaders from initiating change processes that may contradict senior management decisions. Compared to general management, HR employees' perception of control is much more limited. The low motivation of practitioners to implement evidence-based HR practices can also be seen as an indication that the status quo should be maintained (e.g., not be made redundant by research technologies) and defended against the threat of cognitive dissonance.

Consequences of the HRM research-practice gap

One noteworthy aspect of the conceptual papers is that the causes of the gap, and ways to bridge it, are covered in much more detail than the expected consequences. Compared to the causes, assumptions about the consequences are discussed surprisingly broad (e.g., poorer organizational outcomes), as others observed more than a decade ago (e.g., Kaufman 2012 ). Yet, a number of considerations were taken up repeatedly.

The absence of evidence-based practices in personnel selection can impede HR's ability to achieve a significant competitive advantage through human resources (e.g., Gill 2018 ). The opportunity is frequently missed to fully exploit the potential of the employees at the interface of job requirements, individual competencies, and organizational effectiveness. Consequently, HR departments could substantially underperform with their employees (e.g., Lawler 2007 ).

Due to the insufficient relatedness of research and practice in HRM, economic benefits of evidence-based HR measures might be overlooked (e.g., Lawler 2007 ). However, only few tangible studies on return on investment (ROI) illustrate that particular selection tools offer clear financial benefits over others. To meet the interests of HR practitioners in a more convincing manner, conducting ROI-studies is considered a crucial task of HR research (e.g., Cohen 2007 ).

The gap is also believed to have a negative impact on the still evolving professional identity of HR practitioners. The research-practice divide may have the consequence that the HR profession is only slowly maturing and consolidating its professional identity (e.g., Short 2006 ). HR practitioners could fail to acquire job-relevant competencies based on current research findings that correspond to their responsible role in the organization (e.g., Gill 2018 ). Therefore, a self-assured HR scholar-practitioner who is certain of his/her professional identity must still be seen as a visionary ideal (e.g., Short and Shindell 2009 ; Lawler and Benson 2022 ).

Although it may seem obvious, it is important to recognize that the disconnect between HR research and practice can lead to an ever-widening gap. Due to insufficient involvement with research questions focusing on practical needs, an increasing number of studies generate findings that are not translated to practice (e.g., Gubbins and Rousseau 2015 ). Consequently, HR professionals may rely less on the results of empirical studies, while scholars frequently investigate matters that are disconnected from the practical aspects (e.g., Lawler and Benson 2022 ).

6 Discussion

The aim of this review was to examine the current research landscape on the gap between research and practice in HRM. The results show that many of the retrieved articles consist of conceptual contributions. In these articles, the focus was on the causes of the gap and ways to bridge it, while giving comparatively less attention to the resulting consequences. The pool of empirical studies varied in methodology and results. Comparable studies were found in the area of personnel selection. Selection myths still seem to be widespread in HR practice (e.g., Fisher et al. 2021 ). Bias-prone instruments (e.g., unstructured interviews) were preferred over empirically supported predictive measures (e.g., mental ability tests). However, the results of the empirical studies were related to the specific definition of the gap (e.g., knowing, doing, interest) and the approach used in the research. The results of the content analysis studies revealed that HR practitioner and academic journals cover personnel selection issues to the same extent. Instead, significant differences in interests were found in other areas (e.g., employee motivation). The complexity of the research landscape on the gap is evident in the multiple facets uncovered in this review, as illustrated in Fig.  4 . In the following sections, we further discuss the results, locate them in a larger context, and develop an agenda for future research.

Configuration of the research landscape on the HRM research-practice gap. Filled arrow symbolizes a comparatively high contribution of non-empirical evidence to the field ( k  = 18), whereas sources of empirical evidence ( k  = 24) were heterogenous

7 Reference to the overarching questions of the review

The results of the review indicate four distinct research lines on the gap (survey-based, qualitative, content analysis, conceptual), broadly categorized as empirical and non-empirical evidence. Contrary to our expectations, only 24 of the articles were based on empirical data. Thus, the proportion of conceptual contributions to the field is relatively high. Empirical studies conceptualized the research-practice divide as a knowledge gap (e.g., Jackson et al. 2018 ), an implementation gap (e.g., Perry et al. 2012 ), or an interest gap (e.g., Rynes et al. 2007 ). At times, normative arguments were made for the implementation of certain HR practices. However, it was not always clear on what theoretical or empirical foundation these implications were derived. With few exceptions (e.g., Gill 2018 referring to Foucault's theory of power), most articles do not utilize established theories to explicate the research-practice gap.

The reasons discussed for the gap were organized into the following thematic clusters: (1) communication barriers (e.g., type of research to be published), (2) methodological issues (e.g., rigor-relevance tension of HR research), (3) visibility and dissemination of HR research (e.g., neglect of practical implications). The expected consequences, on the other hand, were often only briefly mentioned (e.g., poorer organizational outcomes, insufficient advancement of the HR profession) and rarely conceptualized.

A recurring finding in survey-based studies revealed that HR practitioners rely on instruments whose predictive validity is not supported by empirical studies. This finding has been replicated in various HR-associated professions and cultural work contexts over a period of more than 20 years. But this relates only to a limited area of HRM, namely the underestimation of the effectiveness of cognitive ability tests in personnel selection.

The review results suggest that a particular methodology is associated with certain aspects of the gap. While the survey-based studies aimed at knowledge deficits of practitioners, some qualitative studies pointed to implementation problems (e.g., Bezzina et al. 2017 ) or the role of research in HRM (e.g., de Frutos-Belizón et al. 2021 ). The content-analysis studies examined interest gaps and identified deviations other than those that could have been expected from the survey-based findings.

Based on the results of the review, we identified certain research gaps. First, while most articles are conceptual in nature, only a few used established theories to explain the gap. Second, the survey-based studies are overly focused on practitioners’ knowledge. These studies have strongly shaped the perspective on the research-practice divide in HRM. However, contextual factors and implementation barriers are insufficiently considered there. Third, there is an imbalance in the discussion of causes and consequences, and in the roles of practitioners and scholars. Both the actual consequences and the role of HR research received less attention in the literature. Below, we discuss more general implications that extend these specific findings.

7.1 Broader implications for the research-practice interface in HRM

Despite the heterogeneity of the research landscape identified in this review, we see common implications. Research and training in organizations could improve the alignment between HRM research and practice. However, it is important to ensure a comprehensive understanding of an organizational problem before pursuing effective solutions. This may involve conducting surveys or gathering data within the company on aspects such as organizational culture or employees' perceptions of leadership (e.g., Rousseau and Barends 2011 ). Once a diagnosis has been made, an appropriate solution can be pursued. But this process requires information from multiple sources (e.g., professional judgement, intra-organizational data, attitude of stakeholders; Barends and Rousseau 2018 ), not only knowledge of certain study results.

The implementation of an evidence-based approach to HRM clearly goes beyond the mere incorporation of specific research findings. Rather, it is about developing a mindset that systematically identifies the causes and consequences of HR problems and uses research to find solutions. This is worth mentioning because all too often the call for evidence-based decision-making follows an overly simplistic logic: There is an empirical finding from study X, but organization Y does it differently, so its policy is not evidence-based. The fact that empirical studies often leave open the question of which HR measure works for whom, under what circumstances and why is rarely part of the narrative. However, an oversimplified definition of evidence-based practice leads to a rather rudimentary conceptualization of a research-practice gap. A more comprehensive approach to evidence-based decision-making in HR, as outlined above, would instead expand the research-practice discourse in beneficial ways.

In the literature, the need for education and training of HR professionals has been discussed as an important bridge between research and practice. Higher-level HRM training programs on evidence-based decision-making could certainly enhance the identity and role of HR employees as scientific practitioners (e.g., engaged scholarship, Beaulieu et al. 2018 ; scholar-practitioners, Short and Shindell 2009 ). Boudreau and Ziskin ( 2011 ) argued that the future of HR is more likely to be defined by education than persuasion (p. 263). Therefore, acting as a scientifically informed practitioner entails approaching problems with objectivity, collecting pertinent information, diagnosing specific problems, and searching for solutions (e.g., Rousseau and Barends 2011 ; Short et al. 2009 ).

The pervasive rigor-relevance tension creates challenges for both research and practice. Our analysis of the literature indicated an increasing emphasis on contextualizing HRM research and viewing the gap from this perspective as well (e.g., Gill 2018 ). Even if research designs that incorporate contextual factors are challenging and difficult to implement, this is certainly a positive development. The early research landscape on the gap was strongly focused on the individual (e.g., Rynes et al. 2002 ). However, we believe that the overemphasis on the micro-level (e.g., knowledge) fails to capture the complexity of the phenomenon. For example, the prevailing culture at universities (e.g., preferred type of research) or business strategies focused on short-term cost-benefits represent barriers to effective communication between HR scholars and practitioners on a macro-level. It is important to note, though, that the rigor-relevance debate is not unique to HRM, as it is common to many fields of practice-based research (Short et al. 2009 ).

The various possible causes of so-called irrational choices have rarely been considered in the research landscape to date. Although calculation models exist for several HR practices that show favorable cost–benefit ratios (e.g., Saridakis et al. 2017 ; Terpstra and Limpaphayom 2012 ), these practices are not widely implemented (e.g., Rynes et al. 2018 ; Sabramony 2006 ). Decisions in HRM might also be subjected to random variability. Kahneman et al. ( 2016 ) coined the term noise to refer to the influence of unpredictable factors on decision making (e.g., mood of the day). It is now assumed that many companies leave human capital untapped and suffer financial disadvantages due to noisy decisions (e.g., Kahneman et al. 2019 ). Consequently, some authors have strongly suggested the greater use of standardized procedures and algorithms in HRM (e.g., Power et al. 2019 ).

As Gill ( 2018 ) noted, however, issues of power distribution within organizations may have implications for the implementation of this proposal. The growing adoption of standardized HR practices can challenge conventional authority and established ways of making organizational decisions (e.g., Barends and Rousseau 2018 ). HR employees still have to justify their internal status as strategic partners (e.g., Kaufman 2012 ). One possible motive for skepticism about evidence-based practices is that HR practitioners may fear being replaced by technology. This could explain why HR executives' decisions are less economically rational, and more frequently guided by power interests that aim to preserve their own status. Consequently, decision-making resources that are more difficult to replace (e.g., expert opinion) might be preferred over standardized procedures (e.g., structured interview forms). Besides theories of power, other approaches from organizational research seem to be suitable for explaining parts of the HRM research-practice gap, such as Braverman's ( 1974 ) labor process theory or Burns' ( 1961 ) micropolitics approach. It would be desirable to expand the theoretical perspectives on the phenomenon in the future. This could diversify the design and conduct of empirical studies and provide more clarity about the constitutive elements of the gap.

From our point of view, both noisy decisions and power-driven choices could be given greater consideration as contextual variables. We agree with Lawler ( 2007 ) that conducting isolated investigations into the knowledge, use, or rejection of individual HR measures in practice only captures limited aspects of the research-practice gap. There is often even confusion between knowledge and action, as the mere understanding of evidence-based HR practices does not necessarily lead to their implementation. Studies suggest that up to 90% of workplace learning is informal (e.g., Eraut 2011 ; Noe et al. 2013 ), highlighting the importance of learning channels other than formal knowledge training. Pfeffer and Sutton ( 1999 ) noted more than 20 years ago that many organizations could benefit from focusing on deliberate actions to promote organizational learning processes rather than excessively discussing organizational problems.

The concept of rationality used in the gap literature may be too narrow. While rational decision-making serves as a guiding paradigm in science, companies are messy places where conflicts of interest and power games occur (e.g., Crozier and Friedberg 1979 ). The HR practitioners' deviation from empirically supported practices may be more influenced by action rationality than decision rationality (e.g., Brunsson 1982 ). Therefore, we doubt that educating individuals about evidence-based HR practices alone will lead to a sustainable increase in their adoption. Currently, there is also a rapid technological evolution underway that raises fundamental questions about where HR professionals should receive more training in the future and where technology (e.g., AI) will take over certain tasks.

7.2 Bridging the gap: What role could technological progress play in the future?

Soon, advancing technologies may further automate the use of evidence-based HR practices. It will be interesting to observe to what extent concepts such as people analytics (e.g., Marler and Boudreau 2017 ), HR algorithms (e.g., Cheng and Hackett 2021 ), or artificial intelligence (AI) (e.g., Vrontis et al. 2022 ) will contribute to the debate on the research-practice divide in HRM.

Especially AI could play a prominent role in the future of HRM (e.g., Kaushal et al. 2023 ). In personnel selection, companies are already using AI technologies and machine learning algorithms to more accurately predict the future success of employees (e.g., Black and van Esch 2020 ; Koenig et al. 2023 ). Both an increased consideration of machine-based forms of interaction (e.g., chat robots) and more automated evaluations of information about applicants (e.g., video-based evaluation of interviews) are on the rise. AI has the potential to reduce unwarranted bias in human behaviors and decision-making during employee selection. To diminish disruptive influences at the candidate level (e.g., minimizing deceptive impression management; Langer et al. 2020 ) and at the recruiter level (e.g., reducing race or gender bias; Zhang et al. 2023 ), the implementation of AI technology could prove advantageous. While the evidence supporting these developments is currently limited (e.g., Drage and Mackereth 2022 ; Woods et al. 2019 ; Tippins et al. 2021 ), it is conceivable that the increased integration of AI-based elements in HRM could facilitate the greater incorporation of research findings into practice.

Despite the potential attributed to AI in overcoming the research-practice gap in HRM, recent studies have slowed the euphoria a bit. The trust in an appropriate selection process and the willingness to disclose important information is being questioned by qualified applicants when AI-based tools are used (e.g., Schick and Fischer 2021 ). It is also evident that HR recruiters are often critical of the use of machine-based AI technologies (e.g., Ore and Sposato 2022 ). Both touch on the issue of acceptance of these technologies, which is certainly a prerequisite for their meaningful use. There are also several ethical concerns regarding compliance with legal standards, the dignity of decoding applicants' emotions, and issues concerning privacy, safety, and transparency (for an overview see Varma et al. 2023 ).

While it is unlikely that human decisions will be completely replaced, the integration of computer-based algorithms and human expertise through hybrid models may be a shared approach for HR scholars and practitioners. However, we expect technological advances and AI to have only a modest impact on most of the reasons for the gap identified in this review. Beyond the influence of technological progress, there is also the question of the extent to which HRM is specifically associated with research-practice barriers, or whether the phenomenon has a broader scope in the management field.

7.3 Comparing the HRM gap to other management fields

The research-practice gap is not unique to HRM. A similar tendency has been observed in other areas of management, such as marketing (e.g., Desai et al. 2012 ; Kriz et al. 2021 ), accounting (e.g., Tucker and Schaltegger 2016 ), healthcare (e.g., Robinson et al. 2020 ), or general management (e.g., Hodgkinson and Rousseau 2009 ; Kieser and Leiner 2009 ; Rousseau 2006 ).

Compared to HRM and other management fields, there might be a more nuanced awareness and understanding of this phenomenon in healthcare management. For example, the reasons for adherence or non-adherence to certain evidence-based practices have been studied more comprehensively there (e.g., Banks et al. 2021 ; Ehrenbrusthoff et al. 2022 ). This is perhaps related to the fact that the approach of evidence-based decision-making originated in the health sciences. However, early explanations for the gap appear to be similar to those in HRM, including rigor-relevance tensions, implementation barriers, and communication and knowledge deficits (e.g., Dowie 1996 ).

In most other areas of management, the scholar-practitioner divide has been even less systematically defined and studied. Historically, one particular feature may have contributed to the more extensive discourse within HRM. Although early cumulative data on the predictive validity of selection procedures were available (e.g., Schmidt and Hunter 1998 ), this knowledge has not been utilized in practice. This specific aspect of the gap has narrowed its scope and encouraged further investigation in HRM. As a result, broader discussions and more targeted empirical studies evolved. Therefore, the literature on the research-practice gap in HRM is more developed than in other management fields, with the exception of health care management. But this review also identified a number of limitations in the literature on the HRM gap that need to be addressed in the future.

7.4 Agenda for future research

Five points appear to be essential for future research on the scholar-practice divide in HRM, which are explained in more detail below: (1) balance of description and prescription, (2) investigation of the actual consequences of not implementing empirically supported HR measures, (3) stronger inclusion of the perspective of HR practitioners, (4) moving from the micro-level of the HR employee to the contextual embeddedness of HRM, (5) use of diversified research methods to gain a deeper understanding of the gap.

Overall, one of the biggest challenges for future research on the HRM scholar-practice divide is the relationship between descriptive (e.g., observations based on empirical findings) and prescriptive approaches (e.g., recommendations). As demonstrated in this review, almost half of the identified articles were conceptual contributions, most of which centered on strategies to bridge the gap. However, it is important to thoroughly investigate the suspected phenomenon before drawing broader prescriptive conclusions. Therefore, we agree with Hambrick's ( 2007 ) observation that the field may be suffering from presenting ideas for a phenomenon and its solutions before sufficient empirical investigation is done. There may be too much focus on the hypothetical rather than accurately defining the current situation. It would be desirable in the future to build on more recent and specific theoretical assumptions (e.g., distribution of power in organizations) before examining further elements of the gap empirically. A stronger integration of theory and empiricism could contribute to a deeper explanation of the phenomenon. Based on the results of this review, this should precede the derivation of prescriptive recommendations for HR practice.

Despite some compelling evidence, especially in personnel selection, future research should further examine the negative consequences of not implementing certain evidence-based practices in HRM. ROI- studies of circumscribed HR measures are the preferred approach here, even if they are complex to conduct. The field would thus become more descriptive in terms of the actual adverse consequences of the gap for organizations (e.g., financial disadvantages, insufficient development of employees). On the other hand, this could also increase the interest of HR practitioners in the phenomenon.

To overcome an oversimplified view, a more elaborated synergy of practice-oriented and scientific HR research could be very profitable in future studies on the gap. Scholars should not only talk about, but also with HR practitioners when studying a phenomenon related to practice (e.g., Kaufman 2022 ). Given that the focus of research to date has been on the practice-related reasons for the gap, future studies should also more critically examine the zeitgeist of science (e.g., type of research, questions, methods) as an influencing factor. Furthermore, one of the most common explanations for the gap is a lack of knowledge among practitioners. To further evaluate this, studies could be conducted on the effectiveness of educational interventions in the HR workplace (e.g., changing attitudes toward or increasing implementation of empirically supported HR practices). Such studies are absent in the current research landscape.

Given the small number of empirical studies and the heterogeneous results, we suggest that normative recommendations for practice should be made with caution. In contrast, empirical studies on the gap could be expanded in a context-specific way. Thereby, external factors may be uncovered (e.g., financial resources) that impact whether an organization adopt certain evidence-based HR practices or not. Current research on the gap overwhelmingly concentrates on HR employees at a micro-level. This mainly includes the analysis of knowledge, behavior, and decisions of individuals. However, it seems crucial to us to study the phenomenon at the meso- and macro-level of organizations as well. There are several factors that have so far been investigated only to a limited extent. Therefore, it would be beneficial for future studies to comprehensively explore economic concerns (e.g., financial issues), institutional matters (e.g., labor policies or employment systems), or organizational factors (e.g., culture and micropolitics).

Finally, the review results indicate a trend toward investigating the research-practice gap with more diverse research methods. This could be a useful advancement of the field. As demonstrated, different methodological approaches uncover distinct aspects of the gap. The integration of these findings appears to be a critical objective for future research. For example, the consistent but mostly survey-based finding that HR professionals tend to reject cognitive performance tests in staff selection could be further explored in qualitative studies to determine the underlying motives.

7.5 Limitations

There are a few limitations to consider in this review. First, it is important to note that the literature included is based on the search strategies and inclusion criteria used. Adjusting these parameters may cause variation in the results. However, our main objective was not to conduct a systematic review based on a complete compilation of empirical studies. Rather, we aimed to provide a more holistic exploration of the research landscape on the HRM scholar-practice divide.

Second, unlike previous reviews (e.g., Tkachenko et al. 2017 ), we focused on articles directly related to HRM. Nevertheless, it was challenging in certain cases to determine if the study participants were primarily HR employees (e.g., Banks et al. 2016 ). The same holds true for some conceptual contributions (e.g., Lawler and Benson 2022 ), where the distinction between general management as an umbrella term and HRM proved to be complicated. While we aimed to include articles with a focus on HRM, we recognize that there are conceptual uncertainties in some cases.

Third, we extracted overlapping content and co-occurring themes from the conceptual contributions. This approach appears appropriate for the review's scope, but it also has disadvantages. The classification and mapping of topic significance depend on the evaluator's subjective judgment. Even though we discussed this evaluation carefully, other reviewers might have identified additional content or different focal points.

Fourth, it could be argued that our objectives cannot be comprehensively approached due to the limited number of articles and their methodological divergence. In fact, this reduces the potential for drawing broader, more applicable conclusions. As in almost every research field, there is a need for more extensive data. On the other hand, the limitations and heterogeneity of the existing research are a direct finding of our review and should not only be regarded as a flaw. To the best of our knowledge, there are no conclusive criteria for the number of articles that increase the explanatory power of research syntheses, particularly in the case of narrative or scoping reviews.

7.6 Conclusions

To put it pointedly, one could assume that the HRM research-practice divide itself is not yet sufficiently evidence-based. Of course, this assumption is only partially accurate. There are valuable and substantial contributions to the field at various levels of scientific support. However, if rigorous standards were set in the sense of cumulative evidence, it would hardly be possible to make uniform statements due to the diverse nature of the research activity. Some articles contained more anecdotal evidence on the phenomenon, as noted by Reay et al. ( 2009 ) for evidence-based management in general. This is interesting because an overarching criticism is that HR practitioners too often rely on this kind of knowledge in their day-to-day decisions. It is not our intention to diminish the importance of conceptual contributions on the subject. However, we would argue that recommendations for bridging the gap should ideally be based on corresponding empirical findings. It is therefore necessary to extend the descriptive line of research. Moreover, to adhere to their own logic, we would expect more prescriptive approaches to rely on findings stemming from accumulated empirical knowledge.

A detailed knowledge of common evidence-based practices is undoubtedly useful for HR practitioners, but it is even more important to comprehend the conditions under which specific interventions are likely to be successful. As previously noted (e.g., Sackett and Lievens 2008 ), this review highlights the need for context-related and comparative research on specific HR measures. Such research could provide insight into why certain empirically supported HR measures (e.g., intelligence tests) are not widely used in practice. This research is expected to offer a more profound comprehension of the gap than generic suggestions for action in practice.

Based on the results of this review, we expect a broader definition of an evidence-based approach in HRM to be beneficial. A precise and context-specific analysis of organizational peculiarities must precede the search for information required to solve identified problems. Therefore, while knowledge of HR research findings is necessary, it alone does not overcome barriers between research and practice.

Data availability

Upon request any data of this review are available from the corresponding author.

Upon request the complete list of search terms is available from the corresponding author.

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Negt, P., Haunschild, A. Exploring the gap between research and practice in human resource management (HRM): a scoping review and agenda for future research. Manag Rev Q (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11301-023-00397-7

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Employee Relations

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Article publication date: 20 December 2019

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The purpose of this paper is to explore hotel employees’ views on how human resource management (HRM) practices influence their turnover intentions.

Design/methodology/approach

The data for this empirical study were collected through in-depth semi-structured interviews with 15 employees who had experience of working in various hotels in Macau, China. The thematic analysis approach was carried out to analyze the interview data and interpret the findings.

The findings of this study demonstrate that although employee-oriented human resource policies and practices are favored, the way HR department handles and implement those policies are valued more by hotel employees. Furthermore, the retention of an organizational culture that helps create a feeling of ownership among employees is highly influenced by employees’ turnover intentions. The current study demonstrates that the HR department in hotels holds a powerful position, and therefore, hotel employees expect their HR department to play greater and proactive roles in the HRM apart from providing equitable opportunities for their growth. This implication is particularly important for Integrated Resorts where a large number of employees collectively work to serve a range of customers who visit hotels for a variety of purposes.

Practical implications

This study suggests that addressing employees’ needs particularly those related to resolving complaints and managing relationships with other colleagues and providing opportunities for employees’ family members to take part in the organization’s activities and use its facilities are important practices that HR department can initiate to encourage employees’ engagement in hotels. Furthermore, the study shows that managers need to understand their employees’ perspectives as they can help resolve problems at the root level where they grow, and send a signal to the employees that the management is genuinely interested in resolving their problems and making them happy and satisfied.

Originality/value

Although several studies have provided valuable insights into the relationship between HRM practices and employee turnover intentions, most of those studies have used quantitative approaches to collect and analyze data. Furthermore, almost none of the findings were derived from the hotel sector. This study explores hotel employees’ views on the relationship between HRM practices and employee turnover intention using qualitative methods.

• Turnover intention
• Hotel employees
• Human resource management practices

Basnyat, S. and Clarence Lao, C.S. (2020), "Employees’ perceptions on the relationship between human resource management practices and employee turnover: A qualitative study", Employee Relations , Vol. 42 No. 2, pp. 453-470. https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-04-2019-0182

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Human resource management (HRM) is a broad field and tends to overlap with strategic management, organisational behaviour, sociology of work, leadership, occupational therapy, labour economics, and gender studies, to name just a few. The study of HRM tends to follow the employment cycle and includes the following topics: attraction and recruitment, onboarding, the psychological contract, training and development, performance management, career development, retention and engagement, talent management, leadership development, and succession planning. Other topics related to the HRM function focus on industrial relations/employment relations, employee voice, job design, workforce planning and HR metrics, diversity management, discrimination, equal employment opportunity, occupational health and safety, wellness and well-being, work-life balance, and compensation management and remuneration.

HRM as a field has developed a long way since its roots in early modern industrial development. Since then the field has evolved and has been greatly influenced by major historic events across the globe. Today it is a well-established field of scholarly inquiry within the broader domain of business and management studies and as a profession.

This entry highlights the use of qualitative methods in HRM research. It provides an overview of the field to date and discusses how qualitative research methods are utilised to explore some of the pressing issues challenging scholars and HR practitioners alike. With a focus on four different qualitative strategies—phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography and multicase study research—are examples are provided from a PhD thesis and several published articles in high-ranking HRM discipline journals. The first example is the application of phenomenology to study the experiences of skilled migrants and is drawn from a PhD thesis (Mohyuddin, 2011). The second example is a published article from the Human Resource Management Journal on employer brand management utilising grounded theory (Edlinger, 2015). The third is a multiple case study on employee voice in the building sector in Iran (Soltani et al., 2018), which was published in the International Journal of Human Resources Management . The final example is one that used an ethnographic case study approach to examine the concept of employee fit within the specific context of an organisation to understand the influence of HR strategy on employee motivation, behaviours, and attitudes (Samnani & Singh, 2013) published in the Human Resource Management Journal .

History and Evolution of the Field

Bruce Kaufman (2010) has looked at the history and evolvement of HRM, spanning the rise of modern industry in the early 19th century. The first term used to describe people management practices was personnel management and it became more widely accepted in Europe after World War II. The term industrial relations began being used in the United States and Canada in the 1920s. It was during this time that HRM and associated developments began to establish in support of HRM as a practice and profession. These included professional associations, journals, HRM consulting firms, and university education courses and programmes. Japan and Germany were also influential in the development and advancement of HRM outside of the United States in the 1920s.

Kaufman (2010) refers to the middle period of the field’s development (1930–1965), which saw the Great Depression in late 1929 with many companies retrenching workers and unemployment rates sky rocketing. This period also saw the rapid rise in collective bargaining, which replaced the welfare capitalist nonunion model that had grown in popularity in the preceding period. In terms of the profession, HRM lost a lot of ground during this period. The beginning of World War II put a stop to any further development in the field as the ravages of war spread across Europe, Asia, and the Pacific. The war did see a surge in recruitment and production related to fuelling the war efforts.

Two decades after the war, many countries were in industrial recovery, with industrial psychology and industrial sociology emerging as hot topics. The 1950s saw the rise of union density and collective bargaining. In the United States, university courses were emerging; however, personnel management in Europe was stagnant. From the 1970s, the field slowly grew and the internationalisation of HRM began to influence the contemporary field of HRM with management and behavioural science scholars beginning to dominate HRM scholarship.

Peter Boxall, John Purcell, and Patrick Wright (2010) refer to the maturation of HRM as a discipline that, since the turn of the 21st century, has focused on more substantive issues related to strategic management, organisational behaviour, and organisational effectiveness since its evolution from personnel management. The field has developed from its Anglo-American dominance to look more globally and across borders and regions, which takes into account contextual factors and cultural nuances. They classify the field across three major subfields: micro HRM (HR policy and practise within an organisation and across a profession), strategic HRM (the role of HRM in organisational strategy and meso-level analysis), and international HRM (HRM in companies operating across borders and is closely linked to the field of international business).

The focus of this entry is qualitative research in HRM research. There are three main approaches to research: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. Most universities offer research training in the first two. In recent years, some universities have begun to offer research training in mixed methods research (MMR), which involves the combining and integration of both quantitative and qualitative data. W. Lawrence Neuman (2014) describes qualitative research as situated in the language of social processes, cases, and contexts. Qualitative researchers “examine social life from multiple points of view and explain how people construct identities. Only rarely do we use variables, test hypotheses, or create precise measures in the form of numbers” (Neuman, 2014, p. 176). The relationship between variables, hypotheses, and measures is the domain of quantitative research, while non-numerical data are the domain of qualitative research. Interpretation is central to the qualitative research process. Social scientists study humans and human relations, their subjective experiences, meanings, processes, social relationships, and symbols. Non-numerical data are descriptive and need interpretation, while qualitative data analysis requires systematic and rigorous analytical techniques to assist in this interpretation and usually involves themes and coding.

Qualitative researchers are often referred to as interpretive bricoleurs (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011, p. xii). Bricolage is defined as “Improvisation by drawing on a diverse materials that are lying about and using them in creative ways to accomplish a pragmatic task” (Neuman, 2014, p. 179). A bricoleur is someone who has learnt to adapt and use various available resources and/or sources and to create what is needed. Successful social scientists are said to be bricoleurs, as they use their skills, different approaches, and sources needed to address the research question(s) at hand. Interpretive bricoleurs “are adept at using all of the methods of collecting and analyzing empirical materials” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011, p. xii).

Many different types of research strategies are employed in qualitative research and include: case study research, ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, historical, participatory, biographical, and clinical. Data collection methods include observational data, open-ended surveys, focus groups, structured interviews, semistructured interviews, in-depth interviews, Delphi method, content analysis, oral history, participant observation, and ethnographic observation.

In the field of MMR, the use of MMR prevalence studies has emerged. Prevalence studies will choose a sample of discipline-specific journals and then choose a time range (e.g., 5 years or 10 years). What then occurs is content analysis of the published papers in the journal for the specified time frame. These studies serve several purposes. One purpose is to explore the level of acceptance of MMR and dominant methodology approaches published in the discipline or field. These MMR prevalence studies will then look more closely at the papers claiming to be mixed methods and will analyse these more closely. A summary of these prevalence studies will tend to provide a good indication of the dominant methodological approaches published in the discipline. The categories of papers can involve quantitative (monomethod or multimethods), qualitative (monomethod or multimethod), MMR, and conceptual or nonempirical. One such example is the study by Martin Grimmer and Dallas Hanson (2009), who undertook a study of the International Journal of Human Resource Management , analysing 828 articles published between 1998 and 2007. They found 49.4% of articles were quantitative, 23.6% of the published articles were conceptual or theory based, 16.3% were qualitative, and 10.7% used a mix of both qualitative and quantitative (Grimmer & Hanson, 2009).

This focuses on four different qualitative strategies: phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and multicase study research. Four examples of how these strategies have been utilised in the field of HRM are provided. The products of research usually take the form of academic conference papers, scholarly journal articles, research reports, and research theses. The first example is the application of phenomenology to study the experiences of skilled migrants and is drawn from a PhD thesis (Mohyuddin, 2011). The second example is a published article from the Human Resource Management Journal on employer brand management utilising grounded theory (Edlinger, 2015). The third is a multiple case study on employee voice in the building sector in Iran (Soltani et al., 2018), which was published in the International Journal of Human Resources Management . The final example is one that used an ethnographic case study approach to examine the concept of employee fit within the specific context of an organisation to understand the influence of HR strategy on employee motivation, behaviours, and attitudes (Samnani & Singh, 2013) published in the Human Resource Management Journal .

An Example of Phenomenology in HRM Research

In this section, a PhD thesis that employed phenomenology as a key method combined with analysis of narratives is discussed (Mohyuddin, 2011). The main goal of this PhD research was to explore the phenomenon of being a skilled migrant professional or manager from South Asia in Australia. This thesis focused on the challenges faced by these skilled migrants to achieve professional success in Australia.

As the objective of this PhD research was to understand the phenomenon of being a highly skilled South Asian migrant professional in Australia, it was important to understand the stories of the target migrants in both social and professional settings. This research utilised theories such as disembedding/re-embedding (Giddens, 1990), habitus (Bourdieu, 1986), acculturation (Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits, 1936), and sense-making (Weick, 1995) to explain the phenomenon of being a highly skilled South Asian migrant professional and manager in Australia. The skilled migrants are disembedded from their inherited social conditions and try to re-embed themselves in the Australian environment. As the skilled migrants are trying to re-embed themselves, they face a crisis of habitus that they need to resolve. An individual’s habitus has three categories: cultural, economic, and social (Bourdieu, 1986). As a skilled migrant, a person’s cultural, economic, and social conditions are altered, which leads to a crisis of habitus. The resolution of the crisis of habitus in this research was explained utilising the concepts of acculturation and sense-making. Acculturation is defined as those phenomena that result when groups of individuals who have lived within different cultures come into continuous, first-hand contact with subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups (Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits, 1936). Through acculturation, migrants’ crisis resolution falls under the categories of integration (accept old culture, accept new culture), assimilation (reject old culture, accept new culture), separation (accept old culture, reject new culture), and marginalisation (reject old culture, reject new culture; Sakamoto, 2007). In the journey to resolve the crisis, migrants try to make sense of their environment. In sense-making, individuals make an effort to rationalise their behaviour based upon the interpretation of the environment with which they interact (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978). Therefore, the interpretation of the new environment by the migrants has a significant effect upon their acculturation and resolution of the crisis of habitus.

The key research question of this thesis was: How does migration to Australia affect the employment experiences of South Asian professionals and managers? The research question was divided into the following subquestions:

• To what extent do current theories about the effects of migration on career trajectories provide a useful framework for analysing and understanding the experiences of professionals and managers from South Asia in Australia?
• What is the nature of the experience of being a migrant professional/manager from South Asia in Australia?
• What are the career challenges faced by South Asian professionals and managers when they migrate to Australia?
• How do South Asian managers attempt to overcome the challenges of their new career environment?
• In what ways can South Asian managers be assisted in establishing a career following migration? (Mohyuddin, 2011)

To obtain an in-depth understanding of the lived experience of the migrants in which they resolve their crisis of habitus, phenomenology was combined with analysis of narratives method. A narrative is defined as “a spoken or written text which provides an account of an event/action, or series of events or actions, chronologically connected” (Czarniawska-Joerges, 2004, p. 17). According to Donald Polkinghorne (1995), the basis of storied expressions is usually the phenomenon in which individuals are engaged that transforms from an initial situation to a terminal situation. For skilled migrants, the initial situation is when they arrive in the new country as skilled migrants, and the terminal situation is their achievements and failures during the first 2 years after migrating.

Purposeful sampling was used to collect data (Creswell, 1998). This type of sample is more of an intellectual-based rather than demographically based sample, and the target data population is selected based on their specific experiences (Marshall, 1996).

For this research, the following inclusion criteria were used for the selection of the South Asian skilled migrant participants:

• Migrated to Australia from Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka
• Migration must be part of the skilled-based migration program
• Must have a minimum 1 year of work experience in the home country and at least 1 year of work experience in Australia
• Must have professional/managerial qualifications

For this thesis, 41 individuals from diverse nationalities and genders were approached. The semistructured interviews were conducted until saturation was reached, which was achieved after 21 interviews. The interview was designed to understand the phenomenon of being a South Asian skilled migrant professional in Australia and included interview questions about the origins of the migrants and their motivations to migrate to Australia. The questions were also related to their expectations and the reality they faced in Australia. The respondents were asked to discuss their initial experiences as well as the experiences over the years. There were questions about cultural differences as well as their efforts to fill the gaps between recognition of foreign and local qualifications. These interviews not only provided rich biographies of the skilled migrants who experienced the phenomenon but also gave insights into ways skilled migrants tackle the hard challenge of gaining professional recognition in a host country.

All the interviews were transcribed for thematic analysis and NVivo software was utilised to undertake the coding and thematic analysis. In this research, a constant comparative method of coding was used (Thorne, 1997). Hennie Boeije (2002) has proposed the following steps for the constant comparative method:

• 1. Comparison within a single interview
• 2. Comparison between interviews within the same group
• 3. Comparison of interviews from different groups
• 4. Comparison in pairs at the level of the couple
• 5. Comparing couples

The analysis of the interviews revealed interesting findings with respect to the experience of being a South Asian skilled migrant in Australia. The majority of the respondents concluded that their skills acquired in the country of origin and potential were not completely utilised in Australia. Therefore, the majority of the interviewees decided to acquire Australian qualifications. The skilled migrants also talked about subtle discrimination due to cultural differences. Some respondents were of the view that during organisational downsizing, migrants were the first to be retrenched. This study also revealed that nonrecognition of skills was a source of depression and frustration for the migrants. Although some of the respondents were earning well doing casual work, their preference was still to achieve success in their own respective fields of professional specialisation so that their job is also intellectually rewarding.

From theoretical acculturation perspective in the process of the resolution of crisis of habitus, some participants experienced integration, while some experienced separation and marginalisation. However, none of the respondents went through complete assimilation into Australian culture.

An Example of Grounded Theory in HRM Research

Grounded theory, along with case studies, is a popular research design in HRM. The approach offers much promise for HRM researchers due to an abductive, data-driven, theory-building approach. Grounded theory approaches refer to the works of Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss (1967) and Juliet Corbin and Anslem Strauss (2008). An example of the use of grounded theory in HRM research can be seen in Gabriela Edlinger’s (2015) study of the narrative accounts of employer brand managers (EBMs). The study specifically aimed to explore the perceptions and beliefs of participants’ work roles and their positions as key actors in organisational attempts to attract and retain quality talent. Responding to the lack of research on employer brand workers as organisational actors, Edlinger challenged previous models of employer branding work by exploring employer brand workers’ accounts of their work experiences. Three primary research questions guided the study to explore (a) EBMs’ work experiences and how they relate to existing research; (b) EBMs’ social positions within organisations and the impact on work; and (c) the challenges of EBMs’ work roles and their responses to the challenges.

Consistent with their theoretical approach, the researchers selected their sample to study the narrative accounts of EBMs’ work roles using a two-phase process. First, open sampling of participants was derived from two major criteria: relevance of topic for the organisation and employees’ experiences with employer branding activities. Second, theoretical sampling was utilised to further examine emergent themes from the initial data set. Theoretical saturation was reached after 20 narrative interviews.

Coding and categorisation of data were performed in three iterative stages in accordance with the analytical procedure of Strauss and Corbin (1998) and by using reflexive interpretation of the interview data. Open line-by-line coding (i.e., the identification, labelling, categorisation, and description of the phenomena) of interview data was conducted by two researchers, including the author, as a form of triangulation to offer a basis of comparison of the coding structures and notes and to facilitate an in-depth understanding of the empirical data. The author then conducted axial coding (i.e., identifying relationships between codes) with a focus on the identification of relevant relationships. These data were then presented to two additional researchers for discussion, prior to the final selective coding process around a core theme. This core theme of boundary work provided the basis for recursive analysis of transcript data, which was then used to frame the findings and discussion presented.

Theory development in grounded theory is based on analytic generalisation and, thus, facilitates the development of a substantive theory that can be developed further through additional studies (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The study provided rationale for employer branding as an underresearched area, which is demonstrated in the gap between prior theoretical accounts and EBMs’ practical perspectives. The research contributed to the literature in three ways:

• 1. It provided a narrative account of employer brand management within HRM practice;
• 2. It provided different paradigmatic knowledge regarding employer branding as a strategic process; and
• 3. The grounded theory method analysis demonstrated employer branding work as a form of boundary work and its associated processes.

An Example of a Case Study Approach in HRM Research

The example of a case study research approach to the field of HRM has been taken from an article in the International Journal of Human Resources Management . This study used a multiple case study research design to explore the employee voice of building sector workers in Iran (Soltani et al., 2018). These workers were chosen due to their vulnerability and engagement in precarious work. The authors used a multiple case study design and utilised theoretical sampling. The rationale employed for this methodological choice was provided: “the choice of multiple-case study design enabled the research team to clarify whether the perceived employee voice was simply idiosyncratic to a single case or consistently replicated by several cases across the two industries” (Soltani et al., 2018, p. 1029).

Interviews were the main source of primary data collection (interviews were conducted with 30 managers and 62 employees across the six cases). In addition to this, the authors employed other qualitative data collection through focus group meetings, informal discussions, and archival data and company documents. All data were converged with the interview scripts and the authors utilised open, axial, and selective coding analytical techniques. To mitigate potential bias in the interviews, both external and internal validity checks were used, followed by 18 ex post interviews with employees and managers. If any discrepancies arose, these were discussed and resolved by the authors. The findings of the study resulted in four propositions in relation to employee voice.

An Example of Ethnography in HRM

The use of ethnography in HRM is emerging and has been used to explore a range of constructs, examining micro- and macrolevel issues within the HRM environment. Ethnographic approaches allow researchers to take advantage of observational techniques to understand participants’ lived experiences. An example of this can be seen in a study by Al-Karim Samnani and Parbudyal Singh (2013) that was published in the Human Resource Management Journal . The study used an ethnographic case study approach to examine the concept of employee fit within the specific context of an organisation to understand the influence of HR strategy on employee motivation, behaviours, and attitudes. The use of ethnography in this study was based on its focus on a single case site that allowed the researchers to immerse themselves within the context of an organisation and understand the phenomena in its natural setting and to become familiar with the setting’s natural processes and events.

Each author adopted different perspectives as an “insider” and “outsider” in order to balance perspectives and interpretations of the data that were collected. The differentiation in the roles served by the researchers represents the rigour in the approach adopted and is consistent with similar participant–observer approaches. These roles facilitated the collection of rich data through direct observations, field notes, and discussions with employees. The approach adopted facilitated a diverse sample of participants, or “informants,” from different age groups, genders, backgrounds, and work experiences that were willing to offer up information that can often be uncomfortable for participants when collected by a third party.

Analysis of the data collected from the various sources was conducted using an iterative process of constant comparison (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) and thematic analysis. The coding process was performed separately and parallel by both authors, to allow for comparison and triangulation. This coding process allowed the researchers to come to agreement on the broader concepts of the themes, but in instances of disagreement, the participant observer’s position was adopted due to the direct involvement with the research site.

The adoption of an ethnographic case-study approach allowed the researchers to draw some interesting insights in the area of strategic HRM. The study highlighted that participant perceptions of the concept of fit are not consistent with empirically validated views of fit. In contrast to previous research, the study identifies that an organisation’s attempts to develop best practice are often done so without the consideration of employee motivation and commitment, thus leading to confusion for employees. The study also identified that the notion of “best practices” in HRM strategy may need to be reconsidered, as they may lead to adverse effects for employees.

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