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Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat, West Indies.

Soufrière Hills Volcano , Montserrat, West Indies. Synopsis of events by former Montserrat resident, photographer and Author Lally Brown. 

Where is Montserrat? Montserrat is a small tropical island of approximately 40 sq. miles in the Caribbean, fifteen minutes flying time from Antigua. It is a British Overseas Territory and relies on UK Government aid money to survive. It is of volcanic origin with the Soufrière Hills above the capital of Plymouth the highest point of the island.

How and when did the volcano erupt? Prior to 1995 the volcano in the Soufrière Hills had been dormant for 350 years but on the morning of 18th July 1995 steam and fine ash could be seen coming from the flanks of the Soufrière Hills accompanied by a roaring sound, described as being like a jet engine. In the capital of Plymouth there was a strong smell of ‘bad eggs’ the hydrogen sulphide being emitted by the awakening volcano.

Montserrat was totally unprepared. No-one had ever imagined the dormant volcano would erupt. The Soufrière Hills was the breadbasket of the island where farmers worked the fertile agricultural land, while the busy capital and island port of Plymouth nestled at the foot of the hills.

Scientists arrived from the University of the West Indies to assess the situation. They said the volcano was producing ‘acoustic energy explosions’ at approximately half-hour intervals sending ash and vapour three to four hundred metres into the air.

What happened next? Before July 1995 Montserrat was a thriving tourist destination with a population of 10,000 people but over several weeks there was a mass exodus from the island and a run on the banks with people withdrawing cash.

Several areas near the vent that had opened up in the hillside were declared exclusion zones and residents were evacuated to the safe north of the island into schools and churches.

It was evident the volcano was becoming more active when a series of small earthquakes shook the island. Heavy rain from passing hurricanes brought mudflows down the hillsides into Plymouth. Sulphide dioxide emissions increased, a sure sign of heightened activity.

The scientists hoped to be able to give a six hour warning of any eruptive activity but when they discovered the magma was less than 1 km below the dome they said this could not be guaranteed, saying there was a 50% chance of an imminent eruption. An emergency order was signed by the Governor and new exclusion zones were drawn with people evacuated north.

The years 1995 to 1997 The Soufrière Hills volcano became increasingly active and more dangerous.

Montserrat Volcano Observatory (MVO) was established to monitor activity and advise the Government.

December 1995 saw the first pyroclastic flow from the volcano.

The capital of Plymouth was evacuated for the last time in April 1996.

Acid rain damaged plants.

Two-thirds of Montserrat became the new exclusion zone , including the fertile agricultural land.

Population dropped to 4,000 with residents leaving for UK or other Caribbean islands.

Frequent heavy ashfalls covered the island with blankets of thick ash.

On the seismic drums at the MVO swarms of small hybrid earthquakes frequently registered. Also volcano-tectonic earthquakes (indicating fracture or slippage of rock) and ‘Broadband’ tremors (indicating movement of magma).

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MVO Seismograph printout Dec 1997

‘Spines’ grew rapidly out of the lava dome to heights of up to 15 metres before collapsing back.

Rainfall caused dangerous mudflows down the flanks of the Soufrière Hills.

Temporary accommodation was built to house evacuees living in churches and schools.

25th June 1997 Black Wednesday For a period of twenty minutes at 12.59 pm the volcano erupted without warning with devastating consequences. A massive pyroclastic flow swept across the landscape and boulders up to 4 metres in diameter were thrown out of the volcano. Over 4 sq.km was destroyed including nine villages and two churches. The top 300ft had been blown off the lava dome. Tragically nineteen people were caught in the pyroclastic flow and died.

Post Office and War Memorial 1997

Lateral blast December 1997 Midnight on Christmas Day 1997 the MVO reported that hybrid earthquakes had merged into a near-continuous signal clipping the sides of the seismic drum. At 3am on Boxing Day there was a massive collapse of the dome. Approximately 55 million cubic metres of dome material shot down the flanks of the volcano into the sea. Travelling at speeds of 250-300 km per hour it took less than a minute to slice a 7 km wide arc of devastation across southern Montserrat. The evacuated villages of Patrick’s and O’Garros were blasted out of existence. A delta 2 km wide spilled into the sea causing a small tsunami .

Police checkpoint Montserrat

March 1999 After a year of apparent inactivity at the volcano the Scientists declared the risk to populated areas had fallen to levels of other Caribbean islands with dormant volcanoes. Arrangements were made to encourage overseas residents to return. Plans were put in place to reopen the abandoned airport.

2000 to 2003 One year after the volcano had been declared dormant there was a massive collapse of the dome, blamed on heavy rainfall.

In July 2001 another massive collapse of the dome described as ‘a significant eruption’ caused airports on neighbouring Caribbean islands to close temporarily due to the heavy ashfall they experienced. A Maritime Exclusion Zone was introduced around Montserrat and access to Plymouth and the airport prohibited.

Soufrière Hills volcano was now described as a ‘persistently active volcano’ that could continue for 10, 20 or 30 years. (ie possibly to 2032).

In July 2003 ‘the worst eruption to date’ took place, starting at 8 pm 12th July and continuing without pause until 4 am morning of 13th July. Over 100 metres in height disappeared from the mountain overnight. It was the largest historical dome collapse since activity began in July 1995.

A period of relative quiet followed.

2006 The second largest dome collapse took place with an ash cloud reaching a record 55,000 metres into the air. Mudflows down the flanks of the Soufrière Hills was extensive and tsunamis were reported on the islands of Guadeloupe and Antigua.

Another period of relative quiet followed.

Soufriere Hills volcano 2007

2010 Another partial dome collapse with pyroclastic flows reaching 400 metres into the sea and burying the old abandoned airport. There was extensive ashfall on neighbouring islands.

Again followed by a period of relative quiet.

2018 Although the Soufrière Hills volcano is described as ‘active’ it is currently relatively quiet. It is closely monitored by a team at the Montserrat Volcano Observatory (MVO). They advise the Government and residents on the state of the volcano.

Negative effects of the volcano:

·       Approximately two-thirds of Montserrat now inaccessible (exclusion zone);

·       Capital of Plymouth including hospital, government buildings, businesses, schools etc. buried under ash;

·       Fertile farming land in the south in exclusion zone and buried under ash;

·       Population reduced from 10,000 to 4,000;

·       Businesses left Montserrat;

·       Tourism badly affected;

·       Concern over long term health problems due to ash;

·       Volcano Stress Syndrome diagnosed;

·       Huge financial cost to British Tax Payer (£400 million in aid);

·       Loss of houses, often not insured;

·       Relocation to the north of Montserrat by residents from the south.

Positive effects:

·       Tourists visiting Montserrat to see the volcano, MVO and Plymouth, now described as ‘Caribbean Pompeii’;

·       Geothermal energy being investigated;

·       Sand mining for export;

·       Plans for a new town and port in north;

·       New housing for displaced residents built;

·       New airport built (but can only accommodate small planes);

·       New Government Headquarters built;

·       Businesses opening up in the north of the island;

·       Ferry to Antigua operating.

Lally Brown

You can follow Lally Brown on Twitter.

If you are interested in reading a dramatic eyewitness account of life with this unpredictable and dangerous volcano then the book ‘THE VOLCANO , MONTSERRAT AND ME’ by Lally Brown is highly recommended. You can order a paper back or Kindle version on Amazon .

“As time moves on and memories fade, this unique, compelling book will serve as an important and accurate first-hand record of traumatic events, faithfully and sensitively recounted by Lally Brown.”

Prof. Willy Aspinall Cabot Professor in Natural Hazards and Risk Science, Bristol University.

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The Eruption of Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat from 1995 to 1999

Volcanoes are the most violent surface expression of the Earth’s internal energy. Only impacts of large extra-terrestrial bodies can match the explosive release and devastation of the largest volcanoes. Indeed for some of the most dramatic events the Earth has seen - the large terrestrial extinctions of animal life - the jury is still out as to whether they were brought about by meteoritic impact or by wide-scale effects of volcanic activity. Volcanoes have it too when it comes to sustained visual impact. Earthquakes, tsunamis and avalanches all cause massive devastation, but it is accomplished in the blink of an eye, and floods rise with a progressive and depressing inevitability. Volcanoes are simply the most spectacular of the destructive natural hazards to life on Earth.

To those who are far enough away to view them in safety, volcanoes can offer a truly awe-inspiring pyrotechnic display of the Earth’s innate power- a natural, spectacular son et lumière. For this reason from time immemorial they have exerted a siren-like attraction for geologists, photographers, filmmakers and many others. And, like the sirens of ancient fable, they have lured to their death all too many of those who dared to get too close. Indeed volcanoes inspired such awe in the ancient world that their own mythology sprang up about them. Cyclops, the one-eyed giant who all-unprovoked threw rocks great distances to kill shepherds tending their flocks, we know today as Mount Etna. The giant was also able to cause springs to flow where he struck the ground-it is not uncommon for groundwater flows to be disrupted during volcanic episodes.

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Setting, chronology and consequences of the eruption of Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat (1995–1999)

• Published: January 01, 2002
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B. P. Kokelaar, 2002. "Setting, chronology and consequences of the eruption of Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat (1995–1999)", The Eruption of Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat from 1995 to 1999, T. H. Druitt, B. P. Kokelaar

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The eruption on Montserrat during 1995-1999 was the most destructive in the Caribbean volcanic arc since that of Mont Pelee (Martinique) in 1902. It began on 18 July 1995 at the site of the most recent previous activity, on the flank of a c. 350-year-old lava dome within a sector-collapse scar. Phreatic explosivity occurred for 18 weeks before the onset of extrusion of an andesitic lava dome. Dome collapses produced pyroclastic flows that initially were confined by the sector-collapse scar. After 60 weeks of unsteadily accelerating dome growth and one episode of sub-Plinian explosivity, the dome eventually overtopped the confining scar. During 1997 almost two-thirds of the island was devastated following major dome collapses, two episodes of Vulcanian explosivity with fountain-collapse pyroclastic flows, and a flank failure with associated debris avalanche and explosive disruption of the lava dome. Nineteen people were killed directly by the volcanic activity and several were injured. From March 1998 until November 1999 there was a pause in magma ascent accompanied by reduced seismic activity, substantial degradation of the dome, and considerable degassing with venting of ash.

The slow progress and long duration of the volcanic escalation, coupled with the small size of the island and the vulnerability of homes, key installations and infrastructure, resulted in a style of emergency management that was dominantly reactive. In order to minimize the disruption to life for those remaining on the island, following large-scale evacuations, scientists at the Montserrat Volcano Observatory had to anticipate hazards and their potential extents of impact with considerable precision. Based on frequent hazards assessments, a series of risk management zone maps was issued by administrative authorities to control access as the eruption escalated. These were used in conjunction with an alert-level system. The unpreparedness of the Montserrat authorities and the responsible UK government departments resulted in hardship, ill feeling and at times acrimony as the situation deteriorated and needs for aid mounted. Losses and stress could have been less if an existing hazards assessment had registered with appropriate authorities before the eruption.

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Soufrière Hills 1995-present

Soufrière Hills in Montserrat has been erupting since 1995.

Chronic Medical Aspects

Crystalline silica in volcanic ash, when inhaled, adversely affects health..

The extended eruption of a lava dome at Soufrière Hills Volcano that began in 1995 generated large amounts of fine ash by (1) explosive events from the dome; and (2) frequent collapse of unstable parts of the growing dome that generated pyroclastic flows and associated plumes of ash. A detailed study of ash from both types of events determined that the sub-10 micron fraction of ash from the pyroclastic flows consisted of 10-24 percent crystalline silica , the highest yet documented for a historical eruption (Baxter and others, 1999). In contrast, the sub-10 micron fraction of ash from the explosive events consisted of 3-6 percent crystalline silica. The free silica minerals are produced within the lava dome over a period of many days or weeks.

Monitoring of the concentration of airborne respirable dust and ash around the volcano beginning in August 1997 showed that concentrations of ash have regularly exceeded 50 micrograms/m3 per 24-hour rolling average in areas subject to frequent ashfall. The exposures to cristobalite sometimes reached the 0.05 mg/m3 averaged over an 8-hour workday. Also, the monitoring consistently showed increased concentrations of airborne dust whenever there was human activity.

This study raises concern that exposure to long-lived eruptions of lava domes that produce persistent ashfall over many years may result in adverse health effects in affected communities.

Water Supply

The eruptions of Soufrière Hills during 1997 produced chemical contamination of rainwater and surface water. Water sampling in January 1997 indicated highly acidic water with high concentrations of sulphates, chloride and fluorides. Similar results were recorded until June 1997 although all fell within World Health Organization recommended levels for all measured components (see Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program ).

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VOLCANO case study: Mt Soufriere, Montserrat 1997

Causes of eruption .

The island has been created because the Caribbean Plate and Atlantic Plate are moving towards each other and the dense oceanic plate is being subducted under the lighter continental plate.

At destructive boundaries oceanic crust is destroyed as it is forced below the less dense continental crust. The partially melted rock forces its way to an area of lower pressure ready to erupt.

Before 1995 Mount Soufriere had been dormant for over 300 years. 

In 1995 the volcano began to give off warning signs of an eruption (small earthquakes and eruptions of dust and ash)

In 1997, Large eruptions continued with the dome collapsing and large pyroclastic flows affecting much of the island

Primary and Secondary effects of the Eruption

Responses to the Eruption

Short-term responses.

• Evacuation of the southern part of the island
• Abandonment of the capital city.
• The British government gave £41 million in aid although riots occurred as locals complained that the British were not doing enough to help the island  money for compensation and redevelopment.
• Unemployment rose due to the collapse of the tourist industry.

Long-term responses

• Money was given to individuals to help them move to other countries. 
• An exclusion zone was set up in the volcanic region.
• New roads and a new airport were built.
• Services in the north of the island were expanded.
• The presence of the volcano resulted in a growth in tourism.
• The MVO (Montserrat Volcano Observatory) was set up to study the volcano and provide warnings for the future 
• A Risk assessment was done to help islanders understand which areas are at risk and reduce problems for the future.

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• > Global Volcanic Hazards and Risk
• > Risk assessment case history: the Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat

Book contents

• Frontmatter
• List of Contributors
• Acknowledgements
• 1 An introduction to global volcanic hazard and risk
• 2 Global volcanic hazard and risk
• 3 Volcanic ash fall hazard and risk
• 4 Populations around Holocene volcanoes and development of a Population Exposure Index
• 5 An integrated approach to Determining Volcanic Risk in Auckland, New Zealand: the multi-disciplinary DEVORA project
• 6 Tephra fall hazard for the Neapolitan area
• 7 Eruptions and lahars of Mount Pinatubo, 1991-2000
• 8 Improving crisis decision-making at times of uncertain volcanic unrest (Guadeloupe, 1976)
• 9 Forecasting the November 2010 eruption of Merapi, Indonesia
• 10 The importance of communication in hazard zone areas: case study during and after 2010 Merapi eruption, Indonesia
• 11 Nyiragongo (Democratic Republic of Congo), January 2002: a major eruption in the midst of a complex humanitarian emergency
• 12 Volcanic ash fall impacts
• 13 Health impacts of volcanic eruptions
• 14 Volcanoes and the aviation industry
• 15 The role of volcano observatories in risk reduction
• 16 Developing effective communication tools for volcanic hazards in New Zealand, using social science
• 17 Volcano monitoring from space
• 18 Volcanic unrest and short-term forecasting capacity
• 19 Global monitoring capacity: development of the Global Volcano Research and Monitoring Institutions Database and analysis of monitoring in Latin America
• 20 Volcanic hazard maps
• 21 Risk assessment case history: the Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat
• 22 Development of a new global Volcanic Hazard Index (VHI)
• 23 Global distribution of volcanic threat
• 24 Scientific communication of uncertainty during volcanic emergencies
• 25 Volcano Disaster Assistance Program: Preventing volcanic crises from becoming disasters and advancing science diplomacy
• 26 Communities coping with uncertainty and reducing their risk: the collaborative monitoring and management of volcanic activity with the vigías of Tungurahua
• Online Appendix A
• Online Appendix B - part 1 (low res)
• Online Appendix B - part 2 (low res)

21 - Risk assessment case history: the Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 August 2015

Introduction

Volcanic hazard and risk at Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat (SHV) has been assessed in a consistent and quantitative way for over 17 years (1997-2014), during highly variable eruptive activity involving andesitic lava dome growth (Wadge & Aspinall, 2014). This activity has placed serious stresses and constraints on the Montserrat population: about 12,000 people lived on this small Caribbean island prior to the start of the eruption in July 1995 and now (2014) this has stabilised at just over 4,000 souls. Over the years following 1995, a series of five very active dome growth episodes produced many pyroclastic flows, explosions and lahars, whose net effect was to destroy the main town, Plymouth, and most infrastructure, forcing people to leave Montserrat or live only in the northern part of the island. In June 1997, nineteen people were killed when a dome collapse pyroclastic flow caught a number of persons inside the exclusion zone.

The risks faced by the people of Montserrat from volcanic activity are the responsibility of the UK government, and hazard and risk assessment work on Montserrat has been carried out by a Scientific Advisory Committee on Montserrat Volcanic Activity (SAC) (and the predecessor Risk Assessment Panel) appointed by them, working in collaboration with the Montserrat Volcano Observatory (MVO). While the administrative basis of the SAC has changed, the quantitative risk assessment methodology for enumerating risk levels (Aspinall et al., 2002, Aspinall & Sparks, 2002), has been kept the same since 1997 to ensure comparability of findings from one assessment to the next. In a protracted eruption crisis, continuity in scientific inputs to decision-making is essential: any major change in concepts, modelling or assumptions could entail large differences in evaluated risk levels and hence engender doubts for officials and confusion in the minds of the public. This series of multiple, repeated quantitative volcanic hazard and risk assessments must be unique in volcanology.

In the case of Montserrat, by ‘volcanic risk’ we mean the probability that a person will be harmed by some volcanic hazard within some specified timeframe; assessing other risks and losses, such as damage to buildings or infrastructure, have had only a limited consideration in terms of framing scientific advice.

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• Risk assessment case history: the Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat
• By W. Aspinall , University of Bristol, UK, G. Wadge , University of Reading, UK
• Edited by Susan C. Loughlin , Steve Sparks , University of Bristol , Sarah K. Brown , University of Bristol , Susanna F. Jenkins , University of Bristol , Charlotte Vye-Brown
• Book: Global Volcanic Hazards and Risk
• Online publication: 05 August 2015
• Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316276273.023

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Montserrat Volcano: Case Study

Curriculum support • 30 mins • free.

The unexpected volcanic eruption on the beautiful Island of Montserrat has changed this Island forever!  In this class, students will learn you how to use a case study to show an understanding of the processes, effects, and responses to a specific eruption event.  This is a great class for students in Years 7 - 9 to learn the practical skills of how to apply a case study to a topic as well as providing a great example students can use in future assessments.

Try these classes next:  Hazards: Volcano Types ,  Hazards: Tropical Storm Formation ,  Hazards: Plate Boundaries ,  Hazards: Urbanisation

Safeguarding reminder: The safety of your child is of the utmost importance. All of our classes are pre-recorded to remove any concerns around live participation. For reruns of our past live classes, students' webcams and microphones were disabled and only the chat history, if participation was requested, is visible.

This class is suitable for students in Years 7 - 9 or those interested in volcanoes. 

• This class will take place online via a Zoom webinar.
• For live classes, please arrive promptly. Students' cameras and microphones are disabled by default.
• For on demand classes, students will be watching a recording of a previous live class.
• Once you have signed up, you will be taken to your dashboard where you can view details of the class, and re-watch it in the future.
• Students will be sent confirmation of the class to their email address if provided.

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To evaluate the causes and effects of the Montserrat eruption and suggest sustainable ways to rebuild the island

Starter : Read the intro of the wikipedia page on Montserrat and take five notes of the features you find most relevant about this island. 

Task 1 - Study the Google maps below and make three notes of the physical characteristics of the island of Montserrat. 

Task 2 - Study the BBC bitesize case study in the textbox below and, on your exercise book, answer the questions that follow it.  (Click to open) 

Case study: Chances Peak, Montserrat, 1995-97 - an LEDC

Plymouth covered in ash from volcanic eruptions on Montserrat

Montserrat is a small island in the Caribbean. There is a volcanic area located in the south of the island on Soufriere Hills called Chances Peak . Before 1995 it had been dormant for over 300 years. In 1995 the volcano began to give off warning signs of an eruption (small earthquakes and eruptions of dust and ash). Once Chances Peak had woken up it then remained active for five years. The most intense eruptions occurred in 1997.

During this time, Montserrat was devastated by pyroclastic flows . The small population of the island (11,000 people) was evacuated in 1995 to the north of Montserrat as well as to neighbouring islands and the UK.

Despite the evacuations, 19 people were killed by the eruptions as a small group of people chose to stay behind to watch over their crops.

Volcanic eruptions and lahars have destroyed large areas of Montserrat. The capital, Plymouth, has been covered in layers of ash and mud. Many homes and buildings have been destroyed, including the only hospital, the airport and many roads.

The graphic shows the progress of the eruption and its impact on the island.

Montserrat - eruption progress and impact

Short-term responses and results

• Evacuation.
• Abandonment of the capital city.
• The British government gave money for compensation and redevelopment.
• Unemployment rose due to the collapse of the tourist industry.

Long-term responses and results

• An exclusion zone was set up in the volcanic region.
• A volcanic observatory was built to monitor the volcano.
• New roads and a new airport were built.
• Services in the north of the island were expanded.
• The presence of the volcano resulted in a growth in tourism.

Volcanic activity has calmed down in recent years and people have begun to return to the island.

You might be asked to consider the values and attitudes or opinions of people involved in the eruption, such as refugees or aid workers for example.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/natural_hazards/volcanoes_rev6.shtml 

https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/zgh79qt/revision/6

Click here to view http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/A-level/AQA/Year%2013/Plate%20Tectonics/Extra_case_studies/Montserrat.htm As a precaution, Firefly only embeds content that has a certificate to prove it's sent over the web securely.

http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/A-level/AQA/Year%2013/Plate%20Tectonics/Extra_case_studies/Montserrat.htm

Questions :       a. Define i. pyroclastic flows, ii. evacuated, iii. lahar                                                 b. Describe the short-term and long-term responses and results.

Task 3 - Watch the video below and complement your notes with additional information. 

Task 4 - You have been asked to rebuild Montserrat following the volcanic eruption. You have been given £84,000 (£21,000 per year) to spend over 4 years but must make sure you spend it wisely and consider where to put your new facilities on your map. Your teacher will give you a copy of the document below: 

• montserrat restructuring priorities SEN.docx

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Montserrat Volcano 1995-1997 Case Study

Subject: Geography

Age range: 14-16

Resource type: Lesson (complete)

Last updated

26 November 2018

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GCSE Geography Hazards case studies bundle

6 resources that could all be used as case studies for various GCSE geography courses. Includes lessons on: \- Australia's 'Big Dry' Drought \- The 2009 Cockermouth Floods \- Kenya's 2009 Drought \- Montserrat 1995-97 Volcanic Eruption \- Pakistan Earthquake 2005 \- The potential threat of an Atlantic mega-tsunami

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Montserrat Case Study

The Montserrat Volcanic eruption happened in July 1997. There had been previous eruptions in 1996 and 1995, but these were only minor eruptions of short pyroclastic flows and ash clouds. 

• Created by: Zoe Susyn
• Created on: 06-04-14 17:40

• Natural hazards

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Montserrat Volcano Case Study - 9.4

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