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How to Write a Response Paper: Outline, Steps & Examples

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Response essays are a frequent assignment in many academic courses. Professors often ask students to share their thoughts and feelings about a variety of materials, such as books, articles, films, songs, or poems. To write an effective response paper, you should follow a specific structure to ensure that your ideas are well-organized and presented in a logical manner.

In this blog post, we will explore how to write a good outline and how it is used to develop a quality reaction essay. You will also come across a response paper example to help you better understand steps involved in writing a response essay.  Continue reading to explore writing tips from professional paper writers that you can use to improve your skills.

What Is a Response Paper?

It is vital to understand the meaning of a response essay before you start writing. Often, learners confuse this type of academic work with reviews of books, articles, events, or movies, which is not correct, although they seem similar.  A response paper gives you a platform to express your point of view, feelings, and understanding of a given subject or idea through writing. Unlike other review works, you are also required to give your idea, vision, and values contained in literal materials. In other words, while a response paper is written in a subjective way, a review paper is written in a more objective manner.  A good reaction paper links the idea in discussion with your personal opinion or experience. Response essays are written to express your deep reflections on materials, what you have understood, and how the author's work has impacted you.

Purpose of a Response Essay

Understanding reasons for writing a reaction paper will help you prepare better work. The purpose of a response essay will be:

• To summarize author's primary ideas and opinions: you need to give a summary of materials and messages the author wants you to understand.
• Providing a reflection on the subject: as a writer, you also need to express how you relate to authors' ideas and positions.
• To express how the subject affects your personal life: when writing a response paper, you are also required to provide your personal outcome and lesson learned from interacting with the material.

Response Essay Outline

You should adhere to a specific response paper outline when working on an essay. Following a recommended format ensures that you have a smooth flow of ideas. A good response paper template will make it easier for a reader to separate your point of view from author's opinion. The essay is often divided into these sections: introduction, body, and conclusion paragraphs.  Below is an example of a response essay outline template:

• Briefly introduce the topic of the response paper
• State your thesis statement or main argument
• Provide a brief summary of the source material you are responding to
• Include key details or arguments from the source
• Analyze the source material and identify strengths and weaknesses
• Evaluate the author's arguments and evidence
• Provide your own perspective on the source material
• Respond to the source material and critique its arguments
• Offer your own ideas and counterarguments
• Support your response with evidence and examples
• Summarize your main points and restate your thesis
• Provide final thoughts on the source material and its implications
• Offer suggestions for further research or inquiry

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Response Paper Introduction

The success of response papers is partly dependent on how well you write the introductory paragraph. As with any academic paper, the introduction paragraph welcomes targeted readers and states the primary idea.  Below is a guideline on how to start a response essay:

• Provide a compelling hook to capture the attention of your target audience.
• Provide background information about the material, including the name and author of the work.
• Provide a brief summary of main points to bring readers who are unfamiliar with the work up to task and enable them to follow up on your subsequent analysis.
• Write a thesis statement at the end of your introductory paragraph to inform readers about the purpose and argument you are trying to relay.

Response Essay Thesis Statement

A thesis statement summarizes a paper's content within a sentence or two. A response essay thesis statement is not any different! The final sentence of the introductory paragraph of a reaction paper should give readers an idea of the message that will be discussed in your paper.  Do you know how to write a thesis statement for a response essay? If you follow the steps below, you should be able to write one:

• Review the material you are responding to, and pinpoint main points expressed by authors.
• Determine points of view or opinions you are going to discuss in the essay.
• Develop your thesis statement. It should express a summary of what will be covered in your reaction. The sentence should also consider logical flow of ideas in your writing.
• Thesis statement should be easy to spot. You should preferably place it at the end of your introductory paragraph.

Response Paper Body Paragraph

In most instances, the body section has between 1 and 3 paragraphs or more. You should first provide a summary of the article, book, or any other literature work you are responding to.  To write a response essay body paragraph that will capture the attention of readers, you must begin by providing key ideas presented in the story from the authors' point of view. In the subsequent paragraph, you should tell your audience whether you agree or disagree with these ideas as presented in the text. In the final section, you should provide an in-depth explanation of your stand and discuss various impacts of the material.

Response Paper Conclusion

In this section of a response paper, you should provide a summary of your ideas. You may provide key takeaways from your thoughts and pinpoint meaningful parts of the response. Like any other academic work, you wind up your response essay writing by giving a summary of what was discussed throughout the paper.  You should avoid introducing new evidence, ideas, or repeat contents that are included in body paragraphs in the conclusion section. After stating your final points, lessons learned, and how the work inspires you, you can wrap it up with your thesis statement.

How to Write a Response Paper?

In this section, we will provide you with tips on how to write a good response paper. To prepare a powerful reaction essay, you need to consider a two-step approach. First, you must read and analyze original sources properly. Subsequently, you also need to organize and plan the essay writing part effectively to be able to produce good reaction work. Various steps are outlined and discussed below to help you better understand how to write a response essay.

1. Pick a Topic for Your Response Essay

Picking a topic for response essay topics can be affected either by the scope of your assignment as provided by your college professor or by your preference. Irrespective of your reason, the guideline below should help you brainstorm topic ideas for your reaction:

• Start from your paper's end goal: consider what outcomes you wish to attain from writing your reaction.
• Prepare a list of all potential ideas that can help you attain your preferred result.
• Sort out topics that interest you from your list.
• Critique your final list and settle on a topic that will be comfortable to work on.

Below are some examples of good topics for response essay to get you started:

• Analyzing ideas in an article about effects of body shaming on mental health .
• Reaction paper on new theories in today's business environment.
• Movies I can watch again and again.
• A response essay on a documentary.
• Did the 9/11 terror attacks contribute to issues of religious intolerance?

2. Plan Your Thoughts and Reactions

To better plan your thoughts and reactions, you need to read the original material thoroughly to understand messages contained therein. You must understand author's line of thinking, beliefs, and values to be able to react to their content. Next, note down ideas and aspects that are important and draw any strong reactions.  Think through these ideas and record potential sequences they will take in your response paper. You should also support your opinions and reactions with quotes and texts from credible sources. This will help you write a response essay for the college level that will stand out.

3. Write a Detailed Response Paper Outline

Preparing a detailed response paper outline will exponentially improve the outcome of your writing. An essay outline will act as a benchmark that will guide you when working on each section of the paper. Sorting your ideas into sections will not only help you attain a better flow of communication in your responsive essay but also simplify your writing process.  You are encouraged to adopt the standard response essay outline provided in the sample above. By splitting your paper into introduction, body, and conclusion paragraphs, you will be able to effectively introduce your readers to ideas that will be discussed and separate your thoughts from authors' messages.

4. Write a Material Summary

For your audience to understand your reaction to certain materials, you should at first provide a brief summary of authors' points of view. This short overview should include author's name and work title.  When writing a response essay, you should dedicate a section to give an informative summary that clearly details primary points and vital supporting arguments. You must thoroughly understand the literature to be able to complete this section.  For important ideas, you can add direct quotes from the original sources in question. Writers may sometimes make a mistake of summarizing general ideas by providing detailed information about every single aspect of the material. Instead of addressing all ideas in detail, focus on key aspects.  Although you rely on your personal opinion and experience to write a response paper, you must remain objective and factual in this section. Your subjective opinion will take center stage in the personal reaction part of the essay.

Example of a Response Summary

Below is a sample summary response essays example to help you better understand how to write one. A Summary of The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938)

The classic film The Adventure of Robin Hood (1938), as directed by Michael Curtis and William Keighley, stars an infamous outlaw, Robin Hood, who "robbed from the rich and gave to the poor''. The charismatic and charming Saxon lord, Robin Hood (Flynn), becomes an outlaw and seeks justice for poor people by fighting Sir Guy of Gisborne (Rathbone), Sheriff of Nottingham (Copper), and Prince John (Rains), who were oppressing people. After assembling an outlaw group, Robin defies the excessive taxes imposed on poor people by stealing from wealthy individuals and redistributing wealth to the destitute in society. Robin Hood is eventually lured into an archery tournament and gets arrested, but survives an execution. He later helps King Richard to regain his lost throne and banish Prince John.

5. Share Your Reaction

After summarizing the original material, the second part of a response paper involves writing your opinion about author’s point of view. After a thorough review of the material, you should be able to express your perspective on the subject.  In this section, you are expected to detail how the material made you feel and how it relates to your personal life, experience, and values. Within the short response essay, you may also be required to state whether you agree or disagree with author's line of thinking. How does the material relate to current issues, or in what way does it impact your understanding of a given subject? Does it change your opinion on the subject in any way? Your reaction should answer these questions.  In addition, you may also be required to outline potential advantages and shortcomings of the material in your reaction. Finally, you should also indicate whether or not you would endorse the literal work to others.

Reaction in Response Body Paragraph Example

Below is a reaction in a response essay body paragraph sample to help you improve your skills in writing the response body paragraph: Reaction Paragraph Example

My main takeaway from watching The Adventure of Robin Hood (1938) is that society should prioritize good and justice over laws if the set rules oppress people. Prince John, Sir Guy, and Sheriff Cooper were cruel and petty and used existing laws to oppress and exploit poor people. In response, Robin Hood employed unorthodox means and tried to help oppressed people in society. I agree with his way of thinking. Laws are made to protect people in society and ensure justice is served. Therefore, when legislation fails to serve its purpose, it becomes redundant. Even in current society, we have seen democratic governments funding coups when presidents start oppressing their people. Such coups are supported despite the fact that presidency is protected by law. Although Robin Hood's actions might encourage unlawfulness if taken out of context, I would still recommend this film because its main message is advocating for justice in the community.

6. Conclude Your Response Essay

Do you know how to write a response paper conclusion? It should be the icing on the cake. Irrespective of how good previous sections were, your reaction essay will not be considered to be exceptional if you fail to provide a sum up of your reaction, ideas, and arguments in the right manner.  When writing a response essay conclusion , you should strive to summarize the outcome of your thoughts. After stating your final point, tell readers what you have learned and how that material inspired or impacted you. You can also explain how your perspective and the author's point of view intertwine with each other.  Never introduce new ideas in the conclusion paragraph. Presenting new points will not only disrupt the flow of ideas in the paper but also confuse your readers because you may be unable to explain them comprehensively.  You are also expected to link up your discussions with the thesis statement. In other words, concluding comments and observations need to incorporate the reaffirmation of the thesis statement.

Example of Response Paper Conclusion

You can use the responsive essay conclusion sample below as a benchmark to guide you in writing your concluding remarks: Conclusion Example

There are a lot of similarities between the film's message and my opinion, values, and beliefs. Based on my personal principles, I believe the actions of the main character, Robin Hood, are justifiable and acceptable. Several people in modern society would also agree with my perspective. The movie has provided me with multiple lessons and inspirations. The main lesson acquired is that laws are not ultimate and that we should analyze how they affect people rather than adhere to them blindly. Unless legislation protects people and serves justices, it should be considered irrelevant. Also, morality outweighs legislation. From the movie, I gathered that morality should be the foundation for all laws, and at any time, morality and greater good should be prioritized above laws. The main inspiration relates to being brave in going against some legislation since the end justifies the means sometimes. My point of view and that of the movie creators intertwine. We both advocate for human decency and justice. The argument discussed supports the idea that good and justice is greater than law.

Proofread Your Response Paper

It is important to proofread your response paper before submitting it for examination. Has your essay met all instructional requirements? Have you corrected every grammatical error in your paper? These are common questions you should be asking yourself.  Proofreading your work will ensure that you have eliminated mistakes made when working on your academic work. Besides, you also get the opportunity to improve your logical flow of ideas in your paper by proofreading.  If you review your work thoroughly before submitting it for marking, you are more likely to score more marks! Use our Paper Rater , it is a tool that can help you pinpoint errors, which makes going through your work even simpler.

Response Essay Examples

If you have never written this type of academic paper before, responsive essay examples should help you grasp the primary concepts better. These response paper samples not only help you to familiarize yourself with paper's features but also help you to get an idea of how you should tackle such an assignment. Review at least one written response essay example from the compilation below to give you the confidence to tackle a reaction paper. Response essay example: Book

Response paper example: Poem

Response paper sample: Movie

Example of a response paper: Article

Sample response essay: Issue

Response Paper Format

It is important to follow a recommended response essay format in order to adhere to academic writing standards needed for your assignment. Formats depend on your institution or the discipline.  A reaction paper can be written in many different academic writing styles, including APA, MLA, and Chicago, with each demanding a slightly different format.  The outlook of the paper and referencing varies from one writing style to another. Despite the format for a response paper, you must include introduction, body, and conclusion paragraphs.

Response Essay Writing Tips

Below are some of the best tips you can use to improve your response papers writing skills:

• Review your assignment instructions and clarify any inquiries before you start a response paper.
• Once you have selected topics for response essay, reviewed your original materials, and came up with your thesis statement, use topic sentences to facilitate logical flow in your paper.
• Always ensure that you format your work as per the standard structure to ensure that you adhere to set academic requirements. Depending on the academic writing style you will be using, ensure that you have done your in-text citation as per the paper format.
• If you have never worked on this kind of academic paper, you should review examples and samples to help you familiarize yourself with this type of work. You should, however, never plagiarize your work.
• You can use a first-person perspective to better stress your opinion or feelings about a subject. This tip is particularly crucial for reaction part of your work.
• Finally, before submitting your work, proofread your work.

Bottom Line on Response Paper Writing

As discussed in this blog post, preparing a response paper follows a two-step approach. To successfully work on these sections, you need to plan properly to ensure a smooth transition from the reading and analyzing the original material to writing your reaction. In addition, you can review previous works to improve your writing skills.  So, what is a response essay that will immediately capture the attention of your instructor? Well, it should have a captivating introduction, evidence backed reaction, and a powerful conclusion. If you follow various tips outlined above and sum up your work with thorough proofreading, there is no chance that you can fail this type of assignment.

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FAQ About Response Paper

1. how long is a short response essay.

The length of a short response essay varies depending on topic and your familiarity with the subject. Depending on how long original sources are and how many responsive points you have, your reaction paper can range from a single paragraph of 150-400 words to multiple paragraphs of 250-500 words.

2. How to start a response body paragraph?

Use an argumentative topic sentence to start your responsive paper paragraph. Failing to begin a paragraph with an elaborate topic sentence will confuse your readers. Topic sentences give readers an idea of what is being discussed in the section. Write a responsive body paragraph for every new idea you add.

3. Is reaction paper similar to a response paper?

Yes. Reaction papers and response essays are used interchangeably. Responsive essays analyze author's point of view and compare them with your personal perspective. This type of academic writing gives you freedom to share your feelings and opinion about an idea. People also discuss how ideas, concepts, and literature material influence them in a response paper.

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How to Write a Response Paper

• Writing Essays
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• M.Ed., Education Administration, University of Georgia
• B.A., History, Armstrong State University

Most of the time when you are tasked with an essay about a book or article you've read for a class, you will be expected to write in a professional and impersonal voice. But the regular rules change a bit when you write a response paper.

A response (or reaction) paper differs from the formal review primarily in that it is written in the first person . Unlike in more formal writing, the use of phrases like "I thought" and "I believe" is encouraged in a response paper. 

You'll still have a thesis and will need to back up your opinion with evidence from the work, but this type of paper spotlights your individual reaction as a reader or viewer.

Read and Respond

Grace Fleming

For a response paper, you still need to write a formal assessment of the work you're observing (this could be anything created, such as a film, a work of art, a piece of music, a speech, a marketing campaign, or a written work), but you will also add your own personal reaction and impressions to the report.

The steps for completing a reaction or response paper are:

• Observe or read the piece for an initial understanding.
• Mark interesting pages with a sticky flag or take notes on the piece to capture your first impressions.
• Reread the marked pieces and your notes and stop to reflect often.
• Record your thoughts.
• Develop a thesis.
• Write an outline.
• Construct your essay.

It may be helpful to imagine yourself watching a movie review as you're preparing your outline. You will use the same framework for your response paper: a summary of the work with several of your own thoughts and assessments mixed in.

The First Paragraph

After you have established an outline for your paper, you need to craft the first draft of the essay using all the basic elements found in any strong paper, including a strong introductory sentence .

In the case of a reaction essay, the first sentence should contain both the title of the work to which you are responding and the name of the author.

The last sentence of your introductory paragraph should contain a thesis statement . That statement will make your overall opinion very clear.

Stating Your Opinion

There's no need to feel shy about expressing your own opinion in a position paper, even though it may seem strange to write "I feel" or "I believe" in an essay. 

In the sample here, the writer analyzes and compares the plays but also manages to express personal reactions. There's a balance struck between discussing and critiquing the work (and its successful or unsuccessful execution) and expressing a reaction to it.

Sample Statements

When writing a response essay, you can include statements like the following:

• I felt that
• In my opinion
• The reader can conclude that
• The author seems to
• I did not like
• This aspect didn't work for me because
• The images seemed to
• The author was [was not] successful in making me feel
• I was especially moved by
• I didn't understand the connection between
• It was clear that the artist was trying to
• The soundtrack seemed too
• My favorite part was...because

Tip : A common mistake in personal essays it to resort to insulting comments with no clear explanation or analysis. It's OK to critique the work you are responding to, but you still need to back up your feelings, thoughts, opinions, and reactions with concrete evidence and examples from the work. What prompted the reaction in you, how, and why? What didn't reach you and why?

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How to Write a Response Paper

Last Updated: January 31, 2023 Fact Checked

wikiHow is a “wiki,” similar to Wikipedia, which means that many of our articles are co-written by multiple authors. To create this article, volunteer authors worked to edit and improve it over time. There are 10 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 81,926 times. Learn more...

For a response paper, you must read a text, understand the point of the text, and determine what your own response to that point is. The response paper is more analytical than argumentative. Moreover, even though you need to write about your personal response, that response must be credible and not emotional. Keep reading to learn more about how to go about writing a response paper.

Understanding the Text

• Highlighting draws your attention to words and passages you found significant in the text you read, but it does not allow you to record your initial thoughts regarding those passages.
• Take notes on a separate piece of paper. Include paraphrases and quotes taken from the passage as well as your own thoughts about the information you write down.

• What is the main issue that the author or creator is attempting to address?
• What stance does the author take on this issue? What is the author's main claim or point?
• Are there any assumptions the author makes in forming his or her claim? Are these assumptions valid or biased?
• What sort of evidence does the author offer in support of his or her point?
• What points of the argument are strong?
• What points of the argument are weak?
• What are some possible counterarguments to the claims or arguments made by the author?
• What, if anything, makes the main issue or author's main claim important?

• How does this work relate to others within a collection of works on the same topic, or with regards to another work on a similar topic written by a different author?
• Do the authors of comparable works agree or disagree?
• Do the authors of comparable works address the same part of the same issue or different aspects of it? Do they view the matter being discussed in a similar or different way?
• Does the author who wrote the piece you're responding to have past works that address the same topic? How has that author's views become stronger or weaker in comparison to past works?
• Does the information from one text strengthen or weaken the text you're responding to, and if so, how?

• Even if you think your ideas would benefit from simmering for a little while before performing a thorough analysis, you should still take the time to write down your initial reaction while it is fresh. In many ways, your initial reaction is the most honest. You can talk yourself into another reaction as time passes, and that other reaction may seem more “intellectual,” but your initial response was your true reaction to the text and should be kept in mind.

• How does the text relate to you personally, whether in the past, present, or future? How does the text relate to the human experience as a whole?
• Does the text agree or disagree with your worldview and sense of ethics?
• Did the text help you to learn about the topic or understand an opposing view? Were your opinions or previous assumptions challenged or confirmed?
• Does the text directly address topics that you care about or consider important?
• Was the text enjoyable or admirable for its genre? In other words, if the text was fictional, was it enjoyable as entertainment or art? If it was historical, was it admirable from the perspective of a historian? If it was philosophical, was it adequately logical?
• What is your overall reaction? Would you recommend the work to another person?
• As you progress through these questions, write your answers down. In addition to writing down your answers and reactions, also provide evidence from the text to support these answers. Evidence can be in the form of direct quotations and paraphrasing.

• Re-examining your notes
• Recording new ideas as they come
• Using pro/con analysis
• Raising questions about your reactions and using your notes from the text to answer them
• Comparing your reactions directly to your notes and determining which topics have the most overlap

• Depending on the requirements of the assignment, you may need to come up with one organizing argument or multiple arguments to discuss. Even when you have multiple points to bring up, however, they should still be somewhat connected to each other.
• A key difference between a traditional thesis and an organizing argument is that a thesis usually exists to prove a point, fact, or thought. An organizing argument demands that the writer analyze the reading in an ongoing manner. [6] X Research source

Block Response Format

• For a four to five page paper, your introduction can extend to one or two paragraphs. For a shorter paper, though, restrict it to a short paragraph made up of three to five sentences.
• Introduce the work by describing how the work to which you are responding fits in within the broader topic it addresses.
• You could also introduce the work by explaining your own beliefs or assumptions about the topic the work agrees with before explaining how the work challenges or supports your beliefs.

• For a four to five page paper, this section should only take up about two to three paragraphs.
• Describe the content of the work and present the author's main arguments, especially as they affect your response.
• The summary should be somewhat analytical in nature instead of a strict retelling. As you present the details of the author's work and argument, you should use an analytical tone and discuss how well the author managed to get those points across.

• Note that this response format is best to use when you are focusing on a single major theme or argument in a work. It does not work as well if you are discussing multiple ideas presented by a work.
• Back up your analysis with quotes and paraphrases. Make sure that each example is properly cited.
• If you took the time to find textual evidence to support your responses during the prewriting stage, this portion of your paper should be fairly easy. All you really need to do is arrange your argument in a coherent manner and write in the details of the support you have already gathered.

• Even for a four to five page paper, you only need one standard paragraph to accomplish this. For a shorter paper, make this paragraph only three to five sentences long.
• State how this work has a broader effect on you and to the genre or community in which it is a part.

Mixed Response Format

• Your introduction can span one to two paragraphs for a four to five page paper, but for a short one to two page paper, keep the introduction down to a single short paragraph.
• You can either introduce the work by describing how it fits into the topic it addresses as a whole or by explaining how it impacts your own beliefs on the topic.
• By the end of the introduction, you should have mentioned your "thesis" or organizing argument.

• Note that this mixed response format is a better option when you have many loosely connected themes or ideas you want to react to instead of a single overarching one.
• This method allows you to weave your summary and analysis together more naturally and more cohesively. As you bring up a point or example from the text, address your own interpretation of that point directly following your mention of it.

• Continue on as you did with your first point. As you summarize a point or argument from the original text, immediately follow it with your own intellectual response to the argument.

• For a four to five page paper, your conclusion should be a standard size paragraph. For a shorter paper, keep this paragraph down to about three sentences.
• When appropriate, explain how the work has a widespread effect on the genre or community it fits into.
• ↑ https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/how-to-write-a-response-paper
• ↑ https://www.hunter.cuny.edu/rwc/handouts/the-writing-process-1/invention/Writing-a-Response-or-Reaction-Paper
• ↑ https://twp.duke.edu/sites/twp.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/response-paper.original.pdf
• ↑ https://www.awelu.lu.se/genres/student-writing-genres/response-paper/
• ↑ http://faculty.washington.edu/momara/Reader%20Response.pdf
• ↑ https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/writing/how-to-write-a-strong-response-essay.html
• ↑ https://writing.colostate.edu/comparchive/rst/resource9.cfm
• ↑ https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/how-to-write-a-reaction-paper
• ↑ http://writing.colostate.edu/comparchive/rst/resource9.cfm
• ↑ http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/rwc/handouts/the-writing-process-1/invention/Writing-a-Response-or-Reaction-Paper

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About This Article

If you need to write a response paper, read through the original texts, and take thorough notes, including paraphrases and quotes as well as your own thoughts. As soon as you finish reading the text, start drafting your ideas, since the thoughts will still be fresh in your mind. Open the paper with an introduction stating the major theme in the work you’re responding to, along with an overview of your reaction to it. Include a section briefly summarizing the original text, then go into detail about whether you agree or disagree with the work. Conclude by restating and defending the significance of your stance. For tips on writing a response to a work with multiple themes, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Reviews and Reaction Papers

Reaction papers.

Some assignments may require you to formulate a reaction to your readings, to your instructor’s lectures and comments, or even to your classmates. You may even be asked to write a reaction assignment in a journal. This type of writing is called reaction writing. Reaction writing may be informal or formal and is primarily analytical; reactions may be included in critiques, reviews, illustrations of ideas, or judgments of a concept or theory.

How do you get started with reaction writing? Here are some important things to consider:

Reactions require close reading of the text you are reacting to. Having a strong understanding of what you have read is the first step in reaction writing. 

Like reviews, reactions go beyond the literal content of the text, requiring that you bring to the text meaning not explicitly stated, to elaborate on or explore the implications of the author’s ideas. 

Your reactions may include your subjective interpretations; you may even use the first-person narrator “I.” Your reaction paper need not follow the organization and ordering of the text you are writing about; in fact, reactions can begin with the last point the author made and then move to other points made earlier. 

Reactions can be about one or many of the author’s ideas. Although the reactions are focused on your own thinking, you can also include summaries, paraphrases, or quotations from the examined text.

The organization of a reaction varies according to the audience, purpose, and limitations of your assignment. 

You may use a general-to-specific or specific-to-general organization. 

You may use a structured format, such as those for argument, or you may use an informal one of your choosing. 

However you organize your reaction paper, be sure that your approach emphasizes and reflects your analysis and serious consideration of the author’s text.

Writing reactive assignments enables you to examine relationships of ideas among the various parts of the passages, and between the author’s ideas about a given topic and your preexisting knowledge of and experiences with the topic. When you relate your own ideas to the author’s, you can bring your personal knowledge and experience to bear on the topic in such a way as to analyze the author’s message in a familiar context. When you carry on a dialogue with the author, you are expanding and speculating on the author’s ideas—entering an academic conversation with the author.

Writing reactions usually calls for an expressive writing style in which you can let your thoughts flow, be imaginative, and experiment with language. Although reactions often seem like freewriting or reacting in continuous writing, you want to organize your thoughts with a thesis, introduction and conclusion, and supporting statements. In fact, your reaction may take the form of a formal or informal argument. (Refer to the discussion in this chapter on writing arguments for details.)

Consider these general steps as you plan your writing:

First, freewrite in order to expand and speculate on the author’s ideas.

Decide on your working thesis statement.

Select and prioritize the particular reactions you want to include.

Decide on your organization and format (e.g., online or formal writing assignment).

Draft your reaction paper.

Write your introduction and concluding paragraphs.

Revise your final thesis statement and draft.

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Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Nature of Research

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

The Research Stage

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

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How to Write a Reaction Paper: Guide Full of Tips

Imagine being a writer or an artist and receiving feedback on your work. What words would you cherish most? 'Amazing'? 'Wonderful'? Or perhaps 'Captivating'? While these compliments are nice, they tend to blend into the background noise of everyday praise.

But there's one accolade that truly stands out: 'Thought-provoking.' It's the kind of response every creator dreams of evoking. Thought-provoking pieces don't just passively entertain; they stir something inside us, lingering in our minds long after we've encountered them. In academic circles, a work isn't truly impactful unless it prompts a reaction.

In this article, our research paper writing services will delve into the concept of reaction papers: what they are, how to craft a stellar one, and everything in between. So, let's explore the art of provoking thought together.

What is Reaction Paper

Ever found yourself deeply engrossed in a book, movie, or perhaps an article, only to emerge with a flurry of thoughts and emotions swirling within? That's where a reaction paper comes into play. It helps you articulate those musings to dissect the themes, characters, and nuances of the work that stirred something within you.

A reaction paper is a written response to a book, article, movie, or other media form. It give you an opportunity to critically evaluate what you've experienced and to share your insights with others. Whether you're captivated by a novel's narrative, moved by a film's message, or intrigued by an academic article's argument, it allows you to explore the depths of your reaction.

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How to Write a Reaction Paper with 8 Easy Tips

When learning how to write a reaction paper, it's important to keep an open mind. That means being willing to consider different ideas and perspectives. It's also a good idea to really get into whatever you're reacting to—take notes, highlight important parts, and think about how it makes you feel.

Unlike some other school assignments, like essays or reports, a reaction paper is all about what you think and feel. So, it's kind of easy in that way! You just have to really understand what it's about and how to put it together.

Now, we're going to share some tips to help you write a great paper. And if you're running out of time, don't worry! You can always get some extra help from our essay writing service online .

Understand the Point

When you're sharing your thoughts, whether in school or outside of it, it's important to have a good grasp of what you're talking about. So, before you start writing your paper, make sure you understand its goals and purpose. This way, you can give readers what they're looking for—a thoughtful, balanced analysis.

Knowing the purpose of your paper helps you stay on track. It keeps you from wandering off into unrelated subjects and lets you focus on the most important parts of the text. So, when you share your thoughts, they come across as clear and logical.

Read the Text Right After It Has Been Assigned

When you're asked to write a reaction paper, remember that your first reaction might not be your final one. Our initial thoughts can be a bit all over the place—biased, maybe even wrong! So, give yourself some time to really think things through.

Start diving into the material as soon as you get the assignment. Take your time to understand it inside and out. Read it over and over, and do some research if you need to until you've got a handle on everything—from what the author was trying to do to how they did it. Take notes along the way and try to see things from different angles.

When it comes to writing your paper, aim for a thoughtful response, not just a knee-jerk reaction. Back up your points with solid evidence and organize them well. Think of it more like writing a review than leaving a quick comment on a movie website.

Speaking of movies, we've got an example of a movie reaction paper below. Plus, if you're interested, we've got an article on discursive essay format you might find helpful.

Make a Note of Your Early Reactions

When you're diving into a topic, jotting down your initial thoughts is key. These first reactions are like capturing lightning in a bottle—they're raw, honest, and give you a real glimpse into how you're feeling.

Your paper should be like a mirror, reflecting your own experiences and insights. Your instructor wants to see the real you on the page.

Understanding why something makes you feel a certain way is crucial. By keeping track of your reactions, you can spot any biases or assumptions you might have. It's like shining a light in a dark room—you can see things more clearly. And by acknowledging these biases, you can write a paper that's fair and balanced. Plus, it can point you in the direction of further research, like following breadcrumbs through the forest.

Select a Perspective

Your perspective shapes how you see things, and it's like a roadmap for your reaction paper. It keeps you focused and organized and helps you share thoughtful insights.

Before you start writing, think about different angles to approach the topic. Figure out which perspective resonates with you the most. Consider what it does well and where it might fall short.

Putting yourself in the author's shoes can be really helpful. Try to understand why they wrote what they did and how they put it all together. It's like stepping into their world and seeing things from their point of view. This helps you analyze things more clearly and craft a solid paper.

Before we jump into the nitty-gritty of reaction paper templates, there are a few more tips to share. So, keep reading. Or if you're feeling overwhelmed, you can always ask our professional writers - ' do my homework for me ' - to lend a hand with your coursework.

Define Your Thesis

Defining your thesis might feel like trying to untangle a knot at first. Start by gathering all your ideas and main points. Think about which one resonates with you the most. Consider its strengths and weaknesses—does it really capture the essence of what you want to say?

Then, try to distill all those thoughts into a single sentence. It's like taking a handful of puzzle pieces and fitting them together to reveal the big picture. This sentence becomes the heart of your response essay, guiding your reader along with your analysis.

Organize Your Sections

When you're writing a response paper, it's important to organize your thoughts neatly. Papers that are all over the place can confuse readers and make them lose interest.

To avoid this, make sure you plan out your paper first. Create an outline with all the main sections and sub-sections you want to cover. Arrange them in a logical order that makes sense. Then, for each section, start with a clear topic sentence. Back it up with evidence like quotes or examples. After that, share your own opinion and analyze it thoroughly. Keep doing this for each section until your paper is complete. This way, your readers will be able to follow along easily and understand your argument better.

Write the Final Version

Writing a reaction paper isn't a one-shot deal. It takes several tries to get it just right. Your final version should be polished, with a strong thesis and a well-structured layout.

Before calling it done, give your paper a thorough once-over. Make sure it ticks all the boxes for your assignment and meets your readers' expectations. Check that your perspective is crystal clear, your arguments make sense and are backed up with evidence, and your paper flows smoothly from start to finish.

Keep an eye out for any slip-ups. If you catch yourself just summarizing the text instead of offering your own take, go back and rework that section. Your essay should be original but also fair and balanced. So, give it that final polish until it shines.

Check Your Paper for Spelling and Grammar

No matter what type of essay you're writing—whether it's argumentative or a reaction piece—grammar matters. Even if you've got a strong reaction statement and unique opinions, they won't shine if your sentences are hard to read.

Before you hit that submit button, take a moment to check for grammar and spelling mistakes. These little errors might seem minor, but they can really drag down the quality of your work. Plus, they signal a lack of attention to detail, which could hurt how seriously your paper is taken.

Remember, good grammar isn't just about following rules—it's about clarity. If your paper is riddled with mistakes, it'll be harder for readers to grasp your ideas. On the flip side, clean, error-free writing boosts your credibility and ensures that your thoughts come across loud and clear. So, give your paper that final polish—it's worth it.

Reaction Paper Reaction Paper Outline

Now that you've got all those handy tips and tricks under your belt let's talk about the big picture: the outline. It typically consists of three main parts: the introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion. Each section has its own job to do and is equally crucial to the overall piece. Each part needs to meet the basic requirements of a written assignment, make clear points, and properly credit any direct quotes using the appropriate citation style, like APA format.

Introduction

Getting started with writing can feel like trying to climb a mountain. But fear not! It doesn't have to be daunting if you know how to start a reaction paper.

The introduction is your chance to make a strong first impression. It sets the stage for what's to come and gives readers a glimpse of what they can expect. But keep it snappy—nobody likes a long-winded intro!

To craft an effective introduction:

• Provide some context to get readers up to speed.
• Give a brief summary of relevant background information.
• Clearly state the purpose of your paper.
• Explain what you're hoping to achieve and why it matters.
• Wrap it up with a thesis statement that sums up your personal take and outlines the main points you'll be covering.

After your attention-grabbing introduction, it's time to keep the momentum going in the body paragraphs. This is where you really dive into your thoughts and opinions on the key points of the text.

Remember our top tip: divide your ideas into different sections. Each paragraph should kick off with a topic sentence that sums up the main idea you're tackling. Then, give a quick rundown of the specific aspect of the book or article you're discussing. After that, it's your turn to share your honest feelings about it and explain why you feel that way. Back up your ideas with quotes from trustworthy sources, and make sure to cite them correctly. And don't forget to tie your reactions back to the bigger picture.

Wrap up each paragraph by summarizing your thoughts and feelings and linking them back to the main theme of your paper. With this approach, your body paragraphs will flow smoothly and keep your readers engaged every step of the way.

As you wrap up your reaction paper format, don't overlook the importance of a strong conclusion. This is your chance to bring all your thoughts and feelings together in a neat package and leave a lasting impression on your reader.

Kick things off by revisiting your reaction statement. Remind your reader of the main points you've covered in the body paragraphs, and share any fresh insights you've gained along the way. Just remember—keep it focused on what you've already discussed. Your conclusion shouldn't introduce any new information.

Finish off your paper with a memorable closing statement that ties everything together. This is your chance to leave your reader with a final thought that resonates long after they've finished reading. With a well-crafted conclusion, you'll send your paper off on a high note and leave your reader feeling satisfied.

Reaction Paper Example

Sometimes, seeing is believing. That's why we've prepared a reaction paper example to show you exactly what a stellar paper looks like and how paying attention to small details can elevate your essay. While you're at it, you can also check out our pestle analysis example .

Final Words

Our tips and tricks on how to write a compelling reaction paper will get you an A+. Reflect on your thoughts and feelings, be clear, support your ideas with evidence, and remain objective. Review our reaction paper sample and learn how to write a high-quality academic paper.

Get professional research paper writing services from our experienced writers to ensure high grades. We offer a wide range of aid, including nursing essay writing services . Contact us today for reliable and high-quality essay writing services.

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What Is a Reaction Paper?

How to make an outline for a reaction paper, how do you write a reaction paper.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

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5.7: Sample Response Essays

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SAMPLE RESPONSE PAPERS

Below is a collection of strong (and exceptionally strong) response papers from students.   All received high grades.   They are good examples of insightful thinking and strong writing.   I would especially encourage you to notice that most of them don’t have obvious organization; most of them let their ideas develop and wander.   Many of the best responses are later in the list.   I continue to add to this collection as I find new examples of strong writing.   As always, I will look at drafts when I can.   [Please Note: Responses here are single-spaced to be read quicker.]

The first example, however, is one I wrote as a sample for the first reading response.

Chris McGee

ENGL 380-01

            Of all of the common assumptions that we discussed in class, I think one of the most common is the idea that a children’s text should in some way teach the reader something.   We of course talked about the term didactic, and how a didactic book strongly pushes a lesson onto the reader, telling them that they should believe this or that.   Many times a reason for that lesson isn’t even given, as though the young person reading the book should just accept that lesson because they are told to, because the other knows better.   As I was reading Cat in the Hat by Dr. Seuss, the book I selected for the assignment, I was hoping that it wouldn’t be as didactic as most other children’s books, and that it would be as playful and exciting as I remember as a child.   On the last two pages of the book, however, the absent mother returns home, the cat has disappeared, the children are behaving nicely, sitting in chairs, and it is pretty obvious that even though they got into mischief they are still good children after all.   Nothing really has changed at the end of the book.   Although all sorts of things got played with, and the children broke the rules I am sure they know about (like, “Don’t fly kites in the house”), major boundaries were never crossed.  

            We talked about how the opposite of a didactic book might be an ambiguous book, or a book that encourages the reader to think about issues, to make decisions for themselves .   In that kind of book, the author usually wants to the reader to think for her or himself, to understand that some things are difficult, even for adults.   The author may present a problem and ask you what you think, or might just never come around to saying exactly what you are supposed to believe.   The last page of Cat in the Hat ends with the narrator saying, referring to the mother, “Should we tell her about it? / Now what SHOULD we do? / Well . . . / What would YOU do / If your mother asked you?” (61) .   In some ways, this is probably a pretty ambiguous ending.   The author asks the reader that if your mother left, if someone wanted you to do what you weren’t supposed to, if you did it anyway, and if you didn’t get caught, then would you tell your mother or father what happened?   Most adults wouldn’t tell what happened themselves, but the question is there anyway, and it seems to be really asking children what they believe.

            But it doesn’t seem really that ambiguous.   If the book were really ambiguous it would be breaking the Typical Case Prototype of children’s books, and in almost every other way the book keeps to those prototypes.   As Nodelman describes it, children’s books are typically bright, colorful, funny, entertaining, and maybe sometimes rhyming.   Children’s books portray children as the way adults typically think of them, as crazy kids who aren’t serious like adults, or innocent angels who would never really do any harm when they play.   Dr. Suess portrays typical kids, bored by the rain, wanting to do something wild.   Although Seuss’s style is strange, the children even look like the sort of standard white children that appear in most books, the girl in a dress and ribbon in her hair.   We saw in class how these children are a lot like the standard one’s in Cassie’s history textbook   And although strange things happen in the book – a talking cat, a couple of strange Things, a lot of things getting thrown around – it is the kind of play we come to expect in children’s lives, especially in the sorts of standard things shown on television and in movies.

            In fact, the children never quite seem to trust the Cat, and they always just sort of watch him play.   The children never really do anything that crazy themselves.   The Fish, who sounds a lot like an adult, is always there to warn them, and in the end everything gets cleaned up.   Of course the book is fun and playful, and is obviously one of the most famous and liked picture books ever made, but it is still pretty straightforward.   Cat in the Hat reinforces and demonstrates almost all of the typical assumptions about childhood, and it fulfills all of the typical case prototypes of children’s books.   Examining it made me think about how the book might have changed in recent years, especially since children are rarely bored when they are at home any more (with all of the stuff they own to play with).   But more than that, it made me think about why we expect all children’s books to be like this, why it is always considered one of the best books for children.   Although I like typical children’s books, it makes me also interested in books that don’t do what we expect.   The book was written 1957, and in so many ways children’s books have become so incredibly different since then.   But in a lot of other ways, some good, some bad, they haven’t changed at all.      

====================================================================================

STRONG EXAMPLES FROM STUDENTS

             The book George and Martha (as well as all of the other books in the series), by James Marshall , is in most ways a typical case prototype.   The reading level that is assigned to the book is for ages four through eight.   Each book is divided into five stories, and the stories are about two hippopotamuses that are best friends and act like humans.   Each of the stories starts with a title page that has bold yellow bubble letters.   As the pages are turned the left hand page has the print for the story and the right hand page has the illustration for that portion of the story.   This is very much typical case prototype—very consistent, very simple in both a visual and a reading sense.   And each story is short in length endorsing the idea that children get bored easily.  

All of the illustrations are simple—basically white backgrounds with bold black outlines and three or four colors used to emphasize certain parts of the images (namely grey, green, yellow, and red).   The pictures tell the story of everything that is going on, which makes it more or less unnecessary for a child to be able to read in order to understand what is going on in the story.   In fact, the pictures include almost no object in that is not directly involved in the story, meaning there is nothing used in the background of the pictures to fill the space.

The story is as simple as the illustrations using little or no complex language or difficult vocabulary.   The story, however, is not told using rhyming endings or any kind of rhythm in the sentence structure, which is less typical case prototype, even though plenty of children’s literature does not utilize rhythm or rhyme.   The story also includes only two characters (save the image of the dentist in the last story).   There are no other characters introduced which also keeps the story simplified.

  George and Martha supports many of the assumptions posed with typical case prototypes; in some cases the story even supports two opposing assumptions about children.   The assumption that children like books about fantasy is supported in that the main characters are animals that have the characteristics of humans—they are hippopotamuses walking around on two feet, wearing clothes, and talking to each other.   At the same time, the assumption is made that kids are so egocentric they only like literature to which they can personally relate.   While the main characters are animals, everything else about the book is based very much in a reality they can understand.   George and Martha live in a world like ours, where everyone lives in houses, cooks meals, takes baths and goes to the dentist.   The issues brought up in the book are even those to which children could relate, such as: not liking split pea soup but having to eat it, losing something that is dear to you, irritating habits that friends have, or invasion of privacy.   These are all concepts that a child can understand, and therefore it fits this typical case prototype as well.

The book is extremely didactic.   Each story ends with the moral that is presented in it, and the morals are very plainly stated in no uncertain terms.   There is no real room for coming up with one’s own ideas or opinions on how the presented situation should be dealt with, because the answer is given—the writer’s view of the issue at hand is almost shoved in the face of the reader.   In some ways, a child who thinks beyond simply what the book is telling him/her, might look at what takes place and determine how he/she might have dealt with that situation, but so many people treat reading as such a passive activity that they simply would not occur to them to look any farther than what is directly presented.  

Though the book seems so simple at first glance, it might also be argued that the book brings up more adult issues in the sense of right and wrong, such as in the story in which George is peeking through Martha’s window when she is in the bathtub.   Now, on the surface this is an issue presented and treated in that it is wrong to invade one’s privacy, but looking at it more deeply might be suggesting peeping-toms and a much more sexual elements of invading privacy than is obvious at first, and that is certainly not a typical case prototype.   Nor is the response that Martha has when she realizes that George is peeking in her window, which is to dump the bathtub on his head and yell at him; that could be construed as a violent reaction.   The story of the mirror brings up the issue of vanity or even pride.   George deals with Martha’s pride in her own appearance by pasting a funny picture on her mirror to trick her into not looking at it anymore.   That is a scenario that may be funny to children, but it may also be looking at the more “adult world” of the seven deadly sins for instance—pointing out the negative tendencies of the human being.  

Despite these deeper rooted possibilities of what the book may be trying to convey, in most cases it would be considered a typical case prototype.   It is built around most of the assumptions made about kids and their views of literature and of the world.   Only when looked at closely does this book show any evidence of underlying meaning or issues being presented, and those clues may be simply a complete coincidence.

Nodelman discusses the Typical Case Prototype portrayed in adult-written children’s books.   Nodelman’s stereotypes include bright colors, fantasy, common childhood experiences, and simple linguistics.   Richard Scarry’s picture book, THINGS TO KNOW demonstrates all of these qualities producing a didactic anecdote.

            Color radiates from the pages of this short story.   From the pink background on the front cover to the bright blue costume worn by an elephant on the title page, the book is filled with bright shades.   The use of color culminates to the very last page, which exemplifies and identifies the colors used in the book (23).   The book ambiguously teaches correct color schemes by ensuring each object is the color found in nature.   For example, in the “Seasons” grass is green, the sky is blue, sand is brown, apples are red, pumpkins are orange, and snow is white; the author easily could have painted these objects in hues of imagination, however the writer chose to demonstrate these objects in their naturally expected forms, encouraging standard ideals of the world (14 ,16,18 , 19).

            While the color usage discourages imagination, Scarry’s use of fantasy promotes creative ideology.   A personified animal or insect represents every character in the book.   Animals play instruments, eat with spoons, count to ten, have hands, arms, and noses, rake leaves, watch TV, write, and eat cookies (5 ,6,8,12,11,17 , 22,9).   Scarry limits the readers’ imagination, allowing only classic fantasy.   Richard Scarry personifies the characters to be similar to his readers.

            Nodelman’s research suggests the ideal that children enjoy characters they can relate to.   Scarry creates childlike characters based on their actions.   Illustrating childlike behavior, a pig spills a glass of juice, a cat wears an inner tube to swim in ankle deep water, and a worm jumps in a pile of autumn leaves (8 ,16,17 ).   The children are distinguished from the adults by size, position, and in some cases clothing.   On page one, a giraffe sits on a stool wearing a suit and tie reading a book to a tiny, casually dressed mouse.   Of course the mouse is the childlike character and the giraffe is the adult; the giraffe know how to read, is formally dressed, and is much taller than his counterpart. This example signifies the view of adults being superior to children and being responsible for the knowledge children gain.   In the manners section a tall pig wearing a dress helps a short pig in red overalls put on a rain jacket, obviously this is the mother aiding her child (10).   This suggests that children require parents to guide them even in simple tasks.

            Finally, the language of the book signifies children’s short attention span and the idea of reading levels.   The syntax is limited to include no more than eleven words, the longest sentence being, “We rake the falling leaves and pick apples in the autumn.” (17) .   The vocabulary of this book is simplistic, using predominately one or two syllable words to identify objects, directions, or sizes.   The book contains only two four-syllable words; accordion and interrupting (5, 8).   The language is simple for young readers and the identifying nature of the book is most likely targeted toward a preschool audience.  

            The book overtly teaches the things adults believe small children should learn; like distinguishing the four seasons and naming body parts (13-20, 11).   The most obvious example of a moralistic or instructive agenda is the section titled “Manners”.   Scarry devotes four pages to “Manners”, while most other topics have two pages.   Scarry clearly encourages his ideas of etiquette when he writes, “Everyone should have good manners. Do you? I hope so.” (9).   Other examples of the educational goals appear in sections labeled “Count to Ten”, “Opposites”, “Shapes and Sizes”, “Things We Can Do”, and “Colors” (12, 3, 1, 21, 23).   The book didactically impresses children with adult view of essential knowledge and encourages the stereotypical natures Nodelman mentioned.  

In the 2003 Universal Pictures version of “Peter Pan,” the children are depicted as strong, independent individuals with their own agency throughout a great portion of the film.   However, there are numerous examples of interpellation, during which the children fight against and conform to the interpellation of family and society.   In the following paragraphs, I will explain how “Peter Pan” is a movie with both interpellation and agency.   Also, I will explain how the film is adult-centered in spite of the agency the child characters possess.

The movie “Peter Pan” begins with three children living in a nursery all together.   One day, the children overhear the adults talking about Wendy, the oldest child in the nursery.   They are saying that it is time for her to grow up and spend more time with adults.   Wendy does not like the idea of growing up, and the children go on a magical adventure where children never grow up, where there are pirates, fairies, and countless adventures.   However, soon Wendy realizes that she truly does wish to grow up and decides to return to her home with her parents.   In the end, Wendy, her brothers, and the lost boys all end up home with parents.   However, Peter Pan still refuses to give up his childhood fantasies and flies away forever.  

The adult characters in “Peter Pan” are highly interpellated into their roles in society.   For example, the mother and father are wealthy socialites who attend grand parties, wear grand clothing, and (attempt to) conduct themselves in a dignified, proper manner.   At one point, the father is seen practicing his small talk because Aunt Millicent has told him that “wit is very fashionable at the moment.”   They are very much concerned with what the neighbors will think of them and their proper place in society.   Wendy’s adult family has been interpellated into their roles in society.   However, the children are still concerned with fun, games, and adventures.   The thought of growing up is not an appealing one for them at this point.   It simply does not look like it is any fun.

            In one scene, the entire family is gathered together in a family room.   The children are telling stories and being generally silly.   When Wendy begins to talk of her dreams of adventure, her Aunt Millicent puts a stop to it.   After all, a young lady should not think of adventure, but marriage according to the interpellation in this film.   During this scene, Wendy talks with her Aunt Millicent about her future plans.   “My unfulfilled ambition is to write a great novel, in three parts, about my adventures,” Wendy says.   Aunt Millicent replies, “What adventures?”   “I’m going to have them,” Wendy says, “they’ll be perfectly thrilling.”   Aunt Millicent clearly indicates what role she believes Wendy should possess in society with her reply, “But child, novelists are not highly thought of in good society, and there is nothing so difficult to marry as a novelist.”   In this same scene, Aunt Millicent asks Wendy to walk toward her and turn around so that she might appraise her.   Afterward, she declares Wendy as having possession of a “woman’s chin” and a “hidden kiss” on the corner of her mouth.   She declares the kiss as the “greatest adventure of all” and states that it “belongs to” someone else.   Aunt Millicent clearly thinks that Wendy will believe that possessing woman-like qualities will make her want to act more grown up and that possessing a hidden kiss that belongs to someone else will begin Wendy’s search for a respectable husband.   Aunt Millicent is attempting to convince Wendy that her proper place in society will be an adventure if only she lives up to the expectations of her family.   Aunt Millicent is attempting to interpellate Wendy into a certain role.   She addresses the “problems” of Wendy’s need for adventure and desire to become a novelist, neither of which will do for a young lady in high society.

By watching the whole first half of the film, one might believe that Wendy has not been interpellated into the role her Aunt Millicent wishes for her.   She is clearly against the idea of giving up her adventures to become a wife.   Soon after, she meets a magical boy and runs away with him, along with her brothers to a world where children have their own agency.   In Neverland , children live with no parents, do as they please, and fight their own battles.   There are Indians, mermaids, and pirates.   It is a great adventurous place for children to live when they do not wish to be interpellated into a role in society by their parents.  

During one Neverland scene, Hook has captured Wendy’s brothers and taken them to the Black Castle .   There, the adult pirates treat the children as worthy adversaries.   This indicates that the adult pirates believe that the children do, indeed, have their own agency.   The pirates do not indicate for a moment that these are only children and easily defeated.   Rather, they wait in ambush for Peter Pan and Wendy to attempt to rescue the boys.   Wendy shows Peter that she is entirely capable of brandishing a sword against the pirates.   Here, Wendy is displaying her own agency and letting him know that she will not need protection any more than the boys.   Then, Peter tricks the pirates into releasing the other children.   This shows that the children in the scene are much more cleaver than the adults.   Afterward, a great fight scene ensues between the children and the pirates.   The pirates sword fight with them as if they were adults.   In fact, the children manage to defeat the pirates and escape unharmed, once again indicating that they have their own agency in that they are clever and able to take care of themselves.   When there is a problem, they figure out a way to get out of it on their own.   They do not rely on adults to solve their problems.  

            In spite of all of the agency the children display during the Neverland scenes, I would argue that this film is adult centered.   After being in the Neverland for a while, Wendy realizes that she does not belong there and chooses to return to the safety of her family.   Even the Lost Boys desperately want a parental figure in their lives, and they end up returning home with Wendy and her brothers to live with their parents.   Wendy has been interpellated by her parents after all.   She realizes that she wants her life that she left behind.   The power that Wendy felt at the beginning of the film seemed repressive to her; however, it has become ideological.   In other words, the ideological power that Wendy’s family has over her has worked.   She now sees that her happiness lies in the role that her family has been trying to establish for her.   Furthermore, Wendy’s brothers and the Lost Boys all realize that they want to have parents who will care for them and that growing up is not all that bad.   In the end, all of the children have parents except one.   And, all of the children seem happy except one – Peter Pan.

            While it is odd to think of a film having both interpellation and agency, I am suggesting just that.   However, I am also suggesting that there are two separate worlds in this film in which the two issues occur.   Interpellation clearly occurs in the beginning of the film while the children are with their parents and Aunt Millicent.   They are taught how life should be and who they should be when they grow up.   The Neverland world is a place where children have agency.   It is clear to the adults and children in Neverland that children are to be taken seriously and treated as equals.   However, in the end, the children choose interpellation over agency and return to the nursery and their home with their parents.   In this film, the children have been interpellated to believe that their role at home will be much more fulfilling and rewarding than the agency available to them by remaining children forever in Neverland .

            In closing, Peter Pan is a complicated film that displays agency and interpellation.   While it displays both, the film is adult centered, as the children end up interpellated into the roles their families wished for them.  

Resisting Interpellation: Beauty and the Beast

            As a little girl, I pretended I was Belle from Beauty and the Beast . I wanted desperately to find my prince charming. I danced around to the songs, and I would have loved a castle filled with enchanted creatures, or a library filled with books up to the ceiling. Years later, after watching the same story unfold, I can honestly say that Belle could be a role model for me in the way she lived her life. Her personality is one of strength, open-mindedness, and abundant love. Throughout her story, Belle is faced with opposition and obstacles that push her to define and think about who she is. Gaston and the rest of the townspeople try to push and mold Belle into the type of person that they feel is “normal.” The story of Beauty and the Beast is one of Belle defying the idea of what is normal, what is right, and what is supposed to be.

A major way of society interpellating a person is by shunning the marriage or union between people with huge differences. Society applauds when the normal path is taken, whether it is a marriage between a man and woman, or the relationship between two people of the same race. The main motif or theme of Beauty and the Beast , which occurs in many children’s stories, is that of two people of different species falling in love and overcoming their obstacles. Belle, a human, and the Beast, a human enslaved in a beast-like body, are blinded to reality by their love. They do not look at each other with eyes focused on appearances, but look through the skin into each other’s souls. In the garden playing with birds, the Beast and Belle come to realize that they care for each other, despite the hesitations that first accompanied their situation. The beast is surprised that “when we touched she didn't shudder at my paw,” and Belle is taken aback “ that he's no Prince Charming but there's something in him that I simply didn't see.” Though surprised, Belle resisted the temptation to fall in love and marry a human, thus not giving in to interpellation. This movie also expresses distaste for interpellation in the sense that it expresses the acceptance of things not of the norm. It basically says that you do not have to settle for the town football hero, just because you are the cheerleader. Instead, you can hold out, find a person with whom your souls connect, and live happily ever after. There is also a trace of the “if you truly love them, let them go, and if they love you too, they will come back” theme present in this movie. For example, when the Beast releases Belle as his prisoner, he gives her the freedom to truly love him. It is only through this relinquishing, that Belle can understand her true feelings.

A different way society tries to interpellate a person or a person’s life is by giving them a name. By naming a person, the parent is predetermining their child to answer and identify with that name. The name Belle translates to beautiful or beauty from the French language. Yet while Belle is beautiful, she does not let her name, or it’s meaning, get in the way of her personality. Traditionally, an interpellated “Belle” would be flirtatious, using her good looks to gain social standing. This type of behavior would be accepted in Belle’s community, as other seemingly beautiful women gush and moon over Gaston, throwing themselves at him in the hopes he will throw them a bone. Bell though, almost seems unaware of her good looks. For example, while Belle walks through town, her head buried in a story, she is oblivious to all the commotion she is bringing about. One man even goes as far as to say, “Now it's no wonder that her name means 'beauty' Her looks have got no parallel!” As the story unfolds, she does not dress to impress anyone, and never gives the impression of caring what others think of her appearance. I believe the rose in Beauty and the Beast is a reminder of Belle’s inconsistence with the typical towns lady. The rose, while beautiful and seemingly fragile, has managed to live for ten years. While it is enchanted, the rose must still be protected, and is held in high regard. Belle, similarly, is beautiful and dainty, but strong. She earns respect through her decisions, and does not need to be taken care of. She is strong enough to find her father, strong enough to give her life for his, and strong enough to stand up to the Beast.

Belle also questions the interpellated messages she receives from the general public. The people of Belle’s town believe that, as a young lady, you should live up to specific social standards. Belle breaks these traditions in numerous ways. To begin, even as Belle walks through the “quiet village,” the townspeople talk about how she is so strange and unusual; how she does not quite fit the mold. They shake their heads and cannot understand why she is “Never part of any crowd.” She “doesn't quite fit in” with the ladies trying to find a husband, or with the ladies who sit around doing what it is the conventional ladies do. Instead, she is described as “Dazed and distracted” because she always has “her nose stuck in a book!” It is evident that Belle is resisting interpellation by continuing to read, and to read often. Instead of succumbing to the ideals and values of the townspeople who feel “It's not right for a woman to read--soon she starts getting ideas...and thinking,” she relishes her stories, and continues to be excited about new possibilities. She also does not try to hide the fact that she loves to read. She sat on a fountain, in the middle of the town, and sang about her love of books. People like Gaston, who try to force their ideas on society, feel that all a woman should be is a “little wife, massaging [her husband’s] feet, while the little ones play with the dogs.” When Belle flat out refuses Gaston’s attempts at wooing her, the other ladies of the town, who have fallen into the common way of thinking, say, “What's wrong with her?” Yet Belle knows that “There must be more than this provincial life!”

Indeed, there is a different way to live life, at least for Belle. Unlike many women, Belle is not one to be influenced by appearances, good or bad. She is not impressed with Gaston’s impressive looks or rippled muscles (because he is, after all, “Perfect, a pure paragon”). Instead of dreaming about being Gaston’s wife, Belle is more interested in enjoying life, taking care of her father, and being true to herself. She does not fall into the trap of liking the cool guy, just because everyone else does. She knows that Gaston is “handsome all right, and rude and conceited and” not for her. Another example of Belle’s passiveness towards appearance occurs with the Beast. While her first reaction to the Beast is terror, she does not actually fear him. If she feared him, she would not have spoken out to the Beast like she did. Not intimidated by his looks, she talks to him like the mean-spirited person he is. This showcases the amount of agency Belle has determined is rightfully hers. In many instances, she does not give in to the Beast’s demands, even though, technically, she is his prisoner. For instance, she does not give in to the Beast’s demand that she come to dinner, instead, she tells him, “I'm not hungry” and refuses to eat with him.

Some may feel that Belle is the typical young lady, looking to find her prince. After all, her favorite part of the book she reads by the fountain is when the girl meets her prince, but does not know it yet. I would argue that the books she finds so intriguing are an escape. While the particular storyline read by the fountain does predict the outcome of the movie, it also illustrates and shows how Belle is feeling. She feels trapped, like the only way she can escape her suffocating world is to read about others where there is adventure and romance. She may want the romance and the white knight on the horse, but she is not willing to compromise who she is inherently, for the gain of something she does not deem true and worthy. Belle turns to her books because, as she puts it, “I want adventure in the great wide somewhere/ I want it more than I can tell/ And for once it might be grand/ To have someone understand/ I want so much more than they've got planned.” So she is not dreaming of her prince, or a life as a princess. She wants to be a person, first and foremost, and have someone understand what she feels. Before meeting and falling in love with the beast, the only “people” who understand her, are the people in the books she reads, because they have the same desires as she.

Belle avoids the interpellation of her peers and society through staying true to herself, and, in the end, she gets her prince. She does not succumb to the prodding of Gaston, and even her father in the beginning, to marry and become a mainstream household wife. Instead, she uses her ability to love truly to find the man, or beast, with which she is meant to be. It is through this rebellion of society’s norm that Belle uses her agency in life to stand firm against interpellation.

“ South Park : Bigger, Longer and Uncut” is a true depiction of carnivalesque imagery. The entire film is centered on a movie the children go see, called “Asses of Fire.”   This movie causes great controversy between the children and parents, because its only purpose is to, make fun of bodily functions, and curse as much as possible.   The children in “ South Park ” love this movie, and even claim that it will make their lives “complete.” The idea of carnivalesque is that is mocks and humiliates what is supposed to be official, and customary by focusing on humorous and grotesque bodily functions.   These children who praise a movie that is clearly derogatory, and gross degrades the ethical teachings they should be learning.   The stereotype for children is that they should learn valuable, and critical lessons that will help them in life.   “ South Park ” greatly destroys these lessons, as the children perpetually get more offensive and silly as the mimic the actors in “Asses of Fire.”

The movie also demeans authority figures such as, the government, the president, teachers, principles, parents etc.   One of the best examples of this idea of carnivalesque is when Cartman defies his authority figures.   While sitting in class Mr. Garrison (the boy’s teacher) demands Cartman to answer a question.   Unwilling to cooperate, Cartman instead curses at the teacher and is sent to the office.   In the office, he again curses at the principle. Both authority figures are surprised by these acts of defiance; they do not know how to punish this behavior.   Instead, Cartman is free to say and do what he pleases, to whomever. This scene depicts the role reversal of authority.   It is Cartman who holds the power, and not the typical adult authority figure.   Throughout the movie the adults struggle to gain power over their children’s tainted behavior.   They are repeatedly unsuccessful.   This is the essence of carnivalesque , as it uses absurdity and humor to undermine what is normally revered.

            South Park proves to be a progressive movie for a number of reasons.   Although, it is seemingly playful, silly and gross, it explores new grounds by mocking norms for children’s movies.   Much like a traditional Disney musical, “ South Park : Bigger, Longer, and Uncut” begins with the character Stan singing a song.   In this scene, Stan is walking down a snow-covered street as he sings about his “quiet mountain town.”   Deer cross his path, and beautiful Pine trees line the road.   As Stan approaches his town he is singing about how wonderful it is, and how people treat each other well.   However, it is obvious, that the people are actually pushy, rude and hateful towards one another.   By no means is this place the “quiet mountain town” Stan describes.   In fact, by the end of the song the entire town joins in on the chorus and adds that they live in a “quiet little white trash redneck mountain town.”   This is an ironic twist to how the film first began.   In the beginning “ South Park ” seems to be a normal children’s movie.   It depicts the innocence of nature, and a song about love, happiness, and people getting along. As the song continues, it drastically changes from pleasant, to disturbing and silly. People are cursing one another, babies are being thrown through windows, and homeless men are drinking on the side of the road.   These images mock and criticize the normal innocence in children’s film.   Therefore, with its mocking nature “ South Park ” challenges what we deem as a stereotypical normal children’s film and proves to be progressive.   In addition, “ South Park ” is progressive as it gives power to those that would not normally have it.   Kyle, Stan, Cartman and Kenny all have a great amount of power within this movie, as they defy their parents and curse at authority figures.

However, this movie also gives a great amount of power to a woman.   Kyle’s mother consistently gains command as she speaks out against the two Canadian actors in “Asses of Fire” that have contaminated the children’s minds.   In one seen Kyle’s mom pushes President Clinton out of the way of a camera interview and provides a speech on ending the actor’s lives to save the children. Her forceful behavior of pushing the President out of the way shows how “ South Park ” truly defies the norm.   In a normal situation the President would be seen as the highest authority, but here a mother from a “redneck town” is depicted as stronger. By giving power to both the children and the mother, “ South Park ” is extremely progressive by challenging and defying the ideas of a stereotypical normal children’s movie.

            Much like the “ South Park ” movie, the TV series “Family Guy” also portrays carnivalesque imagery.   One of the main characters in “Family Guy” is Stewie , a baby who has an adult British male’s accent.   His hilarious, uncommon voice greatly shows carnivalesque .   Unlike a normal baby, Stewie not only can speak his mind, but he also can do it articulately, like an adult.   In fact, he is smarter, more talkative and wiser than the stupid immature dad, Peter, in the show.   Specifically, the episode “Emission Impossible” shows how Stewie is more competent than his parents.   Repeatedly, he disrupts his parents from making love in order to stop them from creating another baby. In one scene Stewie walks into his room, hits a button on the wall, which collapses and shows a hidden spaceship behind it.   He uses the spaceship (which shrinks to a microscopic level) to go in Peter’s body and terminate all his sperm.   Stewie succeeds and the parents never end up having a baby. Symbolically, the spaceship represents all the power Stewie has in his life. Such a complicated, high-tech machine for a baby to control signifies how he has the command to manipulate what he pleases. By inhibiting their chances of creating a baby, Stewie clearly portrays the carnivalesque idea of role reversal.   It is not coincidental that Stewie’s strong character is that of a baby.   “Family Guy” is using this role reversal of giving a baby power over it’s parents to, like “South Park”, mock what is supposed to be authoritative.   Parents are normally the ones that direct the life of their baby.   However, Stewie diminishes this norm, which is an apparent depiction of carnivalesque ideas.

            “The Simpsons ” is another great example of carnivalesque .   In the episode “ Tis the Fifteenth Season,” Homer realizes he is a selfish person and thereby declares he will become “the nicest guy in town.”   However, Flanders already holds that title. In result, a battle breaks out between them, as they struggle to gain the title of the “nicest guy in town”.   In one scene Homer becomes jealous when he hears Flanders has given everyone a Christmas gift.   He therefore begins to plan on how he will buy everyone a car to exceed Flanders act of generosity.   However, Lisa stops her dad and explains, “Dad you don’t have to out-do Flanders .   Just remember the spirit of the season.”   She then declares that Christmas is not about presents or competitions, but about family and love.   Once again, the roles are being reversed.   Lisa, a little girl, has to explain an extremely important concept to her father.   Parents are usually the ones to teach these lessons to children; however, Lisa is the true “parent” in this scene.    In addition, this episode depicts Homer to be as dumb as a cat or dog.   All three (Homer, the cat and the dog) are wearing Christmas sweaters. As the dog and cat roll on the ground biting at theirs, so does Homer.   Carnivalesque often portrays these types of role reversals, and undermining of authority.   Stereotypically, the male adult figure is one that carries the most knowledge, power and authority.   However, Homer truly acts like a child.   He is selfish, silly and immature.   Instead this intelligent and powerful status is given to a seven or either year old girl.   Carnivalesque is depicted, as a complete opposite role reversal is apparent.   Without Lisa’s insight and awareness, Homer would have succeeded in ruining the concepts of Christmas.  

            Both “Family Guy” and “The Simpsons ” are progressive as well.   The strong characters in these two shows are the children, Stewie and Lisa.   These shows dramatically change what is normally viewed as traditional.   Parents no longer teach their kids, rather the children teach them.   In addition, the parents do not have the ability to direct their children’s lives; instead their children are directing their lives. Much like “ South Park ,” “Family Guy” and “The Simpsons ” depict families as if they are on the other side of the mirror.   They are merely reversed.   These thoughts encourage us, as the audience, to rethink what we consider as normal.   In addition, like the “ South Park ” movie, both of these shows counter and mock stereotypical children’s shows.   Conservatively children’s shows are supposed to protect innocence, show adults as authority figures and teach what is typically right. “Family Guy” and “The Simpsons ” obviously bend these rules and are therefore extremely progressive.

            “ South Park ,” “Family Guy,” and “The Simpsons ,” are only a few of the shows that possess these ideas of carnivalesque and progressiveness.   However, all three portray these concepts beautifully.   From role reversal, to degrading authority, and to using humorous situations, voices, and bodily functions to mock the revered, these shows are carnivalesque .   In addition, they break the stereotype that creates a conservative work.   Instead they are progressive as they challenge us to rethink what should be, and uniquely see the ideas that contradict our norms.  

The fairy tale Snow-white and Rose-red , by the Grimm brothers, is an excellent example of a conservative, adult-centered text.   In this text, the agency is with the adults and the children are seen as nostalgic images of childhood.   Snow-white and Rose-red prove that children are good and follow the direction of adult figures even when the adult may not be present.  

            The conservative nature of this text is overwhelming.   The author is not challenging children to do anything; but rather teaching them that if they are obedient then they will be happy.   For example, Snow-white and Rose-red are described in various ways throughout the story: “ . . . the sweetest and best children in the world, always diligent and always cheerful . . . they always walked about hand in hand whenever they went out together . . . they drew round the fire, while the mother put on her spectacles and read aloud from a big book and the two girls listened and sat and span . . . the tender-hearted children . . .”   The children are described as wonderful and obedient children who help anyone in need.   They are seen as a quaint family that never argues, listens to their mother read stories around a fire, and did traditional “girl” things like spinning.   The ending shows that because of their good hearts they were rewarded: “Snow-white married him, and Rose-red his brother, and they divided the great treasure the dwarf had collected in his cave between them.   The old mother lived for many years peacefully with her children . . . ”   This “fairy tale” ending shows that if you are a good child then good things will happen to you.   The text does not wish for children to challenge the things that their mother tells them to do.   The text reinforces a sense of good behavior and family closeness.  

            In this family, the mother is the one with the authority and all of the agency.   The girls are attentive to the instructions of their mother and follow them with haste.   There are several things that the girls did to help their mother around the house and around the woods: “Show-white sat at home with her mother and helped her in the household …[ they] kept their mother’s cottage so beautifully clean and neat that it was a pleasure to go into it…the mother sent the children into the wood to collect fagots…the mother sent the two girls to the town to buy needles, thread, laces, and ribbons.”   This shows their obedience because the children did what their mother told them without hesitation or argument.   In an adult-centered text, children understand that adults know better than children so they must follow what adults say.   Another example when the children listen to the knowledge from their mother is when the mother tells them, “‘Rose-red, open the door quickly; it must be some traveler seeking shelter.’ Rose-red hastened to unbar the door… ‘Snow-white and Rose- red, come out; the bear will do you no harm; he is a good, honest creature.’”   The text ends with the mother being correct when the bear’s “skin suddenly fell off, and a beautiful man stood beside them, all dressed in gold.”   By listening to the mother and her knowledge, the story had a happy ending.   This shows the readers that children should listen to their mothers or other adult figures because, of course, they know more than a child.   This adult-centered trait is highly visible throughout the text.  

            Yet another image of the children, in this adult-centered text, is when they follow the directions of their mother even when she is not there.   The mother has engrained the children with the importance of being kind to everyone.   They show kindness to the dwarf throughout the story even though he was not nice to them.   Some of the rude comments that the dwarf makes about the girls are: “ ‘You stupid, inquisitive goose!’… ‘Crazy blockheads!’ … ‘Curse these rude wretches, cutting off a piece of my splendid beard!’… ‘ you toadstools’… ‘Couldn’t you have treated me more carefully?   You have torn my thin little coat all to shreds, useless, awkward hussies that you are!’” The girls have saved his life three times and yet the dwarf can only be ungrateful and mean to them.   This does not deter the girls from their kind-heartedness and helping anyone in need.   “The girls were accustomed to his ingratitude, and went on their way and did their business in town.”   This shows that, without their mother’s advice, the girls continued to rescue the dwarf and treat him with kindness.   This is an excellent example of an adult-centered trait.  

            Snow-white and Rose-red are perfect symbols of the nostalgic childhood images who end up being rewarded for their good nature and kind hearts.   The authors are showing that if a child is obedient and good then they will surely receive a reward in the end.   There are many attributes of an adult-centered text that this story has which contributes to the conservative nature of the text. This text is extremely conservative and adult-centered in various ways.

“Hard by a great forest dwelt a poor wood-cutter with his wife and his two children,” begins Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm’s famous fairy tale, “Hansel and Grethel .”   “Hansel and Grethel ” is a magical tail about two children who cleverly outsmart their evil stepmother, and a wicked witch to stay alive.   This fairytale encompasses some of the topics we have discussed in class.   It not only is incredibly child centered, but it also is progressive.  

            “Hansel and Grethel ” is extremely child centered. The Grimm brothers depicted both Hansel and Grethel as smart, capable people.   After she told her plan of leaving the children off in the woods alone to the father, the wife maliciously stated, “They will not find their way home again, and we shall be rid of them.”   Fortunately, Hansel and Grethel both heard this speech, and decided something must be done to outsmart her evil plot. As Hansel dropped pebble after pebble on the road to help them find their way home, the wife noticed that he consistently looked back at the house.   “Hansel what art thou looking at there and staying behind for,” the wife demanded.   He replied, “I am looking at my little white cat, which is sitting up on the roof and wants to say goodbye to me.”   “Fool, that is not thy little cat, that is the morning sun which is shining on the chimney,” explained the wife.   Although Hansel’s answer is silly, the wife and father did not suspect his pebble trail.   Therefore, his plan worked and he and his sister are able to find their way home after being left in the woods.   By, having the ability to outsmart the adults, Hansel proved to have a great amount of agency.   He not only had the courage to secretly plot against them, but also managed to trick them into believing he was just a childish boy fantasizing about his cat.   His lie about the cat is significant because it shows that he understands adults have these assumptions that children are childlike in their thinking.   He is able to use this stereotype about children against his parents, ultimately tricking them into thinking he is incapable of “adult like” complex thinking and planning.  

Grethel also had her moment of greatness when she tricked the witch.   Smartly, Grethel told the old witch she did not understand how to get in the oven.   The witched replied haughtily, “Silly goose, the door is big enough; just look, I can get in myself!”   As the evil hag climbed into the oven, Grethel courageously shoved her inside and locked the door.   Ultimately, the witch was engulfed in flames resulting in her ruin. Like Hansel, Grethel is depicted as a stronger, smarter character than the adults, especially the witch, within this fairytale.   Since, child-centered texts always portray the children as the most powerful, capable, independent characters, it is fitting that “Hansel and Grethel ” would fall under this category.   Both children easily trick the adults.   In addition, they have the power to find their way through the woods at the end of the story with no pebbles or bread to guide them.   The two children truly have an enormous amount of agency as they not only can outsmart the adults, but also can manipulate nature to help them.   As they came to a “great piece of water” on their journey home from the gingerbread house, they realized they had no means to cross it.   However, Grethel noted, “a white duck is swimming there; if I ask her, she will help us over.”    Indeed, the duck does help them, and they return home safely.   It is as if Hansel and Grethel gain more confidence, and agency as they manipulate and conquer every obstacle crossing their path.   

Another example of why this text is child-centered is how the adults are depicted.   First, it is important to note that it is only the children who have names.   All of the adults in this text are referred to as, the “father,” the “wife” and the “old witch.”   This is a very child-centered quality, as it gives no individuality to the adults, thus exemplifying their lack of importance.   In addition, the adults are all portrayed as selfish, weak, and evil.   The wife was clearly selfish and evil, as she wanted to “be rid” of her children so she could have more food to eat.   In complaint to his wife’s wishes the father replied, “How can I bear to leave my children alone in the forest? The wild animals would soon come and tear them to pieces!”   Selfishly and uncaringly the wife cried, “O, thou fool! Then we must all four die of hunger, thou mayest as well plane the planks for our coffins.”   She would rather her children be torn to pieces by “wild animals” than have to share her food, and sacrifice her own hunger.

Also, although, the father was undoubtedly seen as the “good” parent of the two, he was plainly a weak character.   The father barely stood up for his children, and let his wife send them to their deaths. After agreeing to go along with her plan he sadly said, “But I feel very sorry for the poor children, all the same.”   Not once, was the father threatened by his wife. He merely gave into her, even though it was clear that he loved his children dearly.   This lack of confidence completely undermines the father’s authority as an adult.   Although he is a good character, he has no power to stand up for what he believed and felt strongly for. In addition, describing the old woman with the candy covered house, the Grimm’s wrote, “she only pretended to be so kind; she was in reality a wicked witch, who lay in wait for children, and had only built the house of bread in order to entice them there.” She, like the stepmother is evil. Therefore, it is apparent, that all three adults in this story are perceived as evil or weak, making this a truly child-centered text.

In addition to child-centered, “Hansel and Grethel ” also is significantly progressive.   In the beginning of the story, when the stepmother described her plan to leave the children, she stated, “They will not find their way home again.”   The stepmother assumed that the children were naïve and incapable of taking care of themselves.   She believed that they could never locate their way out of the woods because they were mere children, and would have no adult to guide them.   However, they break these assumptions by finding their way through the forest not once, but twice. This is extremely progressive, because it challenges some of the stereotypical assumptions about childhood.   Children are often thought of as very dependent on their parents and innocent; however, Hansel and Grethel clearly do not need their parents to find their way.   They are also far from naïve.   They are well aware of the stepmother’s wicked intentions.

In fact, the children not only found their way through the confusing woods and saved themselves from the horrid witch, but they also saved their father. The Grimm brothers wrote, “ Grethel emptied her pinafore until pearls and precious stones ran about the room, and Hansel threw one handful after another out of his pocket to add to them.”   This shows how much agency the children had, as they saved themselves and then came home with enough diamonds and jewels to support their father as well. The story ends, “Then all the anxiety was at an end, and they lived together in perfect happiness.”   This fairytale is truly progressive as gives the power over to the children. In a more conservative text the father would have been the savior; however, it is Hansel and Grethel who hold all the power and save the day.

  “Hansel and Grethel ” is an excellent example of a progressive, child-centered text. It challenges assumptions about children, and gives children a great amount of agency.   Hansel and Grethel are depicted as capable strong characters, whereas the adults are seen as evil and weak.   The children also reject the norms of childhood that suggest life for a child is simple and fun, as they understand their lives are complex, and they work hard to control the situations around them. In total, “Hansel and Grethel ” challenges us as readers to truly see how powerful children can be.

8.   ( from Final Exam)

~Interpellation is the idea that we are “bred” to think, act and react in certain ways.

~We are interpellated from the day that we are born into specific roles that society has created for us

~Girls being portrayed in magazines playing with dolls and loving the color pink is an example of gender role interpellation

~Interpellation is subtle—the point of interpellation is for a person to feed into something without even realizing that they are doing so.

~ Interpellation is used in almost every aspect of our society, especially in the marketing of merchandise

~Interpellation can be found in many situations, but the most prominent example of interpellation that I always think of is the typical male and female roles that we are “assigned” from a very early age. There are certain things that are “normal”, if not expected of a boy, simply because he is a boy. By there same token, there are certain things that are expected of a girl to maintain her societal femininity. From a young age, we are lead to believe that boys are the dominant, more powerful sex. Females are portrayed as care takers and are often seen as being more compassionate and caring then males are. Men are expected to rougher and less sensitive. The men are expected to work hard to bring home money to support their families. Females are often portrayed as being more in touch with their emotions. None of these ideas applies to any one person any more so then do personality traits, but our society interpellates these ideas into our minds every minute of every day. The following passage is from my paper on the Goonies , in which I highlight some examples of the interpellation typical female and male roles in this movie.

“The interpellation of society’s view of typical female and male roles is very obvious in this movie. The boys seem to be portrayed in the usual ways, as being mischievous and thrill seeking, while the girls are shown as weak and scared. The oldest girl, Andy, seems more concerned with her crush throughout the movie then she does with finding the gold and taking an active role in the adventure. There is a point in the movie where Mikey tells Andy that she may want to hold his hand because it was dark up ahead and it may be dangerous. This is another example of the girls and the guys being put into common roles that society has created for them. As we have been told since we were young children through fairy tales and everyday life, men are supposed to take care of females and be there to protect them. Another example of interpellation is when Brent, Mikey’s older brother, makes a comment in the movie asking why he couldn’t have had a little sister instead of a little brother, as if to say that only a boy is daring enough to start the trouble that they are in.   This statement reaffirms the idea of interpellation of typical male and female roles in this film.”

~ The following excerpts looks at an example of interpellation from the 1980’s classic, The Goonies :

“Something that is interesting in this movie is that the Goonies all seem to be misfits. There is a scene where the developer’s son drives past Mikey’s older brother, Brent. The developers son is driving a convertible and wearing his letter jacket and has two girls in his car, while Brent is wearing ratty old sweats and is riding his little brothers bike. Interpellation is shown in the idea that the rich kids are cool and popular, while the poor kids are unpopular and outcasts.”

“ Mikey’s family seems to be having some emotional problems. Mikey’s older brother, Brent, always makes fun of their father and doesn’t seem to have a lot of respect for him. This shows the idea that families who don’t have a lot of money are less stable and ultimately less happy.   At the end of the movie, when the family realizes they have enough money to save their home, they come together and hug each other and really show affection towards each other for the first time in the movie. Again, interpellation is shown in that money and material things bring happiness. “

~We seem to idealize wealthy families in our society because we are under the warped impression that they are happier then ourselves because they have everything that they want. Children who are born into wealth and privilege are showcased in reality television and documentaries, further rubbing our noses in the fact that there are parents who can provide for their children in ways that you or I could never imagine (from a material standpoint). Our culture seems to go out of its way to display this quality, to make those who have more feel better about themselves and those who have less feel worse. We are interpellated be jealous of other peoples luck and fortune, when we should be thankful for the opportunities that we have instead of being angry about the opportunities that we don’t. I think this reoccurring theme is strong in the Goonies . As described in the excerpt Mikeys family is portrayed as poor and unhappy. Nothing seems to go right for them, mainly because of the fact that they don’t have any material wealth. The rich family holds the happiness of the poor family in its hands. The rich family has all of the agency while the poor family has none. Like in our society, the poor are at the mercy of the rich.

~We are interpellated to believe that the main centers of power and authority in our society, i.e. the government, our parents, the president, are inherently good and always right—they(the powers that be) do this to try and keep us in our place. They want to keep power in the hands of those who have always had it, and usually on of the only ways to do that is to interpellate society to believe that that is where the power and authority belong in the first place.

~Like the magazine add that you showed us that said “All girls love princesses, pink and parties” (or something to that effect), we are spoon feeding interpellated gender roles to our children. Certainly, all girls DON’T love princesses and all girls don’t love pink. In fact, I always hated princesses and pink for that matter. By saying “All girls”, marketing agencies are really embracing interpellated gender roles and using them to try and sell their product, which often works (unfortunately).

~I wrote about the role of interpellation in Jack and the Bean Stalk. Below are some detailed examples of interpellation that I found in this particular version of the story:

“Jack goes into town to sell Milky-White to try and get money for he and his mom. He is stopped along the way by a strange old man. The picture of the old man in this story is interesting because the old man is dressed rather uniquely. I think that this shows interpellation because it shows that strange people dress differently from normal people. The illustration provides the reader with a distinction between “strange” and “normal” based solely on appearance. It reaffirms the idea that one can determine who is normal and who isn’t, simply by looking at them.”

~I think that this is a common idea in our society. In the United States , we assert ourselves and are identity at first impression, based solely on our clothing. We have been interpellated to look critically on those who dress strange or different then ourselves and are often interpellated from a young age to be weary of those who “look” different from us. Like I said in the paper, distinctions between strange and normal are made all of the time based on clothing. If I were to dread lock my hair, someone might look at me and think I was perhaps dirty or unprofessional, when my goal is doing so was only to embrace a low maintenance lifestyle. We make assumptions like the previous constantly, based on appearance alone. First impressions, based almost entirely on looks, determine who we do and don’t interact with. We are interpellated to believe that we must dress certain ways for certain occasions. Different outfits are appropriate for different events and not knowing what is appropriate when can prove to be a very big problem in some people’s eyes.

~Below is another part of my Jack and the Bean Stalk paper which highlights an example of interpellation through male and female roles within the text:

            “The depiction of typical male and female roles in this story are almost overwhelming. After Jack climbs the beanstalk, he finds the giants wife, who just returned from picking flowers. He asks her for something to eat and she says that she will make him something to eat, but that they must be fast because her husband gets home soon. The female giant is portrayed as the common “homemaker” type. She is patiently waiting for her husband to get home and is picking flowers to pass the time and she is the one who does all of the cooking for her husband. The wife also seems to be at the mercy of her husband. In the story she invites Jack inside but warns him that her husband likes to eat little boys. Interpellation is shown in the idea that the giant has the control over his wife and her opinion on the welfare of Jack is irrelevant to him. As soon as the giant gets home, he demands dinner and his wife, who has already had it prepared, brings it to him right away. Again, this is reaffirming typical male and female gender roles in that it is the female’s responsibility to wait on her husband. Another good example of interpellation is when the male giant says “wife, bring me my bags of gold, and I will count my money before I take a nap” (11). The female giant seems to act like a servant to her husband; throughout the story he demands things and she brings them for him right away. It is also interesting that the husband is only concerned with eating, sleeping and money, which is a very typical depiction of males.

~ We are interpellated through religion, politics and the school systems.

Kingdom Hearts as a Child-Centered Text

            In the Playstation 2 game Kingdom Hearts , players are introduced to a young boy named Sora who is thrown into a struggle to save not one, but multiple worlds from a mysterious force known as the Heartless. Sora finds himself suddenly wielding a magical weapon called the Keyblade , which just happens to be the only thing that can fight the Heartless, and an artifact that Donald Duck and Goofy have been ordered by Mickey Mouse to find. Sora has a different mission- he is looking for his two best friends, Riku and Kairi , who disappeared when his world was destroyed by the Heartless. Together, Sora , Donald and Goofy venture to different worlds, meet many other Disney characters, and battle the Heartless in hopes of restoring balance to the worlds. However, their quest is much more complicated than saving the world from evil- the line between good and bad becomes blurred as the corrupting power of the Heartless affects Sora’s friends, and Sora himself must learn where his strength lies and decide whether or not to use it. At first, Kingdom Hearts appears to be a light fairy-tale about good fighting evil, but it soon becomes apparent that Sora and childlike characters like Donald and Goofy are dealing with issues not typically found in adult-centered texts, and more importantly, they are doing it without the aid of just, authoritative adults.

            The adults in Kingdom Hearts are a far cry from the knowledgeable, caring, strong individuals typically found in adult-centered texts. The first major group of adults consists of the villains from various Disney movies who are working together with the Heartless to take over their worlds. This group includes such characters as Jafar , Captain Hook and Maleficent, all of which are most likely already infamous to the player for their deeds in their respective films. The game presents them as completely irredeemable- they are evil, corrupt, and will stop at nothing to achieve their goals, even if it means dealing with the mysterious Heartless. Of course, one by one their plans backfire and they are either defeated by Sora or betrayed by the Heartless, which is a rather adult-centered way of dealing with bad adults. However, the second major group of adults makes up for this. These characters are the heroes that the villains originally battled- Aladdin, Tarzan and Jack Skellington , for example. While they are on Sora’s side, these characters are still far from all knowing and perfect, and can even act more like children than Sora does. Upon arriving in Halloween Town , for example, Sora , Donald and Goofy are shocked to see that Jack has recruited the Heartless in the annual Halloween festival. Fortunately, they soon learn that Jack doesn’t actually realize how dangerous they are- he just thinks they’re really scary-looking and would be a great addition to the celebration. In addition to these two groups of adults, Kingdom Hearts features adults that appear to be in positions of authority, but in reality have little or no power over children. In the world of The Little Mermaid , King Triton has lost much of his control over Ariel- the scene where he originally destroys all of her treasures becomes much less devastating in the game, where he only destroys an item that is later revealed to be useless anyway. In fact, Triton’s power as an authoritative figure is decreased so much that Ariel and Sora have to save him from Ursula. The game makes brief mention of Sora’s own family, but it is clear that like King Triton, they have very little control over Sora . His mother is heard once at the beginning of the game, where she calls him for dinner, but the same exact scene shows Sora sneaking out of the house through his bedroom window. After that, there is no mention at all of his parents- Sora doesn’t even appear to miss them. Mickey Mouse is the closest thing to a central authority figure the game has because he is the main reason why Donald and Goofy are exploring the worlds, and thus, the reason why Sora is brought along. He also knows much more about the invading Heartless and the Keyblade’s powers than anyone else. However, it is interesting to note that Mickey is more of a childlike character than an adult, due to his being an animal.  

            In addition to Mickey Mouse, Donald and Goofy are also very childlike. Donald still has a short temper and is very annoyed at the idea of the legendary Keyblade Master being a kid. He and Sora do not get along very well, but their arguments are small and childish, and they usually make amends shortly after. Goofy tries hard to be the mediator between the two, but he usually ends up doing what Donald tells him to avoid causing more trouble. Both characters display a large amount of agency late in the game when they are forced to make a difficult decision regarding being with Sora or following Mickey’s orders- Sora loses the Keyblade for a short time, during which Donald and Goofy leave him because they can’t let it out of their sight. However, Goofy soon realizes that Sora is too good a friend to just abandon and has a change of heart. Donald is a bit more stubborn, but sees Goofy’s point and rejoins them. Sora himself also has a huge amount of agency, possibly more than anyone else in the game. His agency is represented by the Keyblade , which is regarded as a symbol of great power in every world he visits. When he loses it, he can only get it back by realizing that its strength comes from his heart. Sora receives the Keyblade by resisting the Heartless when his world is destroyed- it recognizes that he is strong and good-hearted. When he learns of his destiny as the Keyblade Master, he embraces it rather than running from such a huge responsibility, if only because he hopes that it will lead him to his missing friends. One of Sora’s friends, Riku , also displays agency, but it comes at a price- instead of resisting the darkness that destroyed his and Sora’s world, Riku joins it and ends up being possessed by the leader of the Heartless. However, he realizes that he is being used to hurt his friends and fights back. In an attempt to atone for the things he did while working for the villains, Riku offers to help Sora seal off the Heartless, but this act will leave him trapped with the Heartless as a result. Sora is distressed at the thought of being separated again, but Riku insists, and his confidence in Sora allows them to seal away the Heartless.

            Kingdom Hearts still has some elements common to adult-centered texts, one of which is the mostly conservative plot. Sora is trying to restore the norm instead of change it, and the forces trying to cause change and disrupt the balance are the Heartless and the Disney villains. Even so, bringing order back to the worlds is not Sora’s main concern- to him it is just a means of finding his friends and repairing his own world. Sora also learns lessons throughout the game by interacting with the various characters within the Disney worlds. These morals typically connect back to Sora’s search for his friends- for example, Hercules and other competitors in the Olympus Coliseum teach him that true strength comes from friendship, and Tarzan teaches Sora that his friends are always with him if he keeps their thoughts in his heart. The lessons are highly didactic and Sora ultimately accepts them, but at the end of the game, it is clear to the player that he is still given the choice of acknowledging them or not. Finally, there is the question of what the Heartless truly represent. There is no doubt that the Heartless are pure evil- they corrupt everything they touch and bring out the very worst in anyone who deals with them. By looking at the Heartless as an adult- centeric theme, this could be a way of enforcing a common assumption about childhood- that they symbolize “adult” issues that children should not have to deal with. They could also represent the antithesis of an adult in an adult-centered text- they are called “heartless” because they are not capable of being caring, just, or anything that an adult is supposed to be. Then again, the Heartless could also represent a more child-centered view- that children have the ability to resist evil. Sora wields the Keyblade , which is the only weapon that can truly stop the Heartless, and he gains it by resisting the darkness. Meanwhile, Riku , who is a few years older than Sora and therefore less childlike, willingly joins the Heartless. Also, the adults who indulge in the evil perpetrated by the Heartless end up being defeated, or worse, completely swallowed by the darkness. However, the game makes it clear that it is not childlike innocence that allows Sora , Donald and Goofy to effectively fight the Heartless- as a child-centered theme, the Heartless represent a false sense of maturity and power that can only be overcome by a strong sense of right and wrong, friendship, and courageousness, which the trio have gained by working together. Riku also realizes this after being used by the Heartless, and therefore he also gains the ability to fight them.

            While Kingdom Hearts features didactic lessons and a conservative storyline, the focus of the game lies with the childlike characters. Sora has only enlisted himself in the fight against the Heartless because he hopes it will lead him to his friends. The Disney characters he meets throughout his journey act more childlike than he does, and even Mickey Mouse, the central authority figure of the game, is childlike. While there are some adult-centric ideas present in Kingdom Hearts , the game is mostly a child-centered text because the children and childlike characters act with a great amount of agency and deal with things that are typically not associated with common assumptions about childhood, while adult figures are either powerless, bad, or flawed and complicated themselves.

Assumptions of Children’s Literature as Seen in Tumble Tower

            Anne Tyler’s first children’s book, Tumble Tower , fits several classic assumptions about children’s literature while it breaks down others.   The simple story relates an incident of a flood that enables Princess Molly the Messy, a member of a tidy and neat royal family, to rescue her them through her messiness, and ultimately shows the value of her individuality.   With its bright, quirky pictures by Mitra Modarressi , the story’s look and length fit the typical case prototype of a children’s book easily. However, examining Tumble Tower using Perry Nodelman’s findings on typical expectations of children’s literature reveals that the story bucks several norms.  

            The main area where Tyler strays from classic patterns involves the message of the story.   Molly’s messiness ends up being a comfort to her fastidiously clean family when a flood forces them up to her “ Tumble Tower ” ( Tyler 15), seeking a dry refuge.   By the end of tale, Molly’s room is neither condemned nor cleaned; Molly is also never directly praised for her messiness, but the other family members loosen up their own neatness standards by the book’s close.   Nodelman’s compilation of classic expectations for children’s literature reveals that most people feel stories “should teach valuable lessons about life” ( Nodelman 73), yet Tyler ’s message of messiness is hardly valued in our culture.  

Through Tyler ’s text and Modarressi’s artwork, Molly is presented as an able individual because of her untidy ways, a huge difference between herself and the other family members.   In fact, Tyler even suggests that messiness may not only come in handy, but it could also be a means of rescue.   Tyler ’s portrayal of messiness hardly establishes an example of generally “acceptable behavior” ( Nodelman 73), and instead, shows negative behavior “that…children might choose to imitate” ( Nodelman 73).   Clearly Nodelman’s research argues that most people associate positive values and behaviors with children’s literature. Unkempt behavior is certainly not an upheld value in our society, thus Tyler shows a turning-away from the format of a typically didactic child’s book.  

            However, parts of the story do embody typical ideas about children’s literature (though sometimes with a twist).   One such twist relates to the belief that “children are innocent by nature, blissfully naïve and inherently good” ( Nodelman 73).   In Tumble Tower , Molly’s parents and brother refer to her messy behavior in a way that shows their personal disapproval of it, but they never ask her to make a change or clean her room.   Thus, Molly never disobeys her parents because a specific request, which she could obey, is never present.   Furthermore, as the book progresses, each manifestation of Molly’s clutter finds glorification in the eyes of friends and her family.   Molly’s playmate considers the jumble a treasure-trove of riches.   Her old, outgrown clothes on the floor warm her little brother, her dirty dishes and leftovers feed her hungry parents and the books in bed are at arm’s reach for story time (14, 21-24).   In essence, Tyler portrays Molly as innocent and kindhearted, sharing her space and using all she has for good, even though her disorderly ways would typically be naughty behavior.   Tyler spins a web of opposites, showing innocence in a slovenly room.

            Tyler ’s story also fits the mold of a typical children’s book when she plots a tale that “children […] can relate to: [a story] about typical childhood experiences” ( Nodelman 72).   Clearly, a messy room relates almost universally to all children who might enjoy a tale about this quality.   However, Tyler treats messiness much differently than many parents would by showing its benefits, not its repulsiveness.   Also, Nodelman supposes that most adults think of   “ children [as] egocentric…and they aren’t interested in matters outside their own immediate experience” (73), a thought which Tyler follows, too.   Most children posses messiness seemingly inherently and would revel in a book about their way of life.   On the other hand, some children are especially clean and neat and may relate to Molly’s brother or parents, neat-nicks by nature.   Tyler provides a character to identify with, no matter who the young reader is.  

            Tumble Tower represents an interesting blend of standard formats and counter-culture messages.   Though the story is didactic, its message teaches the individuality of personality in children.   By the book’s close, the parents and uptight brother learn from Molly’s example and laid-back attitude, a quality of a child-centered text, used to show Molly’s agency.   The book is simple, and it seems to fit a typical-case prototype’s mold at first glance.   However, though the point Tyler communicates is hidden amidst silliness, the plotline ultimately retains its own individuality in the realm of children’s literature and sets the story apart from common assumptions about children’s literature.      

A Closer Look into “Mary Poppins ”

            The classic Disney movie “Mary Poppins ” is a wonderful story of how a stereotypical, upper class family in London has their world turned upside down by their new nanny.   Even though the movie is one of the most popular Disney films it shows some underlying examples of interpellation.   There are also some issues of agency that display the intricate way that Mary Poppins changes the degree of agency in the household.

            When watching the film and trying to figure out who has agency over whom it seemed difficult because of the fact that there are several characters that are involved.   When the film begins everything seems to be typical when it comes to agency.   Mr. Banks is the man of the house and tells everyone what to do and everyone in return obeys him.   The first song Mr. Banks sings is about how proud he was of how orderly his life was.   He felt that it was his duty to give commands and do everything in the exact order that they were supposed to be done in a stereotypical sense.   It seemed that all was in order and that order was given by Mr. Banks alone.   The minute that Mary Poppins comes into their door the agency is taken away from Mr. Banks immediately.   Even though he has no idea that he no longer has power because of the fact that Mary Poppins is wise enough to know that if she lets him think that he tells her what to do and that he comes up with all of the ideas then he will never know.   This does create a slight fight for power between Mr. Banks and Mary Poppins because Mary always has to stay one step ahead of Mr. Banks and he is always a very close step behind her.   When the dynamics of the household become so happy and seemingly perfect Mr. Banks is angry because he can almost feel himself losing his power which is what causes him to become so bossy.   When things involve Jane and Michael they are not directly given any agency but seems to be able to take some of the agency away in certain circumstances.   Anytime they seemed to disobey an adult it was either a misunderstanding or they were quickly turned around.   The only obvious time that agency was displayed by the children was when Michael was at the bank and he was adamant that his money go to feeding the birds instead of in the bank.   When Mary, Bert and the children jumped into the picture they were able to go out on their own for awhile without supervision but that would be the person with the agency allowing them to have a little leeway.   Mary gave them chances to be their own judge but she was always there to pull them back and take over when things were out of hand.   She allowed agency to be taken when there was a lesson to be taught in letting them go.   After Mary has accomplished what she came to do, which would be to show the family how to be a family and how to have fun and take the time they have and cherish it, she allowed the agency to be taken back by Mr. Banks.   It was very interesting to see how manipulative Mary could be when dealing with people and getting her way; it was apparent that she was an expert at stealing agency from others.  

            This film drips with interpellation even though it is not always obvious.   The first example that comes up is the fact that Mr. Banks has the final say in everything and that is played out as if it should be that way.   I found it ironic that the spunk Mrs. Banks had when Mr. Banks was not around was astounding but that changed as soon as he enters the picture.   She is introduced in the film as a women’s rights activist and how she protests all the time and is incredibly active in things that could easily get her arrested; when Mr. Banks is home she is extremely submissive.   For example when she is leaving the house to go to a protest Mr. Banks runs into her at the door and tells her to sit down and start taking notes and immediately she then replies “yes dear” with a smile and obeys.   Though there may be some sarcasm meant by the writers of the film it still says to society that it is okay to have your own opinions as a women but when it comes to her husband she better be obedient and believe what he says.   Mrs. Banks opinions are totally contradictory to things that Mr. Banks says but when she talks to him she agrees with everything he says.   Something else that was interesting is that Mary Poppins is continuously viewed as being “practically perfect in every way” which makes people believe that she is the ideal women.   Her description is rosy cheeks, never cross or cheery disposition, she is thin, and this is what most would consider very ladylike as well; this all points to what women are continuously told to be.   When Mary, Bert and the children are in the painting and they get on Merry-go-round horses Mary rode the lavender one with a smug ladylike look on its face, Jane rode the pink one with long eyelashes, Michael rode the blue one with slit eyes and Bert rode the orange one.   Even though this was a small detail of the movie it still displays what girls and boys should be like and what colors they should wear.   When the children went to the bank with their father the whole trip was centered on Michael, even though Jane went along he was the one that was supposed to invest his money and see what his dad does.   The thought of Jane investing her money in the bank was never even thought of or even the idea that she had any money.   Men are supposed to take care of all the money and be the ones that earn it and that is what the whole bank trip reinforced.   Michael always seems to be the one taking the action, in the end when they go fly a kite Michael is the one flying it with his father and Jane and Mrs. Banks are in the background watching.   And when the children run from the bank and Bert grabs Jane she is the one that’s helpless and Michael is trying to get him off.   The film interpellates us to think that the men are supposed to be the ones acting on their feelings and saving people and even thinking.   The only dominant role that a women plays in the film are the cook, maid and nanny; Mary Poppins is a controversial character because of her ability to do as she pleases even around men but she still plays right into the stereotype that the male should be in the dominant seat. The film does seem to have a hint of sarcasm about the role of the women as stated earlier but in the end it seems to be just a bit of humor that does not disprove the interpellation.  

            In the end everything is “as is should be” says Mary Poppins as she leaves.   Apparently “as it should be” means that the father is back in a domineering role although he is a bit more relaxed and the mother is still beneath him.   Things seem to all fall into the stereotypical place that society likes for them to be in both in terms of agency and interpellation.   It seems as if in this case interpellation coincides with agency which seems to put the happy ending to the movie.

In Disney and Pixar’s A Bug’s Life , there are many characters that attempt to gain agency by resisting interpellation—in both its ideological and repressive forms.   The movie is about a colony of ants that spends most of its time gathering grain for the grasshoppers, who intimidate and frighten them into doing it.   It leaves the ants little time to gather food for themselves before the rainy season begins, but it is a part of their culture, and so they continue to repeat the tradition year after year.   In the beginning of the movie, the ants are preparing their yearly offering when it is ruined by Flik , an ant in the colony.   The grasshoppers are very angry and demand that they gather twice the amount of food before the last leaf falls.   Flik decides to travel to the “city” to find “warrior” bugs to help fight off the grasshoppers.   He finds what he thinks are warrior bugs, but are actually circus bugs, who in turn think that Flik is a talent scout.   They travel back with him to the colony, impress everyone, and then discover their real purpose for being there.   They end up staying however, and the ants come up with a plan to keep away the grasshoppers—they make a bird to scare them.   They all work together, but in the end their plan is foiled.   Flik , however, stands up for the colony, the grasshoppers are scared away, and the head grasshopper, Hopper, gets eaten by a bird.   In the end the ants no longer have to gather food for the grasshoppers—only themselves.  

The first character I wanted to talk about that demonstrates resistance of interpellation is Flik .   Flik is like the black sheep of the ants, but only because he’s trying to help out but ends up making things worse.   The main problem is that through trying to make things better for the colony, he brings in new ideas that the colony is not willing to accept.   They are so stuck in their old ways/traditions, that anything new seems threatening or bad.   For example, at the beginning of the movie, Flik comes up with an invention that will cut down grain stalks, so that it’s easier to gather the grain, instead of having to crawl up the stalk and get each grain piece by piece.   The problem is, the invention isn’t perfect at first and almost injures Princess Atta .   One of Atta’s advisors gets angry with Flik and says to him, “. . . You wanna help us build this thing, then get rid of that machine, get back in line, and pick grain like everyone else!”   The advisor is essentially telling Flik that he needs to fit in with the rest of the colony—be interpellated —in order to help the colony.   He is almost repressively interpellated , in that the other ants try to force him to act like everyone else.   Another advisor (a bit older than the first) even says, “We’ve harvested the same way since I was a pupae .”   This provides the viewer with the information that almost every ant but Flik is dedicated to preserving their culture and traditions—everyone else is ideologically interpellated —they all want to work hard just like they feel they are supposed to.   An example of this is while the ants are in line to deposit their grains onto the pile; a leaf falls on the path of the line, and the ant it falls in front of freaks out.   All of the other ants know so firmly what is expected of them that when anything different is expected, they can’t handle it—they are interpellated to do exactly as every other ant does .   When that is impossible, they flip out.  

Flik resists interpellation, which also provides him with agency.   There are several examples of this throughout the movie, one of which is the way that he stands up to Hopper.   In the beginning of the movie, he tells Hopper to leave Dot (Princess Atta’s sister) alone, and then at the end of the movie he gets beaten up by Hopper because he admits that the making of the bird was his idea.   He tells Hopper that ants aren’t meant to serve grasshoppers and are a lot stronger because they are so numerous.   In this way, Flik gains agency because he acts on behalf of himself and admits that he resisted interpellation purposefully.

Another example of Flik gaining agency is when he left the colony.   He thinks that he’s leaving of his own will, but in actuality the princess and her counsel were going to probably kick him out, due to his resistance of interpellation.   The colony did not like that someone tried to be different than what was expected of them, and were willing to punish Flik because of it—another example of how their interpellation is repressive.   Flik , however, decides to go off on his own to try (again) to help his colony.   He acts as a free agent in that sense—it was his idea to leave, although he did have to get permission.

Another resister of interpellation is the ladybug.   The ladybug is actually a male, but is constantly being hit on by males and assumed to be den mother to the Blueberries (Dot’s scout group).   He usually gets pretty angry when this happens, and tries to inform the other bugs that he is a male and being a ladybug does not necessarily make him a lady.   In the end, however, he becomes more feminine, due to his affiliation with the Blueberries.   In contrast is Heimlich, the caterpillar who desperately wants to fit in with his species by growing wings and becoming a butterfly.   He mentions this several times during the movie, and finally at the end we see him fall out of his cocoon with teeny wings on his back, which, because he is so fat, can’t help him to fly.   However, he is incredibly happy because as a caterpillar, he wanted so badly to go through the same transformation that other caterpillars go through—due to ideological interpellation.   In this way, Heimlich is a foil for the ladybug—they represent opposing desires and goals.

Additionally, Dot is a marked contrast to her sister, Atta .   Dot is younger and likes Flik because he is different, while Atta is older and more worrisome, and she doesn’t like Flik because he makes her look bad.   As leader of the colony, everything is Atta’s responsibility, including things that go wrong (Hopper informs her of this).   Dot is very rebellious and attempts to gain agency in a few ways, the first of which is trying to use her wings to fly before they were fully grown.   She knows that she’s not supposed to, but she tries anyways because she is a free-spirit.   However, her desire to fly could also be attributed to interpellation—she wants to be able to do what everyone else is able to.   But Dot also demonstrates agency by leading the Blueberries into hiding from the grasshoppers when they come to collect their grain at the end of the season.   She goes on her own to find Flik to bring him back and help the rest of the colony—and this time she is able to fly.   Her ability to fly and the complete growth of her wings can be interpreted as a symbol of her independence and power.   When she finds Flik , she gives him a rock (to represent a seed) to remind him of what he told her in the beginning of the movie: she may be just a small seed, but she will one day grow into a big, strong tree and be able to do anything.   So Dot, the little girl, teaches Flik , the young man, a lesson, which helps her to gain agency.  

In contrast is Princess Atta , who tries throughout the movie to follow successfully in her mother’s footsteps.   Atta is ideologically interpellated to believe that she must be infallible in order to govern the colony.   She seems very rule-oriented and unable to function unless she knows what it is she is expected to do.   She seems to be unable to simply observe a situation and come up with an answer—she has to know what was done in the past, what her mother did, etc.   In this way, Princess Atta is deeply interpellated ; she can’t even think outside of what is expected of her.   However, by the end of the movie, Atta gains agency, in that she is crowned as Queen by her mother, who apparently decides that she is ready.   Atta also resists interpellation—she saves Flik by grabbing him and flying off with him.   He tells her to fly away from the ant hill while it is raining (which is very dangerous for the ants), and she responds that the ant hill is the other way.   It would be in her nature to return to the ant hill in a time of danger, but she resists and listens to Flik , who leads her and Hopper (who is following them) to a bird’s nest, and the bird eats Hopper.  

Some of the characters in the movie resisted interpellation in a healthy way, and some were interpellated in a healthy way, but some were also interpellated in an unhealthy way.   Heimlich’s following was healthy because it made him very happy to become a butterfly; Dot, Atta , and Flik were all happier after representing their individualism and gaining agency; and the colony were interpellated to such an extent that they could not function if anything changed.   In the end, however, everyone recognized that change was good, because everyone started using Flik’s invention and relaxing a bit more—they had no more grasshoppers to gather for, only themselves, and they had plenty of time, as Flik’s invention sped up the process.

Meta-textual sources call attention to themselves as a created thing by being self-referential, breaking the fourth wall or defamiliarizing their audience.   This causes the source, whether it is television, movies or books to recognize itself as what it is, and for the audience to also realize that they are indeed only an audience and are not actually a part of what they are witnessing.   Meta-textual sources do not offer the experience in which one gets lost in what they are watching or reading, instead it causes the audience to do the opposite and remember exactly what it is that they are doing.   This paper will reflect some of these meta-textual ideas by giving examples of ways these ideas can be portrayed.

            When watching Full House as a kid I felt as if I was right there on stage with DJ, Stephanie and Michelle.   I loved the close nit family that they shared and when watching it nearly every night on television after school, I began to feel a part of it as well.   Those girls were my sisters and the experiences they went through seemed to always be exactly what I was feeling as well.   Sitting in the middle of my living room floor I would be completely engrossed in what was happening on TV that I would not even remember where I actually was.   The final episode was tragic because it seemed like my family was leaving me forever; however, that alone was not enough but the editor of the series probably made the biggest mistake it ever could.   Once the episode was over, without any commercial interruptions, the cast lined up across the kitchen floor and took a bow and I heard the roar of an audience.   The camera paneled up, through the fourth wall of the set and showed me what I never knew had existed, because there, giving a standing ovation, were tons of fans of the show watching as the cast took their final bow.   Not once in any episode had I ever wondered why I had never seen that fourth wall of the kitchen, bedroom, living room or garage, instead it seemed like I was actually there in the midst of it all with the fourth wall behind me.   Finding out that Full House was actually a television show and that Michelle, Stephanie and DJ were all actors and were not related to each other or me in any way completely broke my heart, and I still have not forgotten that feeling to this day.   Breaking the fourth wall completely ruins the feeling of getting lost in the episode, and takes away all closeness the audience ever shared with the cast.

            In the movie Monty-Python and the Holy Grail, the cast chooses to act without the use of many props, or the ones that you would typically expect, and also the plot and scene location is oddly chosen; yet, the movie gives off the appearance that all of this is taking place during medieval times.   The main character is acting as if he is the King, and goes throughout the countryside, not on horseback but followed by his sidekick with clinking coconuts, claiming that he needs to find the Holy Grail.   Watching throughout the entire movie the audience is thinking that they have been taken back in time, until the very end when cop cars pull up to the actors, get out and start arresting them.   The director closes the scene and all of the extra characters in the background take a knee and rest while the cops are asking what is going on.   The main character claims that they are just filming a movie, however the cops still shut down their attempts anyway.   This is a prime example of a movie being self-referential because it dedicated an entire scene to show the audience that they are not back in medieval times, but are actually in the rural countryside of modern day Europe .  

            The first scary movie that I ever saw was Scream when I was about eleven years old.   I had never been more terrified in my life, and the first time I saw little through cracked fingers over my face.   But as I continued to watch it, literally over ten times, and as the sequels came out they became my favorite and always promised a good scare.   Then during the first few years of high school, stupid comedies began to be the biggest blockbuster hits and with these came the release of Scary Movie.   At first it did not seem appealing to me, but eventually I was dragged by one of my friends and this comedy brought about an entire new meaning to my favorite scary movie series.   Seeing that goofy looking scream mask with the tongue sticking out, and watching the horrible acting of a girl running from the killer completely defamiliarized me to the movies that I loved most.   After seeing this new series of “scary movies” I got together with a group of friends to actually watch the real Scream series, and we could barely make it through the first half of the first movie before we were laughing our heads off.   I wish I had never seen those movies because then I would still be able to sit down and watch them and get a good scare every now and then.

            In conclusion, I feel as though meta-textual texts are an entity of their own and are capable of providing entertainment if that is what the audience is in the mood for; however, if the audience is not expecting it and it is not planned properly, as I feel in the Full House situation, it can ruin the audience’s experience and their connection that they once shared with the show.   If one knows that what they are going to be seeing is funny, fictional and is established in order to provide them with a good laugh, then I feel that meta-textual sources are capable of providing great entertainment for the people that experience it.

            In Shel Silverstein’s picture book, The Giving Tree , many of Nodelman’s common assumptions are reinforced and challenged throughout.   The book does have an emotionally powerful story that shows a tree sacrificing itself over the years to make the boy happy. In many ways the tree is like the boys mother, who would sacrifice anything for their child just to bring them happiness.   The tree having human qualities, such as speech and the ability to feel emotions, gives the book a fantasy aspect which is one of the common assumptions found by Nodelman .   This factor does make the book more appealing to children by appealing to the imagination but uses this to bring about more serious themes which many wouldn’t assume to be in a children’s book.

            The tree being represented as a mother figure is used to challenge many of the common assumptions.   The tree starts out loving the boy for no apparent reason besides he is there like a mother would love a newborn baby. As a child the boy plays all the time with the tree and as he grows up he begins to only come to the tree when he wants something.   The tree acts as an old woman being visited by her son in a retirement home, asking the boy to spend time with it by climbing up the trunk and swinging from the vines, only to have him wanting material objects.   Instead of money and the old family house, the boy takes the trees precious apples and the majority of the trees body to build a house and a boat.   The ending is bittersweet for the tree which gets what it wanted all along, to just be with the boy, but the tree has been reduced to an old stump because of him.   The tree is like an old woman who sacrificed her medication money for their son and is dying because of it, but still feels happiness to have that same son come and visit them.   Such an ending does go against the common assumption of having a happy ending, because the mother figure in the story is taken advantage of and the son of the story doesn’t learn a lesson at the end which leaves the reader with an ambiguous ending.

            The ambiguous ending does challenge the assumption of teaching valuable lessons about life in a fun way.   It is true that the valuable lesson in this book could be interpreted as to never take advantage of a mothers love, but there is nothing funny about the mother figure in the book being used up at the end and the so called “boy” as an old man near death. It could be seen that the old man came to the tree to die; he says that he needs “just a quiet place to sit and rest.   I am very tired.”   The boys’ tiredness would probably not be seen as being near death in most children’s minds, but parents should notice the subtleties.   The image of the only human character in the book being shown right before death is definitely not a typical happily ever after ending.  

            The two characters in The Giving Tree rely on each for different things.   The Tree relies on the boy for his happiness and company, while the Boy relies on the Tree for the different objects it can provide him.   The two are on common grounds at the end when the only thing the Tree can offer the boy is a seat and its company, and all the boy wants is a place to sit.   But throughout the story the Boy and the Tree aren’t the most positive of role models which challenges one of the common assumptions about children’s literature.   The Boy doesn’t realize that he is hurting the Tree and cares only about himself, asking it to sacrifice itself for his own good.   The Boy does love the tree, but smiles while carving his name into the tree which would hurt a living emotional creature such as the tree.   The trees desperation for love seems rather pathetic as it willing gives up its body to him, also the fact that everything it gives up was its own idea and not the Boys adds to her desperation.   A positive role model would be confident and show dignity, which are two qualities that neither of these characters posses.

            At the start of the story when the Boy is actually a boy, he seems like more of a role model possessing innocent qualities much like the children reading the book would contain.   As the story the progresses the boy’s age drastically changes from child to teenager to adult to elder to a frail dying old man.   Such a variety of ages couldn’t possibly be related to by a child of any age and thus goes against the common assumption that children only like books they can relate to.   The child innocence the boy possessed is the only stage of the Boys life any child could truly understand.   The desires for a wife and a home are things which children never desire.    But they are aware of these things from interacting with the adults in their life, just not able to fully comprehend the need for such grown up things. A child could most likely understand the Tree and its need to make the Boy happy since many children would do anything to make their parents happy.

            One of the most disturbing ways that the Tree tries to make the boy happy is when it tells him to cut it down so he can make a boat out of it.    This leaves the tree as nothing more but a stump, which is what is left of a tree after it was chopped down and killed.   But the tree remains alive and says how it isn’t really happy when in the past it has been happy to sacrifice itself for the Boy.   This makes the image of the Boy carrying away the tree seem frightening because its true that the branches and the apples could be seen as part of its body but taking away its trunk seems like taking away its whole body, leaving its soul in the stump.   This challenges the common assumption that frightening images can’t be shown in children’s stories.   It’s true that the cutting down of the tree is not nearly as grotesque as cutting an actual person in half, but the tree is a character in the book with emotional resonance with the reader.   So, cutting the tree down is the emotional equivalent of cutting a character in half and could be a frightening image to many children.   

            In Shel Silverstein’s picture book, The Giving Tree , many of Nodelman’s common assumptions are reinforced and challenged throughout.   The book does challenge more than reinforce many of Nodelman’s listed common assumption or typical case prototypes.   The story starts out more accustomed to children’s common assumptions, but drifts into more of an emotion heavy story that challenges many of the prototypes in order to get the theme across.   The story maintains its status as a children’s book because of the human qualities associated with the tree and the pictures, even though they are not bright.   The theme is evident in the story and should be realized by most children after multiple readings and talks with their parents.

            When I was little, there was no public library where I lived. A service was started when I was five years old called The Bookmobile that would come to our county every three weeks. It would park at specific sights and people could come and check out books or read magazines. To this day, I vividly remember the first book I ever checked out—Dr. Seuss’ Green Eggs and Ham . I was absolutely fascinated by the book. I remember how shiny and new it was compared to the Bible story books and fairy tale books that I had, and how it was filled with wild and wacky looking creatures. I read it over and over and tried my best to see how fast and far I could read the different sections without taking a breath. If I could read the last section starting with, “Say! I like green eggs and ham!” all the way to the end where it said “Thank you Sam-I-Am” (59-62) without taking a breath, I considered it a victory worthy of the title “World Rhyme Reading Without Taking a Breath Distance Champ.”

            Of course at that time I wasn’t concerned with whether anyone thought this was an appropriate book for children, I just knew that I liked reading it. However, if you were searching for a book that reinforced the typical case prototype which Perry Nodelman wrote about, then this book could be the poster child for this type of book. For example, one of the assumptions Nodelman points out is the belief that children’s books should have simple texts. In this book, if you count the hyphenated name of the character Sam-I-Am, there are only two words in the entire book that are larger than five letters long. The other word is anywhere, which like Sam-I-Am, can be separated into words of less than five letters. It’s almost as if the goal from the start was, “Let me see if I can write a book for kids with words no bigger than five letters so I know they can understand and read it. I’ll make an exception for anywhere because it stresses the importance of the idea of eating what we’re given, and it can be broken down into words a child can understand.”

            Not only the words are simple, but the illustrations are simple, being a few steps above a line drawing. There are only six different colors used in the entire book, which makes it visually simple—almost like a children’s carton of the 1950’s and 60’s, which is when the book was written. The creatures are extremely imaginative, but even though they are fantastic, they are not in any way threatening, for threatening and scary creatures are a no-no in the typical case prototype.  

The very nature of the rhyming, as in, “I would not, could not, in a box. I could not, would not, with a fox.” (34), is also indicative of the assumption that is sometimes made that children’s poetry should rhyme or they will not understand or enjoy it. It also reinforces the assumptions that children have short attention spans and learning must be made fun. For instance, while the book itself is fairly long for a picture book, most of the pages contain little text. Also the rhyming, rhythmic nature of the words encourages young readers to make a game of the rhymes, just as I did as a child. The premise is that this will keep the children from being bored and will “trick” them into continuing to read even when the pages contain more text.  

            Green Eggs and Ham also supports the contention that books should teach a lesson or moral. While it is not didactic to the point that it specifically says, “Eat whatever your parents tell you to eat or whatever they give you,” that lesson is made perfectly clear when the unnamed main character eats the green eggs and ham and is rewarded by having something new that is good to eat. This lesson is also not given as a directive that should be obeyed without question. Rather the lesson is you shouldn’t be stubborn. You should be reasonable—“Try them! And you may (like them).” (53) I think this aspect of the book, despite the simple words and pictures, makes the book very adult centered. It is also very adult centered in that the book has a happy ending. In the beginning of the book, the unnamed character very specifically states, “I do not like that Sam-I-Am” ( 9 ) and “I do not like green eggs and ham.” However, by the end of the book he has tried them and discovered that green eggs and ham “are so good, so good, you see!”, and he and Sam-I-Am are now friends. This friendship is evidenced by a change in attitude and body language, and most obviously by his putting his arm around Sam-I-Am at the end of the book (62).

It does deviate, however, from the traditional child and adult roles in some ways. One way it does this is in the characteristics of the two main characters. Although the smaller, child-sized character of Sam-I-Am keeps asking “Would you…?” much like a child tends to ask “Why?,” he is obviously in the role of the nagging adult who keeps trying to get the larger, newspaper reading character to eat the green eggs and ham. The larger character is also childlike because of his very stubbornness, which in the assumptions Nodelman wrote about could be considered the opposite of maturity and adulthood. It is possible this role reversal was done as a devise to stress how unreasonable it is to act in this way. Being stubborn and unreasonable is the opposite of how an adult would act, so therefore this type of behavior is shown to be even more undesirable and incorrect and children should strive to behave like Sam-I-Am.

While this book is in most ways a typical case prototype, this is not necessarily a bad thing. Every child is different, with different reading levels, interests, and levels of maturity. To say that only one style of book is good for children and should be read by children is to limit them and possibly foster bad connotations with reading. I know that this is not what Nodelman is advocating; rather he is attempting to point out that there is a lack of logic and consistency in these assumptions. I loved this book as a child and still love it now. Green Eggs and Ham gave me an opportunity to play with and enjoy reading at a level I was comfortable with at that time. It also encouraged me to try and make up my own rhymes and fantastic creatures.   There is a very important place for this type of children’s book, just as there is an important place for books which challenge children and make them think about sometimes difficult subjects. I know that I loved this book as a child and I still love it now. All of my boys loved it and my ten year old still takes it out sometimes just to have the fun of reading, listening, or playing with the rhymes. I’m sure they will probably read it to their children one day, but I know I’m still the “World Rhyme Reading Without Taking a Breath Distance Champ,” –at least in my family.

         Of all the books we will read in class this semester, perhaps none challenge the typical case prototype quite like The Bad Beginning from Lemony Snicket’s A Series of Unfortunate Events.  It practically spits in the face of nearly all common assumptions what children’s books and childhood in general should be.   Many, certainly most, children’s books are based upon at least some of the notions of childhood that we’ve discussed: children’s books should be colorful, simple, and cheery to keep the attention of the simple-minded, easily distracted child.  They should not tell of death, violence, or evil, nor should they present scary or threatening situations because children do not really understand what “evil” is, and they may try to imitate the bad behavior which they encounter.  Kids need to have good examples set for them so that they will grow into good, clear-thinking adults, and they need to have these lessons taught to them in a fun way because children, as a rule, don’t like to learn or be taught. But the Lemony Snicket books clearly do not hold the listed assumptions as truth, instead presenting the strong, smart Baudelaire children to prove each generalization false.  Right from the first line – “If you are interested in stories with happy endings, you would be better off reading some other book.” – we know that this is not your typical children’s book.  It opens with a death, features the children in uncomfortable and miserable situations, and describes only darkness and pain.  In a more traditional children’s book, few, if any, of these events would take place, and if they did occur then it would be made clear that there is an overwhelming goodness that will eventually provide for a happy ending.          The characters are not what one would expect either.  Violet is a fourteen-year-old inventor, Klaus is twelve and a brilliant reader, and even the infant Sunny is very bright but has trouble saying what she means with only baby-talk.  Adult characters are either evil geniuses or bumbling fools who refuse to take the orphans seriously.  The Baudelaire orphans cannot turn to a trusted adult for help in their hardships; they must rely on their own intellect and cunning to save themselves .  Indeed, it is the adults that they are most often fighting against.  This is also quite uncommon.  Usually, grown-ups are there to help and guide the children; it is still quite controversial for an adult to be portrayed in such a negative light.  Furthermore, children are conventionally shown to need help and guidance, but here the Baudelaires prove themselves to be remarkably self-sufficient.  The children are intelligent, eager to learn, and able to think about and react to the situation at hand.        Another relatively uncommon feature of this book is that it is not didactic in any traditional sense.  The adults in the story are certainly not role models, and they do not display behavior that a parent would wish their child to imitate.  There is no moral, no happy ending, and no clear “good path” to take.  The children succeed because they are different from the adults, not because they have been assimilated into miniature versions of them.  Typically this sort of writing makes some parents nervous that their children will learn to be rebellious, but really the author is depicting these children’s mental autonomy and ability to make their own decisions and forge their own path.        Because it is so vastly different from the typical case prototype of a children’s book, The Bad Beginning helps the reader to question some of the common assumptions about children, mainly that they are simple-minded and cannot understand complex situations.  This is most readily shown when Mr. Poe comes to the shore to tell the Baudelaire children that their parents have died: “‘Your parents,’ Mr. Poe said, ‘have perished in a terrible fire…‘Perished’ means ‘killed.’”  Here we have these brilliant children faced with the horrible death of their parents, and all Mr. Poe can think is that he might be using words that are too big for them.  “‘We know what the word ‘perished’ means,’ Klaus said crossly.”  The children are fully aware of what is happening to them; furthermore they realize that Mr. Poe is being condescending, and they don’t appreciate his looking down on them.          But this is what the children are used to dealing with.  In fact, they are unsure of how to act around the friendly Justice Strauss because they “were not used to kindness from adults, and weren’t sure if they were expected to do anything back.”  Far from being as “childish” as the adults seem to think, the Baudelaire orphans work themselves out of situations that seem way beyond their control, using their wits and superior intellect to rescue each other time and time again from the evil plans of Count Olaf. By challenging the common assumptions about what a children’s book should be and what childhood should be , The Bad Beginning proves itself to be a very progressive text.  It distances itself from the conventional cheery brightness of so many “fluffy” books and actually acknowledges that children aren’t always happy and playful.  Much of children’s literature seems to overlook the fact that kids can hurt and feel pain; the Lemony Snicket books seem to revel in it.  But rather than being the simple creatures that we are used to seeing in so many children’s books, the Baudelaires are fighters and not easily defeated.  And rather than struggling against a dragon or monster, they fight against the adults who try to take advantage of them. The Bad Beginning goes counter to every traditional assumption listed in the beginning of this paper.  It’s dark, dreary, child-centered, and full of dangerous adults – everything that many people think a children’s book should avoid.   And yet, the Series of Unfortunate Events has become one of the most popular and highly-regarded series around.  By producing a body of work so fresh and different, Lemony Snicket has created a world that draws readers in and provides a much broader look at childhood and the children’s book than stories such as The Littlest Elf ™ could ever hope to do .

            “Boy Meets World” episode 1-6 Boys II Mensa , is didactic in the sense that we learn a lesson from the experiences and mistakes of young Cory Matthews. From the opening scene through the end of the show the viewer witnesses Cory’s attempts to please and impress the adults in his life. His admiration of grown-ups, along with his character’s portrayal of the stereotypical “imperfect child,” makes this a very adult-centered text.

The first character displayed in the opening scene is that of Cory’s intelligent teacher, Mr. Feeney. He is passing out book reports, showing his superiority by dressing in a suit and standing tall, requiring the sitting students, whose papers he just evaluated, to look up to him. The viewer then sees Cory putting on a clown nose and making silly faces. His behavior is quite a contradiction to the composed and dignified teacher in the scene, leaving the audience with an impression that adults are more perfect than children. Mr. Feeney does not punish Cory for misbehaving in class, but instead, in a disappointed tone, says, “Mr. Matthews,” which demonstrates his respect for the child and reminds Cory of his adult presence. This presence is intended to correct the child’s fallacy and get him back on track. The “track” is a pathway to a more perfect world, the adult world.

As Mr. Feeney continues to pass out the book reports he congratulates a student, named Rick, for his efforts. He then returns Cory’s paper, saying that the report was not one of his better efforts. This causes a sudden change in Cory’s expression. He is no longer smiling and appears confused. Cory glances at Rick’s paper and discovers that they both received the same grade. Still wearing the clown nose, Cory tells Mr. Feeney, “Hey this isn’t fair. Rick and I both got C’s. How come you tell him he did good work and you tell me it wasn’t one of my better efforts?” With this statement the child is desperately seeking the adult’s approval and praise. He appears frantic and upset that his teacher isn’t satisfied with him, which gives the adult the power role in the story line. Mr. Feeney, who unlike Cory, is very collected in his appearance, thoughts, and behavior informs Cory that Rick worked hard for his C and Mr. Feeney respects him for it. The teacher then looks down at Cory still wearing his large red foam nose and suggests that he not waste his time being the class clown. Cory’s concern with Mr. Feeney’s opinion of him will later cause the child to do anything, even misbehave, in attempt to impress the adults in his life.

In this episode Shawn, Cory’s best friend, finds an IQ test in the trashcan after both boys finish their detention sentence. Then, a janitor walks by the misbehaving boys, bringing an adult presence to the scene which symbolically reminds the boys that they are “doing wrong.” When Shaun sees the adult, he hides the paper behind his back and smiles in attempt to depict “the innocent child.” As though reciting what an adult had once told him, Cory objects to the idea of reading answers to a test that he will soon be taking. He then contradicts himself, by looking at the test, because he wants Mr. Feeney to think that he is a genius. He knows the “right thing” to do, but demonstrates his stereotypical inability to make a wise decision, probably because the choice was not assisted by an adult.

            The scene then changes to Cory’s home. His mom and younger sister, Morgan, are discussing when Morgan can get a Halloween costume. The mom tells Morgan that she is very busy with work but that Eric, the oldest son, will take her shopping. Eric enters the room and asks Morgan, “Want to learn how to be a big girl?” Morgan with great excitement answers, “Yeah!” This sends the message to the children viewing the show that being a “big girl” or grown-up is more desirable than being a child. Eric responds to her excitement by saying, “Because big girls know how to take out the trash so their brothers don’t have to.” Morgan knows better than to fall for this, but the scene exemplifies interpellation in the sense that Eric has been given a typical male job. Morgan becomes impatient and again announces her desire for a Halloween costume. Eric agrees to help but can not do it unassisted. He still needs his mom to take them to the store and his dad, when he gets off from work, to then pick them up.

Morgan returns home with a costume of a Zombie. Because of her interpellations of what little girls should be, Morgan’s mother is somewhat upset that she didn’t choose a princess costume. She looks at Eric, giving blame to her older son, and announces that she wanted Morgan to pick out her own costume. This is giving the child agency and allowing her to express and expand her own imagination. Later in the episode the mother is asked why her daughter’s clothes do not match. She explains that Morgan picks out her own clothes because they like to give her freedom of expression. The question contains illocutionary intent that if an adult had picked out Morgan’s wardrobe then it would be considered more perfect than the child’s attempt. This is another example of interpellation, because whoever decided clothes have to match or what should be considered a match? With Morgan’s costume, the parents are upset that Eric influenced Morgan, though it is never proven that she did not choose the zombie costume herself. It is through the parents’ and our own gender interpellations that we assume that Morgan, if left alone to decide, would have chosen a princess costume, the more typical “girl-costume.” Morgan then announces that she choose the costume because, “The undead are cool.” The audience assumes this is the child parroting what her older brother said in the store showing an inability to create her own ideas, but it is quite possible that she is expressing an early rebellion of social interpellations. Though the parents do not seem to approve of the child having a scary costume, the Dad says, “ Oooh nice hanging eyeball,” while smiling and playing with her. It seems as though they are trying to protect her from the messages of disappointment that they are sending to their older son Eric. The director, in this scene, displays an agreement with the common assumption that children are innocent and need to be protected.

            We then return to Cory’s school, the results from the IQ test have been determined and Cory is, by score, a genius. Mr. Feeney congratulates him verbally but appears doubtful through his facial expressions. Cory is worried that Mr. Feeney knows he cheated and that he will tell his parents. He announces that he does not like lying to his parents. Shawn attempts to reduce Cory’s fear and convince him that they are both “innocent victims.” He concludes that if adults had not have given them detention, then they never would have found the test and everything following that moment would not have occurred. However, they fail to realize that it was their initial mistake that caused the adult to give the detention sentence. Following “We’re innocent victims,” Cory exclaims, “It’s good to be a kid.” Cory is not expected to be perfect. He knows that adults assume that he is fallible and will love and take care of him despite his mistakes.

            The bell then rings and Mr. Feeney announces that he wants to talk to Cory. The student looks nervous and gets out of his seat slowly, as though he is about to meet his death. This is an example of how an adult’s opinion is so highly valued to the child. Cory looks as though he is going to be physically hurt, though he knows Mr. Feeney is only going to talk to him about his high IQ score. He asks Shawn to tell his mom that “He went out like a man.” Cory, through interpellation, considers men as strong and brave in tough or violent situations. This quote also reinforces his admiration of adults because he is associating Mr. Feeney’s poor opinion of him with dying. Cory’s final request before dying is to insure that his mother (again an adult figure) has a positive perception of him.

            Mr. Feeney sits down with Cory and asks if there is anything he wants to share. He explains that Cory will be transferred to an advanced school where the school is committed to giving children all that they deserve. Mr. Feeney then says, “I think you deserve everything you are going to get .” He stresses the word “get” to add an empowering tone and ensure that Cory realizes that the child’s secret is known. Cory is aware that his parents and teacher know that he cheated on the IQ test. The “all-knowing” adults guide the child to tell the truth instead of punishing him by making it evident through their tone, as opposed to diction, that they are aware he cheated. They give him this agency to allow for Cory’s personal growth, feeling that Cory will learn his lesson more thoroughly if he admits to his own mistake.

            Before finally admitting to his parents that he found the answers to the IQ test, Cory takes a second intelligence test. This test reveals that he has the IQ of an average sixth grader. Cory proudly says, “Yep, that’s me. The lights are on but nobody’s home.” By saying “nobody’s home,” the writer indicates that someone of sixth grade intelligence is brainless. It is this common assumption that adds to the adult-centeredness of the episode because adults like Mr. Feeney are portrayed with high intelligence, while the child is not corrected when calling himself a moron.

            At the end of the episode Cory tells his parents and teacher the truth; which gains him the respect he so desired from his teacher. The episode is didactic because Cory has learned that he should tell adults the truth and he should never cheat. He accepts the fact that he is inferior to adults, a point which I do not like about the episode, but a typical adult-centered characteristic. Cory is grounded for his actions, but being the “good parents” that they are, Cory’s grounding begins the day after Halloween and under the condition that he no longer cheats. This positive portrayal of parents makes it impossible for the viewer to be mad at the adults for punishing Cory, especially since Cory realizes that he deserves punishment, and therefore, is not upset. Though Cory makes mistakes, he is a “good child.” Everyone, including the audience, is happy at the end of the episode, all problems were solved through adult guidance, and a lesson was learned, stereotypically making this episode a very adult-centered text.

The fairy tale, The Little Mermaid was story that I could not go to sleep without hearing. I was about six years old when I first heard this story and it allowed my imagination to meander into the world of mermaids. Whether I was at the beach swimming like a mermaid in the ocean or simply reading the story over and over, I was fascinated by the mermaid world under sea. I was nearly obsessed with mermaids and wished I could be one of them. This story created the magic in my imagination; however, as I read the story more and more, I came to see the practicality in it. Maybe I was convinced that there really were mermaids out there so the story became practical to me? Also, maybe I related her death to reality and relating the daughters of the air to the mermaid’s kind of heaven? Most children have seen Disney’s version of The Little Mermaid, and although it is one of my favorites, it does not give the original version of Hans Christian Andersen’s justice.

  Typically, the elements in a fairy tale are similar to the type case prototype of children’s books. When I think of children’s books, the first few things that come to mind are fantasy adventures, good triumphing over evil, and, of course, happy endings. The tale describes the youngest sister as “a curious child, silent and thoughtful” (Andersen 31). To illustrate, The Little Mermaid portrays a young mermaid with these typical characteristics, but Andersen takes it a step further. The mermaids in each version of the story differ greatly, especially the reasons behind each mermaid's wish to go to land with the people. Andersen's mermaid wants to be a human being so she can have an eternal soul after she dies. While I was young reading this story, I thought that the little mermaid was risking her life to gain the prince’s affection; however, my take on this story has changed. After reading it again, I realize that it is a story about the mermaid’s lack of soul, and how by falling in love she was able to gain one. As the story tells, the little mermaid “would give a whole three hundred years I have to live, to become for one day a human being and then share in that heavenly world” (Andersen 53). She is driven to become a human. The little mermaid “longed for their [humans] company. Their world seemed to her to be much larger than her own. There was so much that she would have liked to know” (50). Indeed, the little mermaid’s main purpose of becoming a human was to gain an eternal soul.

Disney made The Little Mermaid a traditional fairy tale, because Andersen's ideas could not be translated into a modern cartoon that was socially accepted for children. So Disney used the classic battle between good and evil, which is typically understood everywhere, instead of the mermaid's battle within herself as Andersen wrote. In my mind, fairy tales represent the good conquering over the evil after a significant challenge. In contrast, Andersen displays the sea witch winning the battle. The little mermaid does not look back on her life under the sea, but looks forward to her chance to attain an eternal soul. Although, for example, I found it odd that the sea witch exclaimed, “How stupid of you! Still, you shall have your way, and it’ll bring into you misfortune, my lovely Princess” (Andersen 58). Why would the sea witch say such a thing that might change the little mermaids mind about becoming a human? I assume that the reasons for this line may be to enforce the adult figure in the story. The sea witch is older; therefore, she is wise and guides the young mermaid. Another large difference between Disney’s version and Andersen’s that is definitely not a typical case prototype of children’s stories is the fact that the sea witch cuts the little mermaid’s tongue out instead of stealing her voice through a shell like in the movie. To illustrate, the sea witch states, “Put out your little tongue and let me cut it off in payment; then you shall be given the potent mixture” (Andersen 59). Moreover, the ending portrays evil winning because of the little mermaid’s death.

  Andersen’s version of The Little Mermaid does not follow the traditional case prototype of children’s books because of its shocking ending of the little mermaid not marrying the Prince. For example, Disney reveals the story to have a happy ending in that the little mermaid and the Prince marry. One could conceive the ending to have different meanings. For instance, the Prince cries about his new Princess to be the one who “rescued me, when I was laying half-dead on the shore. Oh, I’m too happy!” (Andersen 69). For this purpose, the little mermaid “kissed his hand, and already she felt her heart was breaking. The morrow of his wedding would mean death to her to foam on the sea” (69). The little mermaid had failed and evil had won. However, this tale is much deeper and suggests that the main theme is the mermaid’s internal struggle with herself to gain an eternal soul, not to marry the Prince. Although this was not a huge theme in the story, it definitely helps to prove that Andersen’s style is not that of a traditional fairy tale author.

In the original Andersen story, The Little Mermaid , she does not marry the Prince, which is what seems to be what she should do. Still, she learned to love unconditionally, and did not turn into sea foam, as mermaids do. She ascended and obtained a human soul from entering the daughters of air. The daughters of air are portrayed to be a spiritual movement. When I read this story as a child, I can see why I related the daughters of air to heaven. For example, the narrator describes the moment as a “voice of melody, yet so spiritual that no human ear could hear it, just as no earthly eye could see them. They had no wings, but their own lightness bore them up as they floated through the air” (Andersen 74). Finally, by losing her life, she wins the hope of immortality because of her 300 years of good deeds. Specifically, the little mermaid’s decision not to kill the Prince and his new bride was what, I believe, rewarded her with an eternal soul. It is almost like viewing death as a reward in this story because she in fact did win and gain her immortal soul.

In contrast to many fairy tales, Andersen’s tale of The Little Mermaid ended unhappily, as well as presented gruesome events that are also not typical prototypes in a children’s text as discussed in class. After reading the story at age nineteen, what really struck me was how the little mermaid did not get what she thought she wanted, but ended up with something much more important or valuable: her immortality. As a result, I have discovered that this tale is not just about the selfless love of a mermaid who endures every suffering for the sake of her beloved Prince, but more importantly, the little mermaid’s endless desire to obtain an immortal soul.

Many of today’s children’s books fit the typical case prototype of a book.   This means that they fit what we would assign to children (right or not).   Some qualities include being didactic, easily relatable to children, it’s not frightening, and the books are bright and colorful with happy endings. This, among other terms, will be used to weigh through the book Giraffes? Giraffes! By Dr. and Mr. Doris Haggis-On-Whey to assess how it relates to other books.

On absolute first glance, this book is the perfect example of the typical case prototype children’s book.   It fits the look of an educational book.   What I mean by this is that when I think of an educational book, I associate lots of photographs, small amounts of text (simply to explain the background information or captions to pictures), and a particular layout for their pages.   This vision of a particular educational book is founded in the strictly educational, typical case prototype books I used to read as I was younger; the Eyewitness book series used to be my absolute favorite book to read for the very same reasons listed above.   They disguised learning to be fun and painless.   To continue on, this book has a very similar layout to that series.   Part of a series itself, the authors and designers purposely tried to model the visual presentation of an Eyewitness look in this satiric series, as to help create its ambiance. On every single page there is at least one photograph in which the surrounding text pertains.   The diagrams or drawings are all clearly labeled, as well as the photographs, to keep things clear.   Moreover, there is a pocket on the back inside cover of the book where they provide several activities to complete.   These activities are representative of ones that someone might find in a Chick- fil -A kid’s meal (small, educational, and fun activities).   Each diagram has a specific purpose; this purpose is to support the text, and bring it clarity.

More importantly than the pictures or layout of the book, is the actual text.   As mentioned earlier, at first glance the book looks like it set the standards for the typical case prototype book.   When one reads the text, however, they are shocked from the lack of validity, completely crushing any thought of this book fitting the typical case prototype.   I believe this is true, because the text of a book is far more important than the pictures.   The book goes out of its way to make fun of all educational writing.   Every situation presented in the book is presented as fact, no matter how farfetched it is.   It is as if the book is telling joke after joke, and keeping a straight face the whole time.   The text is comprised only fictional scenarios or facts, while the pictures and layout design lead you to believe otherwise.   One of my favorite paragraphs from the whole book is in reference to a giraffe’s legs; I think that this proves it’s absurdity very nicely.   “The legs of a giraffe are filled with various types of fruit juice.   You see, giraffes love drinking fruit juices…but their bodies have no real use for fruit juice, so it all trickles down to their legs where it stays and squishes around.   This should have been obvious to you” (pg 9).   This is only one example of how the book is so unbelievable; on every single page, there are multiple examples of such ridiculous statements.

The mere appearance of the book is shockingly similar to those I have read as a tool to induce learning.   Instead of being completely false, the book Giraffes? Giraffes! Does contain a small amount of educational material in it.   For instance, on page 48, there are two diagrams of fish; one of the colored pictures labels the outside organs of the fish, while the other informatively labels some of the inside organs.   This does not have much to do with that page’s text (it does, however, pertain the slightest bit) but it accurately labels the fish.   The same case occurs on pages 6, 9, 13, 38, and 43. A child reading this book would be able to sort out that this piece of information is correct, compared to the extremely farfetched text of the story.   Because the whole rest of the book is in outfield, learning about the fish is somewhat disguised.   Even if the reader has some negative stigma towards learning, they will not realize what is happening.   The reader is subconsciously focused on not believing anything about the giraffes.   When they see information that is true, they do not remember that they are learning.   These comparatively small diagrams in the book are a very good reference for information.  

For this reason, I feel that the book has both typical and atypical case traits.   The appearance of the book and hidden learning tools are created for children to induce learning.   The ridiculous text, however, completely bashes any hope of it fitting into the typical case mold.   The book is just too progressive and turns how we would normally react to a story from natural to unnatural.   The readers have to be conscious to how they respond to such material, as opposed to a conservative book that reinforces old ideas or beliefs.   For these reasons, the text outweighs the visual presentation, meaning that the book does not fit the typical case prototype of a children’s book.  

Because this book fits so strongly (in a visual sense only) the typical children’s book, but yet so strongly and more importantly disproves itself as one with it’s text, it makes us look at educational books in a different perspective.   This defamiliarization causes us to challenge all that we have known to be true about educational books.   Going back to the example of the Eyewitness books, it made me think of how naïve of a reader I used to be.   When I read those books, I would never give a second thought to whether or not what I was reading was true.   I would completely trust the narrator and authors.   After reading a book that tricks you to believe that it might be true, I will never be able to read an Eyewitness book in the same light.   That is the heart of defamialization ; it permanently causes something to be looked at differently.

One tool that the author uses to defamiliarize the readers is metafiction . To work through the term metafiction , we’ll use the same quote about fruit juice from earlier, it is also a good example of how the narrator does too much of his job.   “This should have been obvious to you”, is not something a narrator typically says.   The irony in this quote, is that what the authors are claiming is so absurd, that there is no way it would be obvious to anyone.   No one would know to think that, because it is not based on any hint of truth.   The narrator defiantly steps over the line of what is considered appropriate for a reader/narrator relationship.   This concept is one of several that help explain the term metafiction .   In metafiction , not only does the narrator do too much or too little, the lines between the fictional world and the real world are blurred.   The book is doing something, whether it is a quote, picture, etc., to draw attention to itself as an artifact and make the reader think about the content.   After reading the above mentioned quote on page 9, and also looking at pages 7 and 13, it becomes clear that the author is drawing attention to the absurdity of the text.   This tool is used to heighten the satiric nature of the book.

To work from this same quote, (because I feel it encompasses many of the book’s themes in this one quote) the sheer statement, “this should be obvious to you”, makes the reader second guess whether what you are reading is true or not.   From pure common sense, we know what the text claims is not true (about fruit juices); such claims have no scientific standing.   We, as readers, have grown to trust the narrator so much in stories, that when he says something like “you should have already known and believe this completely false fact”, we second guess ourselves.   When the author also jokes later in the book about personifying words, we have to second guess that as well.   On page 20, the author once again blurs reality by saying (referring here to words), “…they cannot be printed here.   (They were not dirty words, they simply cannot be printed here because they are currently vacationing in Miami )”.   This silly statement about words calls attention to the fact that the reader is actually reading.   It is something used to make the readers rethink how they are conditioned to react to books.  

This challenge is seen as progressive, and breaking the mold.   Essentially, Giraffes? Giraffes! is a very unordinary book, and should be taken in as something trite.

A children’s film that strongly demonstrates the concepts of being adult and child-centered and also displays agency is the 1990 movie Home Alone . This film illustrates the main character, an eight-year-old boy named Kevin McCallister , as a mischievous yet sincere child who when left alone in his house, discovers that family relationships are a crucial part of growing up. Home Alone also showcases many stereotypes of children that coincide with the typical case prototypes discussed in class. Metatextual concepts are featured in this movie as well, which help to involve the child audience. These concepts, as well as the character of Kevin, discover the underlying meaning of the movie. I believe the center of Home Alone is the consistent change noted in Kevin’s behavior and attitude. He not only breaks free of the typical child roles and standards, he is able to use the thought of them to his advantage when confronted with two burglars attempting to break into his home. By Kevin saving his house, he realizes he is much older than he thinks and begins to appreciate his life and what is in it, mostly his family. This interpretation of Home Alone presents more than it just being a humorous movie about a boy and two robbers.

            Once his family leaves for a Christmas vacation in Paris and he is left all alone in his house, Kevin McCallister gains total agency in this film. He no longer has any parents to tell him what and what not to do. Before his family left, Kevin was punished because he was fighting with his older brother and was getting in everyone’s way. Now, Kevin can run around the house and jump on beds, while having no one to tell him to stop. He also takes his brother Buzz’s toy rifle from his room and plays with it, something that would have been totally forbidden if Buzz were there. A perfect example of Kevin displaying agency is when he makes a total mess in the kitchen, eats a huge amount of junk food and ice cream and watches a movie that is not appropriate for him. Kevin knows what he is doing is wrong and calls to his parents just in case they are still in the house, “I’m eating junk and watching rubbish, you better come out and stop me.” Now that Kevin is no longer under control of adults, he has the freedom to act on his behalf. The roles of child and adult are also reversed. Although Kevin is doing all these things that would normally get him in trouble, his parents are portrayed as the irresponsible ones for leaving their child alone in the house.

Home Alone does a great deal of displaying typical child case prototypes throughout the film. Adult perceptions of children are especially construed through the two burglars, Marv and Harry. The two men are completely confident that they can break into the McCallister home because Kevin is the only one there. Marv repeatedly says to Harry, “He’s a kid. Kids are stupid,” “Kids are scared of the dark” and “He’s only a kid. We can take him.” These stereotypes relate to the ones discussed in class, characterizing children as innocent and not yet civilized. The perception that children do not know anything is clearly demolished by Kevin, because he is able to exceed the burglar’s expectations and not only deliver them to the police, but send them through many traps and painful excursions along the way. Marv and Harry finally realize this as Harry says, “I think we’re getting scammed by a kindergartener.” This aspect in the movie demonstrates that children are smarter and more intuitive than adults, even when faced with danger. Kevin was completely aware of the situation but still continued to fight the burglars because he knew he had to defend his house. Protecting himself and his house became more important to Kevin than doing what stereotypical children do and run away.

In one particular scene, there is a reference made that does go against these typical case prototypes, which is also one we have discussed in class. While Kevin’s mother is riding home with a traveling polka band, the lead singer played by John Candy is talking to the mother about how she left Kevin all alone for Christmas. He then tells her a story of how he left his child alone one day at a funeral parlor. He makes a joke about how his child was impaired for a few weeks after but then says, “Kids get over things, they’re resilient like that.” This is a great comment to show how children can go against stereotypes. This character was implying that children are not permanently damaged by certain experiences and I think this is an incredibly important feature of the movie as a whole. If his family leaving him alone for days had negatively affected Kevin, then he would not have recovered and would not have learned the lessons he did by being put in that situation.

The less obvious element of Home Alone is the metatextual concept. Throughout this film, Kevin is constantly talking to the audience, because no other characters are around him. The narrator-like characteristic Kevin has in this movie makes the audience aware that he is talking directly to them, letting the viewers know what is going on and what Kevin is doing. There is one moment where Kevin actually does speak directly to the audience, looking straight into the camera. After Kevin learns that his family is not in the house and no one to be found, he says out loud “I made my family disappear,” with a concerned and nervous edge in his tone. Then, contemplating all the possibilities he now has with being home alone, he looks right into the camera and repeats the line “I made my family disappear,” this time with a conniving tone and devilish grin. Kevin breaking the fourth wall and creating this metatextual moment in the movie lets the audience in on the upcoming events as if it were a secret between them and the narrator.

Another concept I noted is the deus ex machina role. In the film, this role is played by the elderly neighbor, who Kevin is afraid of for the majority of the movie. However, after talking and the old man admits that he has become a different person because of lost relationships in his life, Kevin provides him with advice as well as takes it himself. Kevin becomes aware that he needs his family and does not want to lose them like the old man lost his. So the two agree to change and do something about their unfortunate situations. After this conversation, Kevin returns home but once he has used up all of his traps to mislead the two burglars, he runs next door to call the police. The men are aware of his game this time and catch him before he is able to. Then, when it looks like there is no escape for Kevin, the old neighbor hits both burglars and saves Kevin, taking him out of the house and away from danger. The adult character coming in at the end to save the child is typical of many children’s texts and also relates to the child and adult centered notion also featured in this film.

            Throughout Home Alone , Kevin embraces being a kid with no parents to listen to and no roles to follow. However, over the days he is left by himself, he demonstrates a great amount of change. At first he is scared of Marv and Harry trying to break into his house. But later he states, “I can’t be a wimp. I’m the man of the house” and overcomes his fear of the burglars as well as his fear of less important matters, like his basement. Kevin recognizes that he must take some control of the situation, because riding sleds down the stairs and turning the whole house upside down is unacceptable behavior when there are criminals trying to break into his house. Kevin begins to take on typical adult roles, including going grocery shopping, doing laundry and washing dishes. These are not chores most eight-year-olds complete on a daily basis. Kevin is forced to become more mature throughout the story and does so by not only outsmarting burglars, but also by accepting the fact that his family is important to him and wanting them to come back.

            Even though Kevin McCallister displays a great deal of agency, I do believe Home Alone is more adult-centered than child-centered. His family is the center of the story and is the element that is continuously referred to. Kevin is given total freedom to do whatever he wants and although he does use this to his advantage in the beginning, after awhile he begins to miss his family and regret ever saying he could live without them. His family becomes more important to him than the ability to do whatever he wants and he even makes it his Christmas wish saying, “Instead of presents, I just want my family back.” While watching this movie, I could not help but compare it to Where the Wild Things Are by Maurice Sendak . In that book, the main character Max wants to be away from his mother and not have to obey her as an authority figure. While living with the wild things though, Max takes on an adult role, much like the one of his mother. He also begins to miss his mother and miss the idea of being a kid.

This is exactly the change Kevin reaches in Home Alone . Although he enjoys having a break from parents and rules, he does long for his old life where although there were some hardships, he was surrounded by people who love and care about him. Children need family relationships and in these particular texts, the children only discover this when those relationships are deterred from. Although I stated earlier that Kevin matured throughout the film, I also think he became more vulnerable at the same time. Accepting such a dramatic change in their lives leaves the children in these texts very sad and distressed. So as much as children can go against their own stereotypes, they can still manage to “act like a child.” I do not think Home Alone is predominantly didactic, but I do believe there is a very subtle lesson to be learned from this movie and that is to be careful what you wish for. Fortunately for Kevin, his situation was temporary, but for children watching it could stand as a lesson to cherish and respect the relationships in your life, particularly with your family, because you never know when they can be taken away.

In fifth grade Officer Brown, my D.A.R.E. instructor, asked my class to draw a picture representing the physical characteristics of a typical drug dealer.   I drew an evil looking man with snake like eyes.   He was wearing dark black clothing, and he was standing on a grungy street corner in front of an abandon warehouse.   The purpose of this exercise was to demonstrate that anyone could be a drug dealer.   A drug dealer could be a sweet Suburban soccer mom who bakes homemade cookies for her children, or a drug dealer could be that evil looking guy wearing black clothing on the street corner.   Officer Brown explained that as a society, we tend to associate negative characteristics with drug dealers because the media depicts drug dealers in this manner.   As a result, this negative imagine of drug dealers have been imbedded into our minds at a very young age.

            Disney movies have been instrumental in influencing children’s views of good versus evil.   The movies place great emphasis on the characters’ physical appearance.   For example, In The Little Mermaid , Ariel is beautiful and skinny.   She has long flowing red hair, big bright blue eyes, perfectly full red lips, and she seems to have a glow about her.   She is very feminine, and her voice is high pitch but pleasing to the ear.   The males in The Little Mermaid are strapping and handsome.   They have big bulging muscles that can aid them to rescue mermaids if they get into trouble.   The men also have a full head of hair that always says in place.   The “good” characters in Disney movies are always portrayed with good characteristics.   In fact it is as if they are perfect.   On the other hand, the “evil” characters are described as perfectly repulsive.   Ursula, a sea witch, in The Little Mermaid is an ugly dark looking creature with a long pointy noses, and long fingers.   She has monster sharp teeth and a gruff manly voice.   Ursula does not possess one positive quality.   Like other “evil” characters, Ursula is on the other end of the continuum compared to Ariel.  

            The environment is also use to depict differences between the “good” and “evil” in Disney movies.   For example, in The Little Mermaid, Ariel lives in a well-maintained golden castle.    The water surrounding the castle is crystal clear.   On the floor of the sea, there is green seaweed and bright colored flowers.   There are also various forms of life swimming around the castle.   The fishes, shrimps, crabs, and other animals are bright vibrant colors.   Ursula on the other hand, lives in a dark dreary cave.   During parts of the movie, the water surrounding the cave is black, and at other times, the water is dark blue.   Ursula’s cave is unkempt, and it is full of dieing souls and skeletons.   The only form of life near the cave is Ursula’s assistances , eels.   The eels are black with slanted snake like eyes that glow a yellowish-green color.   The floor of Ursula’s cave is not made of grass.   Instead the floor is made of dirt and rocks.   The entire atmosphere surrounding the castle represents death.

            In the pervious paragraphs it was alluded that the use of color also helps distinguish between “good” and evil.   Scenes involving the “good” characters contained an abundant amount of color.   There are mostly bright vibrant colors, such as yellows, reds, oranges, purples, and blues. For example Flounder, Ariel’s friend, is bight yellow with a mixture of dark and light blue strips.   Most of the fish in the sea are a mixture of two colors.   The fishes are either red with yellow fins, purple with yellow fins, blue with red fins, and blue with purple fins.   Other animals are red and orange.   There is also some pink mixed among the animals.   The scenes involving the “evil” characters lack color almost entirely.   The little color that is use is cold and dark.   The most abundant color representing Ursula is black.   Ursula herself is a dark purple, and there are some dark blues and greens.   There is also the yellowish-green glow that comes out of the eels’ eyes.

            Officer Brown was on to something when he stated that the media influences our opinion.   It may not be obvious to children as they watch The Little Mermaid or another Disney movie, but that movie is influencing their opinion.   The movie gives children a template as to how   “ good” individuals should look, how they should act, and even what they should possess.   Of course, the movies also give children a template for “evil” individuals.   The template teaches children that “evil” individuals should look, act a certain way.   It also teaches them that evil people should not possess certain items.   For example, in The Little Mermaid Ariel lives in a castle, but Ursula was not even good enough to have a house.   Instead she lived in a damp dreary cave.   As they grew, children take these images of “good” and “evil” and adopt them as their own beliefs.   Louis Althusser coined the term interpellation, the idea that as individuals we tend to accept society’s norms as our own.   Therefore in the beginning of the paper when I described my picture of a drug dealer in the fifth grade, it could be conjectured that I obtain those images from society, and not from reality.   In reality there is no such concept as a “typical” drug dealer.   As officer Brown stated, anyone could be a drug dealer.

In a way, I revisited my childhood over the weekend. Growing up, I read Freaky Friday over and over. In fact, I still have that same paperback copy of the book—the cover is half torn off, passages are penciled, its got the little grease spots where I ate potato chips while I read it, and there is even a stain where I spilled some Pepsi. Coming back as an adult, over twenty-five years later, and re-reading this very book and physically seeing the remnants of my thought process was eye-opening. As a child immersed in the story, I was enthralled with the idea of a kid   becoming an adult overnight, and of your mother changing bodies with you. This book took the idea of switching bodies, which is not uncommon, and made it a little different by making it cross a generation. This helps to show the lesson that is being handed down by the mother, Ellen Andrews, who is very frustrated with her daughter, Annabelle. So often, in the mother-daughter relationship, there is a battle between opposing sides and ideas, and it is difficult for each side to see the whole picture from the other’s perspective…unless you can magically change bodies with your daughter to teach her a lesson. That is what gives this book its subtle, yet overwhelming, adult undertone, and it is clearly defined from the first chapter of the book.

            Annabelle Andrews, the narrator of the story, is thirteen, and thirteen is an awkward time in life. She describes herself in a nondescript way on pages two and three with “…brown hair, brown eyes, brown fingernails. (That’s a joke—actually, I take a lot baths.) “ she goes on to say that she doesn’t know what she weighs but she’s “watching it” and that she’s not “completely mature” in her figure yet. She then goes on to describe her parents and her brother. She complains that her mother is overly protective and strict, or “stricter” as Annabelle says (4) and effectively doles out examples of her mother’s unfairness, such as Ellen wanting Annabelle to clean her room, make good grades, and be nice to her brother. As a mother, she wants to protect her daughter and does not allow her in Central Park alone or even with a friend, which is a sore point for Annabelle, who firmly feels that   “ …I’m old enough to be given more than I’m getting” (5) and then laments that she did not get to go to a boy-girl party because it was not properly chaperoned. Additionally, Annabelle is in love with Boris, but because her mother made her get those ugly, nasty braces, Boris will never get past who she was in the past and take notice of her. The list of wrongs that her mother has heaped upon her, such as keeping her hair neat and nails trimmed, wearing what she wants, going where she wants, and keeping that room clean only prove to Annabelle that her mother is just unfair (6).

  All of these injustices build up and Annabelle finally has it out with her mother and says: “You are not letting me have any fun and I am sick of it. You are always pushing me around and telling me what to do. How come nobody ever gets to tell you what to do, huh? Tell me that! ”.   Now, I remember having this conversation with my own mother, and her response was something similar to Ellen Andrews’ reply of “…when you’re grown up people don’t tell you what to do; you have to tell yourself, which is sometimes more difficult” (6) and it really never answered the question satisfactorily then for me, and in this instance, neither did it do so for Annabelle. The argument ends with Ellen marching out of the room after Annabelle says she just wants to be responsible for herself and her mother responds “We’ll just see about that!” (7).

And then, Annabelle wakes up and she is her mother. The inability for Annabelle to see things from her mother’s perspective propels the switch and reveals the adult centered theme of this book. As Annabelle begins to see things from an adult’s perspective, her own, immature and childlike perspective begins to recede. But first, Annabelle is thrilled with the change! She has nice teeth, a good body, and enjoys putting lots of makeup on ‘their’ face (8-9). She fakes her way through breakfast, gets dressed up, pushes the kids off to school (and notices an Annabelle appears to have not changed at all) and suggests that she and her father/husband go to see an X-Rated flick; obviously, Annabelle is still a child because she does not think of the consequences that type of outing could bring (not to mention the emotional scars for life!), and then, after a round of boardgames with Boris, Annabelle fires the maid (46). But, then things the take a turn and the day is no longer fun. The situation becomes more than her thirteen year old mind can handle. In this way, the inability of Annabelle to cope with adult situations and problems, shows that there is a clearly defined line between adulthood and childhood. Annabelle is still a child, but as her mother, she has to tackle some adult responsibilities, and Annabelle is clearly not at that point in life where can do so without further confusing things.

            While the story remains funny and page-turning, it is easy to see what is going to occur here. It is obvious that this “switch” has taken place to teach Annabelle’s a lesson. Also, Annabelle’s bad attitude is to blame for this mind boggling turn of events, so as in all adult centered texts, the strong, caring, and superhuman adult has distributed knowledge and punishment in a justifiable manner. As Annabelle’s day progresses, she begins to see that life is not easy for her mother and that she is not prepared to be an adult. As the book continues on, Annabelle begins to see herself as other people in her life see her; for example, the cleaning lady refers to Annabelle as “a little pig” who’s “got no discipline” who will be “on drugs before you know it.” Annabelle is angered by this statement and   takes this time to fire Mrs. Schmauss (46). Before the incident with Mrs. Schmauss , Boris comes downstairs to return a colander, and it is during this time that we learn, in no uncertain terms, the Boris hates Annabelle (which is too bad for Annabelle because she is totally in love with Boris!). She also is embarrassed by her room (the same room which propelled the argument with her mother and caused the switcheroo to occur) and tells Boris that it is her brother Ben’s ( ApeFace’s ) room—canopy and all (30). We learn that Annabelle four years earlier had cut open Boris’ head with a tin shovel (31) and that Boris thinks that Annabelle is “a bad seed” (31). This continues throughout the book, but it happens the most predominantly during the conference at school with Annabelle’s teachers and her principal and learns what her teachers really think about her as they criticize her at the conference.

            This is the turning point in the book, Annabelle’s catharsis. It is also when we see the author handing out a lesson about studying hard and handing work in on time. This is drilled into the reader throughout the conference, and the fact that Annabelle is not doing it really hits her hard. When she finds out that she had flunked English, she goes numb (86) and discovers that she is wasting everyone’s time. She discovers that she has a very high IQ, higher than “a college freshman’s” (86) and that her English teacher, Miss McGuirk blames herself for Annabelle’s failure as a student. This opens Annabelle’s eyes to see her teacher in a very different, more compassionate manner (87) an by the end of the meeting, Annabelle has realized that her behavior has been bad, and that she needs to start doing better. She promises the educators at the meeting that “on Monday morning I’m sure you will see a completely different Annabelle,” to which the school psychologist replies   “ Let’s not get our hopes up too high… we can’t expect her to change overnight” (95-96).   She leaves the meeting, looking for herself—literally.

            Annabelle has learned many lessons today and has heard how everyone in her life feels about her. It is a humbling experience, especially when she realizes that the person who loves her the most is the person she treats the worst, her brother (56). When she realizes that he’s not half bad, her attitude towards him begins to change, and she begins to change as well. It is an event concerning Ben which really makes her see that she is not ready to be an adult, and that she wants to go back to her own body. Her brother gets kidnapped.   Well, not really. But, Annabelle thinks that Ben has been kidnapped. She comes home from the meeting to find that her brother was taken away by   “ beautiful chick” (100), described by Boris. Now, as the reader, I knew all along that it was Annabelle’s mother in Annabelle’s body who came and took Ben away for ice cream, but in Annabelle’s state of panic, the thought never occurred to her. Mainly because in her thirteen mind, she had contemplated all the different people her mother may have chosen to be that day, and Annabelle was uncertain if her mother would even want to be Annabelle. Therefore, when Ben comes up missing, Annabelle freaks out and   calls the police, and ends up almost having her mother committed for being crazy after she breaks down and says that her mother switched bodies their minds into each others bodies. Of course, these officers do not believe her, and think they have a “fruitcake” on the line (12). Boris takes charge, reveals his love for Mrs. Andrews, and Annabelle thinks “what a waste” (114) because he is love with Annabelle but not Annabelle. Confusing, yes, but not if you read the book. Actually, the entire exchange is very funny, and it shows that some adults are silly, but it does not change the overall tone that reveals this is an adult centered book, and the theme again emerges when Annabelle just gives up and tells the police the truth, that she is “only thirteen. I’m just a little girl who has been turned into her mother” (113). Annabelle has had enough and is ready to just go ahead and give up. She doesn’t want to do this anymore, she is overwhelmed, and her brother is missing. In her moment of greatest need, she is in her mother’s room, lying on the bed, and admitting her mother was right. “That’s what you wanted, isn’t it? You wanted to teach me a terrific lesson? O.K. I learned a terrific lesson.” (119). And poof! Mom’s back. And, Annabelle has learned her lessons. She even became a beautiful chick (131-133), because Mom was finally able to go and get the braces off, get Annabelle’s hair cut, and buy new clothes. Annabelle’s transformation is complete—from old Annabelle to Mom to new Annabelle. Her attitude is different, and she has learned that perhaps she should clean her room-to impress Boris.

            At the beginning of the book, Annabelle wanted to be in charge of her own life, and wanted to know why nobody told her mother what to do, and that she wanted the same rights. So, Annabelle’s mother switched them to teach Annabelle a lesson, so that Annabelle could understand exactly what she was saying, and to learn for herself how Annabelle is wrong about adulthood and the responsibilities that come with it.   Many things are revealed to her as she learns through the interchange with her father, that Annabelle is a constant source of irritation between the two of them, and as the book progresses, she becomes more aware of the way people view her, and it is not very good. Annabelle is learning a hard lesson, she is hearing what people say about her, how they feel about her, and she first reacts in anger by firing the maid and then eventually, changing her inside appearance while her mother changes Annabelle’s outside appearance. Interestingly enough, the physical changes her mother makes result in Annabelle becoming a more attractive person, but at the beginning of the book, she just wanted to be left alone to grow her own hair and chew her own fingernails. And, in an odd twist of fate, Annabelle becomes worried that her mother is not in her body, and that careless Annabelle is dead under a number 7 bus somewhere (99). Annabelle had nagged her mother for freedom, to go to the park, to not be told what to do. Ellen had always denied Annabelle these privileges because she feared for Annabelle’s safety; when Annabelle realizes just how irresponsible she actually is, she becomes worried for her own safety. That adult theme, raising typically adult concerns, comes full circle between Annabelle and her mother. Situations arise, and eventually Mom comes back and saves day and returns everything to normal—except now the two of them have a better, stronger relationship build on mutual respect and understanding. And, the fact that Mother knows best.

23. In the Japanese animated television series Inuyasha , a fifteen-year-old high school student named Kagome is attacked by a monster in an old well on her family’s property. She falls into the well and reemerges to find herself five hundred years in the past where magic and demons are everyday occurrences. Kagome learns that the demon in the well attacked her because she is the reincarnation of a priestess who died guarding a powerful jewel that gave demons immense power, and that she is now the keeper of the jewel. When more demons appear to try and steal the jewel, Kagome unseals a half- demon, half-human boy named Inuyasha and enlists his help to battle the monsters. During one of these battles, however, the jewel is shattered and its pieces are scattered throughout the country, and Inuyasha and Kagome decide to team up and locate all of the shards before they can fall into the wrong hands. However, their quest becomes a backdrop to their budding relationship and the issues they face. Inuyasha , for example, deals with prejudice and isolation because of his heritage. Kagome must fulfill her obligation of protecting the magical jewel from those who would abuse its power in the past, but at the same time she has to keep up with her schoolwork in the present. While many of the major and reoccurring characters are teenagers, and one of major focuses of the series is the interaction between Inuyasha and Kagome, the series is more of a soap opera than a young adult text. While there are some instances of progressive themes in Inuyasha , the show mostly falls back on the teenage mystique. At the beginning of the series, Inuyasha is very much the definition of the teenager as a potential problem. When Kagome first unseals him, he actually tries to attack her like the rest of the demons in order to steal the jewel for himself, and is at first reluctant to help Kagome recover all of the jewel shards. He wants the jewel in order to use it to become a full demon, claiming that he desires the power a full-blooded demon has. Inuyasha seems to resent his human blood because it makes him weaker than other demons, and takes offense to being mocked for his heritage. One of Inuyasha and Kagome’s traveling companions, Miroku , is also depicted stereotypically as a potential problem. Miroku is eighteen and a Buddhist monk, but his behavior is extremely atypical of his profession. Before joining Inuyasha and Kagome, he used his status as a priest to con people, and even after joining them, he gets food and shelter for their group through manipulation. Miroku is also extremely lecherous. Almost every time he meets a woman, he pleads with her to bear his children, and usually ends up groping her. While his sexual behavior is usually a source of comic relief, he often gets himself and the others in trouble due to it. However, Inuyasha and Miroku’s troublesome behavior changes over the course of the series. Miroku develops feelings for another member of their group, Sango, and even eventually proposes to her though he still gropes her on occasion. Meanwhile, it is revealed that Inuyasha resents his human side not only because it makes him weak, but because of the discrimination he has faced because of his mixed blood. He also begins to consider using the magic jewel to become fully human instead of demon, or even destroying it entirely so that it can never be misused. The series also enforces the theme of adolescence as a temporary stage before adulthood. This is very predominant in Kagome’s development throughout the story. At first, traveling with Inuyasha is a necessity for her because of her naivety and unfamiliarity with the world she finds herself in, but as the series progresses, Kagome learns to better defend herself and even battles demons without Inuyasha’s help. While her experiences in the past make her more self-reliant, however, she is forced to become more mature much faster than normally. During her brief returns to the present to make up for her absences in school, viewers get to see Kagome interacting with her friends. At first, Kagome is still as boy crazy as her girlfriends are, and often comes to them for relationship advice when she and Inuyasha are having problems (though she remains vague about who and what he actually is). However, Kagome begins to become distanced from her friends at school as they remain flighty and she grows more serious. The show does not seem to view this as a necessarily bad thing, however- Kagome’s maturity is a positive aspect of her character, despite that she may be growing apart from her friends in school as a result. The relationship between Kagome and Inuyasha is also an example of the emphasis on the development from adolescence to adulthood, since as they mature, so does their love for one another. Many of the initial obstacles their relationship faces are due to stereotypical portrayals of teenaged boys and teenaged relationships in general. Inuyasha is portrayed as extremely stubborn about his feelings and flat out refuses to acknowledge them for most of the series, though it is clear that he develops feelings for Kagome and is obviously confused about what to do about it. Both he and Kagome are also extremely jealous and overreact whenever someone or something else comes between them. Kagome, for example, will angrily retreat to the present time when Inuyasha does not return her feelings and complain to her mother and her friends, leaving Inuyasha to sit and brood. Inuyasha , on the other hand, becomes extremely agitated if another man tries to woo Kagome, and will even overexert himself in battle to prove that he is more desirable. However, these more stereotypical aspects of their relationship become less apparent as the series progresses and they mature, and when they do arise, it becomes mostly for comic relief. Another interesting point to note is that Inuyasha and Kagome’s relationship blossoms despite never becoming sexual- the most sexual experience that they have together is accidentally seeing one another naked during baths. Adults in the series are typically absent or used as comic relief, and very few of them have a positive impact on the teenaged characters. Inuyasha’s parents are both deceased, and Kagome’s father is rarely mentioned and it is never stated whether or not he is alive. Their travel companions also have deceased parents, all of which died in traumatic ways. Two adult characters that do appear regularly are Myoga and Jaken , both of which are in subservient roles to younger characters and are often the source of comic relief. Myoga is a flea demon that was once the retainer to Inuyasha’s father, a powerful demon lord, and now acts as a retainer to Inuyasha himself. Despite this, however, Myoga is a coward and often runs from battle much to the annoyance of Inuyasha and his companions. Jaken is much like Myoga , though he acts a servant to Inuyasha’s half-brother, Sesshomaru . Jaken , despite being thousands of years older than Sesshomaru , is in such awe of his lord that his adoration becomes ridiculous. He is also a bit of a coward, but he tries not to show it in order to impress his lord. Two adults that are shown in a positive light are Kagome’s mother and Kaede , an elderly priestess in the past. While Kagome’s mother does not play a very large role in the show (she isn’t even given a name), she is very supportive of her daughter’s obligations in the past as well as her relationship with Inuyasha , and she also offers Kagome advice whenever she and Inuyasha have been arguing. Meanwhile, Kaede is definitely a mentor figure, dispensing wisdom to the younger characters and especially Kagome, who also has spiritual priestess powers due to being a reincarnation of one. Despite her age, Kaede has occasionally fought alongside the teenaged characters and is shown as being as powerful and competent as they are. In Inuyasha , adults are mostly absent, or used as comic relief, and teenaged characters display troublesome behavior. Kagome’s maturity is viewed as a positive thing, even though she is distanced from her friends in the present as a result. In general, the show rewards the development of teenaged characters from adolescence into adulthood. While Inuyasha has some progressive themes, it is mostly enforcing stereotypes associated with teens.

In children’s film Anastasia (which is not a Disney movie) there are a lot of forms of interpellation, which I have never noticed before. Interpellation is when a film or book works to make certain social values more important. These can be values of race, gender, class, or any other values society thinks are important. In the video “Mickey Mouse Monopoly” they look at how Disney tries to portray values within their films. Some watch this and can’t believe they did not see it before but that is why interpellation is so important, it is mostly done unconsciously.

Anya is a strong willed, brave, and intelligent girl. Through out the film she is learning to become Russian royalty, all the character surrounding her expect her to become the Princess Anastasia. Dimitri and Vladimir have their own selfish reason for trying to trick the Empress Marie that Anya is her long lost granddaughter Anastasia; they will receive a large sum of money from her. Anya has always wanted a family and the only clue to any is a necklace that says “together in Paris .” She can not get to Paris on her own and when Dimitri finds her and see how much she looks like the Princess Anastasia he uses her want for a family against her. Rasputin knows that she is the lost princess and so through the movie he tries to complete his curse on the Romanov family by killing her. After Sophie tests her with only questions Anastasia would know, she joins the group in trying to get her to become the princess. Anya is surrounded by pressure to become the Princess Anastasia.

Even as a little girl I loved history. The film Anastasia has always been one of my favorite movies because it not only has rich Russian history but it is also about “a rumor , a legend, a mystery” that is Anastasia’s story. One way society can use interpellation is through there portrayal of history. Most children’s movies “dumb down” history because the believe children cannot handle the violence that actually occurred. In Anastasia they don’t necessarily change history, but rather don’t tell the whole story. The Romanovs were killed but it was not because Rasputin but a curse on them. Rasputin did not have magical powers but was with the Romanov because of his influence over Tsarina Alexandra whom he became a personal advisor and confidant to. Also the Romanovs were killed because Nicholas II was not a good czar and the military took over. This is sort of shown in the movie, but Nicholas II is portrayed as good czar. It is much like in Pocahontas when the Europeans and Indians think each other are savages, then they realize there is nothing wrong with each other and the Europeans go home; it never mentions the genocide of the Indians!

One of the most common was a movie uses interpellations is through gender. Child’s movies portray females as the weaker sex and males as the stronger. When Dimitri , Vladimir, and Anastasia are traveling to Paris on a train there is an explosion and Dimirti goes out to investigate and tells Anastasia to stay where it is safe. This is saying that it is the male’s job to protect the female and make sure she is safe. There are two events in which Dimitri comes to Anastasia’s rescue. Once is when she is sleep walking and almost jumps off a ship. When he wakes her up she runs into his arms and cries. The other time is when Rasputin attacks Anastasia and she is about to fall into the river. This is saying that a women needs a man to come to her aid, she cannot save herself. Another way to just gender is that females should act in a particular way. There is always the idea that all girls want to be a princess and that a princess should act a certain way. At one point Vladimir says, “ she certainly has a mind of her own,” in which Dimitri responds “yeah. I hate that in a woman.”   This gives that idea that if a woman wants an attractive man like Dimitri , a female should not have a mind of her own. In the song “Learn To Do It” some of the lyrics say, “Now, shoulders back and stand up straight/ And do not walk, but try to float/ You give a bow/ Your hand receives a kiss/ Now, elbows in and sit up straight/ And never slurp the stroganoff.” These lyrics are telling Anastasia how she should act to become a proper lady, a lady of royalty. At certain times in the movie Anya dresses up in beautiful dress, hair done perfectly and lovely jewelry. At all these times when Dimirti becomes either nervous around Anastasia, gives her a compliment or is total shock at her beauty. This tells little girls that it is ok to use your body to get a man’s attention instead of using your intelligence.

The story of Anastasia is about a Russian girl with Russian men, Dimirti and Vladimir. Then why doesn’t Anastasia and Dimitri look Russian! Both of the main characters look more English or American then they do Russian. This unconsciously shows that the United States and Britain are more important then other countries. When the main characters get to Sophie’s house there is a maid who is dressed up in an extremely sexy maid outfit. This is a stereotype that shows French maids are all sexy and wear skimpy clothes. The characters go showing in Paris before they go to the play, where they sing a song called “Paris Holds The Key To Your Heart.” During the song there show many stereotypes against the French. For example most of the people on the streets are in love and when they go into a bar, there are Can-Can dancers. Not everyone in Paris is in love or a Can-Can dancer! The lyrics for the song also confirm that all French people must be in love, “There’s love in the air/ The French have it down to an art/ When your heart says don’t/ The French say do!”

Another form of interpellation is the idea of class, which I believe is used a lot in the movie. When Dimitri and Anastasia care children, Anastasia who is rich is polite and listens to her father whereas Dimitri who is poor is causing mischief and stealing apples. In another part a poor man sings “I got this from the palace/ It’s line with real fur” this is saying that all poor people steal, which is not true. When Anastasia is “poor” she is in rags and has her hair hidden in a hat but when Dimitri gives her a new dress she comes out looks gorgeous with a tight fitting blue dress and her hair brushed and in a bow, saying that the rich are cleaner and better then the poor. At one point Dimitri , who has fallen in love with Anastasia says, “ princesses don’t marry kitchen boys.” This is society’s idea that a princesses or someone with money should only marry someone within their social class. At the end of the movie, everyone dressed in elegant clothes and go the ballet. Anastasia is dressed in a beautiful purple dress with sparkling diamonds. She not only gets “check out” by Dimitri but it says that only the rich go to the ballet. I find it rather interesting that the ballet they are watching is Cinderella , which in some ways mirrors Anastasia’s life. Cinderella had a harsh life with her stepmother and stepsisters but eventually founds her place with Prince Charming. Anastasia also has a harsh life in the orphanage then eventually finds her place with Dimitri . I also find it interesting that both Anastasia and her grandmother are wearing purple with is the color of royalty.

Anastasia is different then a lot of the Disney princesses because she has a lot of agency over her life. She does dangerous things throughout the movie which some would believe a woman should not do. At the end of the movie Dimitri saves her, but after he saves her, she stands up to Rasputin and it is her who kills him. Throughout the movie Anastasia is under great pressure to become the lost princess. At the end of the movie she chooses not to be the princess but instead to be with Dimitri . This could be taken in two ways. One that she is giving up her agency to be with a man, much like in Mulan when at the end of the movie after taking on the role of a man she once again takes on the woman’s expected role of getting married. The other way to view this is that she took her own agency in not becoming the typical princess but being without her love because he is from a lower social status.

Interpellation is a process in which individuals take in and “soak up” ideas without first thinking about how those ideas may affect their lives.   These ideas are presented in a manner by which the individual acts as a human sponge and absorbs the information without thinking about it.   This process is a part of every day life, and is deeply imbedded into children’s literature.   This is a way for authors to pass on their ideals without observably stating the idea they wish to pass on.   This is how many children learn and eventually form opinions of their own concerning various topics and how the world works.   This can be done through books, movies, and the mass media in general.   Interpellation affects how individuals view gender, race, and social or class status of themselves as well as those around them.  

Text Chosen :

            The Black Cauldron is a Walt Disney film based on the first two books in the Chronicles of Prydain series by Lloyd Alexander.   The movie was released in 1985 and was met with much criticism.   The story is about a young man, Taran , and his quest to keep a powerful, magical cauldron from coming into the possession of the evil Horned King.   The story is set in the mystical land of Prydain during what appears to be the Dark Ages.   This is where Taran works as an assistant pig keeper under the supervision of an older gentleman named Dallben .   There is never any mention of Taran’s parents, and so Dallben takes on a fatherly role for him.   Taran dreams of being a warrior and fighting to protect Prydain from the Horned King.   When Taran discovers that Hen Wen , the big he tends to, is an oracular pig, he is pushed to take on a new role.   In some ways he gets his wish, but he has to prove to himself that he is capable before he can fulfill his role.   He is give much more responsibility and has to learn to believe in himself before others will.  

            Early on in the film, Taran is set up to be the hero of the story.   He starts his journey as an anxious young pig keeper, and has to work hard to keep the cauldron from falling into the hands of the Horned King.   When the kind discovers that Hen Wen can reveal the secret location of the cauldron, Taran is told to take the pig and keep her safe.   He alone can keep her away from the king, and has terrible odds to work against.   Dallben orders Taran to take the pig to a cottage in the forest to keep her safe.   As Taran leaves, Dallben makes a comment concerning the responsibility Taran has taken on by stating, “so much, so soon…to rest on his young shoulders.”   This is where Taran accepts the role as hero and protector.   This responsibility gives him agency over the situation at hand.  

            When Hen Wen is captured by the Horned King, Taran is forced to show him where the cauldron is to save both his life and the pig’s.   he helps Hen Wen escape and is locked in the dungeon of the King’s castle.   He vows to find the cauldron before the Horned King does so that Prydain will be safe.   While locked away in the king’s dungeon he meets Eilonwy , a princess who was also captured to find information about the cauldron.   Upon meeting Taran , who is frustrated because he has fialed Dallben , she asks, “ are you a lord? Or a warrior?”   Taran answers, stating, “uh…no.   I’m an assistant pig keeper.”   Eilonwy responds to this with some degree of sorrow, “oh…What a pity.   I was so hoping for someone who could help me escape.”   The princess assumes that because he is just a pig keeper, he is not capable of helping her to escape from the king’s dungeon.   This also leads the audience to believe that she cannot escape on her own.   She is using the princess role and being interpellated into the idea that she has to be rescued.   Later on, she does just that, she is rescued by Taran after he has found a magic sword and he and Eilonwy have met another prisoner, a minstrel by the name of Fflewddur Fflam .   As the three of them are being chased by the Horned King’s henchmen, Taran looks to Eilonwy and says, “I am going to get you out of here.”   This is the point where he accepts his role as her hero and she as the damsel in distress.

            The three escape from the castle and set out to find the cauldron.   Taran finds Hen Wen with the Fairfolk and one of the fairies, Doli , lead the three of them to the last known location of the cauldron.   Once they arrive there, they are “greeted” by three witches.   One of them tries to seduce Fflewddur .   She is a larger woman, but by far the prettiest of the three. She has rosy cheeks, long red hair, large breasts, and on of the warts that her sisters possess.   Taran strikes a deal with the sisters to trade his sword for the cauldron.   Once they have received the cauldron, the witches inform Taran and his companions that the only way to stop the evil magic of the cauldron is for someone to willingly climb into the cauldron and give their life.   Before they can decide what to do, the three are again captured by the Horned King.   He takes the cauldron and raises his army of dead soldiers.   Taran , Eilonwy , and Fflewddur are rescued by Gurgi , a rambunctious, childlike creature who befriended Taran in the woods during his original quest to keep Hen Wen safe.   Taran decides to sacrifice himself to the cauldron to save Eilonwy and Fflewddur .   However, before he can, Gurgi jumps into the cauldron himself and reverses its evil magic.   Taran rescues Eilonwy and Fflewddur again and gets them out of the castle again before it collapses.  

            In the end, the witches return, wanting the powerless cauldron back.   Taran bargains with them again and asks that Gurgi be returned to them from the cauldron.   His demands are granted but only once he tells the witches that they can keep his sword.   Taran has saved the day again and become the hero after all.   He has given in to his role as a hero and a rescuer.   Eilonwy , however strong-willed and outspoken she may be, has also been interpellated into her role as a damsel in need of a rescuer.   They leave the forest together….

and live happily ever after…

            I found several examples of gender interpellation as I was watching the movie.   Most of these observations are of Eilonwy and the way she is portrayed and treated throughout the film.   There are few female characters at all in the movie- Eilonwy , Hen Wen , a fairy, and the witches- this is keeping in mind that Hen Wen is a pig with a relatively small, however important, part.

            First of all, I have to comment on the clothing of the characters.   All of the males ( Taran , Fflewddur , Dallben , etc.) are dressed in dull earthy tones.   Taran wears a dark green, whereas Eilonwy is wearing a pale purple dress.   One of the fairfolk , a young female fairy, is dressed in pinks of various shades while all the boys are wearing greens and blues and oranges.   During one point in the film, Eilonwy crawls out of a dusty tunnel into a dusty room and takes the time to wipe the dirt off of her dress, knowing that she is going to get just as dirty all over again.

            Next is the role of Princess Eilonwy .   She is the only major female role in the movie.   She is the damsel in distress.   She is personally strong-willed and comes off as independent, but in the end she still needs to be saved by a male.   She is smart enough to find her way through the castle and even lead Taran out of the dungeon, but she cannot escape on her own.   She is under the impression that she has to have a warrior come and save her, and in the end she does.

            Once Taran has gotten Eilonwy and Fflewddur from the castle, we come to a scene in the forest.   Taran is playing around and swinging his sword through the air while Fflewddur plays his harp behind a group of bushes.   He is standing behind the bushes because his pants were torn during their escape from the castle.   Eilonwy is sitting on a log sewing up his pants.   This shows that she is somewhat domesticated.   The men are having a good time while she fixes Fflewddur’s pants.   Sewing is something that is stereotypically done by a woman.   Later in the woods, the three are discussing their escape.   Taran tries to take credit for their getaway, but Eilonwy points out that the sword Taran carries is enchanted, thereby transferring some of the credit to the sword.   Taran responds with a relatively sexist remark, “ what does a girl know about swords?”   This is to say that girls could not know anything about swords because they are something that only boys would know about.   Eilonwy tries to defend herself and fight back, but eventually gives in to her emotions and cries.   She storms off and he follows her to apologize.   This could lead one to believe that females are fragile and overly emotional.   This assumption of emotion comes up again later when Taran doubts himself and his abilities.   She supports him and even tells him “I believe in you.”   These words would not mean the same thing if they were coming from Fflewddur .   They renew Taran’s faith in himself because they come from a caring and emotional person—a ‘woman.’

            I noticed that while there is a distinction between the classes of the main characters, none of them seem to have a problem with the fact that they are from different levels of society.   Eilonwy is a princess, this means that she is of royal blood, but she seems perfectly content to be friends with a pig keeper.   Taran is an assistant pig keeper, who becomes the princess’s rescuer.   And in between these two is Fflewddur Fflam , the minstrel.   Ordinarily, it would have been his job to entertain people of stature such as Eilonwy , but she never asks him to, or orders him to, or even suggests it.   They see each other as people, not different occupations and places or levels in life.   Their differences in status do not prevent them from befriending each other.

            I think that the film wants the audience to walk away with a feeling of possibility.   Anything is possible.   While there are several indications in the film that boys are better rescuers, and that women are just emotional and have to have the assistance of a male, I don’t feel that this is the main message of the film.   The characters went up against terrible odds; they faced the Horned King, and defeated him.    The befriended total strangers, and in the end they won out over evil.   I feel that this was the main purpose of the movie, to show that no matter what we are faced with, there is always a way.   The movie explored the land of the mystical: talking creatures, winged dragons, and magic cauldrons.   This excites the imagination of the audience, and makes all the little idiosyncrasies of the movie seem to fade away.   One gets caught up in the film, and doesn’t notice that Eilonwy’s dress is purple, or that Gurgi is childlike.   They see interesting characters who work together to conquer a magical king and save the world.

How to Write a Critical Response Essay With Examples and Tips

• Icon Calendar 18 May 2024
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A critical response essay is an important type of academic essay, which instructors employ to gauge the students’ ability to read critically and express their opinions. Firstly, this guide begins with a detailed definition of a critical essay and an extensive walkthrough of source analysis. Next, the manual on how to write a critical response essay breaks down the writing process into the pre-writing, writing, and post-writing stages and discusses each stage in extensive detail. Finally, the manual provides practical examples of an outline and a critical response essay, which implement the writing strategies and guidelines of critical response writing. After the examples, there is a brief overview of documentation styles. Hence, students need to learn how to write a perfect critical response essay to follow its criteria.

Definition of a Critical Response Essay

A critical response essay presents a reader’s reaction to the content of an article or any other piece of writing and the author’s strategy for achieving his or her intended purpose. Basically, a critical response to a piece of text demands an analysis, interpretation, and synthesis of a reading. Moreover, these operations allow readers to develop a position concerning the extent to which an author of a text creates a desired effect on the audience that an author establishes implicitly or explicitly at the beginning of a text. Mostly, students assume that a critical response revolves around the identification of flaws, but this aspect only represents one dimension of a critical response. In turn, a critical response essay should identify both the strengths and weaknesses of a text and present them without exaggeration of their significance in a text.

Source Analysis

1. Questions That Guide Source Analysis

Writers engage in textual analysis through critical reading. Hence, students undertake critical reading to answer three primary questions:

• What does the author say or show unequivocally?
• What does the author not say or show outright but implies intentionally or unintentionally in the text?
• What do I think about responses to the previous two questions?

Readers should strive to comprehensively answer these questions with the context and scope of a critical response essay. Basically, the need for objectivity is necessary to ensure that the student’s analysis does not contain any biases through unwarranted or incorrect comparisons. Nonetheless, the author’s pre-existing knowledge concerning the topic of a critical response essay is crucial in facilitating the process of critical reading. In turn, the generation of answers to three guiding questions occurs concurrently throughout the close reading of an assigned text or other essay topics.

2. Techniques of Critical Reading

Previewing, reading, and summarizing are the main methods of critical reading. Basically, previewing a text allows readers to develop some familiarity with the content of a critical response essay, which they gain through exposure to content cues, publication facts, important statements, and authors’ backgrounds. In this case, readers may take notes of questions that emerge in their minds and possible biases related to prior knowledge. Then, reading has two distinct stages: first reading and rereading and annotating. Also, students read an assigned text at an appropriate speed for the first time with minimal notetaking. After that, learners reread a text to identify core and supporting ideas, key terms, and connections or implied links between ideas while making detailed notes. Lastly, writers summarize their readings into the main points by using their own words to extract the meaning and deconstruct critical response essays into meaningful parts.

3. Creating a Critical Response

Up to this point, source analysis is a blanket term that represents the entire process of developing a critical response. Mainly, the creation of a critical response essay involves analysis, interpretation, and synthesis, which occur as distinct activities. In this case, students analyze their readings by breaking down texts into elements with distilled meanings and obvious links to a thesis statement. During analysis, writers may develop minor guiding questions under first and second guiding questions, which are discipline-specific. Then, learners focus on interpretations of elements to determine their significance to an assigned text as a whole, possible meanings, and assumptions under which they may exist. Finally, authors of critical response essays create connections through the lens of relevant pre-existing knowledge, which represents a version of the element’s interconnection that they perceive to be an accurate depiction of a text.

Writing Steps of a Critical Response Essay

Step 1: pre-writing, a. analysis of writing situation.

Purpose. Before a student begins writing a critical response essay, he or she must identify the main reason for communication to the audience by using a formal essay format. Basically, the primary purposes of writing a critical response essay are explanation and persuasion. In this case, it is not uncommon for two purposes to overlap while writing a critical response essay. However, one of the purposes is usually dominant, which implies that it plays a dominant role in the wording, evidence selection, and perspective on a topic. In turn, students should establish their purposes in the early stages of the writing process because the purpose has a significant effect on the essay writing approach.

Audience. Students should establish a good understanding of the audience’s expectations, characteristics, attitudes, and knowledge in anticipation of the writing process. Basically, learning the audience’s expectations enables authors to meet the organizational demands, ‘burden of proof,’ and styling requirements. In college writing, it is the norm for all essays to attain academic writing standards. Then, the interaction between characteristics and attitudes forces authors to identify a suitable voice, which is appreciative of the beliefs and values of the audience. Lastly, writers must consider the level of knowledge of the audience while writing a critical response essay because it has a direct impact on the context, clarity, and readability of a paper. Consequently, a critical response essay for classmates is quite different from a paper that an author presents to a multi-disciplinary audience.

Define a topic. Topic selection is a critical aspect of the prewriting stage. Ideally, assignment instructions play a crucial role in topic selection, especially in higher education institutions. For example, when writing a critical response essay, instructors may choose to provide students with a specific article or general instructions to guide learners in the selection of relevant reading sources. Also, students may not have opportunities for independent topic selection in former circumstances. However, by considering the latter assignment conditions, learners may need to identify a narrow topic to use in article selection. Moreover, students should take adequate time to do preliminary research, which gives them a ‘feel’ of the topic, for example, 19th-century literature. Next, writers narrow down the scope of the topic based on their knowledge and interests, for example, short stories by black female writers from the 19 th century.

B. Research and Documentation

Find sources. Once a student has a topic, he or she can start the process of identifying an appropriate article. Basically, choosing a good source for writing a critical response essay is much easier when aided with search tools on the web or university repository. In this case, learners select keywords or other unique qualities of an article and develop a search filter. Moreover, authors review abstracts or forewords of credible sources to determine their suitability based on their content. Besides content, other factors constrain the article selection process: the word count for a critical response essay and a turnaround time. In turn, if an assignment has a fixed length of 500 words and a turnaround time of one week, it is not practical to select a 200-page source despite content suitability.

Content selection. The process of selecting appropriate content from academic sources relies heavily on the purpose of a critical response essay. Basically, students must select evidence that they will include in a paper to support their claims in each paragraph. However, writers tend to let a source speak through the use of extensive quotations or summaries, which dilutes a synthesis aspect of a critical response essay. Instead, learners should take a significant portion of time to identify evidence from reliable sources, which are relevant to the purpose of an essay. Also, a student who is writing a critical analysis essay to disagree with one or more arguments will select different pieces of evidence as compared to a person who is writing to analyze the overall effectiveness of the work.

Annotated bibliography. An annotated bibliography is vital to the development of a critical response essay because it enables authors to document useful information that they encounter during research. During research and documentation stages for a critical response essay, annotated bibliographies contain the main sources for a critical analysis essay and other sources that contribute to the knowledge base of an author, even though these sources will not appear in reference lists. Mostly, a critical response essay has only one source. However, an annotated bibliography contains summaries of other sources, which may inform the author’s critical response through the development of a deep understanding of a topic. In turn, an annotated bibliography is quite useful when an individual is writing a critical response to an article on an unfamiliar topic.

Step 2: Writing a Critical Response Essay

A. organization..

Thesis . A thesis statement sentence is a crucial component of a critical response essay because it presents the student’s purpose, argument, and the conclusion that he or she draws from the textual evidence. Also, the thesis statement is the response to the thesis question, which an author creates from assignment instructions. After completing the research stage, students can develop a tentative thesis statement to act as a starting point for the writing stage. Usually, tentative thesis statements undergo numerous revisions during the writing stage, which is a consequence of the refinement of the main idea during the drafting.

Weigh the evidence. Based on the tentative thesis, an author evaluates the relative importance of collected pieces of textual evidence to the central idea. Basically, students should distinguish between general and specific ideas to ascertain that there exists a logical sequence of presentation, which the audience can readily grasp. Firstly, for writing a critical response essay, learners should identify general ideas and establish specific connections that exist between each general idea and specific details, which support a central claim. Secondly, writers should consider some implications of ideas as they conduct a sorting process and remove evidence that does not fit. Moreover, students fill ‘holes’ that are present due to the lack of adequate supporting evidence to conclude this stage.

Create an outline. An essay outline is a final product of weighing the significance of the evidence in the context of the working thesis statement. In particular, a formal outline is a preferred form of essay structure for a critical response essay because it allows for detailed documentation of ideas while maintaining a clear map of connections. During the formation of an outline, students use a systematic scheme of indentation and labeling all the parts of an outline structure. In turn, this arrangement ensures that elements that play the same role are readily discernible at a glance, for example, primary essay divisions, secondary divisions, principle supporting points, and specific details.

Drafting. The drafting step involves the conversion of the one-sentence ideas in an outline format into complete paragraphs and, eventually, a critical response essay. In this case, there is no fixed approach to writing the first draft. Moreover, students should follow a technique that they find effective in overcoming the challenge of starting to write a critical response essay. Nonetheless, it is good practice to start writing paragraphs that authors believe are more straightforward to include regardless of specific positions that they hold on an outline. In turn, learners should strive to write freely and be open to new ideas despite the use of an outline. During drafting, the conveyance of meaning is much more important than the correctness of the draft.

Step 3: Post-Writing

Individual revision. An individual revision process focuses on the rethinking and rewriting of a critical response essay to improve the meaning and structure of a paper. Essentially, students try to review their papers from a perspective of readers to ensure that the level of detail, relationship and arrangement of paragraphs, and the contribution of the minor ideas to the thesis statement attain the desired effect. In this case, the use of a checklist improves the effectiveness of individual revision. Moreover, a checklist contains 12 main evaluation categories: assignment, purpose, audience and voice, genre, thesis, organization, development, unity, coherence, title, introduction, and conclusion.

Collaborative revision. Collaborative revision is a revision strategy that covers subconscious oversight that occurs during individual revision. During an individual revision of a critical response essay, authors rely on self-criticism, which is rarely 100% effective because writers hold a bias that their works are of high quality. Therefore, subjecting an individual’s work to peer review allows students to collect critique from an actual reader who may notice problems that an author may easily overlook. In turn, learners may provide peer reviewers with a checklist to simplify the revision process.

Editing . The editing step requires authors to examine the style, clarity, and correctness of a critical response essay. In particular, students review their papers to ascertain their conformance with the guidelines of formal essay writing and the English language. Moreover, sentence fragments, subject-verb agreement, dangling modifiers, incorrect use of punctuation, vague pronoun references, and parallelism are common grammar issues that learners eliminate during editing. Then, writers confirm that their critical response essays adhere to referencing style guidelines for citation and formatting, such as the inclusion of a title page, appropriate in-text citation, and proper styling of bibliographic information in the reference list. In turn, students must proofread a critical response essay repeatedly until they find all errors because such mistakes may divert the audience’s attention from the content of a paper.

Sample Outline Template for a Critical Response Essay

I. Introduction

A. Summary of an article. B. Thesis statement.

A. First body paragraph

• The idea for the first paragraph.
• Evidence for the first point from an article.
• Interpretation of the evidence.

B. Second body paragraph

• The idea for the second paragraph.
• Evidence for the second point from an article.

C. Third body paragraph

• The idea for the third paragraph.
• Evidence for the third point from an article.

III. Conclusion

A. Summary of three points that form a body section. B. Closing remarks.

Uniqueness of a Critical Response Essay Outline

The presence of a summary in the introduction and an interpretation for each piece of evidence are defining features of a critical response essay. Typically, the introduction, being one of 5 parts of an essay, does not contain a succinct summary of a source that an author uses in body paragraphs. In this case, the incorporation of a summary in the introduction paragraph provides the audience with specific information concerning the target article of a critical response. Specifically, a critical response essay differs from other response papers because it emphasizes the provision of reasonable judgments of a text rather than the testing and defense of one’s judgments. In turn, authors of a critical response essay do not provide evaluation for their judgments, which implies that critical responses may be different but correct if a specific interpretation is reasonable to the audience.

Expanding an Outline Format Into a Critical Response Essay

1. introduction.

The introductory paragraph in a critical response essay consists of two primary sections: a summary of an article and a thesis statement. Firstly, a summary of an article consists of the text’s central argument and the purpose of the presentation of the argument. Basically, students should strive to distill the main idea and purpose of the text into a few sentences because the length of the introduction is approximately 10% of the essay’s word count. Then, a summary provides the audience with adequate background information concerning an article, which forms a foundation for announcing the student’s primary idea. In this case, writers may include an additional sentence between a summary and a thesis statement to establish a smooth flow in the opening paragraph. However, learners should not quote thesis and purpose statements because it results in a fragmented introduction, which is unappealing to readers and ineffective.

• All body paragraphs have in a critical response essay four main elements: the writer’s idea, meaningful evidence from a reading text, interpretation of the evidence, and a concluding statement.

A. Writer’s Idea

The writer’s idea for a paragraph appears in the first sentence of a paragraph, which is a topic sentence. For example, if students know how to write a topic sentence, they present readers with a complete and distinct idea that proves or supports a thesis statement. In this case, authors should carefully word their topic sentences to ensure that there is no unnecessary generalization or spillovers of ideas from other paragraphs. Notably, all the topic sentences in the body of a critical response essay share a logical relationship that allows the audience to easily follow the development of the central idea of a paper.

B. Evidence

Students should provide evidence that supports the idea that they propose in the topic sentence. Basically, the evidence for all body paragraphs is the product of critical reading of an article, which allows writers to identify meaningful portions of a text. During the presentation of evidence, learners should ascertain that the contextual meaning of paraphrases or quotations is not lost because such a strategy will harm interpretations that follow after it. In turn, critical response essays must not contain lengthy or numerous quotations unless the meaning or intended effect of a quotation is not replicable upon paraphrasing.

C. Interpretation

Interpretation segments of paragraphs allow authors to explain the significance of the evidence to the topic sentence. In a critical response essay, the interpretation is the equivalent of an author revealing the possible assumptions behind a text paraphrase and commenting on whether or not he or she finds them reasonable. Moreover, students make inferences concerning their meaning in the context of the entire narrative and its relation to the paragraph’s idea. In turn, learners should refrain from reading too much into a piece of evidence because it may result in false or unreasonable inferences.

D. Concluding Sentence

The concluding statement is the final sentence of any paragraph. In this case, the primary role of the concluding sentence is to emphasize the link between the topic sentence, evidence, interpretation, and the essay’s central idea. Also, the concluding statement should not contain an in-text citation because it does not introduce new evidence to support the topic sentence. Therefore, authors use concluding sentences to maintain the unity between body paragraphs and a critical response essay in its entirety.

3. Conclusion

The conclusion comprises three core elements: a restatement of a thesis statement, a summary of the main points that authors present in body paragraphs, and closing remarks. In particular, the first statement of the conclusion draws the attention of the audience to the central idea, which an author proposes in a thesis statement. Then, students review the main points of a critical response essay to demonstrate that written arguments in body paragraphs adequately support a thesis statement. Moreover, writers should summarize the main points of a paper in the same order that they appear in the main part to guarantee that logical patterns in the body are readily discernible in summary. Finally, learners make their closing remarks, which creates a sense of wholesomeness in a critical response essay or ties a paper to a larger relevant discourse.

Example of Writing a Critical Response Essay

Topic: American Capitalism: The New Face of Slavery

I. Sample Introduction of a Critical Response Essay

Capitalism is a dominant characteristic of the American economy. In this case, Matthew Desmond’s article “In Order to Understand the Brutality of American Capitalism, You Have to Start on the Plantation” discusses the role of slavery in shaping contemporary business practices. Specifically, the author attempts to convince the audience that the brutality of American capitalism originates from slavery. In turn, Desmond lays a strong but simple foundation for his argument, which ensures that the audience can conceptualize the link between plantation slavery and contemporary American capitalistic practices.

II. Example of a Body in a Critical Response Essay

A. example of the first body paragraph: american capitalism.

Early in the article, Desmond informs readers of the high variability in the manifestation of capitalism in societies, which creates the impression that American capitalism is a choice. For example, Desmond (2019) argues that the brutality of American capitalism is simply one of the possible outcomes of a society built on capitalistic principles because other societies implement the same principles in a manner that is liberating, protective, and democratic. Moreover, Desmond begins his argument by eliminating a popular presumption that exploitation and oppression are unavoidable outcomes of capitalism. In turn, this strategic move to establish this fact is in the introductory section of the article because it invites the audience to rethink the meaning of capitalism. Furthermore, its plants doubt regarding the ‘true’ meaning of capitalism outside the context of American society.

B. Example of the Second Body Paragraph: American Capitalism: Slavery and American’s Economic Growth

After establishing that the perception of capitalism through the lens of American society has some bias, Desmond proceeds to provide detailed evidence to explain the attempt to camouflage the obvious link between slavery and America’s economic growth. For instance, Desmond (2019) notes the role of Alfred Chandler’s book, The Visible Hand, and Caitlin Rosenthal’s book, Accounting for Slavery, in breaking the link between management practices in plantations and modern corporations by suggesting that the current business practices are a consequence of the 19th-century railroad industry. In this case, Desmond uses this evidence to make a logical appeal to the audience, which makes his argument more convincing because he explains the reason behind the exclusion of slavery in the discourse on modern industry. As a result, Desmond dismisses one of the main counterarguments against his central argument, which increases his persuasive power.

C. Example of the Third Body Paragraph: Input vs. Output Dynamic

Desmond emphasizes the link between slavery and American capitalism to readers by using the simple input vs. output dynamic throughout the article. For example, Desmond (2019) compares the Plantation Record and Account Book to the heavy digital surveillance techniques in modern workplaces because they collect data, which the employers use to maximize productivity while minimizing inputs. In particular, the comparison reveals that employers did not stop the practice of reducing laborers into units of production with fixed productivity thresholds. Moreover, the constant repetition of the theme of low input and high output dominates the body paragraphs, which makes it nearly impossible for readers to lose sight of the link between slavery and business practices under American capitalism. In turn, the simplification of the underlying logic in Desmond’s argument ensures its clarity to the audience.

III. Sample Conclusion of a Critical Response Essay

Desmond carefully plans the presentation of his argument to the audience, which allows readers to follow the ideas easily. In particular, the author starts with a call for readers to set aside any presumptions concerning capitalism and its origin. Then, Desmond provides the audience with an alternative narrative with support from seminal texts in slavery and economics. On the whole, Desmond manages to convince the audience that the American capitalistic society is merely a replica rather than an aberration of slavery.

Citing Sources in a Critical Response Essay

A critical response essay contains specific thoughts of the article’s author and direct words of the text’s author. In this case, students must conduct proper documentation to ensure that readers of critical response essays can distinguish between these two types of ‘voices.’ Moreover, documentation prevents incidents of plagiarism. Usually, instructors mention a referencing technique that students should use in writing a critical response essay. However, if assignment instructions do not identify a specific documentation style, writers should use a referencing technique that is acceptable for scholarly writing in their disciplines.

In-text citation:

• Parenthetical: (Desmond, 2019).
• Narrative: Desmond (2019).
• Desmond, M. (2019, August 12). In order to understand the brutality of American capitalism, you have to start on the plantation . New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/14/magazine/slavery-capitalism.html
• Parenthetical: (Desmond par. 1).
• Narrative: Desmond argues . . . (par. 1).

Works Cited:

• Desmond, Matthew. “In Order to Understand the Brutality of American Capitalism, You Have to Start on the Plantation.” New York Times , 14 Aug. 2019, www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/14/magazine/slavery-capitalism.html.

3. Harvard Referencing

• Parenthetical: (Desmond 2019).

Reference List:

• Desmond, M 2019, In order to understand the brutality of American capitalism, you have to start on the plantation . Available from: <https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/14/magazine/slavery-capitalism.html>. [27 August 2020].

4. Chicago/Turabian

In-text citation (footnote):

• 1. Matthew Desmond, “In Order to Understand the Brutality of American Capitalism, You Have to Start on the Plantation,” New York Times, August 14, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/14/magazine/slavery-capitalism.html.

Bibliography:

• Desmond, Matthew. “In Order to Understand the Brutality of American Capitalism, You Have to Start on the Plantation.” New York Times. August 14, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/14/magazine/slavery-capitalism.html.

Final Provisions on a Critical Response Essay

• Critical reading is a precursor for writing an effective critical response essay.
• Students must conduct adequate research on a topic to develop a proper understanding of a theme, even if only one article appears on the reference list.
• Notetaking or annotation is a good practice that aids students in extracting meaning from an article.
• Writers should plan for all activities in the writing process to ascertain that they have adequate time to move through all the stages.
• An outline is an organizational tool, which learners must use to establish the sequence of ideas in a critical response essay.
• The purpose of a critical response essay has a significant impact on the selection of evidence and the arrangement of body paragraphs.
• Students should prioritize revision and editing, which represent opportunities to refine the content of an essay and remove mechanical issues.
• Collaborative and individual revision are equally important because they play different roles in the writing of a critical response essay.
• Evidence selection is dependent on the purpose and thesis statement of a critical response essay.

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• Published: 28 May 2024

Gut microbiome remodeling and metabolomic profile improves in response to protein pacing with intermittent fasting versus continuous caloric restriction

• Alex E. Mohr   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5401-3702 1 , 2 ,
• Karen L. Sweazea 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Devin A. Bowes   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9819-2503 2 ,
• Paniz Jasbi 4 , 5 ,
• Corrie M. Whisner   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3888-6348 1 , 2 ,
• Dorothy D. Sears   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9260-3540 1 ,
• Rosa Krajmalnik-Brown   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6064-3524 2 ,
• Yan Jin 6 ,
• Haiwei Gu 1 , 6 ,
• Judith Klein-Seetharaman   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4892-6828 1 , 4 ,
• Karen M. Arciero 7 ,
• Eric Gumpricht 8 &
• Paul J. Arciero   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7445-6164 7 , 9  

Nature Communications volume  15 , Article number:  4155 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Metabolomics
• Risk factors

The gut microbiome (GM) modulates body weight/composition and gastrointestinal functioning; therefore, approaches targeting resident gut microbes have attracted considerable interest. Intermittent fasting (IF) and protein pacing (P) regimens are effective in facilitating weight loss (WL) and enhancing body composition. However, the interrelationships between IF- and P-induced WL and the GM are unknown. The current randomized controlled study describes distinct fecal microbial and plasma metabolomic signatures between combined IF-P ( n  = 21) versus a heart-healthy, calorie-restricted (CR, n  = 20) diet matched for overall energy intake in free-living human participants (women = 27; men = 14) with overweight/obesity for 8 weeks. Gut symptomatology improves and abundance of Christensenellaceae microbes and circulating cytokines and amino acid metabolites favoring fat oxidation increase with IF-P (p < 0.05), whereas metabolites associated with a longevity-related metabolic pathway increase with CR (p < 0.05). Differences indicate GM and metabolomic factors play a role in WL maintenance and body composition. This novel work provides insight into the GM and metabolomic profile of participants following an IF-P or CR diet and highlights important differences in microbial assembly associated with WL and body composition responsiveness. These data may inform future GM-focused precision nutrition recommendations using larger sample sizes of longer duration. Trial registration, March 6, 2020 (ClinicalTrials.gov as NCT04327141), based on a previous randomized intervention trial.

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Intermittent fasting modulates the intestinal microbiota and improves obesity and host energy metabolism

Introduction.

As a principal modulator of the gut microbiome (GM) and weight status, nutritional input holds great therapeutic promise for addressing a wide range of metabolic dysregulation 1 . Dependent on the host for nutrients and fluid, one of the main processes by which the GM affects host physiology is producing bioactive metabolites from the gastrointestinal (GI) contents. Nutrient composition, feeding frequency, and meal timing impact this dependency 2 , 3 . To maintain a stable community and ecosystem, the GM must regulate its growth rate and diversity in response to nutrient availability and population density 4 . Such maintenance is affected by caloric restriction (CR) coupled with periods of feeding and intermittent fasting (IF) 5 . Moreover, we’ve recently shown the nutritional composition and meal frequency during these periods alter the metabolizable energy for the host 6 . The current study incorporates protein pacing (P), defined as four meals/day consumed evenly spaced every 4 h, consisting of 25–50 g of protein/meal 7 , 8 , 9 . Indeed, we have previously characterized a dietary approach of calorie-restricted IF-P combined and P alone 7 , 8 . These studies included nutrient-dense meal replacement shakes, along with whole foods, to quantitatively examine beneficial changes in body composition and cardiometabolic, inflammatory, and toxin-related outcomes in healthy and overweight individuals 7 , 8 , 10 , 11 , 12 . Further, recent preclinical work in mice has identified dietary protein as having anti-obesity effects after CR that are partially modulated through the GM 13 . Thus, the need to examine this in humans is warranted.

In this current work, we compare the effects of two low-calorie dietary interventions matched for weekly energy intake and expenditure; continuous caloric restriction on a heart-healthy diet (CR) aligned with current United States (US) dietary recommendations 14 versus our calorie-restricted IF-P diet 8 , 15 , in forty-one individuals with overweight or obesity, over an 8-week intervention. We hypothesize an IF-P diet may favorably influence the GM and metabolome to a greater extent than a calorie-matched CR alone. This exploratory investigation utilizes data and samples from a randomized controlled trial (NCT04327141) that compares the effects of the CR versus IF-P diet on anthropometric and cardiometabolic outcomes, as previously published 15 . As an additional analysis, we select “high” and “low” responders based on relative weight loss (WL) for a subgroup examination of the IF-P diet to better elucidate potential differential responses to intermittent fasting and protein pacing. Of special note, one individual lost 15% of their initial body weight over the 8-week intervention; this individual is followed longitudinally for a year to explore the dynamics of their GM and fecal metabolome. Novel findings from the current study shows an IF-P regimen results in improved gut symptomatology, a more pronounced community shift, and greater divergence of the gut microbiome, including microbial families and genera, such as Christensenellaceae , Rikenellaceae , and Marvinbryantia , associated with favorable metabolic profiles, compared to CR. Furthermore, IF-P significantly increases cytokines linked to lipolysis, weight loss, inflammation, and immune response. These findings shed light on the differential effects of IF-P as a promising dietary intervention for obesity management and microbiotic and metabolic health.

Intermittent fasting - protein pacing (IF-P) significantly influences gut microbiome (GM) dynamics compared to calorie restriction (CR)

We compared an IF-P vs. a CR per-protocol dietary intervention (matched for total energy intake and expenditure) over eight weeks to compare changes in weight, cardiometabolic outcomes, and the GM in men and women with overweight/obesity (IF-P: n  = 21; CR: n  = 20). One participant in each group were lost to follow-up due to non-compliance with dietary intervention (Fig.  1a ; CONSORT flow diagram: Supplementary Fig.  S1a ). The primary outcomes of dietary intake, body weight and composition responses, cardiometabolic outcomes, and hunger ratings after both dietary interventions are provided in our companion paper 15 . Briefly, after a one-week run-in period consuming their usual dietary intake (baseline diet), with no differences between groups at baseline for any dietary intake variable 15 , both dietary interventions significantly reduced total fat, carbohydrate, sodium, sugar, and energy intake by approximately 40% (~1000 kcals/day) from baseline levels (Fig.  1b ; Supplementary Data  1 ). By design, IF-P increased protein intake greater than CR during the intervention. The IF-P regimen consisted of 35% carbohydrate, 30% fat, and 35% protein for five to six days per week and a weekly extended modified fasting period (36–60 h) consisting of 350–550 kcals per day using randomization, as detailed previously 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 15 . In comparison, the CR regimen consisted of 41% carbohydrate, 38% fat, and 21% protein in accordance with current US dietary recommendations (Supplementary Table  S1 ) 14 , 16 . Using two-way factorial mixed model analysis of variance (ANOVA), significant macronutrient decreases drove energy reduction from dietary fat and carbohydrate ( p  < 0.001), with increased protein in the IF-P compared to CR ( p  < 0.001; Supplementary Fig.  S1b ; Supplementary Data  1 ). Regarding GI functioning and GM modulation, IF-P significantly decreased sugar and increased dietary fiber relative to CR (IF-P; pre, 20 ± 2 vs. post, 26 ± 2: CR; pre, 24 ± 3 vs. 24 ± 2 g/day; p  < 0.05). Despite similar average weekly energy intake (~9000 kcals/week) and physical activity energy expenditure (~350 kcals/day; p  = 0.260) during the intervention, participants following the IF-P regimen lost significantly more body weight (−8.81 ± 0.71% vs. −5.40 ± 0.67%; p  = 0.003; Fig.  1c ; Supplementary Data  1 ) and total, abdominal, and visceral fat mass and increased fat-free mass percentage (~2×; p  ≤ 0.030), as previously reported 15 . In addition, within-group analyses revealed a significant decrease in the reported frequency of total and lower-moderate GI symptoms (GI symptom rating score [GSRS] ≥4) over time for both IF-P and CR participants. However, when comparing the two dietary interventions at each time point, a more substantial reduction was observed in IF-P participants compared to CR participants (i.e., −9.3% vs. −5.4% and −13.2% vs. −3.9%, respectively; Table  1 ). The increased protein and lower sugar intake in IF-P compared to CR may have favorably mediated the GM and symptomatology.

a Study design with baseline participant characteristics. A registered dietitian counseled individuals from both groups each week. Time points with data collection are shown for both IF-P and CR participants. Icons created using BioRender.com. b Total daily caloric intake at each time point was not significantly different between IF-P and CR diet groups (two-sided Student’s t -test, p  < 0.05). Adjusted values are displayed by dividing total weekly intake by seven, to account for the fasting periods of IF-P. c IF-P participants lost significantly more weight over time versus CR participants. Points connected by line represent percent of weight compared to baseline weight for each participant. d Overall gut microbial colonization, as demonstrated by qPCR-based quantification of 16S rRNA gene copies per gram wet weight was unaffected by time or intervention (linear-mixed effects [LME] model, two-sided p  > 0.05). Alpha diversity metrics, e observed amplicon sequence variants (ASVs), and f Phylogenetic diversity at the ASV level significantly increased over time, independent of the intervention. g Intra-individual changes in GM community structure from baseline to weeks four and eight in IF-P participants shifted significantly throughout the IF-P intervention compared to CR as measured by the Bray-Curtis dissimilarity index (two-sided Wilcoxon rank-sum test). All box and whiskers plots display the box ranging from the first to the third quartile, and the center the median value, while the whiskers extend from each quartile to the minimum or maximum values. Heatmap of significant changes in h family- and i genus-level bacter i a by intervention. Colors indicate the within-group change beta coefficients over time for each cell, and asterisks denote significance. Black-white annotations on the bottom denote the significance of between-group change difference (by MaAsLin2 group × time interactions; p -values were corrected to produce adjusted values [ p .adj] using the Benjamini–Hochberg method). For all panels, IF-P: n  = 20, CR: n  = 19. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.

The substantial reduction in calorie intake of both groups (~40% from baseline) led us to investigate its potential impact on transient microbial colonization in the gut, as estimated by 16S rRNA gene copies (linear-mixed effects model [LME] time effect, p  = 0.114; Fig.  1d ; Supplementary Data  2 ). While it might be expected that a significant reduction in calorie intake could influence gut microbial colonization, our findings indicate that this reduction did not reach statistical significance within the timeframe of our study. This result contrasts with previous research that imposed more substantial energy restriction, such as a four-week regimen of ~800 kcal/day in participants with overweight/obesity, where overall gut microbial colonization notably decreased 4 . In addition to assessing microbial colonization, we also investigated whether the calorie reduction significantly influenced principal stool characteristics, including wet stool weight, Bristol stool scale (BSS), and fecal pH ( p  ≥ 0.066; Table  1 ). However, we did not observe statistically significant changes in these parameters over the course of the study. Moreover, there were no significant differences between the two dietary intervention groups over time (interaction effect, p  ≥ 0.051). In contrast, there were significant time effects for observed amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) and phylogenetic diversity (LME time effect, p  ≤ 0.023; Fig.  1e, f ; Supplementary Data  2 ), with values increasing at weeks four and eight compared to baseline (pairwise comparisons, p  ≤ 0.048); however, no interaction was observed for either alpha diversity metric (group × time effect, p  ≥ 0.925). To rule out the potential confounding effects of GI transit time 17 , BSS (as a surrogate marker) and stool pH were not significantly correlated with alpha diversity (Spearman correlations, p  ≥ 0.210). In relation to community composition, much of the intervention variance could be attributed to individual response upon testing nested permutational analysis of variance (PERMANOVA; R 2  = 0.749, p  = 0.001; Supplementary Table  S2 ), showcasing the highly individualistic landscape of the human GM in response to dietary intervention. However, a significant 1.8% of the variance was accounted for by the group × time interaction ( p  = 0.001). Moreover, individual responses over time showed variance between the two dietary interventions (PERMANOVA, R 2  = 0.123, p  = 0.003). This variability was apparent by assessing intra-individual differences, where a pronounced increase in Bray-Curtis dissimilarity was observed in the IF-P compared to the CR group after four (median Bray-Curtis dissimilarity, 0.53 [IQR: 0.47–0.61] vs. 0.38 [IQR: 0.33–0.47]) and eight weeks (0.50 [IQR: 0.41–0.55] vs. 0.39 [IQR: 0.33–0.45]; Fig.  1g ; Wilcoxon rank-sum test, p  ≤ 0.005).

To understand the taxa driving this GM variation from baseline to weeks four and eight between the two dietary interventions, we constructed MaAsLin2 linear-mixed models with the individual participant as a random factor 18 . We observed differential abundance patterns at the family and genus level in response to the IF-P but not the CR intervention. Of the 28 family and 69 genus-level features captured after filtering, a respective total of six and 18 taxa displayed significant interaction effects, with all significant time effects occurring from IF-P ( p .adj ≤ 0.10; Fig. 1h, i ; Supplementary Data  3 , 4 ). Notably, the changes observed at the four-week mark were more pronounced compared to those at eight weeks. These early alterations may signify an initial adaptation phase during which microbial populations respond to the modified substrate availability and nutrient composition, suggesting a degree of community resilience 19 . Increases were sustained to the third fecal collection for the family Christensenellaceae and the genera Incertae Sedis ( Ruminococcaceae family), Christensenellaceae R-7 group , and UBA1819 ( Ruminococcaceae family) (effect size > 2.0). Christensenellaceae is well regarded as a marker of a lean (anti-obesity) phenotype 20 and is associated with higher protein intake 21 . Other notable increases included Rikenellaceae , which, like Christensenellaceae , has been linked to reduced visceral adipose tissue and healthy metabolic profiles 22 , and Marvinbryantia , a candidate marker for predicting long-term weight loss success in individuals with obesity 23 . In addition, IF-P increased Ruminococcaceae , which has been noted to have an increased proteolytic and lipolytic capacity 24 . This shift in IF-P participants likely represents a change in GM substrate fermentation preferences as the diet regimen (relative protein and carbohydrate) and energy restriction is expected to increase the proteolytic: saccharolytic potential ratio 25 . In contrast, all taxa that decreased in IF-P participants were butyrate producers. These included the family Butyricicoccaceae and several genera such as Butyricicoccus (week four), Eubacterium ventriosum group (weeks four and eight), and Agathobacter (week four) (effect size < −2.0). When comparing monozygotic twin pairs, Eubacterium ventriosum group and another reduced genus, Roseburia , were more abundant in the higher body mass index (BMI) siblings 26 . Others, such as the mucosa-associated Butyricicoccus and Erysipelotricaceae UCG-003, have been positively correlated with insulin resistance and speculated to contribute to impaired glycolipid metabolism 27 .

Despite these changes in GM composition and increased fiber intake (+30% vs. baseline) of the IF-P participants 15 , we did not detect a significant shift in the abundance of the principal fecal short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), acetate, propionate, butyrate, or valerate, as assessed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) (LME, p  ≥ 0.470; Supplementary Fig.  S1c ; Supplementary Data  5 ). Several factors likely contribute to this finding. For example, the distinct physical-chemical properties of fiber sources between IF-P and CR are inherently different. Participants adhering to the IF-P diet consumed most of their dietary fiber as liquid meal replacements (shakes) that are rich in non-digestible, oligosaccharide dietary-resistant starch 5 (RS5). In contrast, subjects on the CR regimen consumed their fiber from whole food sources such as vegetables, whole grains, and legumes. These fiber sources provided a mixture of soluble and insoluble fibers and a more complex fiber profile than IF-P participants. Moreover, even similar fiber profiles may function differently due to differences in food matrices and/or food preparation (cooking, raw consumption, etc.). Also of relevance is the timing of their fiber consumption. IF-P participants’ fiber intake was concentrated in fiber-rich shakes, offering immediate availability of fiber to the GI tract. In contrast, CR participants consumed fiber through whole foods, leading to a slower digestion and absorption process influenced by individual digestive transit times and enzymatic profiles. Interestingly, our results parallel recent work where participants more than doubled their fiber intake without affecting fecal SCFAs 28 . The disparate findings may be due to the type of dietary-resistant starch (RS) as a component of the nutrition regimen. In the current study, RS5 was included in the meal replacement shakes (eight grams/shake, two shakes/day, 16 g/day total). Prior research supports resistant starch intakes of >20 g/day favorably modulate SCFA production, primarily butyrate, over four to 12-week interventions 29 , 30 . Moreover, this lack of response in fecal SCFAs in both groups may have been further compounded by the significant reduction in energy intake in both groups, where the epithelia of the GI tract may have absorbed any potential increase in SCFAs from the dietary shift. It is worth noting that stool analysis may not be the most reliable biological surrogate for capturing SCFA flux over time 28 . Nevertheless, the changes in nutrient quality, timing, ratios, and the observed shift toward proteolytic activity suggest that the luminal matrix of digesta in the IF-P group impacted substrate availability for GM. This effect appears to be an influencing force in driving the observed beneficial shifts in microbial communities, such as Christensenellaceae and Incertae Sedis , as well as improvements in GI symptomatology in IF-P compared to CR. These results underscore the complexity of dietary influences on GM and highlight the need for further research to explore the impact of liquid meal replacements versus whole food sources on GM changes and SCFA status.

IF-P modulates circulating cytokines and gut microbiome taxa compared to CR

Caloric restriction and WL have been well known to positively influence inflammatory cytokine expression, with GM now emerging as an important modulator 31 . Surveying a panel of 14 plasma cytokines, we noted significant interaction (group × time) effects for IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-13 (LME, p  ≤ 0.034; Fig.  2a–d ; Supplementary Table  S3 ; Supplementary Data  6 ). These cytokines exhibited increases at weeks four and/or eight compared to baseline exclusively in the IF-P group (pairwise comparisons, p .adj ≤ 0.098), while no significant changes were observed in the CR group ( p .adj ≥ 0.562). Notably, IL-4 has been reported to display lipolytic effects 32 , and IL-8 has been positively associated with weight loss and maintenance 33 . Regarded as a proinflammatory myokine, IL-6 can acutely increase lipid mobilization in adipose tissue under fasting or exercise conditions 34 , 35 , 36 . IL-13 may be important for gut mucosal immune responses and is a stimulator of mucus production from goblet cells 37 , which has been recently reported to be influenced during a two-day-a-week fasting regimen in mice 38 . These results were of note considering the significant total body weight, fat, and visceral fat loss in the IF-P compared to the CR group. Surprisingly, correlational analysis with change (post – pre) in anthropometric and select plasma biomarker values with the cytokine profile did not reveal any significant associations after correcting for multiple testing effects ( p .adj ≥ 0.476; Supplementary Data  7 ). Plasma cytokines were, however, correlated with microbial composition for samples collected in the IF-P group during the intervention period (weeks four and eight) using graph-guided fused least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (GFLASSO) regression, revealing associations between cytokine-taxa pairs (Supplementary Fig.  S2a ). Of the four cytokines that increased in IF-P participants, we identified multiple significant correlations: Colidextribacter (rho = −0.55, p .adj = 0.015), Ruminococcus gauvreauii group (rho = 0.50, p .adj = 0.036), and Intestinibacter (rho = 0.45, p .adj = 0.086) with IL-4 (Supplementary Fig.  S2b ) and an unclassified genus from Oscillospiraceae (rho = −0.53, p .adj = 0.019), Colidextribacter (rho = −0.52, p .adj = 0.019), and Ruminoccus gauvreauii group (rho = 0.51, p .adj = 0.019) with IL-13 (Supplementary Fig.  S2c ).

a IL-4, b IL-6, c IL-8, and d IL-13: Each panel shows the cytokine concentration levels. Significant time effects and interaction effects (group × time) were detected using linear-mixed effects models (LME, two-sided p  < 0.05), indicating differential changes over the intervention period. IF-P participants exhibited significant increases in cytokine levels compared to baseline, as evidenced by pairwise comparisons adjusted for multiple testing using the Benjamini–Hochberg method (two-sided p .adj < 0.10). All box and whiskers plots display the box ranging from the first to the third quartile, and the center the median value, while the whiskers extend from each quartile to the minimum or maximum values. For all panels, IF-P: n  = 20, CR: n  = 19. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.

Displaying negative correlations for IL-4 and IL-13, Colidextribacter has been shown to be positively correlated to fat accumulation, insulin, and triglyceride levels in mice fed a high-fat diet 39 and positively correlated with products of lipid peroxidation, suggesting its potential role in promoting oxidative stress 40 . Conversely, Ruminoccus gauvreauii group was positively correlated with IL-4 and IL-13. Although limited information is available regarding the host interactions of this microbe, this genus is considered a commensal part of the core human GM and able to convert complex polysaccharides into a variety of nutrients for their hosts 41 . While these findings highlight the potential interplay between specific microbes and cytokine profiles, the directional influence—whether microbial changes drive cytokine alterations or vice versa—cannot be determined in this study setting. Furthermore, despite the change in cytokine profiles in the IF-P group, we did not detect any significant time or group × time effects when measuring lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP; Δ pre/post, IF-P: 0.24 ± 0.31 vs CR: −0.93 ± 0.49 μg/mL; p  ≥ 0.254), a surrogate marker for gut permeability 42 . While the GM plays a crucial role in modulating the gut-immune axis, the observed cytokine fluctuations and microbial associations might also involve other factors. These include the production of specific metabolites due to shifts in microbial composition as well as the influence of the dietary regimen itself, which may have a central role in shaping these interactions.

IF-P and CR yield distinct circulating metabolite signatures and convergence of multiple metabolic pathways

To understand the potential differential impact of IF-P versus CR on the host, we surveyed the plasma metabolome, reliably detecting 136 plasma metabolites across 117 samples (i.e., QC CV < 20% and relative abundance > 1000 in 80% of samples). Based on outlier examination (random forest [RF] and principal component analysis [PCA]), no samples were categorized as outliers, and all data were retained for subsequent analysis. Metabolomic profile shifts were observed in both IF-P and CR groups compared with baseline (Canberra distance), however, these did not differ significantly by group or time (weeks four and eight; Wilcoxon rank-sum test, p  ≥ 0.087; Supplementary Fig.  S3a ). We prepared a general linear model (GLM) with age, sex, and time as covariates and corrected for false discovery rate (FDR). When controlling for these relevant covariates, we observed significant differences between IF-P and CR for 15 metabolites (Fig.  3a , Supplementary Table  S4 ): 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid, malonic acid, choline, agmatine, protocatechuic acid, myoinositol, oxaloacetic acid, xylitol, dulcitol, asparagine, n-acetylglutamine, sorbitol, cytidine, acetylcarnitine, and urate ( p .adj ≤ 0.089). To estimate the univariate classification performance of the 15 significant metabolites, we performed a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. Ten metabolites demonstrated a moderate area under the curve (AUC) (0.718–0.819), while five metabolites had an AUC < 0.70. Therefore, to improve classification performance, we constructed a supervised PLS-DA model using levels of the 15 significant metabolites ( p .adj ≤ 0.089) and analyzed variable importance in projection (VIP) scores (Supplementary Fig.  S3b ). Five metabolites with a VIP > 1.0 (2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid, malonic acid, protocatechuic acid, agmatine, and myoinositol) were retained to construct an enhanced orthogonal projection to latent structures discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) model. In contrast, the model fit was assessed with 100-fold leave-one-out cross-validation (LOOCV; see “Methods” section). Permutation testing showed the refined OPLS-DA model to have an acceptable fit to data ( Q 2  = 0.460, p  < 0.001), with appreciable explanatory capacity ( R 2  = 0.506, p  < 0.001; Supplementary Fig.  S3c ). The ROC analysis produced an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.929 (95% CI: 0.868–0.973, sensitivity = 0.8, specificity = 0.9; Supplementary Fig.  S3d ) between the CR and IF-P groups showing good accuracy of the GLM and providing strong support for the differential expression of these 15 metabolites between groups.

a Abundance and log fold-change of significant plasma metabolites between IF-P and CR groups as determined by a general linear model (GLM) adjusted for age, sex, and time. All GLM analyses utilized two-sided p -values, with multiple testing corrections applied using the Benjamini–Hochberg method ( p .adj). Metabolome pathway analysis was conducted for b IF-P and c CR using all reliably detected metabolites showing significantly altered pathways ( p .adj < 0.10) with moderate and above impact (>0.10). Impact scores were calculated using a hypergeometric test, while significance was assessed via a test of relative betweenness centrality, emphasizing the changes in metabolic network connectivity. For all panels, IF-P: n  = 20, CR: n  = 19. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.

Two metabolites, malonic acid, and acetylcarnitine, increased compared to the CR intervention. Several other investigators have noted the increase in acetylcarnitine via fasting protocols 43 , 44 . This increase is consistent with free fatty acid mobilization and increased transportation of these fatty acids via carnitine acylation into the mitochondria for fatty acid oxidation. These results would also be consistent with the expected ketogenesis, although not documented in our study, but noted by similar fasting interventions 44 . Relatedly, malonic acid, a naturally occurring organic acid, is a key regulatory molecule in fatty acid synthesis via its conversion to acetoacetate; hence, our results may reflect this increased synthesis in response to the mobilization and oxidation of fatty acids occurring during fasting. Other metabolites that decreased with IF-P include several sugar alcohols (myoinositol, dulcitol, and xylitol). Dulcitol (galactitol) is a sugar alcohol derived from galactose. It is possible that during fasting, levels of dulcitol decrease as glucose (initially) and free fatty acids (after 24–36 h of fasting) are preferentially utilized as energy substrates. One amino acid (asparagine) and one amino acid analog (N-acetylglutamine, associated with consumption of a Mediterranean diet 45 ) also decreased with IF-P relative to CR. Finally, 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid significantly decreased with IF-P. This metabolite is formed during the metabolism of flavonoids, as it is found abundantly in fruits, vegetables, and some spices. At the cellular level, this hydroxybenzoic acid functions as a cell signaling agent and has been speculated as a potentially protective molecule in various cancers 46 . It is unclear whether this metabolite decreased due to either dietary intake or metabolic processes related to high-protein intake or the fasting protocol. Collectively, the metabolic responses to these dietary regimens reflect the interrelationships of several anabolic and catabolic physiologic responses to three key components of these interventions: (a) the WL process itself, (b) changes in amount (and type) of macronutrient distribution (i.e., meal replacement shakes vs. whole food diet approach; higher vs. normal protein intakes), and (c) the adherence to fasting (IF-P only).

To determine the significantly impacted pathways of the dietary interventions, we grouped participant samples according to baseline or intervention period (weeks four and eight), with IF-P and CR assessed separately. A total of 14 pathways were significant in the IF-P group ( p .adj < 0.10; Fig.  3b ), with three displaying large impact coefficients (>0.5): (1) Glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism, (2) alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism, and (3) ascorbate and aldarate metabolism. In comparison, 24 pathways were significant for the CR group (Fig.  3c ), with four showing large impact coefficients (>0.5): (1) Phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis, (2) alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism, (3) citrate cycle (TCA cycle), and (4) glycine, serine and threonine metabolism. Notably, the glycine, serine, and threonine pathway has recently been found in preclinical models to play a pivotal role in longevity and related life-sustaining mechanisms independent of diet, though heavily impacted by fasting time and caloric restriction 47 . This may be partially related to the ability of glycine to increase tissue glutathione 48 , 49 and protect against oxidative stress 50 . In our analysis, this pathway was significant in both diet groups and is biochemically and topologically related to the additionally captured amino acid pathway, alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism, as well as the energy-releasing pathway, the citrate cycle (TCA cycle). Notably, in the CR group, phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis, are important for neurotransmitter production and reported to be suppressed (tryptophan) in obesity 51 . This representation may have also been attributed to the differences in protein intake 52 or differences in dietary diversity 53 , yet to be determined. Regardless, we noted similar representations of pathway impact between IF-P and CR, with metabolic response centered on utilization of amino acids in addition to lipid turnover and energy pathways.

Gut microbiome and plasma metabolome latent factors indicate differential multi-omic signatures between IF-P and CR regimens

As the plasma metabolome has been suggested as a bidirectional mediator of GM influence on the host 54 , we performed a multi-omics factor analysis (MOFA) 55 to identify potential patterns of covariation and co-occurrence between the microbiome and circulating metabolites. Operating in a probabilistic Bayesian framework, MOFA simultaneously performs unsupervised matrix factorization to obtain overall sources of variability via a limited number of inferred factors and identifies shared versus exclusive variation across multiple omic data sets 55 . Eight latent factors were identified (minimum explained variance ≥2%; see “Methods” section), with the plasma metabolome and GM explaining 37.12% and 17.49% of the overall sample variability, respectively (Fig.  4a ). Based on significance and the proportion of total variance explained by individual factors for each omic assay, Factors 1 ( R 2  = 11.98) and 6 ( R 2  = 5.28) captured the greatest covariation between the two omic layers (Fig.  4a ; Supplementary Table  S5 ). In contrast, Factors 2 and 5 were nearly exclusive to the metabolome, and factors 3 and 4 to the GM. Interestingly, Factor 1 was significantly negatively correlated to dietary protein intake (Spearman rho = −0.270, p.adj = 0.021; Fig.  4b ) and captured the variation associated with the CR diet (Wilcoxon rank-sum test, p .adj = 3.2e-04; Fig.  4c ). Factor 6 had the greatest number of significant correlations, including negative associations with visceral adipose tissue, waist circumference, body weight, BMI, fat mass, android fat, subcutaneous adipose tissue, dietary sodium, carbohydrate, fat, energy intake (kcal), and sugar (Spearman rho ≤ −0.220, p .adj ≤ 0.075) and captured the variation associated with IF-P (Wilcoxon rank-sum test, p .adj = 0.007).

a The cumulative proportion of total variance explained ( R 2 ) and proportion of total variance explained by eight individual latent factors for each omic layer. b Spearman correlation matrix of the eight latent factors and clinical anthropometric and dietary covariates. Each circle represents a separate association, with the size indicating the significance (-log10 ( p -values)) and the color representing the effect size (hue) with its direction (red: positive; blue: negative). All correlations are calculated using two-sided tests. Asterisks within a circle denote significance after adjustment with the Benjamini–Hochberg method. c Scatter plot of Factors 1 and 6, with each dot representing a sample colored by intervention. Box and whisker plots illustrate significant differences between groups after adjusting for multiple testing using the Benjamini–Hochberg method (Wilcoxon rank-sum test; top = Factor 1, p .adj = 3.2e-04; right = Factor 6, p .adj = 0.007). The plots show boxes ranging from the first to the third quartile and the median at the center, with whiskers extending to the minimum and maximum values. d Factor 1 and 6 loadings of genera and metabolites with the largest weights annotated. Symbols: * p .adj < 0.10, ** p .adj < 0.01, *** p .adj < 0.001, **** p .adj < 1.0e-04. For all panels, IF-P: n  = 20, CR: n  = 19. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.

Assessing the positive weights (feature importance) of Factor 1 revealed a microbial and metabolomic signature linked with CR, including the taxa Faecalibacterium , Romboutsia , and Roseburia , and the plasma metabolites myoinositol, agmatine, N-acetylglutamine, erythrose, and mucic acid (Fig.  4d ). Previous dietary restriction studies have reported co-occurrence of gut microbial taxa and plasma metabolites that span a wide variety of applications and investigations 56 . The specific co-occurrences observed in Factor 1 exhibited an abundance of butyrate-producing bacterial taxa that utilize carbohydrates as their predominant substrate and plasma metabolites that are generally involved in carbohydrate metabolism, such as erythrose, an intermediate in the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), and mucic acid which is derived from galactose and/or galactose-containing compounds (i.e., lactose). These co-occurrence patterns biologically cohere considering the nutritional profile of the CR group and the large contribution of fiber-rich, unrefined carbohydrates and reduction in sugar (~50% kcal from sugar). Indeed, these nutritional changes may have influenced the GM to accommodate changes in dietary substrate more efficiently. One interesting co-occurrence was the genus Romboutsia and metabolite N-acetylglutamine. Romboutsia has been shown to produce several SCFAs and ferment certain amino acids, including glutamate 57 . N-acetylglutamine is biosynthesized from glutamate; thus, its co-occurrence with the abundance of Romboutsia encourages further exploration into this interaction 58 .

Factor 6 captured the signature associated with IF-P, with positive contributions from the taxa Incertae Sedis ( Ruminococcaceae family), Erysipelatoclostridium , Christensenellaceae R-7 group , Oscillospiraceae UCG-002, and Alistipes , and the plasma metabolites malonic acid, adipic acid, succinate, methylmalonic acid, and mucic acid (Fig.  4d ). Prior work has established that Alistipes increases from diets rich in protein and fat, and contributes to the highest number of putrefaction pathways (i.e., fermentation of undigested proteins in the GI tract) over the other commensals 59 . This could explain the co-occurrence of plasma metabolites from protein catabolism, such as 2-aminoadipid acid, adipic acid, and glutamic acid 22 , 59 . Oscillospiraceae has recently been viewed with next-generation probiotic potential, harboring positive regulatory effects in areas related to obesity and chronic inflammation 60 . Mentioned prior, recent studies have reported on the role of Christensenellaceae on human health, participating in host amino acid and lipid metabolism as well as fiber fermentation 20 , with Christensenellaceae R-7 group notably evidenced to correlate with visceral adipose tissue reduction 22 . As such, the elevated abundance of microbes in the GM of IF-P participants observed in this study in tandem with the co-occurrence of metabolites indicative of protein degradation and mobilization and oxidation of fatty acids, such as methylmalonic acid, malonic acid, and succinate, presents a nascent multi-omic signature of IF-P. In addition, and more pronounced in the IF-P vs CR group, participants decreased sugar intake by ~75% (kcals) compared to baseline levels. Considering the other regimental components of IF-P, the differences in multi-omic signatures likely display the selective pressures of these two interventions.

Gut microbiome (GM) composition is associated with weight loss (WL) responsiveness to IF-P diet

The IF-P intervention produced a microbiome and metabolomic response; however, the loss in body weight and fat across individuals varied (Fig.  5a ). To provide deeper characterization and explore differential features of WL responsiveness, we performed a GM-focused subgroup analysis by employing shotgun metagenomic and untargeted fecal metabolomic surveys in 10 individuals that either achieved ≥10% loss in body weight or bordered on clinically important WL (i.e., >5% BW; herein, ‘High’ and ‘Low’ responders) 61 . Importantly, baseline characteristics between WL responder classification did not differ significantly (baseline body weight: High, 108.9 ± 30.8 vs. Low, 81.9 ± 18.1 kg, p  = 0.117; Supplementary Table  S6 ). Assessing the GM at the fundamental taxonomic rank, species composition showed significant separation by weight loss response evaluated by Bray-Curtis dissimilarity (group × time: R 2  = 0.114, p  = 0.001; Fig.  5b ; Supplementary Table  S7 ), with most of the variation explained by the individual ( R 2  = 0.711, p  = 0.001). In comparison, species level alpha diversity did not differ significantly between classifications (group × time: p  ≥ 0.674; Fig.  5c, d ). Identifying 212 species after filtering, we noted significant differences in bacterial abundances between groups over time (Fig.  5e ; Supplementary Data  8 ). A total of 10 features increased in the High-responder group relative to the Low-response group over the eight-week study period, including Collinsella SGB14861 , Clostridium leptum , Blautia hydrogenotrophica , and less typified species; GGB74510 SGB47635 (unclassified Firmicutes), GGB3511 SGB4688 (unclassified Firmicutes), Faecalicatena contorta , Lachnospiraceae bacterium NSJ-29 , Phascolarctobacterium SGB4573 , GGB38744 SGB14842 (unclassified Oscillospiraceae ), and Massiliimalia timonensis (effect size ≥ 1.163, p .adj ≤ 0.092). The increase in Collinsella , a less characterized anaerobic pathobiont that produces lactate and has been associated with low-fiber intakes 62 , 63 and lipid metabolism 64 , may have been related to the periods of CR and IF, in conjunction with the greater influx of host-released fatty acids in the High-responder group. Relatedly, Clostridium leptum growth has been linked with increases in monounsaturated fat intake, reductions in blood cholesterol 65 , and stimulation of Treg induction (i.e., anti-inflammatory) 66 . The latter association is relevant to the SCFA-promoting (primarily butyrate) qualities of Clostridium leptum 67 . Blautia hydrogenotrophica , an acetogen with bidirectional metabolic cross-feeding properties (e.g., transfer of hydrogen and acetate), is also important for butyrate formation 68 . Taxa that decreased relative to the Low-responder group; Eubacterium ventriosum , Streptococcus salivarius , Eubacterium rectale , Anaerostipes hadrus , Roseburia inulinivorans , Mediterraneibacter glycyrrhizinilyticus , and Blautia massiliensis (effect size ≤ −1.690, p .adj ≤ 0.078), included butyrate producers, Eubacterium ventriosum , Eubacterium rectale , Roseburia inulinivorans , and others, such as Streptococcus salivarius , a nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activity repressor 69 and Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) inhibitor potentially influencing lipid and glucose metabolism 70 . Investigating monozygotic (MZ) twin pairs, Eubacterium ventriosum was more abundant in the higher BMI siblings 26 , with enhanced scavenging fermentation capabilities 71 . Roseburia inulinivorans is a mobile firmicute (flagella) that harbors a wide-ranging enzymatic repertoire able to act on various dietary polysaccharide substrates suggestive of the ability to respond to the availability of alternative dietary substrates 72 . While we noted a more variable shift in fecal total SCFAs, acetate, propionate, butyrate, or valerate (via targeted GC–MS), in the Low weight loss responders, there was no significant difference when compared to High weight loss responders (Wilcoxon rank-sum test, p  ≥ 0.210; Supplementaryl Fig.  S4a ; Supplementary Data  9 ).

a Relative weight loss over the eight-week intervention for each participant in the IF-P group. b NMDS ordination showed the personalized trajectories of participants’ microbiomes over time. Dotted lines connect the same individual and point toward the final sample collection. No significant time or group × time interaction effects for alpha diversity metrics, c observed species, and d the Shannon index. Box and whiskers plots display the box ranging from the first to the third quartile, and the center the median value, while the whiskers extend from each quartile to the minimum or maximum values. Volcano plots displaying differential abundance between High and Low weight loss responders for e microbial species and f functional pathways. Significant features were more enriched in High and Low weight loss responders colored orange and light blue, respectively. g Alluvial plot displaying the fecal metabolite profile at the subclass level (Human Microbiome Database). Most abundant metabolite subclasses displayed (i.e., ≥1%). Metabolome pathway analysis for h High and i Low weight loss responders using all reliably detected fecal metabolites showing altered pathways with moderate and above impact (>0.10). Impact was calculated using a hypergeometric test, while significance was determined using a test of relative betweenness centrality. j Grid-fused least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (GFLASSO) regression of species from differential abundance analysis displayed correlative relationships with fecal metabolites. Species with greater abundance in High (High > Low) and Low (Low > High) weight loss responders are separate‘. For all panels, High: n  = 5, Low: n  = 5. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.

Less affected compared to taxonomic features were the 275 microbial-affiliated metabolic pathways identified after filtering, of which gluconeogenesis III and guanosine ribonucleotides de novo biosynthesis were increased (effect size ≥ 0.108, p .adj = 0.079), while super pathway of L-alanine biosynthesis, sucrose degradation IV (sucrose phosphorylase), sucrose degradation III (sucrose invertase), super pathway of thiamine diphosphate biosynthesis III, and flavin biosynthesis I (bacteria and plants) were decreased in the High relative to the Low weight loss responder group (effect size ≤ −0.247, p .adj ≤ 0.079; Fig.  5f ; Supplementary Data  10 )

As the difference in microbial shifts versus function is well established, we also tracked the fecal metabolome to better understand metabolic modification/production and identify potential microbial metabolic targets for future weight loss interventions. Overall, we reliably detected (QC relative standard deviation > 20% and mean intensity value > 1000 in 80% of samples) and annotated 607 (Human Metabolome Database) compounds across fecal samples. Notably, we found the fecal metabolite profile of both subgroups abundant in amino acids, peptides, and analogs, with decreases in sulfates, furanones, and quaternary ammonium salts and increases in cholestane steroids, carboxylic acid derivatives, and imidazoles (Fig.  5g ). Assessing metabolite changes between groups did not yield significance when comparing logFC values (Wilcoxon rank-sum test, p .adj > 0.10; Supplementary Fig.  S4b ). Pathway analysis of High weight loss responders revealed prominent metabolic signatures relevant to lipid metabolism (glycerolipid and arachidonic metabolism), nucleotide turnover (pyrimidine metabolism), and aromatic amino acid formation (phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis; Fig.  5h , Supplementary Data  11 ). In comparison, the more prominent enriched pathways for Low weight loss responders included those related to amino acid and peptide metabolism (glycine, serine, and threonine, d-glutamine and d-glutamate, and tyrosine metabolism and arginine biosynthesis; Fig.  5i , Supplementary Data  12 ).

Finally, species captured by our differential abundance analysis were channeled into a GFLASSO model with the fecal metabolome library to select metabolically relevant compounds best predicted by microbial abundances. Restricting taxa and metabolites displaying stronger co-occurrence signals (GFLASSO coefficients > 0.02), we noted several patterns (Fig.  5j ). This included positive associations between GGB3511 SGB4688 (unclassified Firmicute) and malonic acid (important to fatty acid metabolism), as well as Roseburia inulinivorans and 3-Hydroxy-2-oxo-1H-indole-3-acetic acid. Negative associations included Phascolarctobacterium SGB4573 with the fatty acid ester, methyl sorbate, and Streptococcus salivarius (anti-inflammatory) with leukotriene B4 dimethylamide.

Differences detected in our subgroup analysis suggest that the GM composition plays a role in WL responsiveness during IF-P interventions. Notable differences in taxa and fecal metabolites suggest differing substrate utilization capabilities and nutrient-acquiring pathways between High and Low responders, despite being on the same dietary regimen. Although differences between High and Low responders were statistically significant for the microbiome data, the magnitude of differences varied, suggesting further research is needed to clarify these differences.

Long-term IF-P remodels the gut microbiome after substantial weight loss – A case study

Considering the microbiomic and metabolic importance of sustained WL, we additionally performed a longitudinal, exploratory case study analysis on the participant who lost the most body weight during the eight-week WL period (−15.3% BW, −24.9 kg). Under rigorous clinical supervision, this individual was guided through and comprehensively tracked over 52 weeks, strictly adhering to an IF-P regimen, including WL (0–16 weeks) and maintenance (16–52 weeks) periods, which included adjusting the calorie intake to maintain energy balance. Microbial richness and evenness at the species level displayed a general inverse trend with body weight reduction, although they converged at 52 weeks (Fig.  6a, b ). Species dissimilarity peaked at weeks four and 16, after which it plateaued, but remained consistently higher in comparison to baseline over the 52-week period (Fig.  6c ). Examining positive linear coefficients of a PERMANOVA model, constructed to detect variation between community compositions over time, dominant influences included several species within the Lachnospiraceae family such as Fusicatenibacter saccharivorans , Blautia wexlerae , Blautia massillensis , Anaerostipes hadrus , and Coprococcus comes and others like Akkermansia muciniphila (Fig.  6d ). Negative contributions included species from the Oscillospiraceae family, such as Ruminococcus bromii and Ruminococcus torques . Indeed, visualizing community composition over the sampling time points suggested specific GM remodeling (Fig.  6e ; Supplementary Data  13 ). Many keystone taxa prominent over time in the microbiome are highly relevant to the significant reduction in body weight and metabolic improvement of the case-study participant. For example, Blautia wexlerae , a commensal bacterium recently reported to confer anti-adipogenesis and anti-inflammatory properties to adipocytes 73 became visually more prominent over time. This association was also the case for the health-associated microbe, Anaerostipes hadrus , which converts inositol stereoisomers (including myoinositol) to propionate and acetate, apt to improve insulin sensitivity and reduce serum triglyceride levels 74 , translating to reduced host metabolic disease risk 75 . Other elevated taxa, like the mucin-degrading Akkermansia muciniphila and Bacteroides faecis , are negatively correlated with markers for insulin resistance 76 . There was also a notable bloom of Collinsella SGB14861 (anaerobic pathobiont producing lactate) 63 and suppression of Eubacterium rectale , Ruminococcus torques (associated with circadian rhythm disruption in mice) 77 , and Ruminococcus bromii (an exceptional starch degrader) 78 .

Change in alpha diversity metrics a observed species and b Shannon index with percentage of baseline body weight. c Bray-Curtis dissimilarity at the species level with d top PERMANOVA model coefficients (analysis: species~time). e Alluvial plot displaying the variation in abundance of the 20 most prevalent bacteria over time. For visual clarity, the less abundant taxa are not displayed. f Canberra distance of fecal metabolome with g top PERMANOVA model coefficients (analysis: pathway~time). h Pathway analysis of fecal metabolites comparing baseline to subsequent sample collections. Data are plotted as -log10(p) versus pathway impact. Node size corresponds to the proportion of metabolites captured in each pathway set, while node color signifies significance. Impact was calculated using a hypergeometric test, while significance was determined using a test of relative betweenness centrality. No p -value adjustments were made. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.

Compared to the more pronounced shifts in the GM, an inspection of Bray-Curtis dissimilarity at the microbial metabolic pathway level was much less affected (Supplementary Fig.  S5a ). Though positive contributions in multiple biosynthesis pathways were noted, as well as reductions in the superpathway of UDP-glucose-derived O-antigen building blocks biosynthesis and glucose and glucose-1-phosphate degradation (Supplementary Fig.  S5b ; Supplementary Data  14 ). We also tracked the fecal metabolome concordance with the GM to corroborate potential metabolic output. Shifts in metabolites captured by calculating the Canberra distance were prominent (Fig.  6f ), with positive influences from agrocybin (possessing antifungal activity 79 ), nicotinic acid (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide precursor), and sulfate, and reductions in cadaverine (involved in the inhibition of intestinal motility 80 ), maltitol, acetohydroxamic acid (a urease inhibitor), and hypoxanthine, after removing the dominant amino acid subclass (Fig.  6g ; Supplementary Fig.  S5c ). At the chemical class level, we observed apparent shifts in chemical subclasses; cholestane steroids, amines, purines, and purine derivatives, and amino acids, peptides, and analogs (Supplementary Fig.  S5d ). Given our case-study approach, we performed a pathway analysis using all reliably detected fecal metabolites at each collection point over 52 weeks. Pathway analysis (Fig.  6h ) identified primary bile acid biosynthesis ( p  = 0.014) and cysteine and methionine metabolism ( p  = 0.096) as having the greatest significance, while the greatest impact (I) was observed in phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis and linoleic acid metabolism ( I  = 1.0). Alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism ( I  = 0.756), vitamin B6 metabolism ( I  = 0.647), sulfur metabolism ( I  = 0.532), phenylalanine metabolism (I =  0.357), and nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism ( I  = 0.194) also displayed marked pathway impacts (Supplementary Fig.  S5e ; Supplementary Data  15 ). Together, these integrated findings from the group comparisons (IF-P vs. CR), high vs. low responders, and the case study, suggest that the remodeling of the gut microbiome through sustained weight loss on an IF-P regimen not only alters the microbial composition but also influences key metabolic pathways and output, reflective of fat mobilization and metabolic improvement.

Our study demonstrates distinct effects of IF-P on gut symptomatology and microbiome, as well as circulating metabolites compared to continuous CR. We observed significant changes in the GM response to both interventions; however, the IF-P group exhibited a more pronounced community shift and greater divergence from baseline (i.e., intra-individual Bray-Curtis dissimilarities). This shift was characterized by increased specific microbial families and genera, such as Christensenellaceae , Rikenellaceae , and Marvinbryantia , associated with favorable metabolic profiles. Furthermore, IF-P significantly increased circulating cytokine concentrations of IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-13. These cytokines have been linked to lipolysis, WL, inflammation, and immune response. The plasma metabolome analysis revealed distinct metabolite signatures in IF-P and CR groups, with the convergence of multiple metabolic pathways. These findings shed light on the differential effects of IF regimens, including IF-P as a promising dietary intervention for obesity management and microbiotic and metabolic health.

While acknowledging individual contributions of WL, protein pacing, and IF, we propose that the beneficial shifts observed may be best characterized as the culmination of features inherent in our IF-P approach. For example, it is possible that microbial competition is leveraged during reduced and intermittent nutritional input periods, emphasizing nutrient composition and food matrix type (combination of whole food and meal replacements vs. primarily whole food), affecting available substrates for gut microbes. IF-P participants’ fiber intake was concentrated in fiber-rich (RS5 type) shakes, offering immediate availability of fiber to the GI tract. In contrast, CR participants consumed fiber through whole foods, leading to a slower digestion and absorption process influenced by individual digestive transit times and enzymatic profiles. This nutritional environment may create ecological niches that support symbiont microbial communities. In this investigation, we provide support of such remodeling, with intentional fasting and increased relative protein (protein pacing) consumption well-validated to improve body composition and metabolism during weight loss 7 , 8 , 15 . Our results align with previous studies on CR, where greater relative protein intake was associated with an increased abundance of Christensenella 81 . This increase is likely a result of increased amino acid-derived metabolites 21 . We also observed increased signatures of amino acid metabolism in the GM of IF-P participants, which may be attributed to increased nitrogen availability, prompting de novo amino acid biosynthesis. The liquid format of two of the daily meals and precise timing of high-quality protein consumption (Protein Pacing) in the IF-P regimen may have influenced these results, as amino acids play essential roles in microbial communities, acting as energy and nitrogen sources and essential nutrients for amino acid auxotrophs.

In addition to the differences in nutrient composition, the IF-P group exhibited a profound reduction (33%) in visceral fat 15 . This reduction is significant because visceral fat is highly correlated with GM. While the specific influence of GM on fat depots in our study remains unclear, the shift in cytokine profile and metabolic pathways suggests an interaction between GM and fat metabolism. Regarding GM-host interaction, we did not detect changes in gut permeability assaying LBP. However, correlations were found with cytokines IL-4 and IL-13 and microbes Colidextribacter (negative association) and Ruminoccus gauveauii group (positive association). These associations may reflect the direct impact of the dietary intervention, yet they also hint at a deeper crosstalk within the gut-immune axis. This crosstalk is known to play a pivotal role in modulating host inflammation and influencing adipose tissue signaling pathways 42 . Furthermore, the observed microbial shifts, including changes in populations of Christensenella , suggest a nuanced role for certain microbes in regulating metabolic health. Notably, certain strains of Christensenella have been implicated in the regulation of key metabolic markers, such as glycemia and leptin levels, and in promoting hepatic fat oxidation 82 .

Our findings also underscore that GM composition plays a role in WL responsiveness during IF-P interventions. Subgroup analysis based on WL responsiveness revealed significant differences in species composition at the taxonomic level. The High-responder group showed an increased abundance of certain bacteria associated with metabolic benefits and anti-inflammatory effects. In contrast, the Low-responder group exhibited an increased abundance of butyrate-producing and nutritionally adaptive species (e.g., Eubacterium ventriosum 71 and Roseburia inulinivorans 72 ). Fecal metabolome analysis further highlighted differences between the two subgroups, with distinct metabolic signatures and enrichment in specific metabolic pathways. Notably, the High WL responders displayed enrichment of fecal metabolites involved in lipid metabolism. In contrast, Low responders were more prominent in pathways related to the metabolism of amino acids and peptides, including glycine, serine, and threonine, d-glutamine, and d-glutamate, as well as tyrosine metabolism and arginine biosynthesis. The latter metabolic signature has been reported in individuals with severe obesity undergoing high-protein, low-calorie diets 83 . As both High and Low WL responders were consuming the same diet, our results suggest differences in GM composition and metabolism, which could play a role in determining the success of an IF-P regimen. Though, as these enrichment analyses were performed in an exploratory manner, we acknowledge the need for a more systematic approach to validate these findings.

Finally, we provide evidence of long-term GM stabilization from these changes by following one individual over 12 months. Dietary restriction is widely used to reduce fat mass and weight in individuals with or without obesity; however, weight regain after such periods presents a critical challenge, and the underlying homeostatic mechanisms remain largely elusive. Notably, keystone taxa that became more prominent over time were associated with anti-adipogenesis, improved insulin sensitivity, and reduced metabolic disease risk. The microbial shifts were accompanied by noticeable changes in the fecal metabolome, with shifts in various metabolites and chemical subclasses. Pathway analysis identified impacts on primary bile acid biosynthesis, cysteine and methionine metabolism, and other fat mobilization and metabolic improvement pathways. These shifts were accompanied by noticeable changes in the fecal metabolome, particularly in metabolites and chemical subclasses related to lipid metabolism, nucleotide turnover, and aromatic amino acid formation.

Despite the valuable insights from our study on the complex interactions between intermittent fasting, higher protein intake using protein pacing, the GM, and circulating metabolites in obese individuals, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, our reliance on fecal samples to represent the GM may have overlooked potential microbial populations in the upper GI tract. Including samples from proximal regions in future studies would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the gut microbiome’s response to IF-P and CR. In addition, the sample size for our study was determined based on the primary outcomes related to body weight and composition from the parent study 15 . This sample size may have reduced statistical power and potentially amplified individual variability among participants. However, it is important to note that the smaller RCT design allowed for more precise control over diet and lifestyle factors, minimizing potential confounding influences on the study outcomes. Furthermore, the study’s duration was limited to eight weeks, which prevented potential insights into the differential long-term effects between the two interventions. However, we were able to extend the follow-up duration and conduct periodic assessments for a year in our case-study participant, offering a more comprehensive understanding of the sustainability of the observed changes and the potential for weight regain for IF-P. The current study compared a combination of whole food and supplements (shakes and bars; IF-P) versus primarily whole food (CR), which together with variations in protein and fiber content and type may have influenced the gut symptomatology and nutrient absorption between groups. Additionally, study participants self-reported dietary intake daily, although there was close monitoring of intake through the return of empty food packaging/containers of consumed food and daily monitoring by investigators and weekly meetings with a registered dietitian. Overall, knowledge gaps are present in this research, including how the microbiome is rebuilt after food reintroduction and how overall caloric restriction and specific macronutrients contribute to this process. However, considering the multifactorial nature of weight loss and metabolic health, our work represents an important precedent for future work. Future investigators should consider integrating these factors to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Additional research is warranted to characterize the metabolic signature of IF-P, the time relationship between these fasting periods, and the analysis of these metabolic changes. A strength of our High-Low-responder and case-study analyses is the hypothesis-driving nature of the findings, from which targeted microbiome and/or precision nutrition interventions can be designed and tested.

In conclusion, our study provides valuable insights into the complex interactions among intermittent fasting and protein pacing, the GM, and circulating metabolites in individuals with obesity. Specifically, intermittent fasting - protein pacing significantly reduces gut symptomatology and increases gut microbes associated with a lean phenotype ( Christensenella ) and circulating cytokines mediating total body weight and fat loss. These findings highlight the importance of personalized approaches in tailoring dietary interventions for optimal weight management and metabolic health outcomes. Further research is necessary to elucidate the underlying mechanisms driving these associations and to explore the therapeutic implications for developing personalized strategies in obesity management. Additionally, future studies should consider investigating microbial populations in upper GI sections and potential intestinal tissue remodeling to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the gut microbiome’s role in these interventions.

Study design and participants

The protocol of the clinical trial was registered on March 6, 2020 (Clinicaltrials.gov; NCT04327141), and the results of the primary analysis have been published previously 15 . Briefly, participants were recruited from Saratoga Springs, NY, and were provided informed written consent in accordance with the Skidmore College Human Subjects Institutional Review Board before participation (IRB#: 1911-859), including consent for the use of samples and data from the current study. Each procedure performed was in adherence with New York state regulations and the Federal Wide Assurance, which follows the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, and in agreement with the Helsinki Declaration (revised in 1983). Their physicians performed a comprehensive medical examination/history assessment to rule out any current cardiovascular or metabolic disease. For at least six months before the start of the study, all eligible participants were either sedentary or lightly active (<30 min, two days/week of organized physical activity), with overweight or obesity (BMI > 27.5 kg/m2; % body fat > 30%), weight stable (±2 kg), and middle-aged (30–65 years). In addition, participants taking antibiotics, antifungals, or probiotics within the previous two months were excluded. Enrolled participants were matched for body weight, BMI, and body fat and randomly assigned to one of two groups: (a) IF-P ( n  = 21; 14 women; 7 men) or (b) CR ( n  = 20; 12 women; 8 men) for eight weeks. During a one-week run-in period, subjects maintained a stable body weight by consuming a similar caloric intake as their pre-enrollment caloric intake while maintaining their sedentary lifestyle. This was confirmed by matching their pre-enrollment dietary intake to the one-week run-in diet period 15 . Following baseline testing, participants were provided detailed instructions on their weight loss dietary regimen (Supplementary Table  S1 ) and received weekly dietary counseling and compliance/adherence monitoring from the research team via daily food records, and weekly registered dietitian meetings, along with weekly visits to the Human Nutrition and Metabolism laboratory at Skidmore College (Saratoga Springs, NY) for meal distribution and empty packet/container returns. All outcome variables were assessed pre (week 0), mid (week 4), and post (week 8). All participants were compensated $100 for successful completion of the study and received an additional monthly stipend of $75 for groceries (CR group only) or up to two meals per day of food supplements and meal replacements (IF-P only).

IF days consisted of ~350–550 kcals per day, in which participants were provided a variety of supplements and snacks. Protein pacing (P) days for IF-P consisted of four and five meals/day for women and men, respectively, two of which (breakfast and one other meal) were liquid meal replacement shakes with added whole foods (Whole Blend IsaLean® Shakes, 350/400 kcals, 30/36 g of protein/meal, 9 g of fiber); a whole food evening dinner meal (450/500 kcals men), an afternoon snack (200 kcals, men only), and an evening protein snack (IsaLean® or IsaPro® Shake or IsaLean Whole Blend® Bar; 200–250 kcals). This dietary regimen provided 1350–1500 and 1700–1850 kcals/day for women and men, respectively, and a macronutrient distribution targeting 35% protein, 35% carbohydrate, 20–30 g/day of fiber, and 30% fat. Isagenix International, LLC (Gilbert, AZ, USA) provided all meal replacement shakes, bars, beverages, and supplements. In comparison, participants assigned to the CR diet followed specific guidelines of the National Cholesterol Education Program Therapeutics Lifestyle Changes (TLC) diet of the American Heart Association with a strong Mediterranean diet influence of a variety of fresh vegetables, fruits, nuts, and legumes. The specific macronutrient distribution recommended was <35% of kcal as fat; 50%–60% of kcal as carbohydrates; 15% kcal as protein; <200 mg/dL of dietary cholesterol; and 20–30 g/day of fiber. The total calorie intake was 1200 and 1500 calories per day for women and men, respectively, during the 8-week weight loss intervention. In addition to weekly meetings with the registered dietitian and daily contact with research team members, subjects were provided detailed written instructions for their meal plans. They were closely monitored through daily participant-researcher communication (e.g., email, text, and mobile phone), two-day food diary analysis, weekly dietary intake journal inspections, weekly meal/supplement container distribution, and returning empty packets and containers.

Gastrointestinal (GI) symptom rating scale

Participants completed the 15-question GI symptom rating scale (GSRS) 84 at baseline, week four, and week eight. Briefly, each question is rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = absent; 2 = minor; 3 = mild; 4 = moderate; 5 = moderately severe; 6 = severe and 7 = very severe) and recalled from the previous week. Questions include symptoms related to upper abdominal pain, heartburn, regurgitation (acid reflux), empty feeling in the stomach, nausea, abdominal rumbling, bloating, belching, flatulence, and questions on defecation. The GSRS questionnaire provides explanations of each symptom, is understandable, and has reproducibility for measuring the presence of GI symptoms 85 . In our analysis, a score of ≥2 (minor) was defined as symptom presence, and a score ≥ 4 (moderate) was defined as moderate symptom presence. Furthermore, to better categorize symptom location, bloating, flatulence, constipation, diarrhea, stool consistency, defecation urgency, and sensation of not completely emptying bowels were classified as lower GI symptoms, and nausea, heartburn, regurgitation, upper abdominal pain, empty feeling in the stomach, stomach rumbling, and belching was classified as upper GI symptoms. Total scores were also generated for overall symptom and moderate symptom presence.

Fecal sample collection and DNA extraction

Participants were instructed to provide stool samples at baseline, week four, and week eight of the intervention. The case-study participant additionally provided samples at weeks 12, 16, 32, and 52. The entire bowel movement was collected and transported within 24 h of defecation to the Skidmore College Human Nutrition and Metabolism (Saratoga Springs, NY) laboratory using a cooler and ice packs and frozen at −80 °C. Samples were then sent to ASU (Phoenix, AZ) overnight on dry ice for analysis, where they were thawed at 4 °C and processed. Wet weight was recorded to the nearest 0.01 g after subtracting the weight of fecal collection materials. Stool samples were then rated according to the BSS 86 , homogenized in a stomacher bag, and the pH was measured (Symphony SB70P, VWR International, LLC., Radnor, PA, USA). Next, the extraction of DNA was performed using the DNeasy PowerSoil Pro Kit (Cat. No. 47016, Qiagen, Germantown, MD) per the manufacturer’s instructions. DNA concentration and quality were quantified using the NanoDrop™ OneC Microvolume UV-Vis Spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific™, Waltham, MA) according to manufacturer instructions. The OD 260 /OD 280 ratio of all samples was ≥1.80 (demonstrating DNA purity).

Quantification of bacterial 16S rRNA genes

To estimate total bacterial biomass per sample (16S rRNA gene copies per gram of wet stool), DNA extracted from the fecal collections was assessed via quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) based on previously published methods 87 , 88 . Briefly, all 20 μL qPCR reactions contained 10 uL of 2X SYBR Premix Ex Taq ™ (Tli RNase H Plus) (Takara Bio USA, Inc., San Jose, CA, USA), 0.3 μM (0.6 μL) of each primer (926 F: AAACTCAAAKGAATTGACGG; 1062 R: CTCACRRCACGAGCTGAC), 2 μL DNA template (or PCR-grade water as negative control), and 6.8 μL nuclease-free water (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). PCR thermal cycling conditions were as follows: 95 °C for 5 min, followed by 35 cycles of 95 °C for 15 s, 61.5 °C for 15 s, and 72 °C for 20 s, then hold at 72 °C for 5 min, along with a melt curve of 95 °C for 15 s, 60 °C for 1 min, then 95 °C for 1 s. Quantification was performed using a QuantStudio3™ Real-Time PCR System by Applied Biosystems with QuantStudio Design and Analysis Software 1.2 from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA). All samples were analyzed in technical replicates. For quality assurance and quality control, molecular negative template controls (NTC) consisting of PCR-grade water (Invitrogen, Waltham, MA, USA) and positive controls created by linearized plasmids were run on every qPCR plate. Standard curves were run-in triplicate and used for sample quantification, ranging from 10 7 to 10 1 copies/μL with a cycle threshold (CT) detection limit cutoff of 33. Reaction efficiency was approximately 101%, with a slope of −3.29 and R 2  ≥ 0.99.

Fecal microbiome analysis

Amplification of the 16S rRNA gene sequence was completed in triplicate PCRs using 96-well plates. Barcoded universal forward 515 F primers and 806 R reverse primers containing Illumina adapter sequences, which target the highly conserved V4 region, were used to amplify microbial DNA 89 , 90 . PCR, amplicon cleaning, and quantification were performed as previously outlined 90 . Equimolar ratios of amplicons from individual samples were pooled together before sequencing on the Illumina platform (Illumina MiSeq instrument, Illumina, Inc., San Diego, CA). Raw Illumina microbial data were cleaned by removing short and long sequences, sequences with primer mismatches, uncorrectable barcodes, and ambiguous bases using the Quantitative Insights into Microbial Ecology 2 (QIIME2) software, version 2021.8 91 .

16S rRNA sequencing produced 7,366,128 reads with a median of 53,776 per sample (range: 9512–470,848). Paired-end, demultiplexed data were imported and analyzed using QIIME2 software. Upon examination of sequence quality plots, base pairs were trimmed at position 20 and truncated at position 240 and were run through DADA2 to remove low-quality regions and construct a feature table using ASVs. Next, the ASV feature table was passed through the feature-classifier plugin 92 , which was implemented using a naive Bayes machine-learning classifier, pre-trained to discern taxonomy mapped to the latest version of the rRNA database SILVA (138.1; 99% ASVs from 515 F/806 R region of sequences) 93 . Based on an assessment of alpha rarefaction, a threshold of 6500 sequences/sample was established, retaining all samples for downstream analysis. A phylogenic tree was then constructed using the fragment-insertion plugin with SILVA at a p-sampling depth of the rarefaction threshold to impute high-quality reads and normalize for uneven sequencing depth between samples 94 . Alpha diversity (intra-community diversity) was measured using observed ASVs and the Phylogenetic diversity index. Additionally, the Shannon index was calculated for the subgroup and case-study analyses to capture richness and evenness at the species level. Beta diversity (inter-community diversity) was measured using Bray-Curtis dissimilarity.

For shotgun metagenomics, DNA was sequenced on the Illumina NextSeq 500 platform (Illumina, CA, USA) to generate 2 × 150 bp paired-end reads at greater sequencing depth with a minimum of 10 million reads. Raw Illumina sequencing reads underwent standard quality control with FastQC. Adapters were trimmed using TrimGalore. DNA sequences were aligned to Hg38 using bowtie2 95 . DNA sequences were then analyzed via the bio bakery pipeline 96 for taxonomic composition and potential functional content with MetaPhlAn4 and HUMAnN 3.0 (UniRef90 gene-families and MetaCyc metabolic pathways), using standard parameters. Functional profiling resulted in 8528 distinct Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes Orthology (KO) groups and 511 metabolic pathways, which align with previous human gut microbiome studies 96 .

Blood sample collection and biochemical analyses

All participants were tested between the hours of 6:00 a.m. and 9:00 a.m., after an overnight fast for body composition assessments (height, body weight, and total body composition) at weeks 0, 4, and 8. 12-h fasted venous blood samples (~20 mL) were collected into EDTA-coated vacutainer tubes and centrifuged (Hettich Rotina 46R5) for 15 min at 4000 ×  g at −4 °C. After separation, plasma was stored at −80 °C until analyzed. Undiluted plasma samples were sent to Eve Technologies (Calgary, Alberta, Canada) for assessment of inflammatory cytokines [Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor [GM-CSF], interferon-γ (IFNγ), interleukin (IL)-β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70, IL-13, IL-17A, IL-23, and Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα)] using a high human sensitivity 14-plex cytokine assay (Millipore, Burlington, MA). Circulating LBP concentrations were quantified in duplicate using 1000x diluted plasma samples. A commercially available kit was used per the manufacturer’s protocol (Cat No. EH297RB, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc, Waltham, MA; intra-assay coefficient variation [CV] <10%).

Targeted plasma metabolomic analysis

For the plasma metabolomic analysis, a 12-h fasted venous blood sample (~20 mL) was collected into EDTA-coated vacutainer tubes and centrifuged (Hettich Rotina 46R5) for 15 min at 4000 ×  g at 4 °C. After separation, 2 mL of plasma was aliquoted and stored at −80 °C at the Biochemistry Laboratory at Skidmore College (Saratoga Springs, NY, USA). Samples were then sent to the Arizona Metabolomics Laboratory at ASU (Phoenix, AZ, USA) overnight on dry ice for analysis, where they were thawed at 4 °C and processed. Briefly, 50 μL of plasma from each sample was processed to precipitate proteins and extract metabolites by adding 500 μL MeOH and 50 μL internal standard solution (containing 1810.5 μM 13 C 3 -lactate and 142 μM 13 C 5 -glutamic acid). The mixture was vortexed (10 s) and stored for 30 min at –20 °C, then centrifuged at 224,000 ×  g for 10 min at 4 °C. Supernatants (450 μL) were extracted, transferred to new Eppendorf vials, and dried (CentriVap Concentrator; Labconco, Fort Scott, KS, USA). Samples were then reconstituted in 150 μL of 40% phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)/60% acetonitrile (ACN) and centrifuged again at 22,000 ×  g at 4 °C for 10 min. Supernatants (100 µL) were transferred to an LC autosampler vial for subsequent analysis. Quality control (QC) was performed by creating a pooled sample from all plasma samples and injecting once every ten experimental samples to monitor system performance.

The highly-reproducible targeted LC–MS/MS method used in the current investigation was modeled after previous studies 97 , 98 , 99 . The specific metabolites included in our targeted detection panel are representative of more than 35 biological pathways most essential to biological metabolism and have been successfully leveraged for the sensitive and broad detection of effects related to diet 100 , diseases 101 , drug treatment 102 , environmental contamination 103 , and lifestyle factors 104 . Briefly, LC–MS/MS experiments were performed on an Agilent 1290 UPLC-6490 QQQ-MS system (Santa Clara, CA, USA). Each sample was injected twice for analysis, 10 µL using negative and 4 µL using positive ionization modes. Chromatographic separations were performed in hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) mode on a Waters Xbridge BEH Amide column (150 × 2.1 mm, 2.5 µm particle size, Waters Corporation, Milford, MA, USA). The flow rate was 0.3 mL/min, the autosampler temperature was maintained at 4 °C, and the column compartment was set at 40 °C. The mobile phase system was composed of Solvents A (10 mM ammonium acetate, 10 mM ammonium hydroxide in 95% H 2 O/5% ACN) and B (10 mM ammonium acetate, 10 mM ammonium hydroxide in 95% ACN/5% H 2 O). After the initial 1 min isocratic elution of 90% Solvent B, the percentage of Solvent B decreased to 40% at t  = 11 min. The composition of Solvent B was maintained at 40% for 4 min ( t  = 15 min).

The mass spectrometer was equipped with an electrospray ionization (ESI) source. Targeted data acquisition was performed in multiple-reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. The LC–MS system was controlled by Agilent MassHunter Workstation software (Santa Clara, CA, USA), and extracted MRM peaks were integrated using Agilent MassHunter Quantitative Data Analysis software (Santa Clara, CA, USA).

GC–MS fecal short-chain fatty acid analysis

Before GC–MS analysis of SCFAs, frozen fecal samples were first thawed overnight under 4 °C. Then, 20 mg of each sample was homogenized with 5 μL hexanoic acid—6,6,6-d 3 (internal standard; 200 µM in H 2 O), 15 μL sodium hydroxide (NaOH [0.5 M]), and 500 μL MeOH. Samples were stored at −20 °C for 20 min and centrifuged at 22,000 ×  g for 10 min afterward. Next, 450 μL of supernatant was collected, and the sample pH was adjusted to 10 by adding 30 μL of NaOH:H 2 O (1:4, v-v). Samples were then dried, and the residues were initially derivatized with 40 µL of 20 mg/mL MeOX solution in pyridine under 60 °C for 90 min. Subsequently, 60 µL of MTBSTFA containing d 27 -mysristic acid was added, and the mixture was incubated at 60 °C for 30 min. The samples were then vortexed for 30 s and centrifuged at 22,000 ×  g for 10 min. Finally, 70 µL of supernatant was collected from each sample and injected into new glass vials for GC–MS analysis.

GC–MS conditions used here were adopted from a previously published protocol 105 . Briefly, GC–MS experiments were performed on an Agilent 7820 A GC-5977B MSD system (Santa Clara, CA); all samples were analyzed by injecting 1 µL of prepared samples. Helium was the carrier gas with a constant flow rate of 1.2 mL/min. Separation of metabolites was achieved using an Agilent HP-5 ms capillary column (30 m × 250 µm × 0.25 µm). Ramping parameters were as follows: column temperature was maintained at 60 °C for 1 min, increased at a rate of 10 °C/min to 325 °C, and then held at this temperature for 10 min. Mass spectral signals were recorded at an m/z range of 50–600, and data extraction was performed using Agilent Quantitative Analysis software. Following peak integration, metabolites were filtered for reliability. Only those with QC CV < 20% and a relative abundance of 1000 in > 80% of samples were retained for statistical analysis.

Untargeted fecal metabolomic analysis

Briefly, each fecal sample (~20 mg) was homogenized in 200 µL MeOH:PBS (4:1, v-v, containing 1810.5 μM 13 C 3 -lactate and 142 μM 13 C 5 -glutamic Acid) in an Eppendorf tube using a Bullet Blender homogenizer (Next Advance, Averill Park, NY). Then 800 µL MeOH:PBS (4:1, v-v, containing 1810.5 μM 13 C 3 -lactate and 142 μM 13 C 5 -glutamic Acid) was added, and after vortexing for 10 s, the samples were stored at −20 °C for 30 min. The samples were then sonicated in an ice bath for 30 min. The samples were centrifuged at 22,000 ×  g for 10 min (4 °C), and 800 µL supernatant was transferred to a new Eppendorf tube. The samples were then dried under vacuum using a CentriVap Concentrator (Labconco, Fort Scott, KS). Prior to MS analysis, the obtained residue was reconstituted in 150 μL 40% PBS/60% ACN. A quality control (QC) sample was pooled from all the study samples.

The untargeted LC–MS metabolomics method used here was modeled after that developed and used in a growing number of studies 106 , 107 , 108 . Briefly, all LC–MS experiments were performed on a Thermo Vanquish UPLC-Exploris 240 Orbitrap MS instrument (Waltham, MA). Each sample was injected twice, 10 µL for analysis using negative ionization mode and 4 µL for analysis using positive ionization mode. Both chromatographic separations were performed in hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) mode on a Waters XBridge BEH Amide column (150 × 2.1 mm, 2.5 µm particle size, Waters Corporation, Milford, MA). The flow rate was 0.3 mL/min, autosampler temperature was kept at 4 °C, and the column compartment was set at 40 °C. The mobile phase was composed of Solvents A (10 mM ammonium acetate, 10 mM ammonium hydroxide in 95% H 2 O/5% ACN) and B (10 mM ammonium acetate, 10 mM ammonium hydroxide in 95% ACN/5% H 2 O). After the initial 1 min isocratic elution of 90% B, the percentage of Solvent B decreased to 40% at t  = 11 min. The composition of Solvent B maintained at 40% for 4 min ( t  = 15 min), and then the percentage of B gradually went back to 90%, to prepare for the next injection. Using mass spectrometer equipped with an electrospray ionization (ESI) source, we collected untargeted data from 70 to 1050 m/z.

To identify peaks from the MS spectra, we made extensive use of the in-house chemical standards (~600 aqueous metabolites), and in addition, we searched the resulting MS spectra against the HMDB library, Lipidmap database, METLIN database, as well as commercial databases including mzCloud, Metabolika, and ChemSpider. The absolute intensity threshold for the MS data extraction was 1000, and the mass accuracy limit was set to 5 ppm. Identifications and annotations used available data for retention time (RT), exact mass (MS), MS/MS fragmentation pattern, and isotopic pattern. We used the Thermo Compound Discoverer 3.3 software for aqueous metabolomics data processing. The untargeted data were processed by the software for peak picking, alignment, and normalization. To improve rigor, only the signals/peaks with CV < 20% across quality control (QC) pools, and the signals showing up in >80% of all the samples were included for further analysis. To ensure the robustness of our model validation, we employed an enhanced validation approach by repeating the LOOCV process 100 times. Each iteration involves excluding one sample from the dataset to serve as the test set, with the model being trained on the remaining samples. This approach, referred to as ‘repeated LOOCV’, was adopted to mitigate bias and provide a thorough validation of our model’s predictive capability. The method signifies the number of repetitions of the LOOCV process, rather than splitting the dataset into 100 equal parts.

Multi-omics data analysis

For MOFA, bacterial 16S rRNA ASVs and plasma metabolites were integrated using the MOFA2 package 55 . Before integration, ASV sequences were filtered (minimum of 5 ASV in greater than 10% of all samples), collapsed to the genus level, and scaled using a centralized-log-ratio, as described previously 109 . Plasma metabolites were scaled and normalized as described in the metabolome analysis. The inputs for MOFA model training comprised 53 taxa and 138 metabolites. The latent factors and feature loadings were extracted from the best-trained model with the built-in functions of MOFA2. After model fitting, the number of factors was estimated by requiring a minimum of 2% variance explained across all microbiome modalities.

Integrating microbial taxa with the same filtration as stated above (at the genus level from 16S amplicon sequencing and species level from metagenomic sequencing) and cytokine data and fecal metabolomic data, respectively, was conducted with GFLASSO (R package: GFLASSO, v0.0.0.9000). This correlation-based network solution can handle multiple response variables for a given set of predictors (in this case: 1. cytokine abundances predicted by microbial taxa response; and 2. fecal metabolite response predicted by microbial taxa). Solution parsimony was determined by an unweighted (i.e., presence or absence of association by imposing a correlation threshold) network structure. The regularization and fusion parameters were determined from the smallest root mean squared error (RMSE) estimate via cross-validation, accounting for interdependencies among microbial features. The tested parameters encompassed all combinations between λ and γ with values ranging from 0 to 1 (inclusive) in step increments of 0.1. GFLASSO coefficient matrices were constructed using a threshold coefficient of >0.02 to discern the strongest associative signals.

Statistical analysis

Gastrointestinal symptom scores were on the low end of the GSRS scale and not normally distributed; therefore, nonparametric statistical tests were applied. Symptom prevalence (number of scores ≥ 2) and moderate symptom prevalence (≥4) for total, upper, and lower GI GSRS clusters were analyzed using contingency tables. Specifically, differences between IF-P and CR GI symptoms at baseline were compared using a Fisher’s Exact test, whereas baseline vs. weeks four and eight values were compared with McNemar’s test. Stool weight, BSS, fecal pH, plasma cytokines and LBP, and SCFAs were assessed for normality with Q-Q plots and Shapiro-Wilk tests and log-transformed where appropriate. These were then tested for time and interaction (group × time) effects using linear-mixed effect (LME) models, with each participant included as a random effect.

For analysis and visualization of the microbiome data, artifacts generated in QIIME2 were imported into the R environment (v4.2.2) using the phyloseq package (v1.42.0) 110 . Before conducting downstream analyses, sequences were filtered to remove all non-bacterial sequences, including archaea, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. After assessing normality (Shapiro-Wilk’s tests), LME models were used to test the effect of time and the interaction of group and time with the covariates of age and sex with each participant included as a random effect on the alpha diversity metrics using the nLME package (v3.1.160). For beta diversity, a nested permutational analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) was conducted on Bray-Curtis dissimilarities using the Adonis test in the vegan package (v2.6.2) with 999 permutations. The PERMANOVA model incorporated the factors of time, individual, interaction (group × time), and participant (nested factor). A permutation test for homogeneity in multivariate dispersion (PERMDISP) was conducted using the ‘betadisper’ function in the vegan package to compare dispersion. To support the Adonis analysis, intra-individual differences were also compared between groups, as previously described 111 , by calculating the within-subject distance for paired samples (baseline vs. weeks four and eight) and testing for group distances (Wilcoxon rank-sum test). Differential abundance analysis was performed using MaAsLin2 (v1.12.0) 18 . To detect changes in microbial features between groups over time, we built linear-mixed models that include group, time, and their interaction, with age and sex as covariates and the participant as a random factor. Before analysis, raw counts from the ASV table were filtered for any sequence not present five times in at least 30% of all samples. A significant p-value for the product term indicates that changes in microbial features differed over time between groups. The Benjamini–Hochberg (BH) procedure was used to correct for multiple testing at ≤0.10. To assess the correlation between changes in specific taxa and biomarkers over the eight-week intervention, Spearman correlation tests were performed.

Univariate and multivariate analyses of plasma metabolites and metabolic ontology analysis were performed, and results were visualized using the MetaboAnalystR 5.0 112 . Human metabolomic data were mapped to the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) human pathway library to analyze predicted states 113 . The data were log 10 -transformed, and Pareto scaled to approximate normality before all analyses. A GLM was constructed with age, sex, and time as covariates to determine significantly affected metabolites by group intervention. Levene’s test was performed to detect significant homogeneity. The BH procedure was used to correct for multiple testing at ≤0.10. Fecal metabolomic analysis for the subgroup comparison was performed by assessing logFC values between groups with a Wilcoxon rank-sum test with BH adjustment. For pathway analysis, the impact was calculated using a hypergeometric test, while significance was determined using a test of relative betweenness centrality. Importantly, the BH procedure was not applied to pathway and enzyme enrichment analyses for the subgroup assessment since these analyses involve testing the significance of multiple related hypotheses rather than independent hypotheses, which is too conservative, resulting in false negative results.

For MOFA, latent factors explaining ≥2.0% of model variance from the plasma metabolomic and amplicon microbiome data were used to perform Spearman correlations on anthropometric and nutritional data and compared between IF-P and CR groups using Wilcoxon rank-sum tests. The highest beta coefficients (>0.3) detected from GFLASSO models were further assessed by performing Spearman correlations of select microbial features with the response variables (i.e., cytokines and fecal metabolites). All statistical tests were performed with a significance level of p  < 0.05 and BH correction of p .adj < 0.10. In addition, we present data in this study in accordance with the ‘Strengthening The Organization and Reporting of Microbiome Studies’ (STORMS) guidelines for human microbiome research 114 .

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the  Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

The microbiome sequencing data generated in this study have been deposited in the BioProject Database of National Centre for Biotechnology Information database under accession code PRJNA847971 . The metadata data linking the microbiome sequences with the appropriate sample ID and intervention in this study are provided in Supplementary Data  1 . The processed data are available at https://github.com/Alex-E-Mohr/GM-Remodeling-IF-ProteinPacing-vs-CaloricRestriction .  Source data are provided with this paper.

Code availability

The R code used for analysis and figure generation for reproducibility purposes are available at: https://github.com/Alex-E-Mohr/GM-Remodeling-IF-ProteinPacing-vs-CaloricRestriction . 115

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Acknowledgements

We thank the trial volunteers for their dedication and commitment to the study protocol. We are grateful for the research assistants from Skidmore College who provided valuable assistance with study protocol design, scheduling, recruitment, data testing, collection, entry, and statistical analysis, and preparation of manuscripts: Molly Boyce, Jenny Zhang, Melissa Haas, Olivia Furlong, Emma Valdez, Jessica Centore, Annika Smith, Kaitlyn Judd, Aaliyah Yarde, Katy Ehnstrom, Dakembay Hoyte, Sheriden Beard, Heather Mak, and Monique Dudar. We are grateful for the extensive guidance and counseling provided by the registered dietitian Jaime Martin. We thank research coordinator Michelle Poe for her superior dedication to all aspects of the study. This study was primarily funded by an unrestricted grant from Isagenix International LLC to P.J.A. (grant #:1911-859), with secondary funding provided to K.L.S.

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Contributions

Study conceived and designed: P.J.A. Manuscript preparation with input from all authors: A.E.M., K.L.S., D.A.B., P.J., C.M.W., D.D.S., R.K.-B., H.G., J.K.-S., K.M.A., E.G., and P.J.A. Randomized study design and execution: K.M.A., and P.J.A. Microbiome analysis: A.E.M., D.A.B., C.M.W., and R.K.-B. Blood analyte analysis: A.E.M., K.L.S., and P.J.A. Metabolomic analysis: A.E.M., Y.J., H.G., and P.J. Statistical analysis and data presentation: A.E.M., C.M.W., D.D.S., R.K.-B., and P.J.A. Supervision and funding: K.L.S., E.G., and P.J.A.

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P.J.A. is a consultant for Isagenix International LLC, the study’s sponsor, he is an advisory board member of the International Protein Board (iPB), and he receives financial compensation for books and keynote presentations on protein pacing ( www.paularciero.com ). Eric Gumpricht is employed by Isagenix International, LLC, the funding source for this research. Isagenix International, LLC had no role in the study design, data collection, analysis, or decision to publish. No authors have financial interests regarding the outcomes of this investigation. The other authors declare no competing interests.

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Mohr, A.E., Sweazea, K.L., Bowes, D.A. et al. Gut microbiome remodeling and metabolomic profile improves in response to protein pacing with intermittent fasting versus continuous caloric restriction. Nat Commun 15 , 4155 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-48355-5

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• Systematic Review
• Open access
• Published: 31 May 2024

Retrospective charts for reporting, analysing, and evaluating disaster emergency response: a systematic review

• Pengwei Hu 1 , 2 ,
• Zhehao Li 2 ,
• Jing Gui 2 , 3 ,
• Honglei Xu 4 ,
• Zhongsheng Fan 2 ,
• Fulei Wu 5   na1 &
• Xiaorong Liu 2   na1  

BMC Emergency Medicine volume  24 , Article number:  93 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Given the frequency of disasters worldwide, there is growing demand for efficient and effective emergency responses. One challenge is to design suitable retrospective charts to enable knowledge to be gained from disasters. This study provides comprehensive understanding of published retrospective chart review templates for designing and updating retrospective research.

We conducted a systematic review and text analysis of peer-reviewed articles and grey literature on retrospective chart review templates for reporting, analysing, and evaluating emergency responses. The search was performed on PubMed, Cochrane, and Web of Science and pre-identified government and non-government organizational and professional association websites to find papers published before July 1, 2022. Items and categories were grouped and organised using visual text analysis. The study is registered in PROSPERO (374,928).

Four index groups, 12 guidelines, and 14 report formats (or data collection templates) from 21 peer-reviewed articles and 9 grey literature papers were eligible. Retrospective tools were generally designed based on group consensus. One guideline and one report format were designed for the entire health system, 23 studies focused on emergency systems, while the others focused on hospitals. Five papers focused specific incident types, including chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, mass burning, and mass paediatric casualties. Ten papers stated the location where the tools were used. The text analysis included 123 categories and 1210 specific items; large heterogeneity was observed.

Existing retrospective chart review templates for emergency response are heterogeneous, varying in type, hierarchy, and theoretical basis. The design of comprehensive, standard, and practicable retrospective charts requires an emergency response paradigm, baseline for outcomes, robust information acquisition, and among-region cooperation.

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Introduction

The global incidence of disasters remains high. According to Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), a total of 367 major natural disasters and more than 150 technological disasters occurred world wide in 2021, causing 10,492 and more than 5000 deaths respectively. ( 1 – 2 ) In this context, a growing body of evidence supports the positive impact of an efficient and effective emergency response on casualty outcomes, in both academic and operational fields of disaster medicine [ 3 ]. Although the modern era of organized disaster response of disaster can be traced back to the foundation of Red cross organization in 1863, it only became a distinct scientific discipline in the previous 60 years [ 4 ]. Disaster emergency management includes four stages: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. Notably, the emergency response is recognised as having greatest immediate impact on disaster management outcomes [ 5 ]. This response requires a high level of scientific evidence to support performance improvement.

In evidence-based medicine, core concepts include population, interventions, comparison of outcomes, and hierarchy of evidence strength. However, given changing field conditions during disasters, ephemeral information, rumours, and security constraints, important questions in disaster medicine are not easily testable by evidence-based science [ 6 ]. Consequently, it is difficult to conduct controlled studies of disasters. Thus, a widely used methodology is retrospective chart review (RCR), which is a research design applicable to emergency medicine that utilizes pre-recorded data to validate research hypotheses [ 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Failures to create clearly articulated research questions, operationalize variables, develop and use standardized data abstraction forms are the common mistakes in RCR, making it difficult to compare outcomes of different exercises and to make evidence-based decisions in disaster management [ 10 ].

Given the urgent requirement for retrospective review of standard charts for data collection during disasters and for review in the aftermath, numerous evaluation indexes, report templates, and guidelines have been defined and published, such as the pre-hospital emergency response capacity index by Bayram and Zuabi, a data collection template for large-scale train accident emergency response by Leiba, et al., and the guidelines for reports on health crises and critical health events by Kulling P, et al. [ 11 , 12 , 13 ] These retrospective chart review templates were designed to allow researchers, educators, and managers to study different aspects of disaster management, by defining core concepts to evaluate the response, standardized work flow, and timelines from event occurrence to patients admission in emergency responses. A systematic study of templates for pre-hospital medical management of major events was published in 2013, revealing the limitations of existing templates in terms of validity and feasibility, such as unclear design methodology and lack of testing in real-life incidents [ 9 ]. Evidence is lacking regarding common aspects of retrospective charts that require attention and how reporting may be improved. Furthermore, numerous guidelines and templates from peer-reviewed articles and grey literature papers have been published since the 2013 review, such as The Health Care Coalition Surge Estimator Tool from the Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response, after-action debriefing from Federal Emergency Management Agency, and emergency response and assessment team rapid assessment tool Association of Southeast Asian Nations [ 14 , 15 , 16 ].

This systematic review identifies existing retrospective chart review templates for reporting disaster emergency responses worldwide and provides a comprehensive assessment of these charts using content analysis. This provides a knowledge background for designing and updating widely accepted retrospective charts. The protocol is registered in PROSPERO (374,928).

Search strategy and criteria

To limit the scope of the review, this study focused only on the emergency response phase extending from a disaster occurrence to definitive patient treatment [ 5 ]. First, the Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes, and Study Design (PICOS) model was used to shape the study question and build the search strategy. Searches were conducted using Cochrane Library, PubMed, and Web of Science to find peer-reviewed papers published before July 1, 2022, with keywords and MeSH terms related to disaster and emergency response (Supplemental Table S1 and Table S2 ). In addition, references from the selected articles, and prior systematic reviews were screened to identify additional relevant articles. Second, 29 pre-identified governmental, non-governmental, academic, and professional association websites and emergency-related registries stratified by World Health Organization (WHO) region were searched for published emergency response-related report forms, templates, guidelines, checklists, and data dictionaries available as of July 1, 2022 (Supplemental Table S3).

Peer-reviewed articles and grey literature were eligible if they met the following inclusion criteria: (i) the study object was an emergency response to natural, technical and social disasters, all extent of disasters from community to worldwide were included; (ii) the study designed at least one of the following types of retrospective tools: a report, a data collection template, guidelines, a checklist, a consensus, a questionnaire, or an index group with specific items for emergency response; and (iii) the study used verified specific retrospective tools to perform research related to emergency response. Papers were excluded if they met the following exclusion criteria: (i) the study only provided a theoretical frame without specific items under each concept category; (ii) any items were missing despite contacting authors to obtain the omitted information; and (iii) the study focused on an epidemiological emergency. The search, screening, and data extraction were performed independently by two reviewers (PW Hu and J Gui); any disagreements were resolved through discussion with a third investigator (FL Wu).

Data analysis

To analyse the characteristics of the rich text objects from the included articles or grey literature, text analysis was conducted, including measures of semantics, indicators, and information acquisition, using the following steps. (i) Clear original taxonomy concepts and items under each of the concept dimensions related to health facilities’ emergency responses were extracted and included in the text analysis. (ii) For semantic measures, a theoretical frame was built to label and categorise the included items that described the time, area, action, and resource dimensions of the emergency response, consistent with the classic emergency response paradigm. Here, the ‘time’ dimension signifies the key intervals extending from the beginning of the incident to the period when the surviving victims are being treated in the hospital. The ‘area’ dimension includes four important casualty tactical emergency care zones; specifically, a hot zone, a warm zone, an en route zone, and an in-hospital zone [ 17 ]. The ‘action’ dimension includes incident command, safety and security, hazard assessment, triage and treatment (including patient tracking), and evacuation according to the mass casualty incident management framework generated by the National Disaster Life Support (NDLS) Program [ 18 ]. The ‘resource’ dimension represents the evaluations of surge capacity in the included studies; thus this dimension more specifically includes systems, spaces, staff, supplies, events, and consumption, as per ‘the science of surge’ [ 19 , 20 ] (this theoretical framework is detailed in Supplemental Tables S4–S7 and Supplemental Figure S1 ). Four types of indicator measures were defined to categorise the items, and three information acquisition methods were identified to measure the feasibility of the included charts (these criteria are defined in Supplemental Tables S8–S9). Next, (iii) three of the current study’s authors (PW Hu, ZH Li, and J Gui) individually sorted included items using the above pre-defined taxonomy. When the three researchers could not reach consensus, a subject-matter expert was consulted. Finally, (iv) the number of items placed in each category was calculated, and text visualisation technology was used to present among-study heterogeneity (Supplemental Method).

Assessment of risk of bias (quality appraisal) was conducted using a checklist designed by the authors prior to data collection. This checklist was based on the authors’ assumptions of the data relevant to retrospective chart reports. Two of the current study’s authors (HL Xu and ZS Fan) individually assessed the risk of bias using the checklist; a subject-matter expert was consulted when consensus not reached.

The analysis included 4 index groups, 12 guidelines, and 14 report formats (or data collection templates) from 21 peer-reviewed articles and 9 grey literature papers [ 5 , 6 , 21 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 16 ], comprising > 2000 specific items (Fig.  1 ). The characteristics of the included papers are shown in Table  1 . A total of 26 papers stated the methodology used to design the retrospective chart, 18 of which were based on group consensus. One set of guidelines and one report format were created for an entire health system while 23 papers focused on emergency systems and the remaining papers focused on hospitals. Eight papers mentioned the specific type of disaster, including chemical, biological, radiation, nuclear (CBRN), mass burn casualty, and mass casualty incidents involving paediatric patients. Only 10 papers revealed the country or region to which the charts were applied; specifically, 2 were used in the United States, 2 in Germany, 1 in Sweden, 1 in the Netherlands, 1 in Australia, 1 in Israel, 1 in France, 1 in southeast Asia, and 1 worldwide. Quality assessment (quality appraisal) of the papers showed that most peer-reviewed articles clearly stated the methodology and data collection procedure, while most grey literature was initiated by a department, professional, or association. All of the included papers did not indicate that there was a pilot study of the retrospective chart review templates, and only 4 templates were used in other publications (Supplementary Table S10).

Study selection flow chart

A total of 123 categories and 1210 specific items about emergency responses were included in the text analysis. The categories of the items highly varied across the papers; however, many papers commonly referred to the following 13 concepts. The most mentioned categories were ‘treatment’ and ‘communication’, which were evident in 5 studies, followed by ‘triage’ and ‘coordination’ (used by 4 studies). The text visualisation in Fig.  2 presents the categories common to papers, including ‘triage’, ‘treatment’, ‘cooperation’, and ‘communication’. The categories of the guidelines used by Lennquist et al. (2004) demonstrated the most overlap with other studies, including ‘communication’, ‘coordination’, ‘damage’, ‘outcome’, ‘psychological reactions’, and ‘severity of injuries’ [ 31 ] (Fig.  2 ).

Taxonomy of the included retrospective charts

Regarding the semantic analysis, 720 items were categorised within the time dimension, 271 within the area, 1033 within the action, and 899 within the resource. Specifically, 2 index groups, 8 guidelines, and 5 report formats were common to all four response dimensions (the time, area, action, and resource). The most frequent categories under the time dimension were on-site care and on-site command and control phases (183 and 163 items, respectively). The treatment area of most concern was the indirect threat zone (110 items), while less attention was paid to the direct threat zone (21 items). Almost all papers mentioned the ‘action’ and ‘resource’ dimensions, except one report. Regarding the ‘action’ dimension, most items were classified into ‘incident command’ (393 items), followed by ‘treatment and triage (plus tracking)’ (281 items), and ‘support’ (141 items). Regarding the ‘resource’ dimension, most items were sorted into the ‘system’ category (417 items; see Supplemental Tables S11–S14). The indicator type analysis revealed 833 expressions of process indicators, 256 outcome indicators, 117 circumstance indicators, and 66 structure indicators (Supplemental Table S15). Regarding the datatype, 884 items acquire data as text, symbol, or combination or them; 270 items collect data as number; 171 items collect data as time while 17 items acquire location (Supplemental Table S16). We also analyzed the information acquisition method, 957 items involved data collection using a post-event investigation, 299 using database extraction, and 86 using evidence-based deduction (Supplemental Table S17). Heterogeneity among studies was observed through visual inspection of bar-charts of papers, plotting text semantics, indicator types, and information acquisition methods (Figs.  3 and 4 ).

Literature fingerprint of included papers

Distribution of indicator type and information acquisition methodology among the included papers, a shows the distribution of the indicators, b shows the method of information acquisition

Consistent data can be collected using standard retrospective charts for emergency response that include well-defined and clearly articulated items. Such charts facilitate communication among stakeholders and beneficiaries as to whether essential standards are being met and can link policy to action [ 10 ]. To assess the current state of emergency response reporting, this study systematically reviewed 30 peer-reviewed articles and grey literature papers on emergency response report chart review templates. Most studies were based on group consensus methods, which comprehensively integrate the knowledge backgrounds of experts in relevant fields in ways that are highly relevant to the emergency response process. However, a high level of heterogeneity among these retrospective chart review templates hinders their wide application across different countries or regions. The text visualisation used in the present study suggests that the heterogeneities may arise because the included chart review templates were designed as different types, suitable for different hierarchies, and based on different theoretical paradigms. Additionally, assessment of the risk of bias in the papers indicated that high heterogeneity might also be attributed to the lack of research collaboration, unclear methods, and lack of extrapolation [ 43 ].

It is essential that a widely acceptable retrospective chart template is constructed based on consensus regarding the theoretical paradigm and taxonomy of items. The text visualisation of the categories of the included items revealed that each paper’s taxonomy was independent of the others’, and the theoretical paradigm used to design the chart review templates in each paper was rarely mentioned. Although some theoretical models related to emergency response were constructed by professional associations in recent years, such as ‘science of surge’ and ‘DISASRTER’, they are not widely used in the construction of retrospective charts reviews [ 17 , 18 , 44 ]. There exist theories that were constructed from different perspectives, such as response capability, ( 19 – 20 ) course of action [ 18 ], or the elements of a Utstein-style templeate [ 5 ]. A novel and comprehensive paradigm that synthesises these ideas is required to further develop and guide chart design.

We explored the commonalities and divergence among researchers when designing the retrospective charts through text semantic analysis. Regarding the definition of key intervals of the emergency response, the results revealed that researchers pay most attention to responses in the on-site care and on-site command and control phases, which immediately impact casualty care, although there is currently no widely accepted model of the chronological sequence of EMS response and care. Only 2 articles in this study had a defined response timeline, but the response timeline was not uniform between these two studies. These findings reflect the fact that most EMS systems collect time data that were empirically developed based on arbitrary concepts and ease of data collection. For the treatment area, the items designed by the researchers primarily focused on the indirect threat zone; less attention was paid to the direct threat zone, which greatly impacts the treatment of the people injured in a disaster. Accordingly, a lack of retrospective data in this area will hinder the quality improvement of pre-hospital care. This contradiction may be caused by the prioritisation of treatment in direct threat zones, which causes response information management to be relatively ignored [ 42 ]. All papers, except one report, considered the ‘action’ and ‘resource’ dimensions, indicating that researchers are primarily concerned with response action and resource use. The broad consensus that information related to ‘incident command’, ‘treatment and triage (plus tracking)’, and ‘support’ should be merged in the chart review templates, suggests that these three action classifications account for most emergency response processes and have an important impact on research. Meanwhile, numerous items were sorted within the ‘system’ dimension (based on the science of surge), which comprised the sub-components of ‘plan’, ‘command’, ‘communication’, ‘coordination’, and ‘cyber security’, which places a great amount of information in the ‘system’ dimension. Thus, it is necessary to standardise the items under ‘system’ to create widely accepted retrospective charts for emergency response.

Indicator type notably reflects the application scope and function of a retrospective chart review template. The popularity of process indicator items indicates that emergency response involves dynamic management. Due to the lack of recognised benchmark standards for evaluating emergency response, outcome indicators have the potential to serve as gold standards, which can be verified through cohort studies [ 45 , 46 , 47 ].

Retrospective data collection in emergency response can require complicated detective work, for instance, to overcome the patients remembrance deviation, infer occurrence time, and calculate the consumption. Patients are often transported to several different hospitals, making patient-specific data collection difficult [ 48 ]. Improvement of the feasibility of retrospective chart review templates could mitigate this process by improving robustness of the data acquisition method. Among the included items, interviews were the most popular way to obtain data with the advantage to easily acquire data. The feasibility of the chart review template may be improved through the comprehensive use of monitoring systems, pre-hospital emergency systems, intelligent wearable devices for situational awareness, and capturing situational awareness information by specific items [ 49 , 50 ]. Further, obtaining permission from an organisation to collect data may be facilitated by referring to a specific guideline or template [ 51 , 52 ].

Although a prior systematic study of templates for reporting prehospital medical management of major incidents was published in 2013, it had several limitations. The current study adds to the work of this 2013 study in several ways. First, it expanded the scope by conducting a systematic review of reporting for extensive emergency response, rather than just major accidents. Additionally, it conducted a detailed content analysis, integrated multiple classical theoretical backgrounds, and constructed a category framework to conduct an in-depth analysis of text-rich data to excavate the elements of emergency response to which researchers are generally attentive and how reporting may be improved.

However, the current study still had several limitations. For instance, since the included papers were only published in English, papers from non-English-speaking regions, such as Africa, China, and Russia, were not considered. Additionally, due to the difficulty of quantifying the text-rich data, and a lack of some key variables, such as the regions of application of the chart review template and the specific events of interest, subgroup analysis was not performed to explore the exact sources of heterogeneity.

This study confirmed that existing retrospective chart review templates for emergency response continue to have large heterogeneity. Moving forward, data guidelines must be standardised to enable the comparison of events among countries. This would require different regions to cooperate in the design of comprehensive, standard, comparable, and feasible tools based on their own emergency response organisations.

Data availability

Data is provided within the manuscript and supplementary information files.

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Acknowledgements

Fulei Wu and Xiaorong Liu are senior authors of this article and contribute equally to this study. Inclusion and exclusion criteria and the search strategy are detailed in the main text and Supplemental Tables S2–S3. Regarding the text visual analysis method, see the supplemental method. The items were classified by ‘time’, ‘area’, ‘action’, and ‘resource’, defined in detail in the supplemental method, Supplemental Tables S4–S7, and Supplemental Fig.  1 . In the visual representation of the results each text block is depicted as a coloured square aligned from left to right and top to bottom.

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Fulei Wu and Xiaorong Liu both authors contributed equally to this study.

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Health Service, School of Public Health, Logistics University of People’s Armed Police Force, Tianjin, China

Department of Health Training, Second military medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China

Pengwei Hu, Zhehao Li, Jing Gui, Zhongsheng Fan & Xiaorong Liu

Department of Research, Characteristic Medical Center of People Armed Police, Tianjin, China

Medical Security Center, The No.983 Hospital of Joint Logistics Support Forces of Chinese PLA, Tianjin, China

School of Nursing, Fudan University, Shanghai, China

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Contributions

Pengwei Hu and Xiaorong Liu conceived the original study concept, overall study design, and supervised the subsequent steps of the study. Fulei Wu and Honglei Xu contributed via their original studies to the study concept. Pengwei Hu and Zhehao Li designed the search strategy. Pengweiwei Hu, Jing Gui, and Zhehao Li, supported by Xiaorong Liu, conducted the literature search and data extraction. Pengweiwei Hu and Zhongsheng Fan conducted quality assessment of studies. Pengweiwei Hu and Fulei Wu conducted the statistical analysis. Pengweiwei Hu and Zhehao Li created the tables and figures. Xiaorong Liu and Fulei Wu reviewed the literature search and data analyses. Pengweiwei Hu wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All authors participated in the interpretation of data, have critically reviewed the manuscript providing edits and comments, and approved its final submission. Pengweiwei Hu, Zhehao Li, Jing Gui, and Xiaorong Liu had full access to all data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

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Correspondence to Xiaorong Liu .

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Hu, P., Li, Z., Gui, J. et al. Retrospective charts for reporting, analysing, and evaluating disaster emergency response: a systematic review. BMC Emerg Med 24 , 93 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12873-024-01012-y

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Key Aspects of the Landmark Case: Graham V. Connor

This essay about the landmark Supreme Court case Graham v. Connor explains its significance in establishing the “objective reasonableness” standard for evaluating police use of force under the Fourth Amendment. The case involved Dethorne Graham, a diabetic man who experienced harsh treatment by police during a medical emergency, leading to a lawsuit. The Supreme Court ruled that excessive force claims must be judged from the perspective of a reasonable officer on the scene, considering the circumstances at the time. The essay discusses the impact of this decision on law enforcement practices, training, and accountability, while also addressing criticisms and ongoing debates about police use of force and systemic issues in policing.

How it works

The Supreme Court litigation of Graham v. Connor, rendered in 1989, carries substantial ramifications for law enforcement and the application of coercion. The litigation centers on Dethorne Graham, an individual with diabetes who underwent a severe insulin reaction and encountered police officers while endeavoring to procure orange juice to alleviate his condition. The rigorous treatment meted out by the officers impelled him to institute legal proceedings, contending that his Fourth Amendment privileges were transgressed due to the disproportionate use of force. This litigation established a precedent for the scrutiny of claims alleging excess force, impacting law enforcement methodologies and directives to the present day.

Graham’s tribulation commenced on a November day in 1984 when he sensed the onset of an insulin reaction. Acknowledging the exigency of his predicament, he beseeched a companion to chauffeur him to a nearby convenience store to acquire juice. Upon entering the establishment, Graham expeditiously discerned the protracted queue and promptly absconded in search of respite elsewhere. This abrupt departure aroused the suspicion of Officer M.S. Connor, resulting in Graham and his confidant being intercepted as they departed the premises. Despite Graham’s endeavors to elucidate his medical predicament, the officers proceeded to subdue him and subject him to harsh treatment, culminating in multiple injuries. Graham subsequently initiated litigation against the officers, alleging that their conduct amounted to an unwarranted employment of force.

The principal legal query in Graham v. Connor revolved around the methodology for appraising claims of excessive force under the Fourth Amendment. The Supreme Court’s decree established that such claims should be scrutinized under an “objective reasonableness” criterion. This entails the assessment of law enforcement conduct from the perspective of a reasonable officer present at the scene, devoid of retrospective bias. The Court underscored that the reasonableness of an officer’s employment of force must factor in the circumstances prevailing at the time, encompassing the gravity of the offense, whether the suspect posed an imminent threat to the safety of the officers or others, and whether the suspect exhibited active resistance to arrest or endeavored to evade apprehension by flight.

This adjudication was pivotal in delineating a standardized benchmark for assessing police conduct, endeavoring to reconcile the imperatives of instantaneous decision-making in fraught and ambiguous scenarios with the constitutional entitlements of individuals. The “objective reasonableness” evaluation precludes consideration of subjective intent, concentrating solely on the rationality of actions within the extant circumstances.

The ramifications of Graham v. Connor transcend the specifics of the case and have permeated numerous subsequent legal deliberations concerning police conduct. It underscores the significance of contextual assessment and has emerged as a cornerstone in law enforcement instruction and directives. Officers are cognizant that their actions will be appraised against this objective criterion, with the overarching objective of safeguarding both public welfare and law enforcement personnel.

Despite its significance, the verdict in Graham v. Connor has been the subject of contention and censure. Some posit that the “objective reasonableness” criterion may be excessively deferential to law enforcement officers, potentially permitting unchecked recourse to excessive force. Critics assert that this criterion inadequately addresses systemic issues within law enforcement, such as implicit bias and the disproportionate impact of police violence on minority communities.

The Supreme Court’s decree in Graham v. Connor underscored the imperative that the assessment of police employment of force must be rooted in the circumstances perceived by a reasonable officer present at the scene, divested of retrospective bias. This principle acknowledges the exigencies confronting law enforcement officers, who are frequently compelled to make expeditious decisions under duress. The decree does not mandate impeccability in an officer’s actions but rather accentuates their rationality within the extant circumstances.

In the years subsequent to the Graham v. Connor adjudication, the “objective reasonableness” criterion has evolved into a fundamental facet of police instruction and policy formulation. Law enforcement agencies across the United States have integrated this criterion into their protocols governing the employment of force, fostering a comprehensive approach to instruction focused on de-escalation techniques, situational awareness, and decision-making under stress.

However, the application of the “objective reasonableness” criterion has not been devoid of challenges. One of the primary criticisms is that the criterion may be construed excessively expansively, affording officers significant latitude in employing force. This has occasioned instances where force deemed reasonable under the criterion has elicited public outcry and perceptions of injustice. Moreover, the criterion does not explicitly address the role of systemic issues, such as racial bias, in shaping officers’ perceptions and actions.

The litigation of Graham v. Connor also spotlighted the imperative of robust accountability mechanisms within law enforcement agencies. While the “objective reasonableness” criterion furnishes a legal framework for evaluating incidents involving the employment of force, it cannot supplant comprehensive oversight and accountability. In response to this exigency, many police departments have instituted measures such as body-worn camera programs, augmented transparency in reporting incidents involving the employment of force, and established civilian review boards to furnish independent oversight.

Furthermore, the Graham v. Connor verdict has exerted a profound impact on the judicial system’s approach to claims of excessive force. Courts consistently apply the “objective reasonableness” criterion when adjudicating such claims, ensuring uniformity in legal proceedings. This has engendered enhanced clarity and predictability in legal outcomes, furnishing both law enforcement officers and the public with a clearer comprehension of the legal standards governing police conduct.

Despite the legal lucidity provided by Graham v. Connor, the ongoing discourse regarding police employment of force underscores the intricacy inherent in balancing law enforcement imperatives with individual rights. The case underscores the significance of sustained dialogue and reform to address the evolving challenges in policing. Efforts to augment instruction, enhance accountability, and address systemic issues are indispensable in ensuring that the principles established in Graham v. Connor are effectively applied in practice.

In conclusion, Graham v. Connor stands as a seminal Supreme Court litigation that established the “objective reasonableness” criterion for assessing claims of excessive force under the Fourth Amendment. This criterion mandates that police actions be appraised from the perspective of a reasonable officer present at the scene, accounting for the specific circumstances they confronted. The decree has left an indelible imprint on law enforcement practices, policies, and instruction, fundamentally shaping the appraisal and resolution of incidents involving the employment of force. While the “objective reasonableness” criterion furnishes a critical legal framework, the ongoing discourse regarding police employment of force underscores the need for continual reform and accountability to uphold the principles of justice and equity in law enforcement. The case endures as a pivotal reference point in discussions concerning police accountability and the employment of force in the United States.

As we contemplate the legacy of Graham v. Connor, it is imperative to acknowledge that the pursuit of just and equitable policing is an ongoing endeavor. While the principles established in the case provide a foundational framework, the true challenge lies in their effective implementation and the unwavering commitment to continual improvement. Law enforcement agencies, policymakers, and communities must collaborate to address the complex issues surrounding police employment of force, ensuring that the legal standards enshrined in Graham v. Connor are not only upheld but also evolve to meet the needs of a diverse and dynamic society.

It is essential to note that this essay serves as a starting point for further exploration and research. For personalized assistance and to ensure compliance with all academic standards, consider engaging professionals at EduBirdie.

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"Key Aspects of the Landmark Case: Graham v. Connor," PapersOwl.com , 01-Jun-2024. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/key-aspects-of-the-landmark-case-graham-v-connor/. [Accessed: 2-Jun-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2024). Key Aspects of the Landmark Case: Graham v. Connor . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/key-aspects-of-the-landmark-case-graham-v-connor/ [Accessed: 2-Jun-2024]

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