psychological essay

What this handout is about

This handout discusses some of the common writing assignments in psychology courses, and it presents strategies for completing them. The handout also provides general tips for writing psychology papers and for reducing bias in your writing.

What is psychology?

Psychology, one of the behavioral sciences, is the scientific study of observable behaviors, like sleeping, and abstract mental processes, such as dreaming. Psychologists study, explain, and predict behaviors. Because of the complexity of human behaviors, researchers use a variety of methods and approaches.  They ask questions about behaviors and answer them using systematic methods. For example, to understand why female students tend to perform better in school than their male classmates, psychologists have examined whether parents, teachers, schools, and society behave in ways that support the educational outcomes of female students to a greater extent than those of males.

Writing in psychology

Writing in psychology is similar to other forms of scientific writing in that organization, clarity, and concision are important.  The Psychology Department at UNC has a strong research emphasis, so many of your assignments will focus on synthesizing and critically evaluating research, connecting your course material with current research literature, and designing and carrying out your own studies.

Common assignments

Reaction papers.

These assignments ask you to react to a scholarly journal article.  Instructors use reaction papers to teach students to critically evaluate research and to synthesize current research with course material.  Reaction papers typically include a brief summary of the article, including prior research, hypotheses, research method, main results, and conclusions. The next step is your critical reaction. You might critique the study, identify unresolved issues, suggest future research, or reflect on the study’s implications.  Some instructors may want you to connect the material you are learning in class with the article’s theories, methodology, and findings. Remember, reaction papers require more than a simple summary of what you have read.

To successfully complete this assignment, you should carefully read the article. Go beyond highlighting important facts and interesting findings. Ask yourself questions as you read: What are the researchers’ assumptions? How does the article contribute to the field? Are the findings generalizable, and to whom?  Are the conclusions valid and based on the results?  It is important to pay attention to the graphs and tables because they can help you better assess the researchers’ claims.

Your instructor may give you a list of articles to choose from, or you may need to find your own.  The American Psychological Association (APA) PsycINFO database is the most comprehensive collection of psychology research; it is an excellent resource for finding journal articles.  You can access PsycINFO from the E-research tab on the Library’s webpage.   Here are the most common types of articles you will find:

• Empirical studies test hypotheses by gathering and analyzing data. Empirical articles are organized into distinct sections based on stages in the research process: introduction, method, results, and discussion.
• Literature reviews synthesize previously published material on a topic.  The authors define or clarify the problem, summarize research findings, identify gaps/inconsistencies in the research, and make suggestions for future work. Meta-analyses, in which the authors use quantitative procedures to combine the results of multiple studies, fall into this category.
• Theoretical articles trace the development of a specific theory to expand or refine it, or they present a new theory.  Theoretical articles and literature reviews are organized similarly, but empirical information is included in theoretical articles only when it is used to support the theoretical issue.

You may also find methodological articles, case studies, brief reports, and commentary on previously published material. Check with your instructor to determine which articles are appropriate.

Research papers

This assignment involves using published research to provide an overview of and argument about a topic.  Simply summarizing the information you read is not enough. Instead, carefully synthesize the information to support your argument. Only discuss the parts of the studies that are relevant to your argument or topic.  Headings and subheadings can help guide readers through a long research paper. Our handout on literature reviews may help you organize your research literature.

Choose a topic that is appropriate to the length of the assignment and for which you can find adequate sources. For example, “self-esteem” might be too broad for a 10- page paper, but it may be difficult to find enough articles on “the effects of private school education on female African American children’s self-esteem.” A paper in which you focus on the more general topic of “the effects of school transitions on adolescents’ self-esteem,” however, might work well for the assignment.

Designing your own study/research proposal

You may have the opportunity to design and conduct your own research study or write about the design for one in the form of a research proposal. A good approach is to model your paper on articles you’ve read for class. Here is a general overview of the information that should be included in each section of a research study or proposal:

• Introduction: The introduction conveys a clear understanding of what will be done and why. Present the problem, address its significance, and describe your research strategy. Also discuss the theories that guide the research, previous research that has been conducted, and how your study builds on this literature. Set forth the hypotheses and objectives of the study.
• Methods:   This section describes the procedures used to answer your research questions and provides an overview of the analyses that you conducted. For a research proposal, address the procedures that will be used to collect and analyze your data. Do not use the passive voice in this section. For example, it is better to say, “We randomly assigned patients to a treatment group and monitored their progress,” instead of “Patients were randomly assigned to a treatment group and their progress was monitored.” It is acceptable to use “I” or “we,” instead of the third person, when describing your procedures. See the section on reducing bias in language for more tips on writing this section and for discussing the study’s participants.
• Results: This section presents the findings that answer your research questions. Include all data, even if they do not support your hypotheses.  If you are presenting statistical results, your instructor will probably expect you to follow the style recommendations of the American Psychological Association. You can also consult our handout on figures and charts . Note that research proposals will not include a results section, but your instructor might expect you to hypothesize about expected results.
• Discussion: Use this section to address the limitations of your study as well as the practical and/or theoretical implications of the results. You should contextualize and support your conclusions by noting how your results compare to the work of others. You can also discuss questions that emerged and call for future research. A research proposal will not include a discussion section.  But you can include a short section that addresses the proposed study’s contribution to the literature on the topic.

Other writing assignments

For some assignments, you may be asked to engage personally with the course material. For example, you might provide personal examples to evaluate a theory in a reflection paper.  It is appropriate to share personal experiences for this assignment, but be mindful of your audience and provide only relevant and appropriate details.

Writing tips for psychology papers

Psychology is a behavioral science, and writing in psychology is similar to writing in the hard sciences.  See our handout on writing in the sciences .  The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association provides an extensive discussion on how to write for the discipline.  The Manual also gives the rules for psychology’s citation style, called APA. The Library’s citation tutorial will also introduce you to the APA style.

Suggestions for achieving precision and clarity in your writing

• Jargon: Technical vocabulary that is not essential to understanding your ideas can confuse readers. Similarly, refrain from using euphemistic phrases instead of clearer terms.  Use “handicapped” instead of “handi-capable,” and “poverty” instead of “monetarily felt scarcity,” for example.
• Anthropomorphism: Anthropomorphism occurs when human characteristics are attributed to animals or inanimate entities.  Anthropomorphism can make your writing awkward.  Some examples include: “The experiment attempted to demonstrate…,” and “The tables compare…”  Reword such sentences so that a person performs the action: “The experimenter attempted to demonstrate…”  The verbs “show” or “indicate” can also be used: “The tables show…”
• Verb tenses: Select verb tenses carefully. Use the past tense when expressing actions or conditions that occurred at a specific time in the past, when discussing other people’s work, and when reporting results.  Use the present perfect tense to express past actions or conditions that did not occur at a specific time, or to describe an action beginning in the past and continuing in the present.
• Pronoun agreement: Be consistent within and across sentences with pronouns that refer to a noun introduced earlier (antecedent). A common error is a construction such as “Each child responded to questions about their favorite toys.” The sentence should have either a plural subject (children) or a singular pronoun (his or her). Vague pronouns, such as “this” or “that,” without a clear antecedent can confuse readers: “This shows that girls are more likely than boys …” could be rewritten as “These results show that girls are more likely than boys…”
• Avoid figurative language and superlatives: Scientific writing should be as concise and specific as possible.  Emotional language and superlatives, such as “very,” “highly,” “astonishingly,” “extremely,” “quite,” and even “exactly,” are imprecise or unnecessary. A line that is “exactly 100 centimeters” is, simply, 100 centimeters.
• Avoid colloquial expressions and informal language: Use “children” rather than “kids;” “many” rather than “a lot;” “acquire” rather than “get;” “prepare for” rather than “get ready;” etc.

Reducing bias in language

Your writing should show respect for research participants and readers, so it is important to choose language that is clear, accurate, and unbiased.  The APA sets forth guidelines for reducing bias in language: acknowledge participation, describe individuals at the appropriate level of specificity, and be sensitive to labels. Here are some specific examples of how to reduce bias in your language:

• Acknowledge participation: Use the active voice to acknowledge the subjects’ participation. It is preferable to say, “The students completed the surveys,” instead of “The experimenters administered surveys to the students.”  This is especially important when writing about participants in the methods section of a research study.
• Gender: It is inaccurate to use the term “men” when referring to groups composed of multiple genders. See our handout on gender-inclusive language for tips on writing appropriately about gender.
• Race/ethnicity: Be specific, consistent, and sensitive with terms for racial and ethnic groups. If the study participants are Chinese Americans, for instance, don’t refer to them as Asian Americans. Some ethnic designations are outdated or have negative connotations. Use terms that the individuals or groups prefer.
• Clinical terms: Broad clinical terms can be unclear. For example, if you mention “at risk” in your paper, be sure to specify the risk—“at risk for school failure.”  The same principle applies to psychological disorders. For instance, “borderline personality disorder” is more precise than “borderline.”
• Labels: Do not equate people with their physical or mental conditions or categorize people broadly as objects. For example, adjectival forms like “older adults” are preferable to labels such as “the elderly” or “the schizophrenics.” Another option is to mention the person first, followed by a descriptive phrase— “people diagnosed with schizophrenia.”  Be careful using the label “normal,” as it may imply that others are abnormal.
• Other ways to reduce bias: Consistently presenting information about the socially dominant group first can promote bias. Make sure that you don’t always begin with men followed by other genders when writing about gender, or whites followed by minorities when discussing race and ethnicity. Mention differences only when they are relevant and necessary to understanding the study. For example, it may not be important to indicate the sexual orientation of participants in a study about a drug treatment program’s effectiveness. Sexual orientation may be important to mention, however, when studying bullying among high school students.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

American Psychological Association. n.d. “Frequently Asked Questions About APA Style®.” APA Style. Accessed June 24, 2019. https://apastyle.apa.org/learn/faqs/index .

American Psychological Association. 2010. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . 6th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Landrum, Eric. 2008. Undergraduate Writing in Psychology: Learning to Tell the Scientific Story . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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How to Write a Psychology Essay

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Before you write your essay, it’s important to analyse the task and understand exactly what the essay question is asking. Your lecturer may give you some advice – pay attention to this as it will help you plan your answer.

Next conduct preliminary reading based on your lecture notes. At this stage, it’s not crucial to have a robust understanding of key theories or studies, but you should at least have a general “gist” of the literature.

After reading, plan a response to the task. This plan could be in the form of a mind map, a summary table, or by writing a core statement (which encompasses the entire argument of your essay in just a few sentences).

After writing your plan, conduct supplementary reading, refine your plan, and make it more detailed.

It is tempting to skip these preliminary steps and write the first draft while reading at the same time. However, reading and planning will make the essay writing process easier, quicker, and ensure a higher quality essay is produced.

Components of a Good Essay

Now, let us look at what constitutes a good essay in psychology. There are a number of important features.

• Global Structure – structure the material to allow for a logical sequence of ideas. Each paragraph / statement should follow sensibly from its predecessor. The essay should “flow”. The introduction, main body and conclusion should all be linked.
• Each paragraph should comprise a main theme, which is illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).
• Knowledge and Understanding – recognize, recall, and show understanding of a range of scientific material that accurately reflects the main theoretical perspectives.
• Critical Evaluation – arguments should be supported by appropriate evidence and/or theory from the literature. Evidence of independent thinking, insight, and evaluation of the evidence.
• Quality of Written Communication – writing clearly and succinctly with appropriate use of paragraphs, spelling, and grammar. All sources are referenced accurately and in line with APA guidelines.

In the main body of the essay, every paragraph should demonstrate both knowledge and critical evaluation.

There should also be an appropriate balance between these two essay components. Try to aim for about a 60/40 split if possible.

Most students make the mistake of writing too much knowledge and not enough evaluation (which is the difficult bit).

It is best to structure your essay according to key themes. Themes are illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).

Choose relevant points only, ones that most reveal the theme or help to make a convincing and interesting argument.

Knowledge and Understanding

Remember that an essay is simply a discussion / argument on paper. Don’t make the mistake of writing all the information you know regarding a particular topic.

You need to be concise, and clearly articulate your argument. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences.

Each paragraph should have a purpose / theme, and make a number of points – which need to be support by high quality evidence. Be clear why each point is is relevant to the argument. It would be useful at the beginning of each paragraph if you explicitly outlined the theme being discussed (.e.g. cognitive development, social development etc.).

Try not to overuse quotations in your essays. It is more appropriate to use original content to demonstrate your understanding.

Psychology is a science so you must support your ideas with evidence (not your own personal opinion). If you are discussing a theory or research study make sure you cite the source of the information.

Note this is not the author of a textbook you have read – but the original source / author(s) of the theory or research study.

For example:

Bowlby (1951) claimed that mothering is almost useless if delayed until after two and a half to three years and, for most children, if delayed till after 12 months, i.e. there is a critical period.

Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fullfil the next one, and so on.

As a general rule, make sure there is at least one citation (i.e. name of psychologist and date of publication) in each paragraph.

Remember to answer the essay question. Underline the keywords in the essay title. Don’t make the mistake of simply writing everything you know of a particular topic, be selective. Each paragraph in your essay should contribute to answering the essay question.

Critical Evaluation

In simple terms, this means outlining the strengths and limitations of a theory or research study.

There are many ways you can critically evaluate:

Methodological evaluation of research

Is the study valid / reliable ? Is the sample biased, or can we generalize the findings to other populations? What are the strengths and limitations of the method used and data obtained?

Be careful to ensure that any methodological criticisms are justified and not trite.

Rather than hunting for weaknesses in every study; only highlight limitations that make you doubt the conclusions that the authors have drawn – e.g., where an alternative explanation might be equally likely because something hasn’t been adequately controlled.

Compare or contrast different theories

Outline how the theories are similar and how they differ. This could be two (or more) theories of personality / memory / child development etc. Also try to communicate the value of the theory / study.

Debates or perspectives

Refer to debates such as nature or nurture, reductionism vs. holism, or the perspectives in psychology . For example, would they agree or disagree with a theory or the findings of the study?

What are the ethical issues of the research?

Does a study involve ethical issues such as deception, privacy, psychological or physical harm?

Gender bias

If research is biased towards men or women it does not provide a clear view of the behavior that has been studied. A dominantly male perspective is known as an androcentric bias.

Cultural bias

Is the theory / study ethnocentric? Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise. In some texts, over 90% of studies have US participants, who are predominantly white and middle class.

Does the theory or study being discussed judge other cultures by Western standards?

Animal Research

This raises the issue of whether it’s morally and/or scientifically right to use animals. The main criterion is that benefits must outweigh costs. But benefits are almost always to humans and costs to animals.

Animal research also raises the issue of extrapolation. Can we generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy & physiology is different from humans?

The PEC System

It is very important to elaborate on your evaluation. Don’t just write a shopping list of brief (one or two sentence) evaluation points.

Instead, make sure you expand on your points, remember, quality of evaluation is most important than quantity.

When you are writing an evaluation paragraph, use the PEC system.

• Make your P oint.
• E xplain how and why the point is relevant.
• Discuss the C onsequences / implications of the theory or study. Are they positive or negative?

For Example

• Point: It is argued that psychoanalytic therapy is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority.
• Explain: Because psychoanalytic therapy involves talking and gaining insight, and is costly and time-consuming, it is argued that it is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority. Evidence suggests psychoanalytic therapy works best if the client is motivated and has a positive attitude.
• Consequences: A depressed client’s apathy, flat emotional state, and lack of motivation limit the appropriateness of psychoanalytic therapy for depression.

Furthermore, the levels of dependency of depressed clients mean that transference is more likely to develop.

Using Research Studies in your Essays

Research studies can either be knowledge or evaluation.

• If you refer to the procedures and findings of a study, this shows knowledge and understanding.
• If you comment on what the studies shows, and what it supports and challenges about the theory in question, this shows evaluation.

Writing an Introduction

It is often best to write your introduction when you have finished the main body of the essay, so that you have a good understanding of the topic area.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your introduction.

Ideally, the introduction should;

Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which “lie behind” the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. “Signpost” the essay’s key argument, (and, if possible, how this argument is structured).

Introductions are very important as first impressions count and they can create a h alo effect in the mind of the lecturer grading your essay. If you start off well then you are more likely to be forgiven for the odd mistake later one.

Writing a Conclusion

So many students either forget to write a conclusion or fail to give it the attention it deserves.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your conclusion.

Ideally the conclusion should summarize the key themes / arguments of your essay. State the take home message – don’t sit on the fence, instead weigh up the evidence presented in the essay and make a decision which side of the argument has more support.

Also, you might like to suggest what future research may need to be conducted and why (read the discussion section of journal articles for this).

Don”t include new information / arguments (only information discussed in the main body of the essay).

If you are unsure of what to write read the essay question and answer it in one paragraph.

Points that unite or embrace several themes can be used to great effect as part of your conclusion.

The Importance of Flow

Obviously, what you write is important, but how you communicate your ideas / arguments has a significant influence on your overall grade. Most students may have similar information / content in their essays, but the better students communicate this information concisely and articulately.

When you have finished the first draft of your essay you must check if it “flows”. This is an important feature of quality of communication (along with spelling and grammar).

This means that the paragraphs follow a logical order (like the chapters in a novel). Have a global structure with themes arranged in a way that allows for a logical sequence of ideas. You might want to rearrange (cut and paste) paragraphs to a different position in your essay if they don”t appear to fit in with the essay structure.

To improve the flow of your essay make sure the last sentence of one paragraph links to first sentence of the next paragraph. This will help the essay flow and make it easier to read.

Finally, only repeat citations when it is unclear which study / theory you are discussing. Repeating citations unnecessarily disrupts the flow of an essay.

Referencing

The reference section is the list of all the sources cited in the essay (in alphabetical order). It is not a bibliography (a list of the books you used).

In simple terms every time you cite/refer to a name (and date) of a psychologist you need to reference the original source of the information.

If you have been using textbooks this is easy as the references are usually at the back of the book and you can just copy them down. If you have been using websites, then you may have a problem as they might not provide a reference section for you to copy.

References need to be set out APA style :

Author, A. A. (year). Title of work . Location: Publisher.

Journal Articles

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume number (issue number), page numbers

A simple way to write your reference section is use Google scholar . Just type the name and date of the psychologist in the search box and click on the “cite” link.

Next, copy and paste the APA reference into the reference section of your essay.

Once again, remember that references need to be in alphabetical order according to surname.

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Writing in Psychology Overview

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Psychology is based on the study of human behaviors. As a social science, experimental psychology uses empirical inquiry to help understand human behavior. According to Thrass and Sanford (2000), psychology writing has three elements: describing, explaining, and understanding concepts from a standpoint of empirical investigation.

Discipline-specific writing, such as writing done in psychology, can be similar to other types of writing you have done in the use of the writing process, writing techniques, and in locating and integrating sources. However, the field of psychology also has its own rules and expectations for writing; not everything that you have learned in about writing in the past works for the field of psychology.

Writing in psychology includes the following principles:

• Using plain language : Psychology writing is formal scientific writing that is plain and straightforward. Literary devices such as metaphors, alliteration, or anecdotes are not appropriate for writing in psychology.
• Conciseness and clarity of language : The field of psychology stresses clear, concise prose. You should be able to make connections between empirical evidence, theories, and conclusions. See our OWL handout on conciseness for more information.
• Evidence-based reasoning: Psychology bases its arguments on empirical evidence. Personal examples, narratives, or opinions are not appropriate for psychology.
• Use of APA format: Psychologists use the American Psychological Association (APA) format for publications. While most student writing follows this format, some instructors may provide you with specific formatting requirements that differ from APA format .

Types of writing

Most major writing assignments in psychology courses consists of one of the following two types.

Experimental reports: Experimental reports detail the results of experimental research projects and are most often written in experimental psychology (lab) courses. Experimental reports are write-ups of your results after you have conducted research with participants. This handout provides a description of how to write an experimental report .

Critical analyses or reviews of research : Often called "term papers," a critical analysis of research narrowly examines and draws conclusions from existing literature on a topic of interest. These are frequently written in upper-division survey courses. Our research paper handouts provide a detailed overview of how to write these types of research papers.

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Home Essay Samples

Essay Samples on Psychology

The majority of college students who have to deal with essays about Psychology are not necessarily future specialists in Psychology or Healthcare. Just think about modern business studies or marketing where leadership qualities must be studied. The same relates to Criminology or Forensic Research assignments where the use of psychology becomes essential. It provides modern learners with a plethora of ideas that can be explored. If you are stuck and need inspiration, focus on the free psychology essay examples that we provide for you. The list of subjects that are presented ranges from the theorists to case study samples to help you understand the difference between various essay types. Remember that your introduction part will always depend on your target audience and the level of knowledge they have. It means that you should provide statistical data or study reports only to an extent that will be sufficient for your methodology or academic objectives. See how it has been done in the free samples that we offer by reading actual writing. These are only provided as templates that you should use for inspirational and educational purposes. As you compose your own Psychology essay, keep things unique and always provide relevant references.

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The concept of childhood has undergone significant transformation over time. Childhood today is vastly different from what it was in the past, shaped by changes in culture, technology, education, and societal norms. This essay explores the key differences and similarities of childhood today compared to...

Compare and Contrast Ananysis of Piaget and Vygotsky in Terms of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky are two influential figures in the field of developmental psychology who have offered distinct theories on cognitive development. While their approaches share commonalities, they also diverge in fundamental ways. This compare and contrast essay delves into the key similarities and...

• Jean Piaget
• Lev Vygotsky Theory

Childhood and Adulthood: Compare And Contrast the Main Phases of Life

The transition from childhood to adulthood is a profound journey marked by significant physical, emotional, and psychological changes. Childhood and adulthood represent distinct phases of life, each with its own set of experiences, responsibilities, and perspectives. This compare and contrast essay explores the similarities and...

Analysis of Social Media Effects on Body Image

In today's digitally connected world, social media has become an integral part of our lives, influencing the way we communicate, share, and perceive ourselves. One of the prominent and concerning aspects of social media is its effects on body image. The relentless exposure to carefully...

• Effects of Social Media

Religion and Morality in Arthur Miller's "The Crucible"

Introduction Arthur Miller’s “The Crucible” is a compelling critique of the dark and tangled web of society, politics, and morality. Set in 1692 during the Salem Witch Trials, this play serves as a vivid reflection of the oppressive nature of McCarthyism in the 1950s in...

• The Crucible

How to Overcome Procrastination by Making It Your Friend

How to overcome procrastination? Usually, human beings have a tendency to see procrastination as some component bad. They invent dozens of techniques how to give up procrastinating and extend their efficiency, forgetting about the reality that like many extraordinary psychological mechanisms, procrastination serves its own...

• Procrastination

How to Deal With Procrastination: My Experience

Procrastination is something I am almost certain that everyone experiences at some point in their university lives (or life in general), and for some of us, it happens on the daily. This can cause a bit of a tricky situation, where the inability to force...

• Personal Experience

Different Perspectives in Modern Psychology: an Overview

Psychology encompasses the scientific study of the mind and brain, exploring the intricacies of human cognition, emotion, and behavior. This essay provides an overview of the different perspectives in modern psychology, each offering unique insights into the functioning of the mind and its manifestations in...

• Cognitive Psychology
• Human Behavior
• Perspective

Cause and Effect of Procrastination Among College Students

Introduction Procrastination is an activity that most college students have gone through throughout their high school career. The meaning of procrastination is, as stated by Ferrari et al., 'derived from Latin verbs. 'Pro' refers to forward motion, and 'crastinus' refers to belonging to tomorrow' (qtd....

• College Students

Rising Above Negativity: A Journey in Music and Self-Belief

My Early Music Career Let me inform you about a time when I realized a life lesson. A couple of weeks ago, I started out producing music; I was once just starting as a producer, and I had no prior expertise in song theory. I...

• Life Lesson

Exploring Child Development: Observations and Developmental Theories

Introduction “Social psychology often looks at basic human need to fit in and calls this the normative social influence” (AtheneWins, 2011). There are many developmental theories and there is a relative overlapping among them. The knowledge of this theories is important in the nursing field...

• Child Behavior
• Childhood Development
• First Day of School

The Power Dynamics of Adolescent Marginality & Intergenerational Conflict

Abstract Adolescents are often seen as lazy and/or entitled by older generations. Typically, we can see this today in the baby boomer generation. In this paper I will be applying Sociological Theories to this stereotype, Intergenerational Conflict to be exact. Throughout the years older generations...

• Adolescence
• Critical Theory
• Sociological Theory

Common Childhood Illness: Treatments and Exclusion Periods

When working with young children, practitioners need to be aware of common childhood illnesses, the signs and symptoms and how to treat children when they become unwell. Common childhood illness includes a common cold, asthma, chickenpox, hand foot and mouth, meningitis, whopping cough, conjunctivitis, and...

The Existence of Genuine Altruism From Social Psychology Perspective

There are several social behaviours that humans exhibit some are negative and some are positive. Altruism is one of such social behaviours. What is altruism and is there anything like genuine altruism? This essay attempts to answer the question whether there is genuine altruism from...

The Psychological State of Ressentiment in the Genealogy of Morals

The psychological state Friedrich Nietzsche terms as ressentiment in the Genealogy of Morals, is a human condition attributed to a feeling produced when placed within a hostile environment. One which man is found powerless to alter through physical action. Those inflicted to this deprived orientation...

• Friedrich Nietzsche
• Philosophical Works

Nurturing Students for Life: The Power of Teachers as Role Models and the Integration of Learning Theories

​The most valuable thing that teachers can provide for a student is not only the pure knowledge but also ability to preparation for life. All teachers should be aware of their power on children and be a good role model for them even though it...

Assessing Adolescent Knowledge and Attitudes towards Reproductive Health

Reproductive health is the important component in the adolescent age, as the one which is in highly risk group to get different sexual and reproductive health problem. Reproductive health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being in all matters relating to the...

• Reproductive Health
• Sexual Health

Exploration of Psychodynamic and the Behavioural Learning Approaches

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind that influences our behaviour using professional practice. The word psychology comes from the Greek 'psyche' meaning mind, soul and spirit. Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychological laboratory in Germany to investigate the mind through inspection and observation...

• Psychologists
• Sigmund Freud

Prosocial Intergroup Behavior in Norway: Study Review

Prosocial behavior is a universal concept observed on a world-wide basis through acts of donations, protests, petitions and other voluntary behaviors. Various factors may serve as motivations for why individuals choose to engage in prosocial behavior. The world in the 21st century is in a...

• Prosocial Behavior
• Volunteering

The Role of a Clinical Psychologist in Treating Problem Drinking: Examining Effective Therapeutic Approaches

Problem drinking is not necessarily alcoholism; alcoholism is, however, a form of problem drinking. For a problem drinker when they drink it can cause problems for them and those around them, but they are not necessarily physically dependent on alcohol. They may be able to...

• Job Description

The Relationship Between Prosocial Behaviour and Mimicry

People are naturally inclined to mimic. Mimicry has been observed across all cultures and ages in peculiar phenomena like contagious yawning or laughter. Chartrand and Bargh noted that people frequently imitate others’ posture and facial expressions unintentionally, and Bandura demonstrated the essential role of mimicry...

Reflective Learning: the Power of Self-Analysis and Personal Growth

A reflective essay is a unique form of essay writing where you examine an experience and reflect on your own self. Use strong evidence and explain the real or imaginary scene in an interesting manner. A reflective essay is a type of writing in which...

• Critical Reflection
• Self Reflection

Albert Bandura: Pioneering Contributions to Social Learning Theory

'Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do'. Albert Bandura was a Canadian born psychologist who identified The Social Learning theory in the 1960's. Psychology...

• Famous Person

Discussion on the Relationship Between Intelligence and Creativity

The relationship between intelligence and creativity has been subjected to research for many years. Unfortunately, there is yet no consensus on how these constructs are related. The connection between intelligence and creativity is that they are functions of the brain that handle data to determine...

• Intelligence

Cognitive Explanation of Schizophrenia: Implications of the Theory

Schizophrenia is a severe mental illness that affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. It is a complex disorder that involves a wide range of symptoms, including hallucinations, delusions, and disordered thinking. The cognitive explanation of schizophrenia is revealed in this essay as one...

• Schizophrenia

What Is Emotional Intelligence: the Significance of Human Beings

Ever since I was a child I developed a great passion regarding human beings and their behaviour in all sorts of situations, no matter the context. I have always paid attention to the importance of emotions in day to day life, and I noticed in...

• Emotional Intelligence

Creative and Critical Thinking: Combining the Achievements of Thought

Creative, one word that can be interpreted in many ways whether in thoughts which is include ways of thinking and actions and also in verbal form. Critical, on the other side refers to the ability to analyse information objectively and make a reasoned judgment. It...

• Critical Thinking

Critical Thinking Skills and Their Importance Today

As rapid urbanization continues to dominate the world, humans are being exposed to brand new ideas that feeds their mind logistically as well as holistically. This phenomenon in turn opens an opportunity for us to gain knowledge in various subjects that equips us with an...

How Unrealistic Beauty Standards on Social Media Affect Girls

Teenagers are affected by social media everyday by posting pictures and worrying about what other people are thinking. According to Mahita Gajanan from 'The Guardian' did a study and asked girls about their self-esteem and experiences with social media. Most of the girls that were...

• Media Influence

How to Cope With Stress: Personality Types and Bible Verses

Since stress is an important contributing factor towards all kinds of diseases, knowing how to cope with it is a major key to good health. Therefore, it is important to learn the different methods that can be used in order to reduce stress or even...

• Stress Response

College Stress: How to Manage It and Keep It Under Your Control

Most likely the least refreshing type of stress is college stress. This is generally because of the way that grown-ups essentially observe a great deal of college understudies sitting on their backsides playing computer games and drinking, rather than seeing understudies who are experiencing strain...

• Academic Challenges

The Most Stressful Life Stage: Exploring Adolescence

Adolescence is the transitional period in human development between childhood and adulthood. It is also described as a period of rapid growth, where a person undergoes major changes in the physical, psychological and social domains. It is also important for the development of identity, as...

Nature vs Nurture: Is Identity Innate or Learned

Introduction The idea of being loved whether it be by family, significant other, or even by society, is one that we all strive for in our day-to-day lives, however, is this love we are trying to receive based on things we have lack of control...

• Individual Identity
• Nature Versus Nurture

Resilient and Resilience in Relation to Optimism and Well Being

When I started to learn positive psychology I had absolutly no idea what to expect from it, so I just thought that it will be some hippie practise about how to be happy all the time. Then we had our first lesson. We learned about...

Negative Effects of Technology on Child Development and Mental Health

Technology has rapidly grown throughout the world and has become the most reliable necessity in the world today. Tablets, cameras, laptops, smartphones, etc. devices have overtaken the human population. The world is surrounded by technology all around- at home, at school, at work, everywhere. On...

• Negative Impact of Technology

Being Resilient: The Features That Foster Resilience

Before this course, I had very little and superficial knowledge about resilience but now after studying this course in detail, I understand this concept much better. For me, resilience is the ability bounce back after adverse situations. In the video, Michael Chandler defines resilient individuals...

Negative Effects of Technology on Child Development

In our modern society, technology is everywhere, specifically digital technology, and nearly everyone has some form of device whether it is a smartphone, smartwatch, tablet, laptop, computer, television, or even smart tv. Our world is loaded with technology because in theory it is all supposed...

Procrastination and the Harmful Effects of It on Job Performance

Procrastination is when someone has a job or task to do, and they say “I will do it later.” If they put it off until later, in some cases, they can lose your job. If someone is a chef and they reply to your boss...

• Performance

Childhood Trauma and Its Negative Effects on the Child's Development

Complex childhood trauma is currently suffered by numerous students in Primary schools around the world. It usually commences in the early years of a child’s life, when they are exposed to pervasive and traumatic events causing severe impacts that will continue to disrupt a number...

Body Image and Mental Health: Impact of Social Media

Technology is quickly rising and upgrading every day and social media has become one of the most-used forms of technology. Social media such as Instagram, Twitter and Snapchat are digital platforms which allow users to upload and share their content with others and also make...

Body Image Pressure Among Young Adults and Adolescence

Body image and its notion of impressing other people through it has become like a general trend amongst the youth. They try to change their body figures, and their characters while trying to impress others. The majority of youths do matters to enhance how they...

Effects Of Growing Up With a Single Parent and How It Can Affect Your Life

Growing up in a single parent household can affect your life in many ways, a few examples includes how you view your relationships, how you carry yourself, and especially your future. Half of my existence I grew up in a single parent household and I...

• Single Parenting

Why Juveniles Should Not Be Tried As Adults

Furthermore, children that commit crimes are products of their environment in which they live. For example, when children constantly get sexually abused, it causes immense amounts of trauma and a false sense of love. Often a traumatic experience for all is an offense punishable by...

• Criminal Behavior

What Was The Environment In Which You Were Raised

I remember myself since I was three years old. I was a lively and inquisitive child. I had many friends and we spent a lot of time together. My parents were very busy at that moment, they were working and building our house. I spent...

Benefits and Importance Of Early Childhood Education

“If school is about learning, and learning starts at birth, then the idea that we expect Kindergarteners to meet their first teachers at age five is all wrong. There is increasing research being facilitated on early education with specific emphasis on the overall benefits it...

• Early Childhood Education
• Importance of Education

The Transition From Childhood To Adulthood

 As human beings, we start off as just a fetus in a mother's womb. However, as time passes, we evolve. Every human being goes through many different phases in life. We go from being babies and eventually we become adults. Each phase is unique and...

Causes and Treatment of Childhood Obesity

'He is just a kid, give him what he wants'. This is the phase that is mostly used by the parents in order to encourage their children from eating what they want as long as it will make them happy. However, the statistic has shown...

• Childhood Obesity
• Eating Disorders

Human Nature in the Lost TV Show: Are Humans Inherently Good or Evil

Throughout humanity, the nature of humankind has been questioned by philosophers, leading them to conclude whether humans are inherently good or evil. Thomas Hobbes, a British philosopher that lived in the 1600s, believes that humans are born selfish and greedy, which leads to violence and...

• Good and Evil
• Human Nature

The Benefits of Video Games Both for Children and Adults

Ever since the 1970s the video game industry has grown quite a lot in popularity and has become the largest market in the world. There have been a lot of changes to how video games are made not only in the different genres for people...

• Development
• Human Development
• Video Games

Why is Early Childhood Education Important

In this essay, I will discuss how strong value operates within the perspective of education and what are main concepts, design of theories from conforming perspective of education. This essay will show some theories which are pedagogy. My explanation will be reflected by nature and...

Problem Solving: Use of Math in Our Everyday Life

What I say about math is that I really don’t like it, but at the end of the day through high school math I have learned how to solve problems and not give up when I don’t fully understand something. I dislike math, but I do need it. The reason why I dislike math is that...

• Mathematics in Everyday Life
• Problem Solving

Why You Should Let Your Kid Play Football

It’s Friday night. Many parents and friends gather around to watch us in our first game of the year. The lights slowly begin to light up the field as we approach the 50-yard line, we toss the coin and the game begins. Down by 7...

• Child Development

Growing A Grit And Growth Mindset

In today's society, there is a belief that intelligence is tied to GPA. There is a stereotype about intelligence. It is the idea that you are either smart or not smart. You either understand it or you do not. What happens if you are between?...

• Personal Growth and Development

Effects Of Violent Video Gaming On Human Behavior

There are many various kinds of games and consoles within the world and vying worldwide. Video play has become a very common trade all over the world and has been growing exceptionally throughout the past twenty years. Gamers that are obsessed with online play are...

• Impact of Video Games
• Violence in Video Games

Why I Want To Be A Teacher: It Isn’t Just A Career, But It's A Calling

Being a teacher isn’t just a career, having the ability to enable a child to further make sense of the world around them and become a honourable and respectful member of society, gives me such a profound sense of pride and happiness. I want to...

• Teaching Philosophy

Bilingual Education In Childhood For Effective Social Communication And Development

Today’s society places a heavy emphasis on the importance of being an effective social communicator, whether it be through verbal or non-verbal skills. Presently, more than half of the world’s population is multilingual and an increasingly larger number of people have been exposed to another...

• Bilingualism
• Educational Psychology

Importance of Reflection and Learning From Past Incidents

To practice competently, reflection is important because it allows one to critically think about past or present events, evaluate situations and then use the knowledge obtained to act accordingly in future situations. All of which improves patient care and helps minimise bad practice in the...

Solution-Focused and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy

In this essay I would like to examine three approaches, Gestalt, Solution-focused therapy, and Cognitive Behaviour therapy and how I intend on using them within my practice as an integrative counsellor. In my previous essay I proposed how I would use the person centred, psychodynamic...

• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Transition's Impact on a Child’s Mental Health

In this essay I will be discussing and outlining the issues of how the transition can have an impact on a child’s mental health, emotions and their overall academic performance. I will also be discussing how development and puberty can affect a child, as well...

• Child Psychology
• Growth Mindset

Emergency Management and Bystander Behavior Effect

This essay will compare and contrast two approaches to understanding bystander responses to emergencies. The approaches explored in the essay are the experiment approach and discourse analysis, each being explained in further detail later in the essay. Bystander behavior (effect) can be explained as the...

• Emergency Management
• The Bystander Effect

The Impact of Technology on Wealth, Aging, and Lifestyle

Wealth, lifestyle, aging populations, and technological advances are said to be having a major impact on the growth of healthcare demand. This essay considers the impact of each of these factors and discusses how successful the introduction of so called ‘sin-taxes‘ have been in changing...

Individual Differences and Differences in the Functioning of Brain

It is irrefutable that people differ considerably from one another, with this variability arising from a unique combination of hereditary, biological factors and lived environmental experiences. Comprising persistent individual factors differentiating individuals from one another to establish distinctiveness, individual differences (namely those of intelligence and...

• Human Brain

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding byJohn Locke

Psychology was derived from two other disciplines; physiology, the study of how living things work, and philosophy, the theories behind why living things behave the way they do. Philosophy and physiology are intertwined, in that they both have contributed to the study of the other....

The Role of Personal Development Planning Today

The essay deals with the PKSC module experiences that reflect on the academic study. Here, the different lectures are guided regarding the reflection that ensure the personal development. The other skills are mentioned research skills, digital skills, reading skills and MS office skills. Besides, the...

• Personal Development Planning
• Personal Goals

Psychosexual Development Theory and Child’s Personality

In this essay I am going to examine the age group of children 0-5 and how the psychological experience can impact on their transitions, during their life span. To achieve this task, I am going to analyze different theories in relation to all holistic aspects...

• Homosexuality

Influence of Two Key Learning and Development Theories

This essay will discuss the applications and influence of two key learning and development theories to educational practice and policy. The aim is of this essay is to discuss two key development theories to educational practices. The two key theories are 1. Piaget and his...

• Developmental Psychology
• Learning Styles
• Study Skills

Social Phenomena of Individual and External Circumstances in a Society

In todays society scholars all across the world have conflict in the matter which talks about how race and an individual’s identity shapes how we all live our lives. We can all come to a conclusion where we agree that everyone from individuals to a...

Optimism: Perception of Life is a Matter of Perspective

Our perception of life is a matter of perspective. From a young age we are taught to see the glass as half-empty or half-full. This perception is a simple example of optimistic or pessimistic behavior. Optimism is typically viewed as an individual’s ability to see...

• Positive Psychology

The Move “Better Luck Tomorrow” by Justine Lin

The move, illustrates an image hidden behind well-mannered students of Sunny Hills high schools who are trying hard to over achieve. The main characters Ben and Virgil is showed as those over achievers of high schools who are known for their grades and extracurricular activities....

• Social Movement

Swimming as a Hard Skill Necessary for Human Being

Swimming is hard. For non-swimmers swimming is harder than most realise and not easy to take up as a regular sport. All those good swimmers you see have excellent cardio-respiratory fitness and often years of technique training. So don't be discouraged. And... The first step...

The Benefits of Online Dating to Society

“There’s the old saying that you have to kiss a lot of frogs to find a prince”, and I think that really applies to online dating. The growing popularity of online dating sites is significantly remarkable. The dramatic increase in Internet usage, indeed, has spread...

• Online Dating

How Peer Pressure Push an Adolescent to Be a Part of Peer Group

The theoretical framework which is for the complete dissertation inquiry, serves as the guide on which to build and help the study, consists of the selected concept (or theories) that under-builds researcher’s thinking with regards to how they apprehend and design to lookup the topic....

• Peer Pressure

Puberty as The Major Fascinating Transition Throughout Lifespan

A biological process that marks the transition from childhood to adolescence is Puberty. “Puberty is a period of the life span marked by major psychological, endocrine and physical changes that contribute to the metamorphosis of children into reproductively mature adolescents.” Puberty is when your body...

A Deviant Behavior of the Filipino Using the Merton’s Strain

An American Sociologist named Robert K. Merton was born on July 4, 1910 in Philadelphia. This American sociologist developed the Merton’s Strain Theory of Deviance which explains the rising crime rates expression in the United Stated of America (USA) at that time. This theory states...

• Deviant Behavior

Human Behavior on the Example of the History and Culture of the United States of America

 The United States of America is a unique country indeed. Unique, powerful, modern, advanced in so many arenas. Compared to other countries of similar size and population, America easily overshadows in technological advances, education and legal systems. However, because our great nation is relatively young...

• American History

Adult Education and ITS Philosophies

Before pursuing courses on adult education, it had been a while since I had contemplated on educational philosophies and what my actual style might entailed. When assigned this task, I assumed it would be easy to determine, ‘right?’ not so much, given the fact that...

• Adult Education Program

The Concept of a Passive and Active Bystander Effect

Groups willingness to help others can be affected in many ways one specifically being the bystander effect. The bystander effect is the tendency for people be unresponsive in high pressure situations due to the presence of other people (Darley & Latane, 1968). There are two...

Review the Different Hypnotherapy Techniques for Phobias 

This essay will look at what stress and anxiety are and how that can challenge diagnosis and impact treatment. before going on to other limitations of treatment. I will address phobias; the difference between fears and phobia and how that impacts on choices of treatment...

The Expectations of the Stroop Effect

The Stroop effect is an experimental design that analyzes our automatic responses when observing incongruent stimuli. In this study, a short experimental naming test will be performed with both neutral and interference conditions. A picture of fruit was displayed on a screen with either an...

• Stroop Effect

Best topics on Psychology

1. Why Psychology Major: Understanding the Human Mind

2. Why Psychology: Exploring the Fascinating Depths of the Human Mind

3. Why I Chose Psychology: Path to Understanding the Human Mind

4. Sports Psychology: Unleashing the Mental Edge in Athletic Performance

5. The Social Learning Theory in Psychology

6. The Profound Contributions of Sigmund Freud to Psychology

7. Psychological Depths of “Shutter Island”

8. Exploring the Diverse Schools of Psychology

9. Exploring the Depths of Psychology Research

10. Psychology: Illuminating Perspectives in an Argumentative Discourse

11. Exploring Personality Psychology: Unveiling the Complexities Within

12. A Passion for Psychology: Nurturing the Flames Within

13. The History of Abnormal Psychology: Unveiling the Layers of Time

14. Health Psychology: Exploring the Nexus of Mind and Body

15. Free Will vs. Determinism in Psychology: Navigating the Paradox

• Confirmation Bias

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• Educational and developmental psychology

How to Write a Psychology Paper: An Expert Guide

📃 Aspects to Cover in a Psychology Essay

🏆 best psychology essay examples & topics, 👍 good psychological essay topics, 🎓 simple & easy psychology essay topics, 📌 writing prompts about psychology, 🥇 most interesting psychological essay topics, ✍️ exciting psychology topics to write about, ❓ psychology essay questions.

At the core of every excellent psychology essay are the writer’s comprehensive knowledge and ability to structure it into bite-sized clusters of information.

While it is evident that your topic is your guiding line, you should not limit yourself to focusing only on the information you are including. Instead, you should try to cover all aspects of essay writing in your paper, from facts and their sources to writing strategies.

Psychology Essay Topics

From self-analysis and obedience to nonverbal communication and various mental disorders, most subjects may seem interrelated and reflective of each other.

Your search for an issue that is yours should begin with analyzing psychology essay prompts, such as:

• What branch of psychology interests you most?
• Which theorists have contributed to this branch?
• Which issues and mechanisms have they outlined?
• Is there adequate supplementary research on these problems?
• What is the opinion of contemporary academia on these subjects?
• Do you want to build upon existing arguments or attempt to critique?

After this, you can analyze what resonates with you, for example, a particular theory or a specific personality, and you can begin writing a thesis statement for your paper.

Pre-writing

Doing your research beforehand helps you get an understanding of how to develop your central theme. Your bibliography and your used titles demonstrate not only your credibility but also the approach you have regarding your subject.

A well-versed reader may even draw a correct conclusion regarding which theorists have influenced your work, even if you did not explicitly state them in your paper, judging by your used sources.

Therefore, be selective in choosing what books and journals to use for your essay and include only those that help advance your pre-written thesis statement.

Referencing information from books and journals is an essential aspect of writing an essay, as this demonstrates the soundness of your ideas per the academic viewpoint on your subject.

Psychology Essay Structure

Your essay may only be as good as the outline you create for it. When you divide your work into thematic blocks, you can begin to see which topics are lacking in development and may need extra attention.

Furthermore, when you split your work up, it becomes easier to write and create interconnected paragraphs. Who takes on the role of the appraiser, the used mechanism, and the personal and social implications of it are all examples of dissecting social evaluation into smaller problems.

Addressing each of these blocks in separate paragraphs helps maintain a coherent yet exciting narrative.

• Your introduction should give your audience a brief overview of the issue that you will develop throughout the next pages;
• Your conclusion should summarize your findings, effectively outlining the outcome of your work per your thesis statement;
• The body paragraphs between your introduction and conclusion, as per you outline, should each address a single theme, creating a unique, interflowing narrative.

If you are not sure how to do this, then read an available psychology essay example to gain a better understanding of how to develop your theme.

Sample papers are an excellent way to jump-start your writing, as you can see for yourself, which approaches to essay wiring work and do not, respectively implementing or removing them from your essay.

Need more help before you can get started? Use IvyPanda for all your essay-writing needs!

• Psychological Disorders in “American Psycho” Movie The main character, who will be the basis of this paper’s analysis, is Patrick Bateman, who is a young and successful individual.
• The Silence of the Lambs Psychological Analysis In the movie The Silence of the Lambs, Hannibal Lecter portrays several traits and behavioral patterns that show he is suffering from a psychological condition.
• Six Major Psychological Theories: Strengths and Weaknesses Behavioral psychology is considered a descendant of the animal psychology, which argues that the environment has a lot of influence in the changes that take place in human beings.
• Psychological Science: Counseling Essay (Theory of Counseling) Another important aspect is the counseling process; this depends on the individual counselor and client and the urgency of the issue in question.
• Psychological Profile of John Wayne Gacy Gacy was born into a family of a homemaker mother and a father veteran of the First World War and a car repair person. In the course of charging, trialing, and convicting he never admitted […]
• Psychology and Christianity: “Abnormality” From a Biblical Perspective The Bible as God’s word is right in all religious teachings within the context of Christian setup. How can the Bible’s guidance inform an individual’s notion of abnormality?
• Comparing Freud, Adler and Jung Psychology Freud did develop the original theories of the conscious and unconscious and subconscious; the ego, id and superego; the libidinal and aggressive drives; the Oedipus and Electra complexes; the defense mechanisms of the mind being, […]
• The Perception Process Stages – Psychology Perception refers to the process of organizing, identifying, and interpreting sensory information in an effort to understand and make sense of the environment.
• Aileen Wuornos: Biological, Psychological, and Social Control Theories The name of Aileen Wuornos and the story of her life have been popular topics of discussion in mass media and professional literature.
• Psychology of Adolescence Development The strategy allows the examination of the significance of adolescence as a standard stage of development. However, she admits that she experienced a period of anxiety and distress upon the death of her mother when […]
• Psychological Impact on Education Therefore, this research examines the impacts of psychology on education, professionals, and relationship success in the education setting. The educational psychology in accordance to the academic description may mean the study of teaching, learning, and […]
• Biological Psychology: Development and Theories Therefore, biological psychology is used to examine the behavior of the humans and animals in order to facilitate in the treatment of the brain.
• The Tell-Tale Heart Psychological Analysis & Critique The outstanding character in the tale, who is also the narrator, attracts a lot of attention from the readers. The narrator forms the basis of the tale.
• Psychological Testing: Ethical and Legal Issues Two of the cases that have had a major impact on the institution of psychological testing are ‘Larry P.v Riles and Crawford v.
• Technology in Psychological Assessment The speed in conducting tests with the help of technology and the improved data analysis based on the effective use of statistical procedures make the technology play the important role in the sphere of emotional […]
• Language in Cognitive Psychology Adult people can preserve 50,000 words of their first language and thousands of words of the second language in the form of lexicons.
• Forensic Psychology: Zodiac Killer Case Analysis By looking at the subject matter of the Zodiac Killer, the present paper aims to identify important characteristics related to serial killers and how the domain of forensic psychology could be applied to solve cases […]
• Girl, Interrupted (1999): Exploring Four Mental Disorders Apart from the dramatic and the entertaining aspect of this movie, it contains a psychological aspect and this is the major purpose of this paper; exploring the psychological disorders in the movie, giving their causes […]
• “Inside Out”: Riley’s Psychological Analysis This genre of cinematography is mainly aimed at the children’s audience, which means that the task of the screenwriters is to create such material that would be able to tell the severe emotional problems of […]
• Common Criticisms of Psychology It is the application of knowledge in the study of human activity such as the day to day lives and mental illness. Psychology is the study of human mind and behavior.
• The Significance of Lifespan Development in the Practice of Counseling Psychology The physical aspect of lifespan development is one of the important ones: it is related to the growth and development of the body and changes in the body and the brain.
• Comparison of Codes of Ethics: The American Counseling Association and the American Psychological Association Both the Psychologist and the counselor abide to the same codes of conduct with regard to terminating their services to a client.
• Memory Chart Stages in Psychology For instance, the brain uses the procedural memory to encode procedural skills and tasks that an individual is involved in. The stages of memory are very complex and often pass unrecognized.
• Definition of Positive Psychology in Psychology Positive psychology is the systematic analysis of the strengths and qualities that permit individuals to thrive. From the above analysis, it is advisable that scholars should engage in extensive research to establish the truth as […]
• Physiological and Psychological Needs Differences Both physiological and psychological needs are necessary for the proper development of an individual. However, it is impossible for an individual to survive without satisfying their physiological needs.
• The Psychology of Serial Killers These are just a fraction of questions that require answers in order to have a complete understanding of the psychology of serial killers.
• Attention Regarding Cognitive Psychology That a person only pays attention to the stimulus they are interested in and ignore the rest of the stimuli. The study of attention in cognitive psychology is not a new phenomenon.
• Indian Sex Workers and Psychological Effects of Job The article “Serving The Goddess”: The dangerous life of a sacred sex worker” is a brief account of the life of two devadasis, particularly their experiences as sex workers.
• Contribution Ancient Great Thinkers to the Growth and Development of Psychology Then, the relationship between the mind and the body perplexed ancient philosophers and this led to the development of psychology as an independent field of knowledge that considers both philosophy of the mind and physiology […]
• Rain Man and Psychological Concepts The concepts of autism, conformity, and trust are described in the movie; and the peculiarity of this story is that one concept is closely connected to another concept, and the consequences of one concept influence […]
• Mind-Body Debate: Monism and Dualism in Psychology As a result, it is almost impossible to find the answer that can address the views of all philosophers and psychologists who are interested in determining the nature of the mind and body interaction.
• Psychological Theories of Sophocles’ Oedipus the King One of the greatest tragedies of Sophocles, Oedipus the King touches upon a deep psychological theme of the parents-son relations which lately was called the Oedipus complex and the theme of faith as a main […]
• The Phases of a Crime and Their Importance in Psychological Profiling Attempt and accomplishment, the third and fourth phases of a crime respectively, differ in the sense that an attempt is a failed crime.
• Psychological Assessment Tools for Christian Professionals This enables the specialist gathering the data to have a bigger picture of the assessee and thus employ the most effective methods in therapy or other help.
• Consumer Behaviour and Psychological Motives In this case, it is assumed that the satisfaction of the consumer is dependent on the performance of the product or the perceptions of the consumer in relation to the product, and the motivations that […]
• Mahler’s and Winnicott’s Contributions to Psychology Their theories are merely concentrated on the methods of disturbed children treatment through the involvement of psychoanalysis; the theorists are focused on the aspect of mother-infant interrelation and stages of infant’s development through the mother’s […]
• Psychological Concept of Learning This article explores the concept of learning by focusing on learning, the role of behavior in relation to learning, types of learning, and the relationship between learning and cognition.
• Norms in Psychological Testing Research Paper One of the inherent problems associated with norms and their interpretation in psychological tests is that as time goes on the characteristics by which a particular population/group is defined tends to change and as such […]
• Criminal Psychology Although the above discussed theories indicate that anyone can be a criminal since the development of the behaviour is determined greatly by the environmental factors,Eysenck’s theory of crime indicate that there are heredity factors that […]
• Positive Psychology in “The Pursuit of Happyness” Film Gardner demonstrates perseverance, hope, and social intelligence and illustrates the importance of effectance motivation and the power of social networks, even though the protagonist’s relationship with his wife could be improved.
• Physiological Psychology Definition The nervous system affects behavior through the brain; it is the signals that are sent via its tendons to the brain that will affect the behavior of an individual.
• Psychologist William Sheldon: Theories and Methods Sheldon did not belong to the so-called pseudo-scientists, as he put the ancient points of view of the affiliation between the type of body and temperament on sheltered basics. The last type of body and […]
• The History Development of Psychology: The Understanding of Human Behavior The aim of the paper is to identify the reasons that have shaped and led to the development of the history of psychology.
• Psychological and Sociological Theories in Life People tend to behave in a way that is beneficial for the development of the system. This theoretical paradigm explains people’s choice to obtain the higher education as this enables them to contribute to the […]
• Humanistic and Sociocultural Psychological Approaches From a sociocultural perspective in psychology, the lack of external influence and the specificity of ethnicity can cause the child’s behavior. In the sociocultural approach, the psychologist has to work with him as a teacher, […]
• The Core Characteristics of Social Psychology Further, scientific methods form the integral part of social psychology in that they aid the development of theories and their validation in order to provide the scientific understanding of human behavior.
• Industrial and Organizational Psychology Theory Industrial/organizational psychology is a field that applies psychology principles to the workplace.It can be used to solve issues that occur in the organizational context.
• Psychology, Theology, and Spirituality in Christian Counseling The author adds that the counselor needs spiritual maturity in a bid to get the client to the same level of maturity.
• Effective Psychological Counselling Dissemination of new information to the client should be the main focus of any counseling session. Reviews are essential and should be done at agreed dates so as to ensure that the trend of the […]
• Expectations From Psychological-Sociological Course In addition, I expect to get an insight into how the system of motivation works and how to implement it in the interaction with the students and keep them interested in the subject.
• The Psychology of Verbal and Nonverbal Communication On the other hand, one is to keep in mind that the main purpose of the kind of communication is to aid in the formulation of thoughts or ideas, which are expressed through speech.
• Economic Crisis and Its Social and Psychological Constraint The failure of large businesses, decrease in consumers’ wealth and demand, and a considerable decline of economic activities also led to the social, cultural, and moral crisis due to the rise of unemployment.
• Psychology Forces in Wilber’s “Spectrum of Consciousness” Translative spirituality facilitates the creation of meaning and the understanding of the notion or the perception of the separate self. According to Vrinte, the most significant level of the spectrum represents the level of the […]
• Psychology in Everyday life While some individuals may think of psychology as a course that is only important to students, therapists or everyone else that is interested in the field of psychology, knowledge in psychology is actually helpful to […]
• Psychology, Anthropology, Sociology: Teen Suicide For young people, suicide continues to be a major problem as thousands of teenagers in the U.S.commit suicide each year. The risk of teen suicide is also seen to increase when they have access to […]
• Children’s Psychological Apperception Test The test was designed to determine children’s personality qualities and psychological issues together with the social or intimate problems that bother them on the stages of their lives and developments when the test is conducted.
• The Theories of Social Psychology Furthermore, a person can bask in the accomplishment of group members and feel very good about it due to their similarity.
• Psychological Tests, Their Types and Users The projective test on the other hand is ambiguous and the respondent has to answer unstructured questions. The use of psychological tests in research is divided into three.
• The Role of Hypotheses in Psychological Research A hypothesis is a specified concept about a certain concept which can be tested about the anticipation of the outcome in the study.
• Astrology as Pseudo-Psychology Astrology is likely to be the most popular form of pseudo-psychology, and it is based on a belief that the arrangement of stars and planets at the time of a person’s birth determines personality traits […]
• Bipolar Disorder Psychological Assessment She is from a nuclear family, both her parents are alive, and she also has two brothers and three sisters. She is the second child in the family.
• Socio-Cultural Approach to Psychology This is influenced by a transmission of resources from the care givers to the dependencies. The kind of attention and language the child gets is from the surrounding.
• Research Methods in Psychology: Pros & Cons The A-B-A-B design is recommended for this study as it helps the researcher to assess the condition of the students before and after the study.
• “The Black Balloon” From a Psychological Perspective It goes without saying that the health of each individual, in particular, depends not only on them but also on the attitude of the surroundings and the action of the governments in corresponding existing situations.
• The Psychology of Happiness The psychology of happiness is closely related to philosophy, as the science of happiness is based on three major theories, namely “the emotional state theory, the life satisfaction theory, and hedonism”. As far as happiness […]
• Critical Thinking Role in the Clinical Psychology These activities and conducts may lead a psychologist to identify the mental activities in the brain of the individual. Clinical psychologists specialization is founded on the framework the individual takes in training to become a […]
• Human Psychology as a One of the Main Objects of Public and Professional Interest The fact that “psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes” sets the stage for understanding the meaning and significance of other concepts, including the relationship between biology and psychology in Chapter 2 […]
• Introduction to Psychological Testing Achievement and Aptitude Tests Is commonly practiced in educational as well as employment set ups, since they tend to measure the scope of understanding of a given knowledge.
• The Movie “Blue Velvet”: Psychological Criticism The gist of this paper, therefore, is to offer psychological criticism of the Movie as regards its screenplay, plot, direction, and general presentation, and this is done by applying the Freudian Theory of Psychological Analysis […]
• Forensic Psychology: Validating Eyewitness Testimony Indeed, research on eyewitness testimony as admitted in a court of law focuses on the acquisition or the incident of observation, the time that elapses after observation, and the presentation of testimonies.
• The Mind-Body Problem in the History of Psychology The crux of the problem is evident from its name: what is the relationship between the mind and the body? A prominent medieval philosopher Thomas Aquinas ties the issue of the body and the soul […]
• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder – Psychology This paper mainly addresses some of the characteristics of OCD, what contribute it, the kind of people who are likely to attract the disease, types of treatment of the disorder, and how it affects a […]
• Educational Psychology in Learning and Teaching Thus, this course has significantly helped me as a teacher in studying and applying modern research methodologies and suppositions, practices and plans which emphasize on the use of both quantitative and qualitative methods in improving […]
• Mary Whiton Calkins and Her Impact on Modern Psychology In order to expand her knowledge of psychology, Mary had to take a year’s studies in psychology prior to her teaching in the same field.
• Adler’s Individual Psychology The paper highlights the most frequent criticisms of Adler’s theory and concludes by reasserting the significance of Adler’s Individual Psychology. This paper will engage in an in-depth review of Alfred Adler and his contributions to […]
• Ethical Issues Associated With Psychological Testing The second case along the line of psychological testing includes the case of Brown V. Reason The above case was used to examine the validity of psychological testing.
• Examples of Special Populations in Psychology In professional psychology, particular population defines both children and adults with the following special needs; education, where the majority of the individuals are unable to comprehend and derive full benefits from the curriculum. The special […]
• Multicultural Psychology as a Subspecialty of Psychology Over the past 30 years, the study of culture minority issues in the field of psychology has grown to what can now be seen as a significant and dynamic subspecialty in the context of American […]
• Psychology: Factors of Success in Life and Career One of the most researched elements about success is the factors that drive people to pursue it. Success is often associated with a positive mental attitude, which triggers the desire to be successful in whatever […]
• Psychology: Change Blindness Experiment The independent variable was the type of change, and the dependent variable was the response to detecting the changes. Broadly, it was established that change blindness varied with the type of change introduced because incongruent […]
• Analysis of the History of Biological Psychology and Its Relationship With Other Psychology Branches Biological psychology is a branch of psychology that applies the principles of biology to the study of behavior that is, the study of psychology in terms of bodily mechanisms.
• Forensic Psychology: Television v. Reality The qualification of a psychologist in the forensic field to qualify as an expert witness is dependent on the reputation as well as the experience that a psychologist has in this field.
• Albert Bandura: An Eminent Psychologist At the school, Bandura notes that most of the learning was left to the initiative of the students as there was lack of teachers as well as resources.
• Psychological vs. Physical Continuity Theory In the analysis of psychological continuity theory, there is a variety of views on the roles of the soul and body in a person’s development.
• Conformity as a Social Psychology Concept In that regard, it can be described as the scientific study of people’s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors in the company of others or the context of society.
• Serial Murders Explained by Psychological Theory A serial killer may recognize the law as a deterrent to his or her activities, but not internalize the significance of the ban due to incomplete moral development.
• Definitions of Intelligence in Psychology In this case, there are various items that can be used to test the emotional and physical aspects of an individual.
• Biological Psychology In the process, there has been a special role of biological psychology that as emerged as a result of these new discipline.
• Human Psychology in “The Diving Pool” by Yoko Ogawa In the novel Black Rain, the author narrates the manner in which the life of Yasuko that was altered forever as a result of the Hiroshima bombing.
• Implications of Theological and Psychological Reflections on Human Behavior The Bible talks about the works of the human flesh which are evident in the commission of sins and also warns about the dire consequences of not inheriting the kingdom of God.
• Love and Memory From a Psychological Point of View The commonly known love types include affection, passionate love, friendship, infatuation, puppy love, sexual love, platonic love, romantic love and many other terms that could be coined out to basically describe love.
• Women in Psychology: Karen Horney Many traditionalists were incensed and the principle to instruct boys and girls on the same level, with the same method, with the hope of reaching the same goal, is generally viewed as a psychological and […]
• Atychiphobia, or the Fear of Failure in Psychology Putting it simply, the fear of failure is the incapability to suppress the anxious and irrational feeling of fear that, as a result, affects one’s life.
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorders: Psychological Assessment PTSD was adopted by experts in the third revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders to replace terms like “shell shock, nervous shock, and combat fatigue” that described the response to traumatic […]
• Freud’s Anxiety Neurosis – Psychology The objective of this study is to expose Freud’s anxiety neurosis and to provide a comprehensive approach as to the causes, treatments, and symptoms of the anxiety neurosis.
• “Turns of the Screw”: The Psychology of the Story The author presents the story as a sequence of events that really existed, however, in this paper we will provide the argument that the reliability of the narrator can be argued and that ghost was […]
• Good Parents Traits and Raising Children – Psychology Some of the traits of a good parent include being a good listener, readiness to guide, self-discipline, setting time aside to spend with the children, and meeting the physical needs of children. In addition, good […]
• Definition of Five Perspectives in Psychology While each of these perspectives offers a unique vision of human psychology, all of them can be classified according to such principles as the effect of nature, observance, determinism, consciousness, and individual differences.
• Foolishness: Psychological Perspective Foolishness from a psychological perspective is defined as the inability to evaluate the situation clearly and one of the components that enable it is egocentrism.
• Introduction to Clinical Psychology This means that clinical psychology plays a vital role in promoting the development of mental and behavioral health of patients with mental disabilities.
• Maggie’s Character in “The Black Balloon”: Psychological Perspective It is also worth to mention that since Charlie is the centre of attraction in this movie, the title The Black Balloon has been symbolically chosen and used to depict Charlie’s autistic nature that appears […]
• Dual Relationships in Psychological Counselling In this scenario, the dual relationship is seen when the psychotherapist acts as a protector of life and involves the police.
• Social Psychology: Definition, Aspects and Theories In contrast, social psychology is the study of the causes of behavior and mental attitudes. Social psychology deals with the study of how different contexts influence human behavior, feelings, thoughts, and other mental states.
• Social Psychology in Clinics In this regard, there are many theories that have been advanced to further explain the concept, practical and the validity of the social psychology in clinics.
• Psychological Analysis The importance of free will is one of the key points the humanistic approach studies. These are the fundamentals of the human approach Amy’s behavior is analyzed according to.
• The Philosophy of Psychology He further shows the distinct nature of the philosophy of psychology since its domain of investigation overlaps by that “domain of inquiry which the philosophers have taken to be their own preserve.
• Modern Cognitive Psychology Renaissance philosophers of the seventeenth century attempted to use graphical representations to demonstrate the structure and operations of the human brain.
• Roles and Functions of School Psychologists In addition, school psychologists play a critical role in promoting the personal and social strengths of the students in the institutions they work to enable them to attain a healthier mindset and well-being.
• Psychological Cognitive Analysis on Movie “Memento” In this case, amnesia is seen as a loss of verbal memory-images and a loss of visual memory-images. In the case of Leonard, memory loss or reduction of memory is a main phenomenon, independent of […]
• Positive Psychology: The Science of Happiness Positive psychology is a science of positive features of the life of a human being, including happiness, welfare, and prosperity. According to him, happiness is freedom from pain in the body and a disturbance in […]
• Zeitgeist Influences on the Birth of Gestalt Psychology In this context, it can be seen that Thesis: Gestalt psychology as a discipline has to be viewed as the product of the “Zeitgeist” of a large chunk of the Twentieth Century that was impacted […]
• Integrating Psychology and Christianity The author introduces the topics of the worldview and outlines the four elements of the Christian worldview beliefs, viz.creation, fall, redemption, and the consummation.
• Infants’ Psychology and Development A baby is not aware that they are a separate person; this awareness is a result of a separation-individuation process which begins when the infant finds out that they cannot always be with their mother, […]
• Mother-Child Relationship – Psychology In the study, the two researchers established that children explain the nature of the relationship existing between them and their mothers, but girls tend to express concern as opposed to boys.
• “The Black Baloon” (2008) From a Psychological Perspective The main question that the film raises is whether parents and other members of a family have the ability to cope with such challenges and come out victoriou in the end by being unified with […]
• Roles of Ethics in Psychological Research Risk analysis on the intended research activity is necessary to weigh the total benefits and risks of the proposed study to the subjects in terms of privacy and nurturing the reputation psychology as a profession.
• Foundations of Psychology Psychology is one of the broad areas of scientific study; interestingly, it is difficult to define psychology for the definition keeps on changing depending on time and the person defining it.
• Psychological Factors Affecting Sex Workers The study will evaluate the strength of the relationship between psychological factors contributing to participating in commercial sex work. Socio-psychological and behavioral theories will guide this study to understand the psychological factors related to participation […]
• Industrial-Organizational Psychology The vastness of the field requires a practitioner to have a wider knowledge on industrial psychology itself, and also basic knowledge of the company’s operations as well as the cultural background of its employees.
• William James and His Contributions to Psychology He argues that the view of the mind is of the great level of the adrenalin and the heartbeat, and this is what is called emotions.
• Aspects of Psychology: Theories of Intelligence An important constituent of this theory is that of the ‘g’s theory or the general theory of intelligence. This theory is suggestive of the fact that intelligence is not based on one or two elements, […]
• Psychological Traps in the Human Decision Making They include the anchoring trap, the status-quo trap, the sunk cost trap, the confirming evidence trap, the framing trap, the overconfidence trap, the prudence trap, and the recall-ability trap.
• Cognitive Processes – Psychology As a result, memory is seen to be the storage of, and process of recalling what individuals have learned or experienced in the environment.
• Historical Perspective of Abnormal Psychology The field of abnormal psychology is therefore concerened with the study of abnormal behavior. The challenge that lies in the definition and classification of abnormal psychology is the issue of culture given that our cultural […]
• Catching a Train That Leads Nowhere: The Psychology of the Inevitable However, it is important to note that most of Hume’s theories are based on the idea that a man’s previous experience is not to be taken into consideration.
• Definition and Theories of Environmental Psychology The human mind is divided into small sections that can be studied to identify the role played by the brain in the interaction between human beings and the environment.
• Development of Structuralism as a Systemic Movement in Psychology However, in his attempts to expand the ideology, Titchener deviated from some of his mentor’s teachings and misrepresented some parts of it.
• Personality Psychology: Cinderella’s Personality A lot of Cinderella time is spent working in the house, and she exhibits a high degree of submission. Cinderella behaviour is not linked to her personality but the immediate environment that she lives in.
• Fetishism: Psychological Sexual Disorder To some, however, the use of a fetish object comes once in a while and they are not compelled to do so.
• The Psychology of Addictive Behavior This is because of the debilitating effect the activity has on society and the individual. This report will concentrate on the factors of addictions that cause serious harm to society.
• Psychological Test Selection Factors and Tools Therefore, this essay explores the concept of psychological testing and assessment in a bid to find out how counselors select the kind of psychological tests to administer, the factors they consider when doing so, and […]
• David Kolb and Adult Learning Theory – Psychology Moreover, he provided a useful description of the learning process, and this description can be of great use to people who are willing to want to improve their learning skills.
• Developmental Theories in Psychology Moreover, it shows the similarities and differences among these theories and how they account for normal and abnormal child and adolescent psychological and physical development in children and adolescents with specific reference to physical, cognitive, […]
• Abraham Maslow, the Father of Humanistic Psychology From the above pyramid, Maslow contributed immensely to the field of psychology because he impacted people’s perception of psychology by introducing the concept of humanistic psychology.
• Culturally Informed Psychological Assessment They do not posit a single culture, requiring the assessor to discern these cultures and their influence on a person’s psychological behavior.
• The Midlife Crisis in Developmental Psychology The midlife crisis exists, and it is associated with an awareness of the limitations of youth and the transience of the time allotted for life.
• “On Psychological Oppression” by Sandra Bartky Psychological oppression is to have a harsh dominion exercised over your self-esteem and make the victims their own oppressors.
• History of Ethical Principles in Psychology The APA’s principles of ethics inspire psychologists towards considering high ethical standards in the conduct of their research. The little Albert experiment is an example of historical research that failed to comply with ethical standards […]
• Relationship Between Psychology and Christian Faith Truly, I have realized that sincerity is found in Jesus discipleship and the study of persona, but the varying aspects guiding the honesty are the belief in Christ and analytical thinking.
• The Relationship Between Religion and Abnormal Psychology But whose judgment will we use to separate the two contrasting elements of the psychology of normal and abnormal behaviors? Some religious beliefs permit the use of alcohol and it’s considered normal, yet others find […]
• Personal Development: Psychological Difficulties, Sexuality In my opinion the period of adolescence is the most difficult in human life and I think that it would be interesting to discuss the attitude to sexuality with the help of personal development theories.
• Attitudes and Behavior in Social Psychology In the light of the social psychology theory, attitudes and behaviors are reciprocally related. Thus, attitudes, under the condition that they are already formed, guide the behavior of a person in a certain direction.
• Scientist-Practitioner Model in Psychology It is clear that the scientific practitioner is not just to read so as to prepare scientists and practitioner psychologists but to read and integrate these roles so that the practice by the psychologist is […]
• Psychological Testing in Employee Screening The HRI is designed to examine relationships between the supervisor and the employees he/she is in charge of supervising. The instrument is designed to cover the philosophy, principles, and approaches related to the effective performance […]
• Google Inc.’s Organizational Psychology Organizational psychology plays a critical role in the effectiveness of a firm to find candidates which are able to demonstrate high performance on the job while fitting into the workplace culture, thus a complex talent […]
• Developmental Psychology: Franz Kafka and Social Learning It is true that the writer’s life was not particularly eventful, and the majority of defining events took place in his psyche.
• Research Methodologies in Industrial Psychology Also, the matrix clearly illustrates that the choice of a particular methodology is shaped by the type of the research to be undertaken.
• Inevitable Prejudice in Social Psychology Adorno supposes that the authoritarian personality is hostile to those of an inferior rank and servile to those of a higher rank.
• Noam Chomsky’s Contribution to Cognitive Psychology Skinner’s initial assumption was that the language is solely a learned behavior, and thus is a set of functional responses to different phenomena. Besides, some progress in evolutionary psychology was possible thanks to the results […]
• Forensic Psychology: Eyewitness Testimonies’ Unreliability The inferences he made about the witness stand and the role of women in the courts were purely influenced by research findings from his experiments.
• Bowen Family Systems Theory – Psychology In this context, the theory is relevant in demonstrating that the level of stress prevalent in the family due to alcoholism and irresponsible behavior of the family head is directly responsible for the development of […]
• Paraphilias in Men and Women From Psychological Perspective The psychoanalytic theory clearly indicates that paraphilic disorder is a function of psychological abuse and other factors that are yet to be established.
• Psychological Perspectives and Schools of Thought Among the contemporary perspectives, the neuroscience point of view sees people as organisms with their physiological processes and connects the brain and the nervous system to the behavioral responses.
• Psychological First Aid for Disaster Victims In this paper, I will discuss some facts that I learned about PFA, consider a major disaster and response to it, and give some recommendations to those who might need to offer psychological aid to […]
• Theory of Multiple Intelligences – Psychology Binet and Simon later revised their work in 1916 to incorporate the concept of mental age and concluded that intelligence varies depending on mental age.
• Anger Management Educational Model – Psychology The changes compel a person to work hard both mentally and physically so as to respond to the issue causing the anger. The primary aim of the reaction is to hurt the other person.
• Ethical Issues in Psychology If such requirements cannot be followed, the psychologists have to document the specifics of the conducted assessment and indicate the possible impact of the limitations on the results of the study.
• Childhood Friendship and Psychology Based on their research, they have founded a theory, according to which it is assumed that the children consider close relationship, appraisals, and sharing common interests as something very important to them and on the […]
• Environmental Psychology: The Impact of Interior Spaces on Childhood Development Nevertheless, with regards to children and their physical and cognitive development, environmental psychology addresses how experiences and exposures to various socio-environmental components affect children’s brain structure and their ability to control their emotions and behaviors.
• Psychologists’ Role in Criminal Justice In addition to research, the accumulation, and application of knowledge, psychologists can also participate in assessing the effectiveness of legislation. In this setting, basic scientists conduct theoretical research on the effectiveness of police and court […]
• Combatants: Psychology and Christianity Disciplines
• Psychologists and Assessments Related to Death Sentence
• Cognitive Psychology – A Concept of Attention
• Health Psychology: Going Through a Breast Cancer Diagnosis
• Dimensions of Psychology and Its Specialty Areas
• Psychology of Anakin and Padme From “Star Wars: Revenge of the Sith”
• Psychology in Gilman’s “The Yellow Wallpaper”
• Biology and Psychology in Behavior Explanation
• Margaret Floy Washburn: Life and Contributions to Psychology
• Psychology of Happiness in the World
• Developmental Psychology: Designing Educational Toys
• Importance of Sleep – Psychology
• “The Power of Habit” by Charles Duhigg – Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology Definition and Concept
• History of Psychological Assessment: Wundt’s Laboratory
• Psychological Trauma: Treatment Planning
• Justine’s Psychological State in “Melancholia”
• Psychology of Personality: Theories
• Application of Cognitive Psychology
• Socio-Psychological Trust Issues in Youth
• Developmental Psychology Analysis
• Deprogramming Cult Members: Religious and Psychological Analysis
• Structuralism, Functionalism and Cognitive Theory in Psychology
• Application of Psychology in Workplace Environment
• Functionalism School of Psychology
• Prescientific Psychology Research
• Forensic Psychology: Media and Crime Relationship
• Clinical Psychology vs. Psychiatry
• Martin Luther King’s Psychological Portrait
• Psychological and Psychosocial Support in Disaster Nursing
• Saddam Hussein Psychological Analysis
• Cognitive Psychology: Scientists Contributions
• Adolescence and Adulthood Developmental Stages – Psychology
• Vision as a Psychology Practitioner-Scholar
• Psychological Foundation of Human Resource Development
• Employees’ Psychological Resistance
• Psychology And Society
• Abnormal Psychology: Fetishism, Transvestic Fetishism, Sadomasochism, Voyeurism, Exhibitionism, and Pedophilia
• Women in Psychology: Assessing the Contributions of Margaret Floy Washburn
• Definition Creative Thinking in Psychology
• Theories of Developmental Psychology
• Psychology of Sleep: Article Study
• Drawing Ability Development as a Reflection of the Overall Psychological Development of a Child
• Positive Examples of Conformity and Obedience Psychology
• The Use of Creativity in Psychology
• Psychology of Personality: Role Models
• Exam Anxiety as Psychological Disorder
• Psychology: The Little Albert Experiment
• Psychology in Human Resource Management
• Psychological Wellness and Mental Health
• Character’s Psychology in “Jazz” by Toni Morrison
• Abnormal Psychology Case Study: General Anxiety Disorder
• The Dying Person: Physical, Psychological, and Social Care
• A Clinical Psychologist – Dr. Na’im Akbar
• Practitioner-Scholar Model in Psychology
• Environmental Design Psychology Theory
• Clinical Psychology, Its Issues and Purposes
• Psychology: Diana Baumrind’s Obedience Study
• Forensic Psychology, Its Tasks and Importance
• Psychology and Its Theoretical Diversity
• Forensic Psychology in the Criminal Justice System
• Research in Industrial and Organizational Psychology
• Burrhus Frederic Skinner and his Influence on Psychology
• Psychology of Fathers and Daughters Relationships
• Shakespeare’s “A Midsummer Night’s Dream” Psychological View
• Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development – Psychology
• Psychology Issues: Group Survival in Extreme Situations
• Social Psychological Concepts in “The Hangover”
• Aviation Psychology
• Buddhism Psychology in Changing Negative Behaviors
• Abraham Maslow’s Biography and Contribution to Psychology
• “Psychology” by David Myers
• The Real Father of Psychology
• The Theory of Psychological Egoism
• Definition of Cognitive Psychology
• Statistics and Psychology
• Kohut and Self Psychology and the Freudian Classical Model
• Psychology of the Superheroes
• Written and Psychological Contracts of Employment
• Psychological Tests in Employee Selection Process
• Obesity: Psychological/ Sociological Issue
• Psychology in Movies: Stephen Chbosky’s Wonder
• Psychological Approaches: Applying to Personal Life
• Sensation and Perception Studies in Psychology
• Leadership and Organizational Psychology of Vince Lombardi
• Psychology: Health Behavior Change & Reflection
• Socialization of Adolescents in Modern Psychology
• Generosity and Psychological Well-Being
• The Psychological Perceptions of Pain
• History and Evolving Nature of Clinical Psychology
• Decision-Making in Cognitive Psychology
• B. F. Skinner’s Development Theory
• The Psychological Aspects of Human Development
• The Psychological and Social Problems in Students
• Developmental Psychology. “Erik Erikson” by McLeod
• Automaticity in Psychology and Personal Life
• Abnormal Psychology as a Scientific Discipline
• Social Psychology: Attitude Change Approaches
• The Psychology of Thinking and Intelligence
• Psychological Reasoning, Decision-Making, Thinking
• Labeling in Psychology: Pros and Cons
• Psychological Testing and Assessments Concepts
• Psychological Measures: The Beck Depression Inventory
• Psychological Counseling Using Behavioral Theory
• Positive Psychology: Subjective Well-Being
• Psychological Techniques of Interrogation and Their Results
• Family Relationships: Psychological Inquiry
• The Holmes-Rahe Life Stress Inventory – Psychology
• Malingering and Denial in Psychology
• Social Psychological Concepts of Bullying and Its Types
• TV Cartoons and Children’s Behavior – Psychology
• Human Emotions Psychology: Rooting in Biology or Culture
• Positive Living Skills by Terry Orlick
• Social Psychology Concepts
• ‘Psychology, Theology and Spirituality in Christian Counseling’ by Mark McMinn
• Definition of Developmental Psychology
• The Effect of HRM Practices on Psychological Contract in Organisation
• Abnormal Psychology Essentials
• Transition to Higher Education for Psychology Students
• Correctional Psychology and Its Procedures
• Comparison of Normal and Abnormal Psychology
• Happiness and Its Social Psychological Aspects
• Comparison and Contrast of Biological, Psychological, and Social Perspectives of Human Sexuality
• Psychological Testing in the Workplace
• Abnormal Psychology: Mental Disorders
• Experimental and Correlational Psychological Studies
• Psychology Aspects in Spearman’s, Stenberg’s and Gardner’s Models of Intelligence
• Introduction to the Environmental Psychology
• Abraham Maslow and Humanistic Psychology
• The Obsessive-Compulsive Psychological Disorder
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• Writing Guides

How To Write A Psychology Essay

Table of Contents

Content of this article

• Outline sample
• Tips on writing
• List of topics

How to Write a Psychology Essay

A psychology essay is an article that tackles a certain aspect of psychology.

Before writing a psychology essay, it is important first to understand the question at hand.

It serves the following purposes:

• To explain a particular concept: a psychology essay tries to explain a certain aspect for example, what causes fears and phobias;
• To encourage creativity: a psychology essay improves the creativity of students as they are required to think out of their comfort zone and write an article that stands out;
• To give a diagnosis: the student can write a psychology essay to explain why they think that a particular diagnosis is necessary. It explains the reasons behind the diagnosis arrived at.

Outline for a psychology essay

Before writing an essay on psychology, it is important first to understand what the topic is all about. Reread general notes on the area before narrowing it down to your area of interest. Doing this makes it easier to settle on a subject. Besides, follow the tips for a psychology essay writing to make your work easier.

Below is a sample of an essay on psychology

Personality and Character

Introduction

In interpersonal relationships, various factors contribute to the sustenance of a relationship. Different people have different personalities and how they relate to each other is different. Understanding personalities lead to better interpersonal relationships.

Thesis statement

Different circumstances shape personality traits and characters and therefore influence how they interact with others.

• Girls who grow up in violent homes have self-esteem issues. Seeing their mom being abused gives them a false understanding that being a woman is worthless.
• A person who grew up without siblings becomes more inclined to be self-centered as they are not accustomed to sharing.
• An introvert is more likely to have fun when staying indoors with friends rather than going out or hanging out in crowded areas.

Various factors shape personality and character and these factors should not be overlooked. The environment that a person grows in greatly influences their future life.

The above outline for a psychology essay looks at the effects and influences of the environment on the character.

Good tips on writing

1. tips concerning introduction for a psychology essay.

• The first step to writing a good psychology essay introduction is to have a rough idea of what you are about to write. Having some previous knowledge on the topic ensures that you become more competent and research widely.
• Secondly, have a global structure- this ensures that you have a coherent sentence and flow of ideas . The psychology essay draft tells you whether your content will be enough and lets you know if you have the know-how on how to go about the topic. This method of psychology essay writing is very helpful.
• How to start a psychology essay is challenging for many writers. It is, therefore, necessary to follow the guidelines as shown by the lecturer or from copies found on the internet and various other sources. Start with a catchy phrase or a story. The purpose is to attract the reader from the very beginning. The rule of thumb in the introduction is always to be creative.  Readers should look forward to reading your essay and not just skimming through it.
• Write your introduction in short flowing sentences. They give your essay a touch of excellence. When writing very long sentences, use commas to allow the reader to breathe.
• Ensure your topic is written well and not too wordy. It should not have more than ten words. The topic sentence should show the reader what your essay discusses.  Having a long topic sentence confuses the reader as they cannot pick out the theme to be discussed.

2. Psychology essay tips on thesis writing

• The thesis is the main point of the piece. Choose a topic that is relevant and has a case study to back up your theory.
• The thesis question and statement should not be too broad for you to cover. Narrow down on a particular topic to ensure quality work in research. The thesis statement should be well thought out to elude knowledge and mastery of content.
• Try as much as possible to paraphrase and not copy and paste the thesis from the internet from a pre-written essay on psychology. If researching, rephrase it to avoid plagiarism. Most people are tempted to copy directly from the web.

3. Tips on writing the body (length, paragraphs, and transitions)

• The body carries the weight of the thesis. Have knowledge and understanding of your topic- do not write a subject that you will have no content on. Show that you understand all specifics of your research question and can relate them to real-life situations.
• Have critical evaluation- your assumptions should have relevant evidence both in theory and application. It requires insightful and independent thinking. When mentioning any theory, ensure that you have a case to defend how to apply the theory. The body should be well written. When writing an essay on psychology, the body, and language is crucial.
• Avoid using too much jargon in your writing. In case you do use some technical terms, explain them. Complexities in essay writing make the reader bored. Explain your themes in well laid out independent paragraphs. Each section should carry a point or two. Ensure that the points do not run over to the next paragraph.

4. Tips on how to conclude a psychology essay

Like all other essays. How you write the psychology essay conclusion is critical.

• Introduce the conclusion in a unique manner.
• Avoid using words like ‘to conclude.’
• Your conclusion for a psychology essay sums up your arguments. Give the consequences of your study concerning your research.
• Do not introduce new concepts.
• Make sure that you cover all the topics in the body so as not to defend them in the conclusion.

5. Sources for psychology essay

There are so many materials where the student can gather essay questions:

• Books on psychology are useful in getting the concepts.
• The internet provides various themes and psychology essay guides.
• Brainstorming from a general topic and narrowing it down.
• A literature review is also a valuable source for ideas and other psychology essay writing help that you may need.
• Try to interact with teachers for more information and psychology essay writing guides.

6. Finalizing the essay

The final step of writing an article is proofreading. Proofread to correct spelling, punctuation, and other grammatical errors. Ensure you check out for plagiarism. Your work should be original and creative. Use citations and proper referencing of sources. There are different referencing styles like Harvard, Chicago, or APA. The writer can also give out the written copy to friends for feedback. Be prepared to get both negative and positive criticism . Finally, ensure that you have a glossary of technical terms well defined for the reader to understand. The psychology essay outlining should be done as required.

7. Tips on topic choice

• Research widely on different disciplines before settling for a topic.
• Pick an area that you have an interest in as this is a high motivation for research.
• Refer to other items to find out the outline.
• Be flexible that is, allow yourself to have room for change. After writing the body, your arguments might end up defending a different topic
• Have a list of keywords you intend to use
• Ensure you have the available material for your topic

Below is a list of available topics for a psychology essay prepared by the team at our online essay writing service that the student can pick from for their psychology essay writing.

List of topics for psychology essay

• What are the different types of personalities?
• Discuss the relationship between dreams and reality
• Eating disorders
• Depression and stress management
• Attitude and attitude change
• Mental health
• Perception and the knowledge process
• Psychopharmacology
• Psychoanalysis
• Hypnosis and psychological unconscious

50+ Topics for Psychology Research Papers

Categories Psychology Education

If you have ever had to write a paper for one of your psychology classes, then you probably know that choosing psychology paper topics can sometimes be tricky. Fortunately, there are plenty of great topics for psychology research papers to help you finish your assignment.

Keep reading to learn more about how to find topics for psychology research papers and find inspiration to help you get started.

Table of Contents

How to Choose Topics for Psychology Research Papers

If you are going to write a psychology paper, the first thing you need to do is pick a good topic. This is often easier said than done.

In some cases, your instructor might assign you topics for psychology research papers, or at least narrow your range of options by providing a general subject area on which to focus your paper.

But in many cases, choosing the topic of your psychology paper is entirely up to you—and that’s where things can get tricky. How do you choose a great topic? What if you pick something too specific and struggle to find sources? Or what if you go too broad and end up biting off more than you can chew?

Following a few simple steps can make the topic selection process a lot easier.

Choose a General Subject

Part of what makes picking a topic for a psychology paper so difficult is how overwhelmed you are by the information you feel. Make it easier on yourself by restricting your options to at least a general topic area.

Narrow Down to a More Specific Topic

Once you’ve chosen a general area, you can then narrow topics for psychology research papers down to something much more specific and manageable.

For example, you might start by deciding that you want to write your paper on a topic within a specific branch of psychology . From there you might further narrow your focus down to a much narrower subject area within that branch

So, imagine that you’re writing a psychology research paper in your general psychology course. Your instructor has given you free rein to select any topic you please, so you begin by deciding to write your paper on a social psychology topic.

Now that you have a general idea, you drill down further and decide to research and write your paper on how prejudice forms and ways to minimize it.

General Topics for Psychology Research Papers

Because general psychology classes cover such a wide range of topics, you have a very large selection of subject ideas to choose from. Start by choosing a general topic, and then narrow your focus down so that you can fully cover the subject.

Some ideas include:

• An issue paper:  Tackle one of the current issues in psychology, such as parity in mental health care or involving psychologists in military interrogations.
• Profile a famous psychologist:  Select a well-known  psychologist  and then write a profile exploring his or her life, theories, and career.
• Explore a well-known psychology experiment:  Write a paper on a classic psychology study, such as the Milgram Obedience Experiment or the Stanford Prison Experiment.
• Write about a topic within personality psychology:   Personality psychology focuses on the traits and dispositions that contribute to overall personality. This is one of the largest topics within psychology so there are plenty of fascinating research topics from which to choose. Some specific topics that might interest you include whether personality can change, different theories of personality development and the  Big Five theory of personality.

Specific Topics for Psychology Research Papers

You might also want to choose topics for psychology research papers that are related to a specific branch of psychology. Some options that you might consider include:

Clinical Psychology

• How effective is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for treating specific phobias?
• What is the relationship between childhood trauma and borderline personality disorder?
• How do medication and psychotherapy compare in the treatment of depression?
• How does social media affect teen mental health?

Developmental Psychology

• How do parenting styles influence child development?
• What are the long-term effects of early childhood education?
• What role does play have in cognitive development?
• What effect does having siblings have on developmental outcomes?

Cognitive Psychology

• How does sleep deprivation influence the memory consolidation process?
• What impact does aging have on cognitive functioning?
• How does exercise impact working memory?
• Does learning a second language have cognitive benefits?

Social Psychology

• What effect does discrimination have on self-esteem?
• How does self-presentation online differ from self-presentation in real-world settings?
• How do leadership styles influence productivity in groups?

Okay, let’s just imagine that you’re having a bad case of writer’s block. You understand the basic approach for picking a good topic, but nothing seems to be catching your interest. You’re looking for some more inspiration to get you started.

Here are just a few great topics for psychology papers that you might want to consider:

Controversial Topics for Psychology Research Papers

The history of psychology is not always positive, and if you enjoy writing about controversial topics, psychology’s history is rich with material.

• The use of lobotomies to treat mental illness
• The history of mental asylums in the United States
• The use and effects of electroconvulsive therapy
• Conversion therapy and its damaging effects
• Attachment therapy
• Controversial experiments such as Milgram’s obedience experiment or Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison experiment
• The debate over the nature of intelligence
• The impact of the eugenics movement on psychology
• Controversies surrounding the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

Disorder Topics for Psychology Research Papers

Writing about the history, prevalence, and treatment of a specific mental condition can be an interesting topic for a psychology paper. Some options you might consider include:

• Eating disorders
• Anxiety disorders
• Borderline personality disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Substance abuse and addictions
• Developmental disorders

Other Great Topics for Psychology Research Papers

Here is a sampling of topics that you might consider:

• How attitudes form
• How bullying affects children
• How people use nonverbal communication
• Factors that can affect prenatal development
• How media violence influences children’s behavior
• How parenting styles influence child development
• How does intrinsic motivation influence learning
• How does mindset impact academic achievement
• What factors influence IQ and is it possible to increase IQ
• Factors that influence self-actualization
• Is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs still relevant today
• How does perfectionism impact mental well-being
• Different theories of personality
• How different leadership styles influence the success of groups
• Profile a specific career in psychology

As you can see, your options for psychology paper topics are really only limited by your own imagination (and the specific guidelines issued by your instructor, of course). Spend some time thinking about topics that really interest you, then narrow your focus to hone in on a specific idea.

Finally, always be sure to run your chosen topic by your instructor. He or she may be able to offer suggestions that can help you during your research and make it much easier to write an outstanding psychology paper.

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Psychology Essay Topics & Examples

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Newest Psychology Essay Examples

Check out the latest additions to our database.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Causes, Symptoms, and Interventions

Introduction Psychology considers and includes the identification, investigation, and therapeutic confrontation of many disorders and adverse mental health conditions. Of the organic, behavioral, personality, emotional, and other disorders identified, obsessive-compulsive disorder is one of the best known, even among laypersons. It is characterized by the notion that it can often...

The Examination of the Self-Reference Effect and Memory

Introduction People are different, and each person perceives information in a unique way. An individual may better memorize a fact or an opinion if they can associate themselves with the presented knowledge. For example, people may have a finer comprehension of a movie if they can relate to situations or...

Meditation: A Path to Mental Well-Being

In the modern world, meditation is becoming more and more prevalent in people’s lives. This practice came from India and China, and if earlier meditation was associated only with religious practices, today scientists are studying the effect of this practice on the brain, productivity, and a sense of happiness, which...

Understanding Procrastination Through Self-Determination Theory

Introduction Procrastination is an issue that affects the motivation of many individuals, reducing their overall feeling of satisfaction, quality of life, and performance in terms of learning and working processes. This phenomenon is complex and influenced by a variety of factors, among which is self-determination. However, while there are many...

Assumptions: Impact on Conclusions

Making correct and informed judgments requires drawing conclusions based on realistic assumptions. Assumptions are the beginning points for any cognitive process or argument, and they significantly impact the conclusion’s outcome. If the assumptions are correct, the decision is likely to be accurate. For example, if someone thinks that all dogs...

Memory: The Key Types and Functions

Memory is essential to human life, as it allows individuals to store. Human life depends on memory, enabling people to store and retrieve information. Memory comes in various forms, and each function differently, including semantic, episodic, and procedural memory. This essay analyzes these types of memory and how they function...

Fear Instinct in Shaping Perceptions of Threats

Introduction An essential part of the perception of reality is played by the instinct of fear, which affects the understanding of the essence of what is happening. The innate fear response may alter how people perceive risk, making it difficult to evaluate the likelihood and consequences of different dangers. The...

Cognitive Psychology: Attention and Its Features

Source: Treisman, A. M., & Gelade, G. (1980). A feature-integration theory of attention. Cognitive Psychology, 12(1), 97–136. Web. Treisman and Gelade (1980) presented a comprehensive theoretical framework for elucidating the mechanisms underlying attention in visual perceptionAccording to the theory of feature integration, the integration of objects in the visual field...

Discussion: Intelligence and Cognition

Definition of Cognition Cognition is a set of mental processes involved in thinking, knowing, learning, and memorizing (Spielman et al., 2020). It includes perception, attention, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making. Cognition is linked to the ability to learn and adapt and the capacity to understand and interact with the environment. It...

Cognitive Distortions: Overcoming Catastrophizing with Therapy

Cognitive distortions are biased or irrational patterns of thinking that negatively impact emotions, behaviors, and well-being. One such distortion is catastrophizing, which involves blowing things out of proportion and imagining the worst outcomes (Casabianca, 2022). Therefore, to help a client overcome this distortion, I would use a cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)...

Discussion: Memory Functionality

Memory is an integral part of the life of the majority of living species, including humans. In many ways, the extent of its functionality defines individual capabilities, personality, and behavior. Chapter 7 provides a sophisticated overview of what constitutes memory and shares numerous insights into the way it works. Apart...

Cognitive Psychology: Key Aspects

Cognitive psychology is a broad field of science that helps to understand better the thinking process of people and what goes into the problem-solving process. Moreover, this branch assists in determining what is behind the formation of human behavior and ways of interacting with others. Many different theoretical approaches and...

Perception and Sensation as Psychological Processes

A person learns about the world that surrounds him with the help of numerous specialized functions of the body. One of them is perception and sensation, which, despite their apparent similarity, are completely different processes. First, it is necessary to gain an understanding of the nature of these processes. Hence,...

The Work of the Phonological Loop in Stressed People with ADHD

Project Summary Many studies discuss various components and processes of memory, including one of its key categories – working memory. The latter includes the phonological loop, which is the faculty responsible for the temporal rehearsal and memorization of information received verbally or visually. While some researchers explore the relationships between...

The Connection between Memory and the Legal Investigation of Crimes

Strengths The work discusses the connection between memory and the legal investigation of crimes. The author’s central idea is that in extreme stress situations, the general memory process is distorted, complicating the investigation process due to the vague testimonies of victims and eyewitnesses. The primary strength of the work is...

Cognitive Bias: Impact on Information Perception

The aim of this essay is to reflect on the influence cognitive bias has on the perception of information. Bias is an error in interpreting data due to personal inclinations, prejudice, or simplification of knowledge. It exists as a result of the brain trying to make an explanation of the...

Exploring the Phenomenon of Dyslexia

The Role of Text Most people on the planet, as adults, are able to absorb textual information and read and process it correctly. This skill is paramount when the individual is in society. We read information boards, books, and textbooks, correspond on social networks, and write texts ourselves. Text, in...

Stress and Its Impact on Health and Happiness

Introduction Modern research and psychological practice show that stress significantly impacts various aspects of a person’s physical and mental health. In recent decades, stress researchers have begun to focus on the problem of everyday stressors. It was found to have greater exposure to accumulated everyday stress than significant life stressful...

Empirical Article on Depression by Alsubaie et al.

Basic Research Question Depression and depressive disorders are major concerns for university students, given the massive readjustments made in life with the shift to an institution of higher learning. Alsubaie et al., (2019) conducted a study to investigate the impacts of social support on depression and the quality of life...

Suicide Ideation in Foster Care Children

Introduction Suicide poses a substantial challenge for vulnerable demographics, particularly children and adolescents. Both childhood and adolescence serve as crucial periods for mental health development, with traumatic experiences during these stages heightening the risk of suicidal thoughts. This paper delves into the factors contributing to suicidal ideation among foster care...

Anxiety Disorders: Experiences and Impact on Society

Introduction Anxiety disorders are medical illnesses where humans anticipate future concerns that cause reactions to stress. Anxiety comes from the fear of something. Anxiety disorders aren’t the same as having our normal feelings of nervousness. Although it is the most common mental disorder, only about 30% of adults are affected...

Sexual Addiction: Causes and Effects

The target audience for this content is broad and diverse, with a particular emphasis on Professor Larsen and Jill. Psychologists, experts in sexual behavior, and therapists who focus on treating patients with sexual disorders are also members of this audience. These professionals are keenly interested in staying up to date...

Stress Management and Strategies for Well-Being

Introduction Stress is the emotional tension that arises when a person finds himself in situations that are psychologically difficult or that they find intractable. This condition is a part of everyone’s life, and it is normal and harmless when the pressure is moderate. The only type of worry that poses...

Child’s Secure Attachment: Caregiver’s Influence

Care Needs Normally, caregivers are always in touch with the infants and attend to all their possible needs. The care providers, therefore, play a significant role in influencing early childhood development among young ones, especially their emotional and social aspects. Being sensitive to common care needs is crucial and can...

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Free APA Journals ™ Articles

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• Moving While Black: Intergroup Attitudes Influence Judgments of Speed (PDF, 71KB) Journal of Experimental Psychology: General February 2016 by Andreana C. Kenrick, Stacey Sinclair, Jennifer Richeson, Sara C. Verosky, and Janetta Lun
• Recognition Without Awareness: Encoding and Retrieval Factors (PDF, 116KB) Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition September 2015 by Fergus I. M. Craik, Nathan S. Rose, and Nigel Gopie
• The Tip-of-the-Tongue Heuristic: How Tip-of-the-Tongue States Confer Perceptibility on Inaccessible Words (PDF, 91KB) Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition September 2015 by Anne M. Cleary and Alexander B. Claxton
• Cognitive Processes in the Breakfast Task: Planning and Monitoring (PDF, 146KB) Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology / Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale September 2015 by Nathan S. Rose, Lin Luo, Ellen Bialystok, Alexandra Hering, Karen Lau, and Fergus I. M. Craik
• Searching for Explanations: How the Internet Inflates Estimates of Internal Knowledge (PDF, 138KB) Journal of Experimental Psychology: General June 2015 by Matthew Fisher, Mariel K. Goddu, and Frank C. Keil
• Client Perceptions of Corrective Experiences in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Motivational Interviewing for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: An Exploratory Pilot Study (PDF, 62KB) Journal of Psychotherapy Integration March 2017 by Jasmine Khattra, Lynne Angus, Henny Westra, Christianne Macaulay, Kathrin Moertl, and Michael Constantino
• Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Developmental Trajectories Related to Parental Expressed Emotion (PDF, 160KB) Journal of Abnormal Psychology February 2016 by Erica D. Musser, Sarah L. Karalunas, Nathan Dieckmann, Tara S. Peris, and Joel T. Nigg
• The Integrated Scientist-Practitioner: A New Model for Combining Research and Clinical Practice in Fee-For-Service Settings (PDF, 58KB) Professional Psychology: Research and Practice December 2015 by Jenna T. LeJeune and Jason B. Luoma
• Psychotherapists as Gatekeepers: An Evidence-Based Case Study Highlighting the Role and Process of Letter Writing for Transgender Clients (PDF, 76KB) Psychotherapy September 2015 by Stephanie L. Budge
• Perspectives of Family and Veterans on Family Programs to Support Reintegration of Returning Veterans With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PDF, 70KB) Psychological Services August 2015 by Ellen P. Fischer, Michelle D. Sherman, Jean C. McSweeney, Jeffrey M. Pyne, Richard R. Owen, and Lisa B. Dixon
• "So What Are You?": Inappropriate Interview Questions for Psychology Doctoral and Internship Applicants (PDF, 79KB) Training and Education in Professional Psychology May 2015 by Mike C. Parent, Dana A. Weiser, and Andrea McCourt
• Cultural Competence as a Core Emphasis of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy (PDF, 81KB) Psychoanalytic Psychology April 2015 by Pratyusha Tummala-Narra
• The Role of Gratitude in Spiritual Well-Being in Asymptomatic Heart Failure Patients (PDF, 123KB) Spirituality in Clinical Practice March 2015 by Paul J. Mills, Laura Redwine, Kathleen Wilson, Meredith A. Pung, Kelly Chinh, Barry H. Greenberg, Ottar Lunde, Alan Maisel, Ajit Raisinghani, Alex Wood, and Deepak Chopra
• Nepali Bhutanese Refugees Reap Support Through Community Gardening (PDF, 104KB) International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation January 2017 by Monica M. Gerber, Jennifer L. Callahan, Danielle N. Moyer, Melissa L. Connally, Pamela M. Holtz, and Beth M. Janis
• Does Monitoring Goal Progress Promote Goal Attainment? A Meta-Analysis of the Experimental Evidence (PDF, 384KB) Psychological Bulletin February 2016 by Benjamin Harkin, Thomas L. Webb, Betty P. I. Chang, Andrew Prestwich, Mark Conner, Ian Kellar, Yael Benn, and Paschal Sheeran
• Youth Violence: What We Know and What We Need to Know (PDF, 388KB) American Psychologist January 2016 by Brad J. Bushman, Katherine Newman, Sandra L. Calvert, Geraldine Downey, Mark Dredze, Michael Gottfredson, Nina G. Jablonski, Ann S. Masten, Calvin Morrill, Daniel B. Neill, Daniel Romer, and Daniel W. Webster
• Supervenience and Psychiatry: Are Mental Disorders Brain Disorders? (PDF, 113KB) Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology November 2015 by Charles M. Olbert and Gary J. Gala
• Constructing Psychological Objects: The Rhetoric of Constructs (PDF, 108KB) Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology November 2015 by Kathleen L. Slaney and Donald A. Garcia
• Expanding Opportunities for Diversity in Positive Psychology: An Examination of Gender, Race, and Ethnicity (PDF, 119KB) Canadian Psychology / Psychologie canadienne August 2015 by Meghana A. Rao and Stewart I. Donaldson
• Racial Microaggression Experiences and Coping Strategies of Black Women in Corporate Leadership (PDF, 132KB) Qualitative Psychology August 2015 by Aisha M. B. Holder, Margo A. Jackson, and Joseph G. Ponterotto
• An Appraisal Theory of Empathy and Other Vicarious Emotional Experiences (PDF, 151KB) Psychological Review July 2015 by Joshua D. Wondra and Phoebe C. Ellsworth
• An Attachment Theoretical Framework for Personality Disorders (PDF, 100KB) Canadian Psychology / Psychologie canadienne May 2015 by Kenneth N. Levy, Benjamin N. Johnson, Tracy L. Clouthier, J. Wesley Scala, and Christina M. Temes
• Emerging Approaches to the Conceptualization and Treatment of Personality Disorder (PDF, 111KB) Canadian Psychology / Psychologie canadienne May 2015 by John F. Clarkin, Kevin B. Meehan, and Mark F. Lenzenweger
• A Complementary Processes Account of the Development of Childhood Amnesia and a Personal Past (PDF, 585KB) Psychological Review April 2015 by Patricia J. Bauer
• Terminal Decline in Well-Being: The Role of Social Orientation (PDF, 238KB) Psychology and Aging March 2016 by Denis Gerstorf, Christiane A. Hoppmann, Corinna E. Löckenhoff, Frank J. Infurna, Jürgen Schupp, Gert G. Wagner, and Nilam Ram
• Student Threat Assessment as a Standard School Safety Practice: Results From a Statewide Implementation Study (PDF, 97KB) School Psychology Quarterly June 2018 by Dewey Cornell, Jennifer L. Maeng, Anna Grace Burnette, Yuane Jia, Francis Huang, Timothy Konold, Pooja Datta, Marisa Malone, and Patrick Meyer
• Can a Learner-Centered Syllabus Change Students’ Perceptions of Student–Professor Rapport and Master Teacher Behaviors? (PDF, 90KB) Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology September 2016 by Aaron S. Richmond, Jeanne M. Slattery, Nathanael Mitchell, Robin K. Morgan, and Jared Becknell
• Adolescents' Homework Performance in Mathematics and Science: Personal Factors and Teaching Practices (PDF, 170KB) Journal of Educational Psychology November 2015 by Rubén Fernández-Alonso, Javier Suárez-Álvarez, and José Muñiz
• Teacher-Ready Research Review: Clickers (PDF, 55KB) Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology September 2015 by R. Eric Landrum
• Enhancing Attention and Memory During Video-Recorded Lectures (PDF, 83KB) Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology March 2015 by Daniel L. Schacter and Karl K. Szpunar
• The Alleged "Ferguson Effect" and Police Willingness to Engage in Community Partnership (PDF, 70KB) Law and Human Behavior February 2016 by Scott E. Wolfe and Justin Nix
• Randomized Controlled Trial of an Internet Cognitive Behavioral Skills-Based Program for Auditory Hallucinations in Persons With Psychosis (PDF, 92KB) Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal September 2017 by Jennifer D. Gottlieb, Vasudha Gidugu, Mihoko Maru, Miriam C. Tepper, Matthew J. Davis, Jennifer Greenwold, Ruth A. Barron, Brian P. Chiko, and Kim T. Mueser
• Preventing Unemployment and Disability Benefit Receipt Among People With Mental Illness: Evidence Review and Policy Significance (PDF, 134KB) Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal June 2017 by Bonnie O'Day, Rebecca Kleinman, Benjamin Fischer, Eric Morris, and Crystal Blyler
• Sending Your Grandparents to University Increases Cognitive Reserve: The Tasmanian Healthy Brain Project (PDF, 88KB) Neuropsychology July 2016 by Megan E. Lenehan, Mathew J. Summers, Nichole L. Saunders, Jeffery J. Summers, David D. Ward, Karen Ritchie, and James C. Vickers
• The Foundational Principles as Psychological Lodestars: Theoretical Inspiration and Empirical Direction in Rehabilitation Psychology (PDF, 68KB) Rehabilitation Psychology February 2016 by Dana S. Dunn, Dawn M. Ehde, and Stephen T. Wegener
• Feeling Older and Risk of Hospitalization: Evidence From Three Longitudinal Cohorts (PDF, 55KB) Health Psychology Online First Publication — February 11, 2016 by Yannick Stephan, Angelina R. Sutin, and Antonio Terracciano
• Anger Intensification With Combat-Related PTSD and Depression Comorbidity (PDF, 81KB) Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy January 2016 by Oscar I. Gonzalez, Raymond W. Novaco, Mark A. Reger, and Gregory A. Gahm
• Special Issue on eHealth and mHealth: Challenges and Future Directions for Assessment, Treatment, and Dissemination (PDF, 32KB) Health Psychology December 2015 by Belinda Borrelli and Lee M. Ritterband
• Posttraumatic Growth Among Combat Veterans: A Proposed Developmental Pathway (PDF, 110KB) Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy July 2015 by Sylvia Marotta-Walters, Jaehwa Choi, and Megan Doughty Shaine
• Racial and Sexual Minority Women's Receipt of Medical Assistance to Become Pregnant (PDF, 111KB) Health Psychology June 2015 by Bernadette V. Blanchfield and Charlotte J. Patterson
• An Examination of Generational Stereotypes as a Path Towards Reverse Ageism (PDF, 205KB) The Psychologist-Manager Journal August 2017 By Michelle Raymer, Marissa Reed, Melissa Spiegel, and Radostina K. Purvanova
• Sexual Harassment: Have We Made Any Progress? (PDF, 121KB) Journal of Occupational Health Psychology July 2017 By James Campbell Quick and M. Ann McFadyen
• Multidimensional Suicide Inventory-28 (MSI-28) Within a Sample of Military Basic Trainees: An Examination of Psychometric Properties (PDF, 79KB) Military Psychology November 2015 By Serena Bezdjian, Danielle Burchett, Kristin G. Schneider, Monty T. Baker, and Howard N. Garb
• Cross-Cultural Competence: The Role of Emotion Regulation Ability and Optimism (PDF, 100KB) Military Psychology September 2015 By Bianca C. Trejo, Erin M. Richard, Marinus van Driel, and Daniel P. McDonald
• The Effects of Stress on Prospective Memory: A Systematic Review (PDF, 149KB) Psychology & Neuroscience September 2017 by Martina Piefke and Katharina Glienke
• Don't Aim Too High for Your Kids: Parental Overaspiration Undermines Students' Learning in Mathematics (PDF, 164KB) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology November 2016 by Kou Murayama, Reinhard Pekrun, Masayuki Suzuki, Herbert W. Marsh, and Stephanie Lichtenfeld
• Sex Differences in Sports Interest and Motivation: An Evolutionary Perspective (PDF, 155KB) Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences April 2016 by Robert O. Deaner, Shea M. Balish, and Michael P. Lombardo
• Asian Indian International Students' Trajectories of Depression, Acculturation, and Enculturation (PDF, 210KB) Asian American Journal of Psychology March 2016 By Dhara T. Meghani and Elizabeth A. Harvey
• Cynical Beliefs About Human Nature and Income: Longitudinal and Cross-Cultural Analyses (PDF, 163KB) January 2016 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology by Olga Stavrova and Daniel Ehlebracht
• Annual Review of Asian American Psychology, 2014 (PDF, 384KB) Asian American Journal of Psychology December 2015 By Su Yeong Kim, Yishan Shen, Yang Hou, Kelsey E. Tilton, Linda Juang, and Yijie Wang
• Resilience in the Study of Minority Stress and Health of Sexual and Gender Minorities (PDF, 40KB) Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity September 2015 by Ilan H. Meyer
• Self-Reported Psychopathy and Its Association With Criminal Cognition and Antisocial Behavior in a Sample of University Undergraduates (PDF, 91KB) Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement July 2015 by Samantha J. Riopka, Richard B. A. Coupland, and Mark E. Olver

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Introductory essay

From the curator of Understanding Happiness, a brief look at the key facts, the tough questions and the big ideas in his field. Begin this TED Studies subject with a fascinating read that gives context and clarity to the material.

An introduction to happiness

A few years ago I stumbled upon a question I found both shocking and exhilarating: Suppose our natural instincts about what we needed to make us happy were dead wrong? That was what the latest scientific research on happiness seemed to suggest: that most of the things we spent our time striving for made almost zero difference to how happy we were.

With these words, Chris Anderson opened TED’s 2004 conference, "The Pursuit of Happiness," aimed at exploring how our understanding of happiness shapes our individual and collective well-being. TED speakers since that time have continued this quest, probing how happiness plays out in personal relationships, business management, economics, international relations and other arenas.

The reason for this sustained attention to human happiness? Says Anderson, "The exhilarating part was this...maybe, just maybe, we could discover a deeper, longer-lasting, more profound form of happiness. Maybe we could even do this before we ended up mangling our personal relationships and destroying our planet."

We're currently working through a period with a real sense of change. Priorities are being reviewed in light of the global financial and environmental challenges and there is a growing demand for a 'new economic paradigm' with a focus on well-being and sustainability. Endless growth as the measure of our success appears increasingly inadequate, not to mention unrealistic given the available resources. Instead there's a desire to focus on leading enriched, fulfilled lives. At the same time we also need to dispel the myth that happiness and high performance are mutually exclusive.

Interest in happiness at a personal level is ever present, but now we're seeing it on a national and international level too. Countries including, for example, the UK, France and Costa Rica have been taking steps to understand the well-being of their nations in order to inform policy. Bhutan began exploring this area back in the 1970s. On the international scale happiness and well-being is now high on the UN agenda, as the Secretary General said at a recent event "We need a new economic paradigm that recognizes the parity between the three pillars of sustainable development. Social, economic and environmental well-being are indivisible. Together they define gross global happiness." This operates in line with a growing recognition that GDP is not sufficient for measuring success and progress.

Although momentum around this has certainly been gathering more recently, the idea is obviously not a new one, as evidenced by Senator Robert Kennedy's sentiment in 1968:

Gross National Product counts air pollution, and cigarette advertising and...the destruction of the redwood and the loss of our natural wonder in chaotic sprawl. It does not allow for the health of our children, the quality of their education or the joy of their play…the beauty of our poetry or the strength of our marriages. It measures everything, in short, except that which makes life worthwhile.

What we mean by happiness (and well-being)

Even as happiness works its way up the list of goals, defining the term is still not always easy. Happiness is obviously individual and subjective, which can cloud understanding of how to measure and to increase it. To really get to grips with the topic we need to recognize that happy does not only mean smiley; and contrary to the belief of most children (and probably too many adults), getting everything you want is not the key to true happiness! This is illustrated well by the distinction between hedonic and eudemonic happiness. The former relates to pleasurable experiences, but these alone are not enough — even paradise would become boring after a while! Eudemonic happiness comes from achieving something that we feel is worthwhile, and requires a sense of purpose and drive. Happiness can be also be defined or influenced by a number of life factors — relationships, money, work, health; altruism is also closely linked to 'real' happiness.

Happiness can perhaps be more usefully considered using the term well-being. Although less recognizable than happiness, well-being is often preferable in discussions of collective happiness as it is more objective and can therefore be more readily measured and inform policies for improvement. It is also worth noting the meaning of familiar words such as mood, emotion and personality need to be understood in their more technical definitions.

Brief history of happiness science

Traditionally psychology was preoccupied with curing our ills. More recently, as TED speaker Martin Seligman tells us, much progress has been made towards this goal (although the impact of the rise in medication comes with its own warnings). More recently, the focus has broadened to include making improvements even when there are no problems — the opposite of 'if it ain't broke don't fix it!'. The concept is known as positive psychological well-being, and as a field it is increasing our understanding of how we can generate happiness. The following quotation gives an insight into the earlier perception of happiness:

An important and incontrovertible phenomenon in the psychological study of happiness is known as adaptation: the joy or sadness resulting from a good or bad event tends to fade after a long time. Two early psychologists studying happiness, Brickman and Campbell (1971), posited something stronger: that adaptation is complete and unavoidable. Hence, nothing can have a permanent effect on one's happiness, and trying to make oneself happier is hopeless. With appropriate pessimism, the authors described this idea as follows: 'The nature of [adaptation] condemns men to live on a hedonic treadmill, to seek new levels of stimulation merely to maintain old levels of subjective pleasure, to never achieve any kind of permanent happiness or satisfaction.' (Brickman and Campbell, 1971, p289). Since that article, the term 'hedonic treadmill' has come to stand for the hypothesis that trying to improve one’s happiness is futile, and that happiness is instead determined entirely by a combination of genes and random effects. Byrnes, 2005

We now have a much better understanding of where our individual happiness comes from, and most importantly that these factors can be influenced. In her TEDTalk, Nancy Etcoff notes that 50% is genetic and personality based — and therefore relatively difficult to change. But 40% comes from our activities and relationships and the final 10% from income and environment, meaning there is in fact considerable scope to improve how happy we are.

We also understand that happiness is not, as was once thought, a spectrum. Less misery does not necessarily mean more happiness. This realization is actually quite instinctive but until relatively recently has been ignored by those exploring happiness science but has a fundamental impact on how we approach the issue.

It's important to note the scientific nature of the study of psychological well-being, which includes understanding of the structure of the brain, the chemical reactions involved and how various systems are interconnected. Happiness at this level really has become a science, with assertions made based on evidence from sound methodologies. This is not to say there isn't still some way to go, but this should no longer be perceived as a 'soft' subject. Unfortunately, positive psychology is often mistaken for positive thinking movement, which lacks scientific evidence for its claims but is a more familiar concept for many. Hopefully as scientific progress continues to be made and broadly understood, this trend will reverse.

Crucially, the knowledge and evidence we have been acquiring means we are now equipped to take positive action. We can, in effect, create happiness by arming others with this knowledge and with the skills required to live enriching lives, in an environment that supports them to do so.

Increasing happiness

So can we actually 'grow' happiness? Well, the jury has been out on this, but yes, it's now generally accepted that steps can be taken to increase individual and collective happiness; several of the TEDTalks included in this course identify research-based strategies for doing so. Also, it's worth noting that for all this talk of GDP not being a satisfactory measure, we're not suggesting that economics and personal finances will not affect our happiness. If nothing else they will influence the 'situational' 10% that is mentioned above. Individuals do seem to get 'happier' as money increases, but not indefinitely. After a certain point it stops having an impact. Beyond the point where needs are satisfied, it seems that happiness and materialistic society are increasingly incompatible, as the pursuit of money and material goods can come at the expense of the more fundamental pleasures in life that bring us happiness.

There are some more pessimistic theories about our ability to develop happiness. Psychotherapist Robert Rowland Smith argues that "the pursuit of happiness is a form of wanting, just like anything else. So the problem with wanting happiness is as much the wanting as the happiness. Deep inside us, wanting creates a hole, a lack, a lacuna. Wanting happiness equals wanting for happiness, and feeling empty." In addition 'set point' theory suggests that we revert back to a particular level of happiness after being influenced by a positive or negative effect. This is used to explain why lottery winners and those who have suffered serious illness can appear equally 'happy' a certain amount of time after either has occurred. But it's also been suggested that over time, this set point can be fundamentally shifted. The endless treadmill can be unraveled! And of course, even if our 'end point' is a relatively fixed level of happiness, that doesn't diminish the significance of fluctuations that occur on the journey.

Measuring happiness

In order to know if we're increasing happiness, we need to find a way to measure it. Measuring both individual and national levels of happiness can be difficult, particularly when people self report. Life satisfaction measures have long been used but while they are relatively simple and easy for international benchmarking, they rarely get under the skin of either the causes or consequences of happiness.

When carrying out measurements we also need to be aware of the distinction between causality and correlation. We have no shortage of data which shows an 'association' between all sorts of activity and levels of happiness or satisfaction. For example, belonging to a club or society is associated with higher life satisfaction scores. But whether membership led to happiness or vice versa is obviously an important distinction to make.

At a national level, happiness or satisfaction scores have been recorded for up to 70 years in some countries but throughout this time they have remained fairly static, even when other variables are changing. For example, in countries where income has risen happiness remains steady. But inter-country comparisons show different levels, which suggests that wholesale change is possible.

The general consensus is that measuring well-being requires a dashboard of measures rather than just a single figure. These will differ between nations, but as an example the UK has recently constructed an index of 11 dimensions based on national consultation.

Happiness frameworks

If the goal is to increase happiness it's also necessary to explore who has responsibility for doing so. While individuals can be equipped to increase their own happiness, the institutions that surround them also have a role to play in creating an environment that fosters happiness. As mentioned at the beginning of this piece, governments and international bodies are increasingly taking into account the affect of their policies on the well-being of their citizens. The compatibility of happiness and well-being with economics, politics and religious freedoms needs to become a part of national discussion.

Dictating exactly how people need to live is not the route to happiness, instead we need to provide the tools to facilitate happiness and freedom to pursue it (although as you'll see in the TEDTalks by Dan Gilbert and Barry Schwartz, too much choice often comes with its own difficulties!). The ability of individuals to manage their own happiness also raises broader questions; do we need to 'teach' people how to be happy? The response to this has implications for our education systems and life-long learning opportunities.

There is also a sustainability aspect to this discussion as short term gain for some should not mean suffering for others — making this an international issue growing in line with globalization.

Happiness and work

Organizational responsibility for the happiness and well-being of its employees has several facets. Work is an important part of living a good life, as long as it's 'good work'. This means it provides challenges that build a sense of purpose and allow employees to experience the joy of mastery. Simultaneously employers have an obligation to allow their employees enough time to pursue other activities and nurture the relationships that are so important for happiness. The collective support of business can also be a powerful tool for influencing national policies and governments should work with employers to allow the benefits of 'good' work to be realized.

This Teaching and Learning Guide

There is still a lot of room for debate around this topic with further evidence required in some areas and discussion about what we can do with our extended knowledge base. We hope that by the end of this module learners will understand some of the complexities of the 'science of happiness' but also appreciate the implications of our understanding and how it may shape our futures.

Let's begin this guide's examination of happiness with a TEDTalk from Harvard Medical School psychologist Nancy Etcoff who explores whether and why we're hard-wired for happiness.

Relevant talks

Barry Schwartz

The paradox of choice.

Dan Gilbert

The surprising science of happiness.

Helen Fisher

Why we love, why we cheat.

Malcolm Gladwell

Choice, happiness and spaghetti sauce.

Martin Seligman

The new era of positive psychology.

Nancy Etcoff

Happiness and its surprises.

The origins of pleasure

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50+ Research Topics for Psychology Papers

How to Find Psychology Research Topics for Your Student Paper

• Specific Branches of Psychology
• Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy
• Human Cognition
• Human Development
• Critique of Publications
• Famous Experiments
• Historical Figures
• Specific Careers
• Case Studies
• Literature Reviews
• Your Own Study/Experiment

Are you searching for a great topic for your psychology paper ? Sometimes it seems like coming up with topics of psychology research is more challenging than the actual research and writing. Fortunately, there are plenty of great places to find inspiration and the following list contains just a few ideas to help get you started.

Finding a solid topic is one of the most important steps when writing any type of paper. It can be particularly important when you are writing a psychology research paper or essay. Psychology is such a broad topic, so you want to find a topic that allows you to adequately cover the subject without becoming overwhelmed with information.

I can always tell when a student really cares about the topic they chose; it comes through in the writing. My advice is to choose a topic that genuinely interests you, so you’ll be more motivated to do thorough research.

In some cases, such as in a general psychology class, you might have the option to select any topic from within psychology's broad reach. Other instances, such as in an  abnormal psychology  course, might require you to write your paper on a specific subject such as a psychological disorder.

As you begin your search for a topic for your psychology paper, it is first important to consider the guidelines established by your instructor.

Research Topics Within Specific Branches of Psychology

The key to selecting a good topic for your psychology paper is to select something that is narrow enough to allow you to really focus on the subject, but not so narrow that it is difficult to find sources or information to write about.

One approach is to narrow your focus down to a subject within a specific branch of psychology. For example, you might start by deciding that you want to write a paper on some sort of social psychology topic. Next, you might narrow your focus down to how persuasion can be used to influence behavior .

Other social psychology topics you might consider include:

• Prejudice and discrimination (i.e., homophobia, sexism, racism)
• Social cognition
• Person perception
• Social control and cults
• Persuasion, propaganda, and marketing
• Attraction, romance, and love
• Nonverbal communication
• Prosocial behavior

Psychology Research Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy

Exploring a psychological disorder or a specific treatment modality can also be a good topic for a psychology paper. Some potential abnormal psychology topics include specific psychological disorders or particular treatment modalities, including:

• Eating disorders
• Borderline personality disorder
• Seasonal affective disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Antisocial personality disorder
• Profile a  type of therapy  (i.e., cognitive-behavioral therapy, group therapy, psychoanalytic therapy)

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Cognition

Some of the possible topics you might explore in this area include thinking, language, intelligence, and decision-making. Other ideas might include:

• False memories
• Speech disorders
• Problem-solving

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Development

In this area, you might opt to focus on issues pertinent to  early childhood  such as language development, social learning, or childhood attachment or you might instead opt to concentrate on issues that affect older adults such as dementia or Alzheimer's disease.

Some other topics you might consider include:

• Language acquisition
• Media violence and children
• Learning disabilities
• Gender roles
• Child abuse
• Prenatal development
• Parenting styles
• Aspects of the aging process

Do a Critique of Publications Involving Psychology Research Topics

One option is to consider writing a critique paper of a published psychology book or academic journal article. For example, you might write a critical analysis of Sigmund Freud's Interpretation of Dreams or you might evaluate a more recent book such as Philip Zimbardo's  The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil .

Professional and academic journals are also great places to find materials for a critique paper. Browse through the collection at your university library to find titles devoted to the subject that you are most interested in, then look through recent articles until you find one that grabs your attention.

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Famous Experiments

There have been many fascinating and groundbreaking experiments throughout the history of psychology, providing ample material for students looking for an interesting term paper topic. In your paper, you might choose to summarize the experiment, analyze the ethics of the research, or evaluate the implications of the study. Possible experiments that you might consider include:

• The Milgram Obedience Experiment
• The Stanford Prison Experiment
• The Little Albert Experiment
• Pavlov's Conditioning Experiments
• The Asch Conformity Experiment
• Harlow's Rhesus Monkey Experiments

Topics of Psychology Research About Historical Figures

One of the simplest ways to find a great topic is to choose an interesting person in the  history of psychology  and write a paper about them. Your paper might focus on many different elements of the individual's life, such as their biography, professional history, theories, or influence on psychology.

While this type of paper may be historical in nature, there is no need for this assignment to be dry or boring. Psychology is full of fascinating figures rife with intriguing stories and anecdotes. Consider such famous individuals as Sigmund Freud, B.F. Skinner, Harry Harlow, or one of the many other  eminent psychologists .

Psychology Research Topics About a Specific Career

​Another possible topic, depending on the course in which you are enrolled, is to write about specific career paths within the  field of psychology . This type of paper is especially appropriate if you are exploring different subtopics or considering which area interests you the most.

In your paper, you might opt to explore the typical duties of a psychologist, how much people working in these fields typically earn, and the different employment options that are available.

Topics of Psychology Research Involving Case Studies

One potentially interesting idea is to write a  psychology case study  of a particular individual or group of people. In this type of paper, you will provide an in-depth analysis of your subject, including a thorough biography.

Generally, you will also assess the person, often using a major psychological theory such as  Piaget's stages of cognitive development  or  Erikson's eight-stage theory of human development . It is also important to note that your paper doesn't necessarily have to be about someone you know personally.

In fact, many professors encourage students to write case studies on historical figures or fictional characters from books, television programs, or films.

Psychology Research Topics Involving Literature Reviews

Another possibility that would work well for a number of psychology courses is to do a literature review of a specific topic within psychology. A literature review involves finding a variety of sources on a particular subject, then summarizing and reporting on what these sources have to say about the topic.

Literature reviews are generally found in the  introduction  of journal articles and other  psychology papers , but this type of analysis also works well for a full-scale psychology term paper.

Topics of Psychology Research Based on Your Own Study or Experiment

Many psychology courses require students to design an actual psychological study or perform some type of experiment. In some cases, students simply devise the study and then imagine the possible results that might occur. In other situations, you may actually have the opportunity to collect data, analyze your findings, and write up your results.

Finding a topic for your study can be difficult, but there are plenty of great ways to come up with intriguing ideas. Start by considering your own interests as well as subjects you have studied in the past.

Online sources, newspaper articles, books , journal articles, and even your own class textbook are all great places to start searching for topics for your experiments and psychology term papers. Before you begin, learn more about  how to conduct a psychology experiment .

What This Means For You

After looking at this brief list of possible topics for psychology papers, it is easy to see that psychology is a very broad and diverse subject. While this variety makes it possible to find a topic that really catches your interest, it can sometimes make it very difficult for some students to select a good topic.

If you are still stumped by your assignment, ask your instructor for suggestions and consider a few from this list for inspiration.

• Hockenbury, SE & Nolan, SA. Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers; 2014.
• Santrock, JW. A Topical Approach to Lifespan Development. New York: McGraw-Hill Education; 2016.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Body Language

A brief history of submission, look to ancient history and animal behavior to learn when and how to kowtow..

Updated August 29, 2024 | Reviewed by Kaja Perina

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• Egyptian subjects prostrated themselves to pharaohs thousands of years ago.
• Proskynesis, the act of bowing down before a ruler, was common in Mesopotamia and India and China.
• Kowtowers to Chinese emperors knocked their heads on the ground nine times.

It was rdj Hr-Xt, or going on your belly, in Egyptian hieroglyphics; in Greek it was προσκύνησις, or proskynesis; Latins called it adōrātiō, adoration; in Sanskrit it was प्रणाम, or praṇāma , or prostration; it was 叩头 , or kòutóu, or kowtow in Chinese.

In the middle of the Middle Kingdom in Egypt, almost 4,000 years ago, a civil servant, Sinuhe, came home to his pharaoh, Senusret I. “I found his majesty on the great throne in the portal of electrum. Then I was stretched out prostrate, unconscious of myself in front of him, while this god was addressing me amicably. I was like a man seized in the dusk, my soul had perished, my limbs failed, my heart was not in my body. I did not know life from death.” So his pharaoh said: “Get up.”

Submission can be associated with a number of emotions. Shame , envy , admiration, respect, contempt, anger and fear are involved. Pride is generally associated with dominance, and with a "heads up" stance. Signs of submission usually involve heads and bodies down.

In the Gilgamesh epic, parts of which probably go back to the 27th century BCE, an Ancient Near Eastern king struts his power like a bull and takes brides away from their grooms. “He will have intercourse with the destined wife, he first, the husband afterward.” But he runs in with Enkidu, the wild ass of a man who wins people over. “The whole land assembled about him, the populace was thronging around him, the men were clustered about him, and kissed his feet as if her were a little baby.”

Much later, in the middle of the 1 st millennium BCE, Herodotus of Halicarnassus wrote about προσκύνησις or proskýnēsis , or proskynesis, in his Histories. He knew it was an old Persian habit, and he didin’t like it. “Instead of greeting by words, they kiss each other on the mouth; but if one of them is inferior to the other, they kiss one another on the cheeks, and if one is of much less noble rank than the other, he falls down before him and worships him.” Isocrates, the Athenian who lived a few decades later, felt pretty much the same way. “Because they are subject to one man's power, they keep their souls in a state of abject and cringing fear, parading themselves at the door of the royal palace, prostrating themselves, and in every way schooling themselves to humility of spirit, falling on their knees before a mortal man, addressing him as a divinity, and thinking more lightly of the gods than of men.”

Roman emperors, who followed a long republican precedent, absolved their subjects of proskynesis for hundreds of years. But toward the end of the 3 rd century, Diocletian insisted on it. “He was the first that introduced into the Roman Empire a ceremony suited rather to royal usages than to Roman liberty, giving orders that he should be adored.” A little more than a century later, Constantine the Great moved the capital from the Latin West to the Greek East, and told the senate to get down. As did the emperors who came after him. “In the case of Justinian and Theodora, all members of the senate and those as well who held the rank of patricians, whenever they entered into their presence, would prostrate themselves to the floor, flat on their faces, and holding their hands and feet stretched far out they would touch with their lips one foot of each before rising.”

Kowtowing had gone on for millennia in Asia by then. In the wake of Alexander the Great’s invasion of India in 327 BCE, Chandragupta Maurya brought the Indus and Ganges together under one yoke. Not long afterward Chandragupta’s prime minister, Kautilya, wrote this in his Arthashastra, or treatise on government: “The life of a man in the service of an emperor is aptly compared to a life in fire. Fire may burn part of or the whole body, but the emperor has the power to advance or destroy his whole family.”

Kowtowing is older in China. People have been knocking their heads on floors for the benefit of their betters since the Zhou Li, or Rites of Zhou, a dynasty that began in the 11 th century BCE. Those Rites elaborate on 9 degrees of kowtow; the grand kowtow, reserved for an emperor, involved kneeling 3 times and touching the head to the ground 9 times. And kowtowing had staying power. In 1793, the Hanoverian king of England, George IIII--who'd just lost a war with his North American colonies, and may in the end lost his mind--got a letter from the Qing emperor, Qianlong. George was reassured: “If you assert that your reverence for Our Celestial dynasty fills you with a desire to acquire our civilization, our ceremonies and code of laws differ so completely from your own that, even if your Envoy were able to acquire the rudiments of our civilization, you could not possibly transplant our manners and customs to your alien soil.” The British ambassador did as he pleased.

Other animals know how to kowtow. To vespologists, it’s "akinesis," involving a bent head, legs, and antennae; to mammalogists, it’s "tetany," another sort of paralysis.

Naked mole rats are small, subterranean rodents native to the Horn of Africa, who live in societies of tens or hundreds of workers, with a single breeding queen. She grows up to twice workers’ size, and demands deference from them. They’re hissed at and shoved; they double up on their backs with their bodies contorted and their feet in their air. That sort of involuntary muscle spasm, or “tetany,” lasts long after the queen has disappeared.

Bugs kowtow too. Paper wasps live all over the world on pulpy little nests, made out of regurgitated wood and plants. Queens use their antennae to tap dozens of helpers on their heads, abdomens, thoraxes, and eyes; and the usual response is paralysis, or “akinesis:” workers contort their heads, antennae and legs, and are unable to move.

Other animals submit otherwise. Veiled chameleons change color; fallow deer avert their antlers; wolves lower their ears.

And daffodil cichlids submit, oddly enough, "heads up." Also known as the princesses of Zambia, these fish are native to Lake Tanganyika, where pairs of dominants breed in underwater caves, then 1-14 subordinates feed and defend their broods. Oddly enough, when dominants approach, they put their heads down, and subordinates raise up--exposing their vulnerable throats. And in crowded environments, those submission signals amp up. To paraphrase the ichthyologists who study these animals, "Submission signals are less common when more shelters to flee to are available."

Across species, subordinates react to dominants by a couple of methods. One is to go away. The other is to go low.

Kowtow when you can’t get out.

Kowtow when you don’t have a choice.

ACCOMPANIMENT: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wC10VWDTzmU

Abe, T. (2018). Proskynēsis: From a Persian Court Protocol to a Greek Religious Practice. Tekmeria, 14, 1-45.

Fu, Z. (1991). Continuities of Chinese political tradition. Studies in Comparative Communism, 24, 259-279.

Pardi, L. (1948). Dominance order in Polistes wasps. Physiological Zoölogy, 21, 1-13.

Parkinson, R. B. (2024). The Life of Sinuhe: A Reader’s commentary to the Middle Kingdom Version(s). Hamburg: Widmaier Verlag, in press.

Redden, A. R., Ruberto, T. and Reader, S. M. (2022). Submission signals in animal groups. Behaviour, 159, 1-20.

Sherman, P., Jarvis, J, and Alexander, R. (1991). The Biology of the Naked Mole-Rat. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Al-Shawaf, A. and Shackelford, T. (2024). ​​​​​​The Oxford Handbook of Evolution and the Emotions. New York: Oxford University Press.

Ruberto, T., Swaney, W. T. and Reddon, A. R. (2024). Submissive behavior is affected by territory structure in a social fish. Current Zoology, zoae014.

Laura Betzig, Ph.D., is a Darwinian historian at work on her fourth book, The Badge of Lost Innocence: A History of the West .

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Issues and Debates Essays AQA Psychology A-Level Bundle

Last updated

23 August 2024

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Ethical Implications Issues and Debates Essay 16 Mark Model Answer AQA Psychology New Spec

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16 mark answers for the entire unit. All answers are based on the AQA specification, mark schemes and textbooks.

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• Published: 26 August 2024

Paramedics’ experiences and observations: work-related emotions and well-being resources during the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic—a qualitative study

• Henna Myrskykari 1 , 2 &
• Hilla Nordquist 3  

BMC Emergency Medicine volume  24 , Article number:  152 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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As first responders, paramedics are an extremely important part of the care chain. COVID-19 significantly impacted their working circumstances. We examined, according to the experiences and observations of paramedics, (1) what kinds of emotions the Emergency Medical Service (EMS) personnel experienced in their new working circumstances, and (2) what work-related factors became resources for the well-being of EMS personnel during the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic.

This qualitative study utilized reflective essay material written by experienced, advanced-level Finnish paramedics ( n  = 30). The essays used in this study were written during the fall of 2020 and reflected the period when Finland had declared a state of emergency (on 17.3.2020) and the Emergency Powers Act was implemented. The data was analyzed using an inductive thematic analysis.

The emotions experienced by the EMS personnel in their new working circumstances formed three themes: (1) New concerns arose that were constantly present; (2) Surviving without proper guidance; and (3) Rapidly approaching breaking point. Three themes were formed from work-related factors that were identified as resources for the well-being of the EMS personnel. These were: (1) A high level of organizational efficiency was achieved; (2) Adaptable EMS operations; and (3) Encouraging atmosphere.

Conclusions

Crisis management practices should be more attentive to personnel needs, ensuring that managerial and psychological support is readily available in crisis situations. Preparedness that ensures effective organizational adaptation also supports personnel well-being during sudden changes in working circumstances.

Peer Review reports

At the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, healthcare personnel across the globe faced unprecedented challenges. As initial responders in emergency healthcare, paramedics were quickly placed at the front lines of the pandemic, dealing with a range of emergencies in unpredictable conditions [ 1 ]. The pandemic greatly changed the everyday nature of work [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Those working on the front line were suddenly forced to adjust to personal protective equipment (PPE) requirements [ 9 , 10 ] and rapidly changing instructions that caused significant adjustments to their job description [ 11 , 12 ]. For instance, it has been reported that during the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, Emergency Medical Services (EMS) personnel, including paramedics working in prehospital emergency care, experienced a significant increase in stress [ 10 , 13 ] due to several reasons, such as the lack of protection and support, increased demands, lack of personnel, fear of exposure to COVID-19 during missions, concerns of spreading the virus to family members, and frustration over quickly changing work policies [ 11 , 14 , 15 ].

With the unprecedented challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, some research has been directed toward identifying available resources that help in coping with such situations. For example, Sangal et al. [ 15 ] underscored the association between effective communication and reduced work stress and burnout, and emphasized the critical need for two-way communication, consistent messaging, and the strategic consolidation of information prior to its dissemination. In parallel, Dickson et al. [ 16 ] highlight the pivotal role of leadership strategies in fostering a healthful work environment. These strategies include being relationally engaging, visibly present, open, and caring for oneself and others, while embodying core values such as compassion, empathy, courage, and authenticity. Moreover, Awais et al. [ 14 ] identify essential measures to reduce mental distress and support EMS personnel’s overall well-being in pandemic conditions, such as by providing accessible mental health and peer support, ensuring a transparent information flow, and the implementation of clear, best-practice protocols and guidelines. As a lesson learned from COVID-19, Kihlström et al. (2022) add that crisis communication, flexible working conditions, compensation, and allowing for mistakes should be part of crisis management. They also emphasize the importance of psychological support for employees. [ 12 ]

Overall, the COVID-19 pandemic had a multifaceted impact on EMS personnel, highlighting the necessity for comprehensive support and resilience strategies to safeguard their well-being [ 11 , 17 , 18 ] alongside organizational functions [ 12 , 19 ]. For example, in Finland, it has been noted in the aftermath of COVID-19 that the availability and well-being of healthcare workers are key vulnerabilities of the resilience of the Finnish health system [ 12 ]. Effective preparedness planning and organizational resilience benefit from learning from past events and gaining a deeper understanding of observations across different organizational levels [ 12 , 19 , 20 ]. For these reasons, it is important to study how the personnel experienced the changing working circumstances and to recognize the resources, even unexpected ones, that supported their well-being during the initial phase of the COVID-19 pandemic [ 12 , 19 ].

The aim of this study was to examine the emotions experienced and the resources identified as supportive of work well-being during the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic, from the perspective of the paramedics. Our research questions were: According to the experiences and observations of paramedics, (1) what kinds of emotions did the EMS personnel experience in the new working circumstances, and (2) what work-related factors became resources for the well-being of EMS personnel during the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic? In this study, emotions are understood as complex responses involving psychological, physiological, and behavioral components, triggered by significant events or situations [ 21 ]. Resources are understood as physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of the work that help achieve work goals, reduce demands and associated costs [ 22 ].

Materials and methods

This qualitative study utilized reflective essay material written in the fall of 2020 by experienced, advanced-level paramedics who worked in the Finnish EMS during the early phase of the pandemic, when Finland had declared (March 17, 2020 onward) a state of emergency and implemented the Emergency Powers Act. This allowed for new rules and guidelines from the government to ensure the security of healthcare resources. Some work rules for healthcare personnel changed, and non-urgent services were limited.

Data collection procedures

This study is part of a broader, non-project-based research initiative investigating the work well-being of paramedics from various perspectives, and the data was collected for research purposes from this standpoint. The data collection for this study was conducted at the South-Eastern Finland University of Applied Sciences as part of the Current Issues in EMS Management course. The course participants were experienced, advanced-level Finnish paramedics who were students of the master’s degree program in Development and Management of Emergency Medical Services. A similar data collection method has been utilized in other qualitative studies [for example, 23 , 24 ].

The South-Eastern Finland University of Applied Sciences granted research permission for the data collection on August 20, 2020. The learning platform “Learn” (an adapted version of Moodle [ 25 ]) was used to gather the data. A research notice, privacy statement, and essay writing instructions were published on the platform on August 21, 2020. The paramedics were asked to write about their own experiences and observations regarding how the state of emergency impacted the work well-being of EMS personnel. They were instructed not to use references but only their own reflections. Three guiding questions were asked: “What kind of workloads did EMS personnel experience during the state of emergency?” “How has this workload differed from normal conditions?” and “What effects did this workload have on the well-being of the EMS personnel?”. The assignment did not refer solely to paramedics because the EMS field community may also include individuals with other titles (such as EMS field supervisors or firefighters performing prehospital emergency care); hence the term “EMS personnel” was used.

The essay was part of the mandatory course assignments, but submitting it for research purposes was voluntary. The paramedics were informed that their participation in the study would not affect their course evaluations. They had the freedom to decline, remove parts of, or withdraw the essay before analysis. None of the paramedics exercised these options. They were also informed that the last author removes any identifying details (such as names, places, and organizational descriptions that could reveal their workplace) before sharing the data with other, at the time unnamed, researchers. The last author (female) is a senior researcher specializing in EMS and work well-being topics, a principal lecturer of the respective course, and the head of the respective master’s program, and familiar to all of them through their studies. The paramedics were aware that the essays were graded by the last author on a pass/fail scale as part of the course assessment. However, comprehensive and well-reasoned reflections positively influenced the course grade. The evaluation was not part of this study. The paramedics had the opportunity to ask further questions about the study directly from the last author during and after the essay writing process and the course.

The paramedics wrote the essays between August 23, 2020, and November 30, 2020. Thirty-two paramedics (out of 39) returned their essays using the Learn platform during this timeframe. Thus, seven of the course completions were delayed, and the essays written later were no longer appropriate to include in the data due to the time elapsed since the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic.

All 32 gave their informed consent for their essays to be included in the study. Essays written by paramedics who had not actively participated in EMS field work during exceptional circumstances were excluded from the material ( n  = 2), because they wrote the essay from a different perspective, as they could not reflect on their own experiences and observations. Thus, a total of 30 essays were included in the study. The total material was 106 pages long and comprised 32,621 words in Finnish.

Study participants

Thirty advanced-level paramedics from Finland participated in this study. They all had a bachelor’s degree in emergency care or nursing with additional emergency care specialization. At the time of the study, they were pursuing their master’s studies. Thirteen of them were women, and seventeen were men. The average age of the participants was 33.5 years among women and 35.9 years among men. Women had an average of 8.7 years of work experience, and men had 8.8 years. All the participating paramedics worked in EMS in different areas across Finland (except northern Finland) during their studies and the early phase of the pandemic.

Data analysis

The data was analyzed with a thematic analysis following the process detailed by Braun & Clarke [ 26 ]. First, the two researchers thoroughly familiarized themselves with the data, and the refined aim and research questions of the study were formulated inductively in collaboration based on the content of the data (see [ 26 ], page 84). After this, a thorough coding process was mainly carried out by the first author (female), who holds a master’s degree, is an advanced-level paramedic who worked in EMS during the pandemic, and at the time of the analysis was pursuing her doctoral studies in a different subject area related to EMS. Generating the initial codes involved making notes of interesting features of anything that stood out or seemed relevant to the research question systematically across the entire dataset. During this process, the original paragraphs and sentences were copied from the essay material into a table in Microsoft Word, with each research question in separate documents and each paragraph or sentence in its own row. The content of these data extracts was then coded in the adjacent column, carefully preserving the original content but in a more concise form. Then, the content was analyzed, and codes were combined to identify themes. After that, the authors reviewed the themes together by moving back and forth between the original material, the data in the Word documents, and the potential themes. During this process, the authors worked closely and refined the themes, allowing them to be separated and combined into new themes. For example, emotions depicting frustration and a shift to indifference formed their own theme in this kind of process. Finally, the themes were defined into main, major and minor themes and named. In the results, the main themes form the core in response to the research questions and include the most descriptions from the data. The major themes are significant but not as central as the main themes. Major themes provide additional depth and context to the results. One minor theme was formed as the analysis process progressed, and it provided valuable insights and details that deepened the response to the research question. All the coded data was utilized in the formed themes. The full content of the themes is reported in the Results section.

The emotions experienced by the EMS personnel in their new working circumstances formed three themes: New concerns arose that were constantly present (main theme); Surviving without proper guidance (major theme); and Rapidly approaching breaking point (major theme) (Fig.  1 ). Work-related factors identified as resources for the well-being of EMS personnel formed three themes: A high level of organizational efficiency was achieved (main theme); Adaptable EMS operations (major theme); and Encouraging atmosphere (minor theme) (Fig.  2 ).

Emotions experienced by the EMS personnel in their new working circumstances

Main theme: New concerns arose that were constantly present

The main theme included several kinds of new concerns. In the beginning, the uncertainty about the virus raised concerns about work safety and the means to prevent the spread of the disease. The initial lack of training and routines led to uncertainty. In addition, the decrease in the number of EMS missions raised fears of units being reduced and unilateral decisions by the management to change the EMS personnel’s work responsibilities. The future was also a source of uncertainty in the early stages. For example, the transition to exceptional circumstances, concerns about management and the supervisors’ familiarity with national guidelines and lack of information related to sickness absence procedures, leave, personal career progression, and even the progress of vaccine development, all contributed to this feeling of uncertainty. The initial uncertainty was described as the most challenging phase, but the uncertainty was also described as long-lasting.

Being on the front line with an unknown, potentially dangerous, and easily transmissible virus caused daily concerns about the personnel’s own health, especially when some patients hid their symptoms. The thought of working without proper PPE was frightening. On the other hand, waiting for a patient’s test result was stressful, as it often resulted in many colleagues being quarantined. A constant concern for the health of loved ones and the fear of contracting the virus and unknowingly bringing it home or transmitting it to colleagues led the EMS personnel to change their behavior by limiting contact.

Being part of a high-risk group , I often wondered , in the case of coronavirus , who would protect me and other paramedics from human vanity and selfishness [of those refusing to follow the public health guidelines]? (Participant 25)

The EMS personnel felt a weight of responsibility to act correctly, especially from the perspective of keeping their skills up to date. The proper selection of PPE and aseptic procedures were significant sources of concern, as making mistakes was feared to lead to quarantine and increase their colleagues’ workloads. At the same time, concerns about the adequacy of PPE weighed on the personnel, and they felt pressure on this matter to avoid wastage of PPEs. The variability in the quality of PPE also caused concerns.

Concerns about acting correctly were also tied to ethical considerations and feelings of inadequacy when the personnel were unable to explain to patients why COVID-19 caused restrictions on healthcare services. The presence of students also provoked such ethical concerns. Recognizing patients’ symptoms correctly also felt distressing due to the immense responsibility. This concern was also closely tied to fear and even made some question their career choices. The EMS personnel were also worried about adequate treatment for the patients and sometimes felt that the patients were left alone at home to cope. A reduction in patient numbers in the early stages of the pandemic raised concerns about whether acutely ill individuals were seeking help. At the same time, the time taken to put on PPE stressed the personnel because it increased delays in providing care. In the early phase of the pandemic, the EMS personnel were stressed that patients were not protected from them.

I’m vexed in the workplace. I felt it was immediately necessary to protect patients from us paramedics as well. It wasn’t specifically called for , mostly it felt like everyone had a strong need to protect themselves. (Participant 30)

All these concerns caused a particularly heavy psychological burden on some personnel. They described feeling more fatigued and irritable than usual. They had to familiarize themselves with new guidelines even during their free time, which was exhausting. The situation felt unjust, and there was a looming fear of the entire healthcare system collapsing. COVID-19 was omnipresent. Even at the base station of the EMS services, movement was restricted and social distancing was mandated. Such segregation, even within the professional community, added to the strain and reduced opportunities for peer support. The EMS personnel felt isolated, and thoughts about changing professions increased.

It was inevitable that the segregation of the work community would affect the community spirit , and a less able work community has a significant impact on the individual level. (Participant 8)

Major theme: Surviving without proper guidance

At the onset of the pandemic, the job description of the EMS personnel underwent changes, and employers could suddenly relocate them to other work. There was not always adequate support for familiarizing oneself with the new roles, leading to a feeling of loss of control. The management was described as commanding and restricting the personnel’s actions. As opportunities to influence one’s work diminished, the sense of job satisfaction and motivation decreased.

Some felt that leadership was inadequate and neglectful, especially when the leaders switched to remote work. The management did not take the situation seriously enough, leaving the EMS personnel feeling abandoned. The lack of consistent leadership and failure to listen to the personnel caused dissatisfaction and reduced occupational endurance. In addition, the reduced contact with colleagues and close ones reduced the amount of peer support. The existing models for psychological support were found to be inadequate.

Particularly in the early stages, guidelines were seen as ambiguous and deficient, causing frustration, irritation, and fear. The guidelines also changed constantly, even daily, and it was felt that the information did not flow properly from the management to the personnel. Changes in protection recommendations also led to skepticism about the correctness of the national guidance, and the lack of consistent guidelines perplexed the personnel. Internalizing the guidelines was not supported adequately, but the necessity to grasp new information was described as immense and cognitively demanding.

At times , it felt like the work was a kind of survival in a jungle of changing instructions , one mission at a time. (Participant 11)

Major theme: Rapidly approaching breaking point

Risking one’s own health at work caused contentious feelings while concurrently feeling angry that management could work remotely. The arrogant behavior of people toward COVID-19 left them frustrated, while the EMS personnel had to limit their contacts and lost their annual leave. There were fears about forced labor.

Incomplete and constantly changing guidelines caused irritation and indifference, as the same tasks had to be performed with different levels of PPE within a short time. Some guidelines were difficult to comply with in practice, which was vexing.

Using a protective mask was described as distressing, especially on long and demanding missions. Communication and operation became more difficult. Some described frustration with cleaning PPE meant for single use.

Ensuring the proper implementation of a work pair’s aseptic and equipment maintenance was burdensome, and explaining and repeating guidelines was exhausting. A feeling of indifference was emphasized toward the end of a long shift.

After the initial stage, many began to slip with the PPE guidelines and found the instructions excessive. COVID-19 information transmitted by the emergency center lost its meaning, and instructions were left unheeded, as there was no energy to believe that the patient would have COVID-19, especially if only a few disease cases had been reported in their area.

It was disheartening to hear personnel being labeled as selfish for demanding higher pay during exceptional circumstances. This lack of recognition eroded professionalism and increased thoughts of changing professions.

However , being a doormat and a human toilet , as well as a lack of appreciation , undermines my professionalism and the prolonged situation has led me to seriously consider a different job , where values other than dedication and constant flexibility carry weight. I have heard similar thoughts from other colleagues. None of us do this for money. (Participant 9)

Work-related factors identified as resources for the well-being of EMS personnel

Main theme: A high level of organizational efficiency was achieved

The main theme held several different efficient functions. In the early stages of the pandemic, some felt that the information flow was active. Organizations informed the EMS personnel about the disease, its spread, and its impact on the workplace and emergency care activities.

Some felt that managers were easily accessible during the pandemic, at least remotely. Some managers worked long days to be able to support their personnel.

The response to hate and uncertainty was that one of the supervisors was always present in the morning and evening meetings. Supervisors worked long hours so as to be accessible via remote access. (Participant 26)

The organizations took effective steps to control infections. Quick access to COVID-19 tests, clear guidelines for taking sick leave, and permission to take sick leave with a low threshold were seen as positive things. The consideration of personnel belonging to risk groups by moving them to other work tasks was also perceived as positive. In addition, efforts were made to prevent the emergence of infection chains by isolating EMS personnel in their own social facilities.

Established guidelines, especially on the correct use of protective measures, made it easier to work. Some mentioned that the guidelines were available in ambulances and on phones, allowing the protection guidelines to be checked before going on a mission.

The employers took into account the need for psychological support in a diverse manner. Some organizations provided psychological support such as peer debriefing activities, talking therapy with mental health professionals, actively inquiring about their personnel’s feelings, and training them as support workers. The pandemic situation also caused organizations to create their own standard operating models to decrease mental load.

Fortunately , the problem has now been addressed actively , as a peer-to-peer defusing model was built up at our workplace during the crisis , and group defusing has started , the purpose of which is to lighten the work-related mental load. (Participant 3)

Major theme: Adaptable EMS operations

There were several different resources that clarified mission activities. The amount of protective and cleaning equipment was ramped up, and the treatment equipment was quickly updated to meet the demands brought about by the pandemic and to enable safety distances for the EMS personnel. In addition, various guidelines were amended to reduce exposure. For example, personnel on the dedicated COVID-19 ambulances were separated to work without physical contact with others, and field supervisors joined the EMS missions less often than before. Moreover, people at the scene were contacted by phone in advance to ensure that there would be no exposure risk, which also allowed other occupational safety risks to be identified. New practices resulted from the pandemic, such as cleaning communication equipment during shift changes and regularly using PPE with infected patients. All of these were seen as positive resources for efficient work.

At the end of each shift , all keys , telephones , etc., were cleaned and handed over to the next shift. This practice was not previously established in our area , but this will become a permanent practice in the future and is perceived by everyone in our work community as a positive thing. (Participant 10)

Some stated that access to PPE was sufficient, especially in areas where the number of COVID-19 infections was low. PPE was upgraded to make it easier to wear. Further, organizations acquired a variety of cleaning equipment to speed up the disinfection of ambulances.

Organizations hired more employees to enable leave and the operation of dedicated COVID-19 ambulances. The overall number of ambulances was also increased. Non-urgent missions were handled through enhanced phone services, reducing the unnecessary exposure of EMS personnel to COVID-19.

Five extra holiday substitutes were hired for EMS so that the employer could guarantee the success of agreed leave , even if the Emergency Preparedness Act had given them opportunities to cancel or postpone it. (Participant 12)

Minor theme: Encouraging atmosphere

Peer support from colleagues, a positive, comfortable, pleasant work environment, and open discussion, as well as smooth cooperation with other healthcare employees were felt to be resources for work well-being by reducing the heavy workload experienced. Due to the pandemic, the appreciation of healthcare was felt to increase slightly, which was identified as a resource.

One factor affecting resilience in the healthcare sector is certainly that in exceptional circumstances , visibility and appreciation have somewhat increased. (Participant 23)

This study examined, according to the experiences and observations of paramedics, (1) what kinds of emotions the Emergency Medical Service (EMS) personnel experienced in their new working circumstances, and (2) what work-related factors became resources for the well-being of EMS personnel during the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic. Each research question was answered with three themes.

Previous studies have shown that the pandemic increased the workload of paramedics, prompting changes in their operating models and the function of EMS to align with new pandemic-related requirements [ 9 , 27 ]. Initially, the paramedics in the current study described facing unclear and deficient guidelines and feeling obligated to follow instructions without adequate support to internalize them. Constantly changing instructions were linked to negative emotions in various ways. Moreover, the overwhelming flood of information was heavily connected to this, although the information flow was also perceived as a resource, especially when it was timely and well-structured. The study by Sangal et al. [ 15 ] has raised similar observations and points out the importance of paying special attention to the personnel working in the frontline, as in EMS, who might be more heavily impacted by too much information and anxiety about it. They also discovered that three factors are crucial for addressing the challenges of information overload and anxiety: consolidating information before distributing it, maintaining consistent communication, and ensuring communication is two-way. McAlearney et al. [ 11 ] found that first responders, including EMS personnel, reported frustration regarding COVID-19 information because of inconsistencies between sources, misinformation on social media, and the impact of politics. A Finnish study also recognized that health systems were not sufficiently prepared for the flood of information in the current media environment [ 12 ]. Based on these previous results and our findings, it can be concluded that proper implementation of crisis communication should be an integral part of organizations’ preparedness in the future, ensuring that communication effectively supports employee actions in real-life situations. Secondly, this topic highlights the need for precise guidelines and their implementation. With better preparedness, similar chaos could be avoided in the future [ 17 ].

Many other factors also caused changes in work. The EMS mission profile changed [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ], where paramedics in this study saw concerns. To prevent infection risk, the number of pre-arrival calls increased [ 7 ], the duration of EMS missions increased [ 8 , 9 ], and the continuous use of PPE and enhanced hygiene standards imposed additional burdens [ 9 , 10 ]. In Finland, there was no preparedness for the levels of PPE usage required in the early stages of the pandemic [ 12 ]. In this study, paramedics described that working with potentially inadequate PPE caused fear and frustration, which was increased by a lack of training, causing them to feel a great deal of responsibility for acting aseptically and caring for patients correctly. Conversely, providing adequate PPE, information and training has been found to increase the willingness to work [ 28 ] and the sense of safety in working in a pandemic situation [ 29 ], meaning that the role of precise training, operating instructions and leadership in the use of PPE is emphasized [ 30 ].

The paramedics in this study described many additional new concerns in their work, affecting their lives comprehensively. It has been similarly described that the pandemic adversely affected the overall well-being of healthcare personnel [ 31 ]. The restrictions implemented also impacted their leisure time [ 32 ], and the virus caused concerns for their own and their families’ health [ 11 , 28 ]. In line with this, the pandemic increased stress, burnout [ 10 , 33 ], and anxiety among EMS personnel and other healthcare personnel working on the frontline [ 11 , 14 , 34 , 35 ]. These kinds of results underscore the need for adequate guidance and support, a lack of which paramedics reported experiencing in the current study.

Personnel play a crucial role in the efficient operation of an organization and comprise the main identified resource in this study. Previous studies and summaries have highlighted that EMS personnel did not receive sufficient support during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 11 , 14 , 17 , 18 ]. Research has also brought to light elements of adequate support related to the pandemic, such as a review by Dickson et al. [ 16 ] that presents six tentative theories for healthful leadership, all of which are intertwined with genuine encounter, preparedness, and information use. In this current study, the results showed numerous factors related to these contexts that were identified as resources, specifically underlined by elements of caring, effective operational change, knowledge-based actions, and present leadership, similarly described in a study by Eaton-Williams & Williams [ 18 ]. Moreover, the paramedics in our study highlighted the importance of encouragement and identified peer support from colleagues as a resource, which is in line with studies in the UK and Finland [ 12 , 23 , 37 ].

In the early stages of the pandemic, it was noted that the EMS personnel lacked adequate training to manage their mental health, and there was a significant shortage of psychosocial support measures [ 14 ], although easy access to support would have been significant [ 18 ]. In the current study, some paramedics felt that mental health support was inadequate and delayed, while others observed an increase in mental health support during the pandemic, seeing it as an incentive for organizations to develop standard operating models for mental support, for example. This awakening was identified as a resource. This is consistent, as providing psychological support to personnel has been highlighted as a core aspect of crisis management in a Finnish study assessing health system resilience related to COVID-19 [ 12 ]. In a comprehensive recommendation commentary, Isakov et al. [ 17 ] suggest developing a national strategy to improve resilience by addressing the mental health consequences of COVID-19 and other occupational stressors for EMS personnel. This concept, applicable beyond the US, supports the view that EMS organizations are becoming increasingly aware of the need to prepare for and invest in this area.

A fundamental factor likely underlying all the described emotions was that changes in the job descriptions of the EMS personnel due to the pandemic were significant and, in part, mandated from above. In this study, paramedics described feelings of concern and frustration related to these many changes and uncertainties. According to Zamoum and Gorpe (2018), efficient crisis management emphasizes the importance of respecting emotions, recognizing rights, and making appropriate decisions. Restoring trust is a significant challenge in a crisis situation, one that cannot be resolved without complete transparency and open communication [ 38 ]. This perspective is crucial to consider in planning for future preparedness. Overall, the perspective of employee rights and obligations in exceptional circumstances has been relatively under-researched, but in Australia, grounding research on this perspective has been conducted with paramedics using various approaches [ 39 , 40 , 41 ]. The researchers conclude that there is a lack of clarity about the concept of professional obligation, specifically regarding its boundaries, and the issue urgently needs to be addressed by developing clear guidelines that outline the obligation to respond, both in normal day-to-day operations and during exceptional circumstances [ 39 ].

Complex adaptive systems (CAS) theory recognizes that in a resilient organization, different levels adapt to changing environments [ 19 , 20 ]. Barasa et al. (2018) note that planned resilience and adaptive resilience are both important [ 19 ]. Kihlström et al. (2022) note that the health system’s resilience was strengthened by a certain expectation of crisis, and they also recognized further study needs on how effectively management is responding to weak signals [ 12 ]. This could be directly related to how personnel can prepare for future changes. The results of this study revealed many negative emotions related to sudden changes, but at the same time, effective organizational adaptation was identified as a resource for the well-being of EMS personnel. Dissecting different elements of system adaptation in a crisis has been recognized as a highly necessary area for further research [ 20 ]. Kihlström et al. (2022) emphasize the importance of ensuring a healthy workforce across the entire health system. These frameworks suggest numerous potential areas for future research, which would also enhance effective preparedness [ 12 ].

Limitations of the study

In this study, we utilized essay material written in the fall of 2020, in which experienced paramedics reflected on the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic from a work-oriented perspective. The essays were approached inductively, meaning that they were not directly written to answer our research questions, but the aim and the research questions were shaped based on the content [ 26 ]. The essays included extensive descriptions that aligned well with the aim of this study. However, it is important to remember when interpreting the results that asking specifically about this topic, for instance, in an interview, might have yielded different descriptions. It can be assessed that the study achieved a tentative descriptive level, as the detailed examination of complex phenomena such as emotions and resources would require various methods and observations.

Although the essays were mostly profound, well-thought-out, and clearly written, their credibility [ 42 ] may be affected by the fact that several months had passed between the time the essays were written and the events described. Memories may have altered, potentially influencing the content of the writings. Diary-like material from the very onset of the pandemic might have yielded more precise data, and such a data collection method could be considered in future research on exceptional circumstances.

The credibility [ 42 ] could also have been enhanced if the paramedics who wrote the essays had commented on the results and provided additional perspectives on the material and analysis through a multi-phase data collection process. This was not deemed feasible in this study, mainly because there was a 2.5-year gap between data collection and the start of the analysis. However, this also strengthened the overall trustworthiness of the study, as it allowed the first author, who had worked in prehospital emergency care during the initial phase of the pandemic, to maintain a distance from the subject, and enabled a comparison of our own findings with previously published research that investigated the same period in different contexts. The comparison was made when writing the discussion, with the analysis itself being inductive and following the thematic analysis process described by Braun & Clarke [ 26 ].

When evaluating credibility [ 42 ], it should also be noted that the participants who wrote the essays, i.e., the data for the study, were experienced paramedics but also students and one of the researchers was their principal lecturer. This could potentially limit credibility if the students, for some reason, did not want to produce truthful content for their lecturer to read. However, this risk can be considered small because the essays’ topics did not concern the students’ academic progress, the essays’ content was quite consistent, and the results aligned with other studies. As a strength, it can be considered that the students shared their experiences without holding back, as the thoughts were not for workplace use, and they could trust the data privacy statement.

To enhance transferability [ 42 ], the context of the study was described in detail, highlighting the conditions prevailing in Finnish prehospital emergency care during the early stages of the pandemic. Moreover, including a diverse range of perspectives from paramedics working in different regions of Finland (except Northern Finland) contributes to the transferability of the study, indicating that the results may be applicable and relevant to a wider context beyond a single specific region.

Dependability [ 42 ] was reinforced by the close involvement of two researchers from different backgrounds in the analysis of the material, but a limitation is that no separate analyses were conducted. However, the original data was repeatedly revisited during the analysis, which strengthened the dependability. Moreover, the first author kept detailed notes throughout the analysis process, and the last author supervised the progress while also contributing to the analysis and reporting. The research process is also reported in detail.

This study highlighted numerous, mainly negative emotions experienced by EMS personnel during the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic due to new working circumstances. At the same time, several work-related factors were identified as resources for their well-being. The findings suggest that crisis management practices should be more attentive to personnel needs, ensuring that personnel have the necessary support, both managerial and psychological, readily available in crisis situations. Effective organizational adaptation in a crisis situation also supports personnel well-being, emphasizing the importance of effective preparedness. Future research should particularly focus on considering personnel well-being as part of organizational adaptation during exceptional circumstances and utilize these findings to enhance preparedness.

Data availability

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to the inclusion of sensitive information and the extent of the informed consent provided by the participants.

Abbreviations

Complex Adaptive Systems (theory)

Coronavirus Disease 2019

Emergency Medical Services

Personal Protective Equipment

United Kingdom

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Acknowledgements

We want to sincerely thank all the paramedics who participated in this study.

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Henna Myrskykari

Emergency Medical Services, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland

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Study design (HM, HN). Data collection (HN). Methodology (HN). Analysis (HM, HN). Writing (HM, HN). Review and editing (HM, HN). Supervision (HN). Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Henna Myrskykari .

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The study followed the good scientific practice defined by the Finnish National Board on Research Integrity TENK [ 43 ]. The study was conducted in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration and applicable national guidelines. Adhering to the Finnish National Board on Research Integrity (TENK) guidelines on ethical principles of research with human participants and ethical review in the human sciences in Finland, an ethical review statement from a human sciences ethics committee was not required for this type of study. The participants consisted of adult students engaged in regular employment. Their involvement in the research was grounded on informed consent. The study did not involve concerns regarding the participants’ physical integrity, nor were they subjected to exceptionally strong stimuli. The potential for causing mental harm was not beyond what is typically encountered in everyday life, and their participation did not pose any safety risks [ 44 ].

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Myrskykari, H., Nordquist, H. Paramedics’ experiences and observations: work-related emotions and well-being resources during the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic—a qualitative study. BMC Emerg Med 24 , 152 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12873-024-01072-0

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Received : 25 April 2024

Accepted : 13 August 2024

Published : 26 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12873-024-01072-0

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