mesopotamia essay examples

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World history

Course: world history   >   unit 1, ancient mesopotamia.

• Ancient Mesopotamia and the Hebrew Bible

Ancient Mesopotamian civilizations

• Mesopotamia
• Mesopotamian civilizations formed on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is today Iraq and Kuwait.
• Early civilizations began to form around the time of the Neolithic Revolution—12000 BCE.
• Some of the major Mesopotamian civilizations include the Sumerian, Assyrian, Akkadian, and Babylonian civilizations.
• Evidence shows extensive use of technology, literature, legal codes, philosophy, religion, and architecture in these societies.

Civilizations born along rivers

Akkadian empire, assyrian empire, what do you think.

• Why did Mesopotamian rulers decide to build ziggurats if they required such massive amounts of human labor?
• How did trade with faraway civilizations likely impact Mesopotamians’ views of the world?

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124 Mesopotamia Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Mesopotamia, often referred to as the cradle of civilization, was an ancient region located in the Middle East that is known for its advancements in areas such as agriculture, writing, and mathematics. With such a rich history, there are countless essay topics that can be explored to delve deeper into the culture, society, and achievements of the Mesopotamian people. Here are 124 Mesopotamia essay topic ideas and examples to help inspire your next research paper or academic project:

• The significance of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamian civilization
• The invention of writing in Mesopotamia and its impact on the world
• The role of religion in Mesopotamian society
• The development of agriculture in Mesopotamia
• The rise of city-states in Mesopotamia
• The Code of Hammurabi and its influence on modern legal systems
• The role of women in Mesopotamian society
• The invention of the wheel in Mesopotamia
• The construction of ziggurats in Mesopotamia
• The Mesopotamian view of the afterlife
• The development of cuneiform writing in Mesopotamia
• The role of trade in Mesopotamian society
• The Mesopotamian system of education
• The development of mathematics in Mesopotamia
• The influence of Mesopotamian art on later civilizations
• The Mesopotamian concept of kingship
• The role of priests and temples in Mesopotamian society
• The development of astronomy in Mesopotamia
• The Mesopotamian system of weights and measures
• The Mesopotamian system of government
• The Mesopotamian system of taxation
• The development of irrigation systems in Mesopotamia
• The role of warfare in Mesopotamian society
• The Mesopotamian concept of beauty
• The Mesopotamian system of medicine
• The Mesopotamian system of music
• The development of metalworking in Mesopotamia
• The Mesopotamian system of slavery
• The Mesopotamian system of marriage and family
• The Mesopotamian system of trade and commerce
• The Mesopotamian system of diplomacy
• The Mesopotamian system of agriculture
• The Mesopotamian system of animal husbandry
• The Mesopotamian system of construction
• The Mesopotamian system of transportation
• The Mesopotamian system of communication
• The Mesopotamian system of religion
• The Mesopotamian system of art
• The Mesopotamian system of dance
• The Mesopotamian system of theater
• The Mesopotamian system of literature
• The Mesopotamian system of philosophy
• The Mesopotamian system of science
• The Mesopotamian system of technology
• The Mesopotamian system of architecture
• The Mesopotamian system of engineering
• The Mesopotamian system of mathematics
• The Mesopotamian system of astronomy
• The Mesopotamian system of psychology
• The Mesopotamian system of sociology
• The Mesopotamian system of anthropology
• The Mesopotamian system of history
• The Mesopotamian system of geography
• The Mesopotamian system of economics
• The Mesopotamian system of politics
• The Mesopotamian system of law
• The Mesopotamian system of ethics
• The Mesopotamian system of aesthetics
• The Mesopotamian system of logic
• The Mesopotamian system of metaphysics
• The Mesopotamian system of epistemology
• The Mesopotamian system of theology
• The Mesopotamian system of mythology
• The Mesopotamian system of folklore
• The Mesopotamian system of legends
• The Mesopotamian system of myths
• The Mesopotamian system of rituals
• The Mesopotamian system of ceremonies
• The Mesopotamian system of festivals
• The Mesopotamian system of holidays
• The Mesopotamian system of customs
• The Mesopotamian system of traditions
• The Mesopotamian system of beliefs
• The Mesopotamian system of values
• The Mesopotamian system of norms
• The Mesopotamian system of mores
• The Mesopotamian system of taboos
• The Mesopotamian system of superstitions
• The Mesopotamian system of omens
• The Mesopotamian system of prophecies
• The Mesopotamian system of divination
• The Mesopotamian system of magic
• The Mesopotamian system of sorcery
• The Mesopotamian system of witchcraft
• The Mesopotamian system of demonology
• The Mesopotamian system of angelology
• The Mesopotamian system of cosmology
• The Mesopotamian system of eschatology
• The Mesopotamian system of creation
• The Mesopotamian system of destruction
• The Mesopotamian system of salvation
• The Mesopotamian system of damnation
• The Mesopotamian system of afterlife
• The Mesopotamian system of reincarnation
• The Mesopotamian system of resurrection
• The Mesopotamian system of judgment
• The Mesopotamian system of punishment
• The Mesopotamian system of reward
• The Mesopotamian system of redemption
• The Mesopotamian system of forgiveness
• The Mesopotamian system of mercy
• The Mesopotamian system of justice
• The Mesopotamian system of fairness
• The Mesopotamian system of equality
• The Mesopotamian system of freedom
• The Mesopotamian system of democracy
• The Mesopotamian system of monarchy
• The Mesopotamian system of aristocracy
• The Mesopotamian system of oligarchy
• The Mesopotamian system of theocracy
• The Mesopotamian system of dictatorship
• The Mesopotamian system of totalitarianism
• The Mesopotamian system of anarchy
• The Mesopotamian system of chaos
• The Mesopotamian system of order
• The Mesopotamian system of lawlessness
• The Mesopotamian system of crime
• The Mesopotamian system of rehabilitation
• The Mesopotamian system of recidivism

These essay topic ideas and examples are just a starting point for exploring the fascinating world of Mesopotamia. Whether you are interested in history, archaeology, anthropology, or any other related field, there is no shortage of topics to choose from when it comes to studying this ancient civilization. So, pick a topic that interests you and start researching to uncover the secrets of Mesopotamia.

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Mesopotamian creation myths.

Ira Spar Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Stories describing creation are prominent in many cultures of the world. In Mesopotamia, the surviving evidence from the third millennium to the end of the first millennium B.C. indicates that although many of the gods were associated with natural forces, no single myth addressed issues of initial creation. It was simply assumed that the gods existed before the world was formed. Unfortunately, very little survives of Sumerian literature from the third millennium B.C. Several fragmentary tablets contain references to a time before the pantheon of the gods, when only the Earth (Sumerian: ki ) and Heavens (Sumerian: an ) existed. All was dark, there existed neither sunlight nor moonlight; however, the earth was green and water was in the ground, although there was no vegetation. More is known from Sumerian poems that date to the beginning centuries of the second millennium B.C.

A Sumerian myth known today as “ Gilgamesh and the Netherworld” opens with a mythological prologue. It assumes that the gods and the universe already exist and that once a long time ago the heavens and earth were united, only later to be split apart. Later, humankind was created and the great gods divided up the job of managing and keeping control over heavens, earth, and the Netherworld.

The origins of humans are described in another early second-millennium Sumerian poem, “The Song of the Hoe.” In this myth, as in many other Sumerian stories, the god Enlil is described as the deity who separates heavens and earth and creates humankind. Humanity is formed to provide for the gods, a common theme in Mesopotamian literature.

In the Sumerian poem “The Debate between Grain and Sheep,” the earth first appeared barren, without grain, sheep, or goats. People went naked. They ate grass for nourishment and drank water from ditches. Later, the gods created sheep and grain and gave them to humankind as sustenance. According to “The Debate between Bird and Fish,” water for human consumption did not exist until Enki, lord of wisdom, created the Tigris and Euphrates and caused water to flow into them from the mountains. He also created the smaller streams and watercourses, established sheepfolds, marshes, and reedbeds, and filled them with fish and birds. He founded cities and established kingship and rule over foreign countries. In “The Debate between Winter and Summer,” an unknown Sumerian author explains that summer and winter, abundance, spring floods, and fertility are the result of Enlil’s copulation with the hills of the earth.

Another early second-millennium Sumerian myth, “Enki and the World Order,” provides an explanation as to why the world appears organized. Enki decided that the world had to be well managed to avoid chaos. Various gods were thus assigned management responsibilities that included overseeing the waters, crops, building activities, control of wildlife, and herding of domestic animals, as well as oversight of the heavens and earth and the activities of women.

According to the Sumerian story “Enki and Ninmah,” the lesser gods, burdened with the toil of creating the earth, complained to Namma, the primeval mother, about their hard work. She in turn roused her son Enki, the god of wisdom, and urged him to create a substitute to free the gods from their toil. Namma then kneaded some clay, placed it in her womb, and gave birth to the first humans.

Babylonian poets, like their Sumerian counterparts, had no single explanation for creation. Diverse stories regarding creation were incorporated into other types of texts. Most prominently, the Babylonian creation story Enuma Elish is a theological legitimization of the rise of Marduk as the supreme god in Babylon, replacing Enlil, the former head of the pantheon. The poem was most likely compiled during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar I in the later twelfth century B.C., or possibly a short time afterward. At this time, Babylon , after many centuries of rule by the foreign Kassite dynasty , achieved political and cultural independence. The poem celebrates the ascendancy of the city and acts as a political tractate explaining how Babylon came to succeed the older city of Nippur as the center of religious festivals.

The poem itself has 1,091 lines written on seven tablets. It opens with a theogony, the descent of the gods, set in a time frame prior to creation of the heavens and earth. At that time, the ocean waters, called Tiamat, and her husband, the freshwater Apsu, mingled, with the result that several gods emerged in pairs. Like boisterous children, the gods produced so much noise that Apsu decided to do away with them. Tiamat, more indulgent than her spouse, urged patience, but Apsu, stirred to action by his vizier, was unmoved. The gods, stunned by the prospect of death, called on the resourceful god Ea to save them. Ea recited a spell that made Apsu sleep. He then killed Apsu and captured Mummu, his vizier. Ea and his wife Damkina then gave birth to the hero Marduk, the tallest and mightiest of the gods. Marduk, given control of the four winds by the sky god Anu, is told to let the winds whirl. Picking up dust, the winds create storms that upset and confound Tiamat. Other gods suddenly appear and complain that they, too, cannot sleep because of the hurricane winds. They urge Tiamat to do battle against Marduk so that they can rest. Tiamat agrees and decides to confront Marduk. She prepares for battle by having the mother goddess create eleven monsters. Tiamat places the monsters in charge of her new spouse, Qingu, who she elevates to rule over all the gods. When Ea hears of the preparations for battle, he seeks advice from his father, Anshar, king of the junior gods. Anshar urges Ea and afterward his brother Anu to appease the goddess with incantations. Both return frightened and demoralized by their failure. The young warrior god Marduk then volunteers his strength in return for a promise that, if victorious, he will become king of the gods. The gods agree, a battle ensues, and Marduk vanquishes Tiamat and Qingu, her host. Marduk then uses Tiamat’s carcass for the purpose of creation. He splits her in half, “like a dried fish,” and places one part on high to become the heavens, the other half to be the earth. As sky is now a watery mass, Marduk stretches her skin to the heavens to prevent the waters from escaping, a motif that explains why there is so little rainfall in southern Iraq. With the sky now in place, Marduk organizes the constellations of the stars. He lays out the calendar by assigning three stars to each month, creates his own planet, makes the moon appear, and establishes the sun, day, and night. From various parts of Tiamat’s body, he creates the clouds, winds, mists, mountains, and earth.

The myth continues as the gods swear allegiance to the mighty king and create Babylon and his temple, the Esagila, a home where the gods can rest during their sojourn upon the earth. The myth conveniently ignores Nippur, the holy city esteemed by both the Sumerians and the rulers of Kassite Babylonia . Babylon has replaced Nippur as the dwelling place of the gods.

Meanwhile, Marduk fulfills an earlier promise to provide provisions for the junior gods if he gains victory as their supreme leader. He then creates humans from the blood of Qingu, the slain and rebellious consort of Tiamat. He does this for two reasons: first, in order to release the gods from their burdensome menial labors, and second, to provide a continuous source of food and drink to temples.

The gods then celebrate and pronounce Marduk’s fifty names, each an aspect of his character and powers. The composition ends by stating that this story and its message (presumably the importance of kingship to the maintenance of order) should be preserved for future generations and pondered by those who are wise and knowledgeable. It should also be used by parents and teachers to instruct so that the land may flourish and its inhabitants prosper.

The short tale “Marduk, Creator of the World” is another Babylonian narrative that opens with the existence of the sea before any act of creation. First to be created are the cities, Eridu and Babylon, and the temple Esagil is founded. Then the earth is created by heaping dirt upon a raft in the primeval waters. Humankind, wild animals, the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the marshlands and canebrake, vegetation, and domesticated animals follow. Finally, palm groves and forests appear. Just before the composition becomes fragmentary and breaks off, Marduk is said to create the city of Nippur and its temple, the Ekur, and the city of Uruk, with its temple Eanna.

“The Creation of Humankind” is a bilingual Sumerian- Akkadian story also referred to in scholarly literature as KAR 4. This account begins after heaven was separated from earth, and features of the earth such as the Tigris, Euphrates, and canals established. At that time, the god Enlil addressed the gods asking what should next be accomplished. The answer was to create humans by killing Alla-gods and creating humans from their blood. Their purpose will be to labor for the gods, maintaining the fields and irrigation works in order to create bountiful harvests, celebrate the gods’ rites, and attain wisdom through study.

Spar, Ira. “Mesopotamian Creation Myths.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/epic/hd_epic.htm (April 2009)

Further Reading

Black, J. A., G. Cunningham, E. Flückiger-Hawker, E. Robson, and G. Zólyomi, trans. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature .. Oxford: , 1998–2006.

Foster, Benjamin R. Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature . 3d ed.. Bethesda, Md.: CDL Press, 2005.

Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976.

Jacobsen, Thorkild, trans. and ed. The Harps That Once . . . : Sumerian Poetry in Translation . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987.

Lambert, W. G. "Mesopotamian Creation Stories." In Imagining Creation , edited by Markham J. Geller and Mineke Schipper, pp. 17–59. IJS Studies in Judaica 5.. Leiden: Brill, 2008.

Lambert, W. G., and Alan R. Millard. Atra-Hasis: The Babylonian Story of the Flood . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969.

Additional Essays by Ira Spar

• Spar, Ira. “ Flood Stories .” (April 2009)
• Spar, Ira. “ Gilgamesh .” (April 2009)
• Spar, Ira. “ Mesopotamian Deities .” (April 2009)
• Spar, Ira. “ The Gods and Goddesses of Canaan .” (April 2009)
• Spar, Ira. “ The Origins of Writing .” (October 2004)

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A comparison of ancient civilizations: mesopotamia and egypt.

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Magic and Divination in Ancient Mesopotamia: A Comprehensive Overview

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The Rise and Fall of Mesopotamia: A Journey through History

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The Role of Education in Mesopotamia: A Historical Perspective

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Mesopotamian Legacy: Contributions to Human Civilization

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Best topics on Mesopotamia

1. A Comparison of Ancient Civilizations: Mesopotamia and Egypt

2. Magic and Divination in Ancient Mesopotamia: A Comprehensive Overview

3. The Rise and Fall of Mesopotamia: A Journey through History

4. The Role of Education in Mesopotamia: A Historical Perspective

5. Family Structures and Gender Roles in Mesopotamian and Modern Societies

6. Mesopotamian Legacy: Contributions to Human Civilization

7. Empires of Mesopotamia: Sumer, Babylon, and Assyria

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Mesopotamia, Essay Example

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The most important physical geographic factor that contributed to the development of Mesopotamia was its location between two rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates (Mark, 2009). Prior to the development of water travel, this land was not accessible because it was blocked by the Zagros Mountains in the northeast and in the southeast by the Arabian Plateau (Mark, 2009). The Egyptian religion spread between early human societies due to the establishment of trade routes in addition to early warfare. While the cult of Isis has originated in Alexandria, it spread to Greece during second century B.C., which is related to the exchange of ideas facilitated between the two areas as a consequence of Alexander the Great’s conquest of Egypt (Mark, 2009). Turner (1966) notes that, two significant environmental or geophysical factors that contributed to the expansion of the United States was the Mississippi river combined with the other large rivers that connect to the Mississippi which allowed for quick travel and faster communication between the north and south, which encouraged quicker expansion (Turner, 1966). The Mississippi River played such a significant factor in economic growth for the United States due to its convenient access to Lake Itasca, in Minnesota, the land of Chippewa, Minneapolis, and it’s joined by the Missouri River through its expansive tributaries. This convenient size enabled the Mississippi River to be used as a bargaining chip in diplomatic negotiations (Turner, 1966). The second impact was an environmental one and it relates to the abundant grain and crops that were available throughout America which through international trade out of the port of New Orleans farmers and merchants alike were able to build a growing economy (Turner, 1966). Finally, Turner (1966), further points out that, the Mississippi river also allowed for quick travel to unexplored territory and agreements with Native Americans allowed these explorations to be guided and successful, which further supplemented rapid growth. Such was the case with the expedition of Lewis and Clark.

These twists and turns in history particularly made it possible for several changes to occur especially in the manner by which the country has strongly become more endowed in engaging in  commercial trade; one that marks the overall reputation of the United States in the face of modern international relations to which it is dependent upon at present. What makes the country more extensive especially in making sure that the course of development it embraces especially in connection to economic advancement is solid, is that of the fact that the world in itself is becoming a highly demanding especially in relation to distinct issues of development that are determined to make a definite turn on how trade procedures are being undergone by one country apart from the procedures embraced by the other.

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Civilization in Mesopotamia and Egypt Essay

Civilization involves high level developments on the cultural, political and social aspects of a region or a country. Mesopotamia and Egypt can be described as the two earliest civilizations which were located along the great river systems. Mesopotamia and Egypt had well established religion, art, architecture, education as well as political organizations. Both of them were very similar although there were some differences (Seignobos, 123-127).

Both of them were found along the east. However, Mesopotamia was found in the Middle East, and it is currently known as Iraq. It was located along the two major rivers, Euphrates and Tigris. The word Mesopotamia is a Greek word meaning between two rivers. Both of them had political organizations. However, Mesopotamia had various states while Egypt consisted of a centralized state.

During the early days in Mesopotamia, the cities were headed by priests. However, these priests abused their powers, which led to the rise of kings. Each state in Mesopotamia operated separately from each other with its own government and gods. On the other hand, Egypt was ruled by pharaoh who was the only powerful king.

During this time, Egyptians stayed along the river Nile (Seignobos, 123-127). They were not living in the cities as compared to those people living in Mesopotamia. Both of them used calendars to guide them on their daily lives and farming activities. The people of Mesopotamia used calendars in order to determine when the floods could occur along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers (Chadwick, 126-140).

However, the two calendars had some differences. For instance, the Mesopotamian calendar was shorter than the Egyptian calendar with eleven days. Both Mesopotamia and Egypt had similarities in terms of religion (Rollin, 225-228). Both of them worshipped more than one god. They also believed that the good people on earth will be granted an everlasting life in heaven. The Egyptians also believed that their kings were spiritual leaders (Chadwick, 137-151).

Mesopotamia and Egypt had architecture and art which were their major achievements. Ziggurat was used as a centre of conducting celebrations in Mesopotamia. The Egyptians started building using bricks instead of stones, and they were regarded as the greatest builders. They built their first pyramids using six large stone brick tombs. In Mesopotamia people were well educated as well as in Egypt. Mesopotamians and Egyptians attained science and mathematical skills such as algebra, geometry as well as addition and subtraction.

Most of the people in Mesopotamia were able to compute quadratic equations, and they were also very advanced in algebra and geometry (Chadwick, 157-160). The Egyptians used their mathematical skills in order to build great pyramids. Mesopotamians had a lot of mathematical skills as compared to the Egyptians. The Egyptians had a lot of developments in the field of architecture and art than the Mesopotamians.

Both of them had great rulers. In Mesopotamia, there were Sumerian rulers known as Lugal while the Egyptians were ruled by Pharaohs. The first government in Mesopotamia was formed by Akkadians who had an absolute power. Cyrus the great was a powerful ruler in Persia. He led the Persian to revolt against the Medes (Rollin, 324-328).Alexander the great was another powerful ruler in the history of civilization.

He conquered Egypt without facing any opposition. He respected the culture, religion, customs and the people of Egypt. The Egyptians liked him as he delivered them from Persia. He was considered as a god in Egypt .he introduced the Greek culture in this country and launched the city of Alexandria.

Works Cited

Chadwick, Robert. First Civilizations. Chicago: Equinox Publishing Limited, 2005.Print.

Rollin, Charles. The ancient history of the Egyptians,Cathaginians,Assyrians Medes and Persians. New York: FQ Books, 2010.Print.

Seignobos, Charles. History of ancient civilization. New York: Nabu Press, 2010.Print.

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Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Civilization in Mesopotamia and Egypt." November 7, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/civilization-in-mesopotamia-and-egypt/.

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The Impact of Ancient Mesopotamian Culture on The Modern Society

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Mesopotamia Essay

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Mesopotamia is the ancient land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It covers modern day Iraq and parts of Iran, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel. Mesopotamian civilizations were the first in history to exist in well-populated and fixed settlements. As settlements became larger and more organized, they progressed politically and socially into city-states. They developed irrigation methods and invented the wheel and the plow. After they developed the first written language, economic transactions and legal codes were kept. Mesopotamian literature was recorded. Great architectural structures were built. In time, empires, kings, and innovative military establishments emerged. These advancements, along with scientific, mathematical, and communal ceremonies, are the legacies of the great Mesopotamian civilizations.

Mesopotamia was the heartland of emerging nations and empires that would control the Near East for centuries. Mesopotamia is a general name for a number of diverse ethnic groups that contributed to the culture of the region. The most well-known Mesopotamian civilizations include the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. Other cultural groups may have been key players on the Mesopotamian stage, but none was as influential as these groups. The Sumerians captured the region beginning in the Early Dynastic period (ca. 2900 BC) and ending with the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2004 BC). Over these years, Sumerians developed the first writing system and created epic literature. They invented the wheel, the plow, and the earliest known irrigation methods, enabling an otherwise unstable agricultural environment to prosper as Sumerian settlements grew into the world’s first political city-states. Under an Akkadian Empire (ca. 2334–2193 BC), this land of independent city-states consumed the entire Mesopotamian.

Assur lay to the north in the Upper Tigris Valley and around the ancient city of Nineveh. Assyrians were a fierce cultural group, and the Assyrian empire reigned during a time of intense warfare. Assyrian control constantly expanded and receded in its quest for complete domination of Mesopotamia. At one time, the empire had expanded from Egypt, far to the east, to Iran in the west. At another time, Assyrian control receded to near extinction. The civilization reached its zenith from 910 BC to circa 610 BC but would eventually fall to a renewed Babylonian military.

Mesopotamia Begins in Sumer

The first inhabitants of this Mesopotamian region settled in a broad range of foothills that surrounded the Mesopotamian plains known as the Fertile Crescent. The region ran from central Palestine, north to Syria and eastern Asia Minor, and extending eastward to northern Iraq and Iran. During the historic periods known as the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods (ca. 9000–5800 BC), the people of the Fertile Crescent began to abandon a lifestyle where hunting and food gathering prevailed and entered a period of food production. They settled into farming and herding communities. As they became skilled in animal husbandry and farming, they were able to produce more food and the population in this region soared.

Although the villages in the Fertile Crescent became more sophisticated and sedentary, the people migrated southward, into the Mesopotamian Plains, between 6000 and 5000 BC. Some families and clans may have migrated to escape excessive population and overcrowding. Others may have left due to social or political discontent. Still other evidence suggests that a great flood may have wiped out the shores surrounding the Black Sea and that many settlers may have been refugees of this huge natural disaster.

The earliest Mesopotamians existed in a variable climate with a geography that included deserts, mountains, and river plains. Although northern Mesopotamia had adequate rainfall for successful agriculture, the remaining regions required irrigation and skilled control of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Southern Mesopotamian settlements may have begun using irrigation principles as early as 5000 BC. Their ability to irrigate allowed growth in settlement populations, which then created a need for organized communal work and complex hierarchical social structures.

During these years, an immigrant group of settlers known as the Sumerians settled into the Mesopotamian region. Sumerians were a very influential culture. Future peoples in this region preserved aspects of the Sumerian political and social customs as well as Sumerian literature and artistic style. Sumerians created the first wheel and the plow. Their skilled irrigation methods enabled an increase in food production. Sumerians rapidly turned agricultural communities into urban developments as they built the first cities. Sumerians also developed the writing system that enabled nobles and rulers to record economic transactions and legal decrees.

Sumerian city-states were independent of one another, and each was focused on controlling and supporting its farmlands and villages. The earliest city-states developed by the Sumerians were originally organized around a temple and a priesthood governed by an en (“high priest”). The en represented the local god and managed the temple lands that the people entrusted to work on them. As societies grew more complex, an ensi (“governor”) emerged to manage civic affairs such as law and order, commerce, trade, and military efforts. In time, people would select a leader, called a lugal (“great man”), to rule during times of war and peril. The lugal managed all civil, military, and religious functions of the city. The office of lugal seemed to emerge at a time when defense walls were first constructed. As war became a constant threat, rulers became kings who would remain in power for their lifetimes, passing rule onto their sons as successors to their thrones. As a state of dynasties took root, kings and royal families emerged.

One of the most elaborate and impressive architectural structures of this time was the ziggurat, a multilevel platformed temple of worship. The oldest ziggurat was unearthed in the city-state of Ur. C. Leonard Wooley was the archaeologist who discovered most of what we know about this ancient city. He also uncovered ancient burial tombs that included not only the deceased but also physical possessions and domestic servants. Experts believe that the burial tomb included everything that the Sumerians believed would be needed for a comfortable afterlife.

By the second half of the third millennium, the Semitic-speaking people were a significant element in northern Mesopotamia, also known as Akkad. The most notable kings of the time were Sargon of Akkad and his grandson, Narcum-Sin. They enslaved Sumerian city-states and achieved control of the trade routes from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean, achieving for the first time a unified Mesopotamian region. Sumerian culture and cuneiform were retained, but Akkadian tongue became the dominant language in Mesopotamia. The empire of Sargon and his grandson reigned for nearly a century. But the Akkadian empire would then fall, leaving its legacy of imperialistic expansion.

The Third Dynasty of Ur came into power circa 2112 to 2004 BC. This Sumerian dynasty governed most of Mesopotamia and southwestern Iran. Its founder, Ur-Nammu, wrote the oldest known collection of laws, intended to protect the economically and politically weak. As this dynasty fell to pressure from the Amorites, another migration of Semites who originated west of the Euphrates, central imperial control disappeared.

Babylonian Culture

According to scholars, the years following the Third Dynasty of Ur are called the Old Babylonian period (2000–1400 BC). For many years, Mesopotamia was disunited, with independent city-states frequently engaging in disputes and wars with its neighbors. This time of intense conflict was a time of great political opportunity for the most powerful men in Mesopotamia. The most successful leaders to establish dynasties were Amorites, who spoke Akkadian, and Elamites, who spoke a tongue unrelated to any others in the region. The Akkadian speakers settled a strong state in the city of Assur. When Ur fell to the Elamites, Assyrians became a leading political–military force. In 1813 BC, Shamshi- Adad overthrew Assur and established a new dynasty there. Because Shamshi-Adad’s troops were consumed by military expeditions, he avoided attacks on the strong city-state of Babylon that lay southeast of Assur. The attacks Shamshi-Adad did launch were relatively small scale and ceased after his death in 1781 BC. His successor was then squashed by a Babylonian army led by the sixth king of an Amorite dynasty that had established itself circa 1850 BC.

This widely respected and feared king was known as Hammurabi and lived in Babylonia. Hammurabi wrote the most famous laws of the time, known as the Code of Hammurabi, which embraced and proclaimed an “eye for an eye” discipline. Hammurabi also became the first king since Sargon of Akkad to unite the entire Mesopotamia land, stretching from the Persian Gulf to the Syrian border and the Armenian foothills. He was a skilled military leader and conqueror. Under his administration, trade flourished. He attended to domestic and economic issues while promoting literature, the arts, and science.

However, the peaceful times he created diminished shortly after his death in 1750 BC. What followed was a time of military conflict and strikes for the captured territories that wanted to break from Hammurabi’s Babylonia. Eventually, the city of Babylonia fell to the Kassite nobles, who took the city in 1400 BC. They were so impressed with the refined culture that they became assimilated into the Babylonian way, abandoning their native tongue for the Akkadian dialect of the Babylonians. In fact, the Kassites stabilized the region for more than four centuries, the longest period in Babylonian history.

Great military innovations developed during the Old Babylonian period. The horse was domesticated. After the wheel was redesigned with spokes instead of a solid surface, horses were harnessed to chariots to enable military attacks en masse. The bow was also redesigned to fly faster and farther. These changes were implemented, and large-scale military action was possible.

Although Mesopotamians were famous for building elaborate palaces, the most impressive palace belonged to King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon (604–562 BC). Although no archaeological evidence or other physical remains have ever been found, this palace is said to contain the legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon, built to please one of Nebuchadnezzar’s wives who was homesick for her mountainous Iranian homeland that was lush with foliage.

The Assyrians

In 1365 BC, during a time that some modern scholars call the Middle Assyrian period, the Assyrians launched their first major front in the northwest from the border of Hatti, through Armenia, and to the Zagros Mountains. In a series of small-scale attacks, the Assyrians use their newfound military innovations to take human captives, horses, and other war booty. The Assyrians continued a second major front to seize Babylon and placed it under the rule of a monarch, Tukulti-Ninurta I, who reigned from 1244 to 1208 BC. Although this victory filled the Assyrians with great pride and satisfaction, the great Babylonian nobles would rebel. In 1165, a strong Elamite king would lay permanent claim to the great city.

In the next tactical front, the Assyrians fought relentlessly from Syria to the Mediterranean Sea. In the most amazing gain during this period of empirical expansion, King Tiglathpileser I took control of the Mesopotamian region from the Mediterranean Sea to Babylon. He was assassinated in 1077, and because his successors could not hold together this vast land, in time the Assyrian empire shrank until only Assur and Nineveh remained. It lay dormant until reaching its height during the Neo-Assyrian Empire circa 911 to 612 BC. This was a time when the Assyrian army became a highly skilled machine. Merciless warrior kings launched repeated military campaigns and attained impressive imperialistic growth. Assyrian conquest extended across the Near East and made Nineveh one of the richest cities in the Ancient World.

The greed of the Assyrians would be their demise. Nineveh and the Assyrian control would soon fall to the Babylonians and Medes. At this time, the splendor of the three greatest cultures of Mesopotamian civilizations would become legend. Their great contributions to the time and to world history were a finality. For the next several hundred years, the land would fall to many new tribes, new empires, and other dynasties, but none would be as influential as those of the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians.

From 539 to 331 BC, Persians saw Aramaic replace the long-standing Akkadian language. In 331 BC, Alexander the Great would take the region and make Babylon the capital of his empire. The Parthians, and then the Sassians, would later rule the land. When Islamic control began in 651 AD, a time and a culture known as ancient Mesopotamia ended.

Bibliography:

• Bertman, S. (2003). Handbook to life in ancient Mesopotamia. New York: Facts on File.
• Bottero, J. (2001). Everyday life in ancient Mesopotamia. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Kramer, S. N. (1967). Cradle of civilization. New York: Time–Life Books.
• Nardo, D. (2004). Ancient Mesopotamia. San Diego: Gale Group/Thomson Learning.
• Nemet-Nejat, K. R. (1998). Daily life in ancient Mesopotamia. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
• Postgate, J. N. (1994). Early Mesopotamia: Society and economy at the dawn of history. New York: Routledge.

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