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Why social media has changed the world — and how to fix it

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Are you on social media a lot? When is the last time you checked Twitter, Facebook, or Instagram? Last night? Before breakfast? Five minutes ago?

If so, you are not alone — which is the point, of course. Humans are highly social creatures. Our brains have become wired to process social information, and we usually feel better when we are connected. Social media taps into this tendency.

“Human brains have essentially evolved because of sociality more than any other thing,” says Sinan Aral, an MIT professor and expert in information technology and marketing. “When you develop a population-scale technology that delivers social signals to the tune of trillions per day in real-time, the rise of social media isn’t unexpected. It’s like tossing a lit match into a pool of gasoline.”

The numbers make this clear. In 2005, about 7 percent of American adults used social media. But by 2017, 80 percent of American adults used Facebook alone. About 3.5 billion people on the planet, out of 7.7 billion, are active social media participants. Globally, during a typical day, people post 500 million tweets, share over 10 billion pieces of Facebook content, and watch over a billion hours of YouTube video.

As social media platforms have grown, though, the once-prevalent, gauzy utopian vision of online community has disappeared. Along with the benefits of easy connectivity and increased information, social media has also become a vehicle for disinformation and political attacks from beyond sovereign borders.

“Social media disrupts our elections, our economy, and our health,” says Aral, who is the David Austin Professor of Management at the MIT Sloan School of Management.

Now Aral has written a book about it. In “The Hype Machine,” published this month by Currency, a Random House imprint, Aral details why social media platforms have become so successful yet so problematic, and suggests ways to improve them.

As Aral notes, the book covers some of the same territory as “The Social Dilemma,” a documentary that is one of the most popular films on Netflix at the moment. But Aral’s book, as he puts it, "starts where ‘The Social Dilemma’ leaves off and goes one step further to ask: What can we do about it?”

“This machine exists in every facet of our lives,” Aral says. “And the question in the book is, what do we do? How do we achieve the promise of this machine and avoid the peril? We’re at a crossroads. What we do next is essential, so I want to equip people, policymakers, and platforms to help us achieve the good outcomes and avoid the bad outcomes.”

When “engagement” equals anger

“The Hype Machine” draws on Aral’s own research about social networks, as well as other findings, from the cognitive sciences, computer science, business, politics, and more. Researchers at the University of California at Los Angeles, for instance, have found that people obtain bigger hits of dopamine — the chemical in our brains highly bound up with motivation and reward — when their social media posts receive more likes.

At the same time, consider a 2018 MIT study by Soroush Vosoughi, an MIT PhD student and now an assistant professor of computer science at Dartmouth College; Deb Roy, MIT professor of media arts and sciences and executive director of the MIT Media Lab; and Aral, who has been studying social networking for 20 years. The three researchers found that on Twitter, from 2006 to 2017, false news stories were 70 percent more likely to be retweeted than true ones. Why? Most likely because false news has greater novelty value compared to the truth, and provokes stronger reactions — especially disgust and surprise.

In this light, the essential tension surrounding social media companies is that their platforms gain audiences and revenue when posts provoke strong emotional responses, often based on dubious content.

“This is a well-designed, well-thought-out machine that has objectives it maximizes,” Aral says. “The business models that run the social-media industrial complex have a lot to do with the outcomes we’re seeing — it’s an attention economy, and businesses want you engaged. How do they get engagement? Well, they give you little dopamine hits, and … get you riled up. That’s why I call it the hype machine. We know strong emotions get us engaged, so [that favors] anger and salacious content.”

From Russia to marketing

“The Hype Machine” explores both the political implications and business dimensions of social media in depth. Certainly social media is fertile terrain for misinformation campaigns. During the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Russia spread  false information to at least 126 million people on Facebook and another 20 million people on Insta­gram (which Facebook owns), and was responsible for 10 million tweets. About 44 percent of adult Americans visited a false news source in the final weeks of the campaign.

“I think we need to be a lot more vigilant than we are,” says Aral.

We do not know if Russia’s efforts altered the outcome of the 2016 election, Aral says, though they may have been fairly effective. Curiously, it is not clear if the same is true of most U.S. corporate engagement efforts.

As Aral examines, digital advertising on most big U.S. online platforms is often wildly ineffective, with academic studies showing that the “lift” generated by ad campaigns — the extent to which they affect consumer action — has been overstated by a factor of hundreds, in some cases. Simply counting clicks on ads is not enough. Instead, online engagement tends to be more effective among new consumers, and when it is targeted well; in that sense, there is a parallel between good marketing and guerilla social media campaigns.

“The two questions I get asked the most these days,” Aral says, “are, one, did Russia succeed in intervening in our democracy? And two, how do I measure the ROI [return on investment] from marketing investments? As I was writing this book, I realized the answer to those two questions is the same.”

Ideas for improvement

“The Hype Machine” has received praise from many commentators. Foster Provost, a professor at New York University’s Stern School of Business, says it is a “masterful integration of science, business, law, and policy.” Duncan Watts, a university professor at the University of Pennsylvania, says the book is “essential reading for anyone who wants to understand how we got here and how we can get somewhere better.”

In that vein, “The Hype Machine” has several detailed suggestions for improving social media. Aral favors automated and user-generated labeling of false news, and limiting revenue-collection that is based on false content. He also calls for firms to help scholars better research the issue of election interference.

Aral believes federal privacy measures could be useful, if we learn from the benefits and missteps of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in Europe and a new California law that lets consumers stop some data-sharing and allows people to find out what information companies have stored about them. He does not endorse breaking up Facebook, and suggests instead that the social media economy needs structural reform. He calls for data portability and interoperability, so “consumers would own their identities and could freely switch from one network to another.” Aral believes that without such fundamental changes, new platforms will simply replace the old ones, propelled by the network effects that drive the social-media economy.

“I do not advocate any one silver bullet,” says Aral, who emphasizes that changes in four areas together — money, code, norms, and laws — can alter the trajectory of the social media industry.

But if things continue without change, Aral adds, Facebook and the other social media giants risk substantial civic backlash and user burnout.

“If you get me angry and riled up, I might click more in the short term, but I might also grow really tired and annoyed by how this is making my life miserable, and I might turn you off entirely,” Aral observes. “I mean, that’s why we have a Delete Facebook movement, that’s why we have a Stop Hate for Profit movement. People are pushing back against the short-term vision, and I think we need to embrace this longer-term vision of a healthier communications ecosystem.”

Changing the social media giants can seem like a tall order. Still, Aral says, these firms are not necessarily destined for domination.

“I don’t think this technology or any other technology has some deterministic endpoint,” Aral says. “I want to bring us back to a more practical reality, which is that technology is what we make it, and we are abdicating our responsibility to steer technology toward good and away from bad. That is the path I try to illuminate in this book.”

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Prof. Sinan Aral’s new book, “The Hype Machine,” has been selected as one of the best books of the year about AI by Wired . Gilad Edelman notes that Aral’s book is “an engagingly written shortcut to expertise on what the likes of Facebook and Twitter are doing to our brains and our society.”

Prof. Sinan Aral speaks with Danny Crichton of TechCrunch about his new book, “The Hype Machine,” which explores the future of social media. Aral notes that he believes a starting point “for solving the social media crisis is creating competition in the social media economy.” 

New York Times

Prof. Sinan Aral speaks with New York Times editorial board member Greg Bensinger about how social media platforms can reduce the spread of misinformation. “Human-in-the-loop moderation is the right solution,” says Aral. “It’s not a simple silver bullet, but it would give accountability where these companies have in the past blamed software.”

Prof. Sinan Aral speaks with Kara Miller of GBH’s Innovation Hub about his research examining the impact of social media on everything from business re-openings during the Covid-19 pandemic to politics.

Prof. Sinan Aral speaks with NPR’s Michael Martin about his new book, “The Hype Machine,” which explores the benefits and downfalls posed by social media. “I've been researching social media for 20 years. I've seen its evolution and also the techno utopianism and dystopianism,” says Aral. “I thought it was appropriate to have a book that asks, 'what can we do to really fix the social media morass we find ourselves in?'”

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What Makes Technology Good or Bad for Us?

Everyone’s worried about smartphones. Headlines like “ Have smartphones destroyed a generation? ” and “ Smartphone addiction could be changing your brain ” paint a bleak picture of our smartphone addiction and its long-term consequences. This isn’t a new lament—public opinion at the advent of the newspaper worried that people would forego the stimulating pleasures of early-morning conversation in favor of reading the daily .

Is the story of technology really that bad? Certainly there’s some reason to worry. Smartphone use has been linked to serious issues, such as dwindling attention spans , crippling depression , and even increased incidence of brain cancer . Ultimately, though, the same concern comes up again and again: Smartphones can’t be good for us, because they’re replacing the real human connection of the good old days.

Everyone’s heard how today’s teens just sit together in a room, texting, instead of actually talking to each other. But could those teenagers actually be getting something meaningful and real out of all that texting?

The science of connection

A quick glance at the research on technology-mediated interaction reveals an ambivalent literature. Some studies show that time spent socializing online can decrease loneliness , increase well-being , and help the socially anxious learn how to connect to others. Other studies suggest that time spent socializing online can cause loneliness , decrease well-being , and foster a crippling dependence on technology-mediated interaction to the point that users prefer it to face-to-face conversation.

It’s tempting to say that some of these studies must be right and others wrong, but the body of evidence on both sides is a little too robust to be swept under the rug. Instead, the impact of social technology is more complicated. Sometimes, superficially similar behaviors have fundamentally different consequences. Sometimes online socialization is good for you, sometimes it’s bad, and the devil is entirely in the details.

This isn’t a novel proposition; after all, conflicting results started appearing within the first few studies into the internet’s social implications, back in the 1990s. Many people have suggested that to understand the consequences of online socialization, we need to dig deeper into situational factors and circumstances. But what we still have to do is move beyond recognition of the problem to provide an answer: When, how, and why are some online interactions great, while others are dangerous?

The interpersonal connection behaviors framework

As a scientist of close relationships, I can’t help but see online interactions differently from thinkers in other fields. People build relationships by demonstrating their understanding of each other’s needs and perspectives, a cyclical process that brings them closer together. If I tell you my secrets, and you respond supportively, I’m much more likely to confide in you again—and you, in turn, are much more likely to confide in me.

This means that every time two people talk to each other, an opportunity for relationship growth is unfolding. Many times, that opportunity isn’t taken; we aren’t about to have an in-depth conversation with the barista who asks for our order. But connection is always theoretically possible, and that’s true whether we’re interacting online or face-to-face.

Close relationships are the bread and butter of happiness—and even health. Being socially isolated is a stronger predictor of mortality than is smoking multiple cigarettes a day . If we want to understand the role technology plays in our well-being, we need to start with the role it plays in our relationships.

And it turns out that the kind of technology-mediated interactions that lead to positive outcomes are exactly those that are likely to build stronger relationships. Spending your time online by scheduling interactions with people you see day in and day out seems to pay dividends in increased social integration . Using the internet to compensate for being lonely just makes you lonelier; using the internet to actively seek out connection has the opposite effect .

“The kind of technology-mediated interactions that lead to positive outcomes are exactly those that are likely to build stronger relationships”

On the other hand, technology-mediated interactions that don’t really address our close relationships don’t seem to do us any good—and might, in fact, do us harm. Passively scrolling through your Facebook feed without interacting with people has been linked to decreased well-being and increased depression post-Facebook use.

That kind of passive usage is a good example of “ social snacking .” Like eating junk food, social snacking can temporarily satisfy you, but it’s lacking in nutritional content. Looking at your friends’ posts without ever responding might make you feel more connected to them, but it doesn’t build intimacy.

Passive engagement has a second downside, as well: social comparison . When we compare our messy lived experiences to others’ curated self-presentations, we are likely to suffer from lowered self-esteem , happiness, and well-being. This effect is only exacerbated when we consume people’s digital lives without interacting with them, making it all too easy to miss the less photogenic moments of their lives.

Moving forward

The interpersonal connection behaviors framework doesn’t explain everything that might influence our well-being after spending time on social media. The internet poses plenty of other dangers—for two examples, the sense of wasting time or emotional contagion from negative news. However, a focus on meaningful social interaction can help explain decades of contradictory findings. And even if the framework itself is challenged by future work, its central concept is bound to be upheld: We have to study the details of how people are spending their time online if we want to understand its likely effects.

In the meantime, this framework has some practical implications for those worried about their own online time. If you make sure you’re using social media for genuinely social purposes, with conscious thought about how it can improve your life and your relationships, you’ll be far more likely to enjoy your digital existence.

This article was originally published on the Behavioral Scientist . Read the original article .

About the Author

Jenna Clark

Jenna Clark, Ph.D. , is a senior behavioral researcher at Duke University's Center for Advanced Hindsight, where she works to help people make healthy decisions in spite of themselves. She's also interested in how technology contributes to our well-being through its effect on our close personal relationships.

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• 10 February 2020

Scrutinizing the effects of digital technology on mental health

• Jonathan Haidt &

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The topic in brief

• There is an ongoing debate about whether social media and the use of digital devices are detrimental to mental health.

• Adolescents tend to be heavy users of these devices, and especially of social media.

• Rates of teenage depression began to rise around 2012, when adolescent use of social media became common (Fig. 1).

• Some evidence indicates that frequent users of social media have higher rates of depression and anxiety than do light users.

• But perhaps digital devices could provide a way of gathering data about mental health in a systematic way, and make interventions more timely.

Figure 1 | Depression on the rise. Rates of depression among teenagers in the United States have increased steadily since 2012. Rates are higher and are increasing more rapidly for girls than for boys. Some researchers think that social media is the cause of this increase, whereas others see social media as a way of tackling it. (Data taken from the US National Survey on Drug Use and Health, Table 11.2b; go.nature.com/3ayjaww )

JONATHAN HAIDT: A guilty verdict

A sudden increase in the rates of depression, anxiety and self-harm was seen in adolescents — particularly girls — in the United States and the United Kingdom around 2012 or 2013 (see go.nature.com/2up38hw ). Only one suspect was in the right place at the right time to account for this sudden change: social media. Its use by teenagers increased most quickly between 2009 and 2011, by which point two-thirds of 15–17-year-olds were using it on a daily basis 1 . Some researchers defend social media, arguing that there is only circumstantial evidence for its role in mental-health problems 2 , 3 . And, indeed, several studies 2 , 3 show that there is only a small correlation between time spent on screens and bad mental-health outcomes. However, I present three arguments against this defence.

First, the papers that report small or null effects usually focus on ‘screen time’, but it is not films or video chats with friends that damage mental health. When research papers allow us to zoom in on social media, rather than looking at screen time as a whole, the correlations with depression are larger, and they are larger still when we look specifically at girls ( go.nature.com/2u74der ). The sex difference is robust, and there are several likely causes for it. Girls use social media much more than do boys (who, in turn, spend more of their time gaming). And, for girls more than boys, social life and status tend to revolve around intimacy and inclusion versus exclusion 4 , making them more vulnerable to both the ‘fear of missing out’ and the relational aggression that social media facilitates.

Second, although correlational studies can provide only circumstantial evidence, most of the experiments published in recent years have found evidence of causation ( go.nature.com/2u74der ). In these studies, people are randomly assigned to groups that are asked to continue using social media or to reduce their use substantially. After a few weeks, people who reduce their use generally report an improvement in mood or a reduction in loneliness or symptoms of depression.

The best way forward

Third, many researchers seem to be thinking about social media as if it were sugar: safe in small to moderate quantities, and harmful only if teenagers consume large quantities. But, unlike sugar, social media does not act just on those who consume it. It has radically transformed the nature of peer relationships, family relationships and daily activities 5 . When most of the 11-year-olds in a class are on Instagram (as was the case in my son’s school), there can be pervasive effects on everyone. Children who opt out can find themselves isolated. A simple dose–response model cannot capture the full effects of social media, yet nearly all of the debate among researchers so far has been over the size of the dose–response effect. To cite just one suggestive finding of what lies beyond that model: network effects for depression and anxiety are large, and bad mental health spreads more contagiously between women than between men 6 .

In conclusion, digital media in general undoubtedly has many beneficial uses, including the treatment of mental illness. But if you focus on social media, you’ll find stronger evidence of harm, and less exculpatory evidence, especially for its millions of under-age users.

What should we do while researchers hash out the meaning of these conflicting findings? I would urge a focus on middle schools (roughly 11–13-year-olds in the United States), both for researchers and policymakers. Any US state could quickly conduct an informative experiment beginning this September: randomly assign a portion of school districts to ban smartphone access for students in middle school, while strongly encouraging parents to prevent their children from opening social-media accounts until they begin high school (at around 14). Within 2 years, we would know whether the policy reversed the otherwise steady rise of mental-health problems among middle-school students, and whether it also improved classroom dynamics (as rated by teachers) and test scores. Such system-wide and cross-school interventions would be an excellent way to study the emergent effects of social media on the social lives and mental health of today’s adolescents.

NICK ALLEN: Use digital technology to our advantage

It is appealing to condemn social media out of hand on the basis of the — generally rather poor-quality and inconsistent — evidence suggesting that its use is associated with mental-health problems 7 . But focusing only on its potential harmful effects is comparable to proposing that the only question to ask about cars is whether people can die driving them. The harmful effects might be real, but they don’t tell the full story. The task of research should be to understand what patterns of digital-device and social-media use can lead to beneficial versus harmful effects 7 , and to inform evidence-based approaches to policy, education and regulation.

Long-standing problems have hampered our efforts to improve access to, and the quality of, mental-health services and support. Digital technology has the potential to address some of these challenges. For instance, consider the challenges associated with collecting data on human behaviour. Assessment in mental-health care and research relies almost exclusively on self-reporting, but the resulting data are subjective and burdensome to collect. As a result, assessments are conducted so infrequently that they do not provide insights into the temporal dynamics of symptoms, which can be crucial for both diagnosis and treatment planning.

By contrast, mobile phones and other Internet-connected devices provide an opportunity to continuously collect objective information on behaviour in the context of people’s real lives, generating a rich data set that can provide insight into the extent and timing of mental-health needs in individuals 8 , 9 . By building apps that can track our digital exhaust (the data generated by our everyday digital lives, including our social-media use), we can gain insights into aspects of behaviour that are well-established building blocks of mental health and illness, such as mood, social communication, sleep and physical activity.

Stress and the city

These data can, in turn, be used to empower individuals, by giving them actionable insights into patterns of behaviour that might otherwise have remained unseen. For example, subtle shifts in patterns of sleep or social communication can provide early warning signs of deteriorating mental health. Data on these patterns can be used to alert people to the need for self-management before the patterns — and the associated symptoms — become more severe. Individuals can also choose to share these data with health professionals or researchers. For instance, in the Our Data Helps initiative, individuals who have experienced a suicidal crisis, or the relatives of those who have died by suicide, can donate their digital data to research into suicide risk.

Because mobile devices are ever-present in people’s lives, they offer an opportunity to provide interventions that are timely, personalized and scalable. Currently, mental-health services are mainly provided through a century-old model in which they are made available at times chosen by the mental-health practitioner, rather than at the person’s time of greatest need. But Internet-connected devices are facilitating the development of a wave of ‘just-in-time’ interventions 10 for mental-health care and support.

A compelling example of these interventions involves short-term risk for suicide 9 , 11 — for which early detection could save many lives. Most of the effective approaches to suicide prevention work by interrupting suicidal actions and supporting alternative methods of coping at the moment of greatest risk. If these moments can be detected in an individual’s digital exhaust, a wide range of intervention options become available, from providing information about coping skills and social support, to the initiation of crisis responses. So far, just-in-time approaches have been applied mainly to behaviours such as eating or substance abuse 8 . But with the development of an appropriate research base, these approaches have the potential to provide a major advance in our ability to respond to, and prevent, mental-health crises.

These advantages are particularly relevant to teenagers. Because of their extensive use of digital devices, adolescents are especially vulnerable to the devices’ risks and burdens. And, given the increases in mental-health problems in this age group, teens would also benefit most from improvements in mental-health prevention and treatment. If we use the social and data-gathering functions of Internet-connected devices in the right ways, we might achieve breakthroughs in our ability to improve mental health and well-being.

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N.A. has an equity interest in Ksana Health, a company he co-founded and which has the sole commercial licence for certain versions of the Effortless Assessment of Risk States (EARS) mobile-phone application and some related EARS tools. This intellectual property was developed as part of his research at the University of Oregon’s Center for Digital Mental Health (CDMH).

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Essay on Impact of Technology on Society

Students are often asked to write an essay on Impact of Technology on Society in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Impact of Technology on Society

Introduction.

Technology has greatly influenced society. It has changed how we communicate, learn, and even how we live our daily lives.

Communication

Technology, like smartphones and the internet, has made communication faster and easier. We can now talk to people across the world instantly.

In education, technology has made learning more accessible. Online classes and educational apps have made it possible to learn from anywhere.

Everyday Life

In our daily lives, technology helps us do tasks more efficiently. For example, we use GPS for navigation and apps for shopping.

250 Words Essay on Impact of Technology on Society

The technological revolution has dramatically reshaped society, impacting various sectors such as communication, education, health, and business. The advent of technology has brought about significant changes, both positive and negative, that are reshaping our world.

Positive Impacts

Technology has undeniably improved our lives, providing unprecedented convenience and efficiency. In the realm of communication, digital platforms have bridged geographical gaps, fostering global connectivity and collaboration. In education, e-learning tools have democratized access to knowledge, enabling lifelong learning irrespective of location or socio-economic background. In healthcare, advanced medical technologies have improved diagnostic accuracy and treatment efficacy, enhancing patient outcomes and quality of life.

Negative Impacts

However, the pervasive influence of technology also poses challenges. The digital divide, a disparity in access to technology, exacerbates social inequalities. The over-reliance on technology can lead to sedentary lifestyles, contributing to physical and mental health issues. Moreover, the rise of digital platforms has increased the risk of cybercrimes, privacy breaches, and misinformation, posing threats to personal safety and societal harmony.

In conclusion, the impact of technology on society is multifaceted, bringing both benefits and drawbacks. It is crucial for society to harness the positive potential of technology while mitigating its negative implications. This balance requires thoughtful policy-making, education, and a collective commitment to using technology responsibly and ethically.

500 Words Essay on Impact of Technology on Society

Technology has undoubtedly become an integral part of our daily lives, influencing every sector from communication to health, education to entertainment. The advent of technology has significantly transformed society, shaping the way we interact, learn, work, and live. While the benefits of technology are numerous, it has also raised several concerns that demand careful consideration.

Enhanced Communication and Information Access

Moreover, the internet has democratized information access. Online resources and digital libraries have made it possible for anyone with internet access to learn almost anything. This has significantly reduced the barriers to education and knowledge, fostering a global culture of continuous learning.

Technology and Work

The way we work has been radically transformed by technology. Automation and artificial intelligence have replaced many traditional jobs, leading to fears of job loss. However, they have also created new roles that didn’t exist before, such as data analysts, AI specialists, and digital marketers.

Healthcare Advancements

Technology has revolutionized healthcare, leading to improved patient care and health outcomes. Innovations like telemedicine, electronic health records, and wearable health devices have made healthcare more accessible and personalized. However, these advancements also raise concerns about data privacy and security.

Social Implications

Technology has significantly influenced our social interactions. On the one hand, it has enabled us to stay connected with friends and family, no matter where they are. On the other hand, excessive use of technology can lead to isolation and mental health issues.

Environmental Impact

Technology also plays a crucial role in addressing environmental challenges. Innovations like renewable energy technologies, precision agriculture, and digital twins are helping us combat climate change and promote sustainable development. However, the production and disposal of electronic waste also pose significant environmental threats.

In conclusion, the impact of technology on society is multifaceted, bringing both opportunities and challenges. As we continue to innovate and evolve, it is crucial to foster a culture of responsible technology use, ensuring that technological advancements contribute to societal well-being and sustainable development.

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• Publics in Emerging Economies Worry Social Media Sow Division, Even as They Offer New Chances for Political Engagement
• 3. Publics think technology impacts the political environment in both positive and negative ways

Table of Contents

• 1. Users say they regularly encounter false and misleading content on social media – but also new ideas
• 2. More people are comfortable discussing politics in person than on their phones or via social media
• Acknowledgments
• Methodology
• Appendix A: About the focus groups
• Appendix B: Technology-related surveys regularly find that people see connectivity bringing positives and negatives
• Appendix C: Detailed tables

Beyond their views of the personal impact of various technologies, publics in these countries are divided over how the internet in general has impacted politics in their societies. An 11-country median of 44% say the increasing use of the internet has had a good impact on politics, but 28% feel that impact has been largely bad – and this balance of opinion is most negative in Tunisia, Jordan and Lebanon.

Adults in these countries also feel access to technology has had a variety of both positive and negative impacts on their fellow citizens. On the positive side of the ledger, a median of 78% say access to the internet, mobile phones and social media has made people more informed about current events. And when asked about the impact of social media on the broader political process, majorities in nine of these 11 countries say they have increased the ability for ordinary citizens to take part in the political process.

At the same time, an 11-country median of 72% say these technologies have made people easier to manipulate with rumors and false information. And majorities in eight countries say social media have increased the risk that citizens might be manipulated by domestic politicians.

Mixed attitudes about the internet’s overall impact on politics

Adults in these countries express mixed views about the overall influence of the internet on politics. In most countries , larger shares say the internet has had a good impact on politics than say the same about issues such as children or morality. But notably smaller shares say the internet has had a good impact on politics than say this about its effect on issues such as education, the economy or local culture (for more, see the first report in this series).

Adults in these countries also make little distinction between the impact of the internet and mobile phones when it comes to politics. Nearly identical shares say the internet and mobile phones have had a good, bad or negligible impact on politics.

Across these 11 countries, public opinion about the internet’s impact on politics is most negative in Jordan, Lebanon and Tunisia. In Lebanon, nearly twice as many say the internet has had a bad (42%) rather than good (23%) influence on politics. And in Jordan and Tunisia, the shares saying the internet’s impact on politics has been good are comparable to the shares saying it has been bad.

In addition to having a comparably negative balance of sentiment relative to the other countries in this survey, publics in these three countries have also turned somewhat less upbeat in recent years in their assessments of the internet’s impact on politics. From 2014 to 2018, the share of adults in these countries saying the internet has had a good influence on politics has declined by 11 percentage points in Jordan, 9 points in Lebanon and 6 points in Tunisia. By contrast, sentiment in the other seven countries for which trends are available either grew more positive or stayed largely the same over that time. This positive shift has been most pronounced in Mexico, South Africa and Venezuela.

Many think technology has made people better informed – but also easier to manipulate

When asked about the impact of mobile phones, the internet and social media on various political behaviors and attitudes, people in these nations tend to express seemingly dual views of how technology has brought “more” to society: that it has made people more informed, yet more manipulatable; more divided, yet sometimes more accepting of others.

At one level, publics in these countries believe that technology simultaneously makes people more informed and more gullible. Majorities in every country – and an 11-country median of 78% – say access to technology has made people more informed about current events. At the same time, majorities in every country except for Vietnam – and an 11-country median of 72% – say technology has made it easier to manipulate people with false information and rumors.

We become numb to the news, like the presidential campaigns in Mexico. A term ago, we were struggling to get more political awareness, and now everything is made a meme and laughed at. It defeats the purpose of the internet. MAN, 28, MEXICO MAN, 28, MEXICO

The survey highlights similar tensions over whether these technologies make people more divided or more accepting of others. A median of 58% say access to mobile phones, the internet and social media has made people more divided in their political opinions. At the same time, a median of 52% say these technologies have made people more accepting of those who have different views than they do. And a median of 55% say they have generally made people more willing to engage in political debates.

These positive and negative views of technology’s impact on political attitudes are often related. In 10 of the 11 countries surveyed, those who believe technology has made people more informed are more likely than others to say technology has also made people easier to manipulate.

Similarly, in most countries those who say technology has made people more accepting of diverse viewpoints are simultaneously more likely to say it has made people more divided in their political opinions.

Through our mobile phones, since there is that social media, it has really led to the spread of hatred and tribalism amongst ourselves. MAN, 38, KENYA MAN, 38, KENYA

These same costs and benefits are visible when it comes to technology’s impact on political news and discussion. For instance, people in these countries overwhelmingly feel mobile phones have improved people’s ability to obtain news. Yet an 11-country median of 64% say people should be very concerned about exposure to false information when using their mobile devices.

People in some countries stand out for their views on the influence of technology on politics

Especially large shares of Jordanians feel technology has made people more receptive to most of the political impacts measured in the survey, and this is especially true of the notion that technology makes people more informed but also easier to manipulate. Around nine-in-ten Jordanians say access to mobile phones, the internet and social media has made people more informed about current events, but a similar share says this access makes them more vulnerable to being manipulated with rumors and false information. And roughly three-quarters of Jordanians say technology has made people more divided in their political opinions, but also more willing to engage in political debates.

By contrast, Vietnamese adults are relatively likely to say access to these technologies hasn’t changed much compared with those in the other countries surveyed. One-third or more Vietnamese say these technologies haven’t had much impact on people’s willingness to engage in political debates (33%), how divided they are in their political opinions (35%) or how accepting they are of those with different views (35%), while 26% say they haven’t had much impact on how easy people are to manipulate. In each instance, these represent the largest shares among the 11 countries surveyed.

Meanwhile, Mexicans stand out for their assessment of the impact of technologies on people’s tolerance of different viewpoints. Some 35% of Mexicans say technology has made people more accepting of people who have different views than they do, but a nearly identical share (36%) says technology has had a negative impact in this regard. Younger Mexicans are especially likely to say technologies have made people less tolerant to people who hold different views: 41% hold this view, compared with 30% of Mexicans ages 50 and older.

Social media users, those affiliated with a political party and the more educated are more likely to see both positive and negative political impacts of digital technologies

Certain groups are especially likely to cite both the positive and negative impacts of technology on political engagement.

For example, social media users are more likely than non-users to say technology has made people more informed about current events in all 11 countries surveyed; more accepting of people with different views in eight countries; and more willing to engage in political debates in nine countries. 10 At the same time, in nine countries a larger share of users say technology is making people more divided in their political opinions – and in 10 countries a larger share of social media users say technology is making people easier to mislead with misinformation (see Appendix C for detailed tables).

These attitudes also vary by education level. 11 Across all 11 countries, adults with a secondary education or higher are more likely to say technology has made people more informed about current events relative to those who do not have a secondary education. And in nine countries, adults with higher levels of educational attainment are more inclined to say technology has made people more subject to false information and rumors.

Meanwhile, adults with higher levels of educational attainment are more likely to say technology has contributed to both political divisions and tolerance of opposing viewpoints in seven of these countries (Colombia, India, Kenya, Lebanon, the Philippines, Tunisia and Vietnam).

In eight of the nine countries for which partisan information is available, those who have a partisan affiliation are somewhat more likely than those who don’t identify with any particular party to say technology has made people more willing to engage in political debate. 12 And in five of those countries, those with a partisan affiliation are more likely to say access to technology has made people more divided in their political opinions. But in most countries, similar shares of the affiliated and unaffiliated say technology has made people more informed, more accepting of those with different viewpoints and more susceptible to misinformation. 13

Lastly, social media users’ assessments of the impact of technology on political attitudes are somewhat related to whether they view social media as an important news source. In seven out of the 11 countries, those who say social media are a very important news source for them to get political news and information are more likely than users who do not think social media are as important to say technology has made people more informed about news and current events.

Social media seen to confer benefits – but also risks – on the overall political process

When asked about different impacts social media have had on their country’s political process, publics in these countries are more likely than not to say social media offer new avenues for political engagement. A median of 57% – and majorities in every country except for Vietnam and India – say social media have increased the ability for ordinary people in their country to have a meaningful voice in the political process. And a median of 53% say these platforms have increased the ability of nongovernmental organizations to promote their causes.

But these perceived benefits from social media are matched with perceived costs. An 11-country median of 65% say social media have increased the risk that people in their country might be manipulated by domestic politicians. And when asked whether these platforms might facilitate foreign interference in their country’s elections, a median of 55% say these platforms have indeed increased this risk – although a median of 27% feel they have not had much effect either way.

Now it is much easier for our countrymen to know about the plans of our government for our OFW [Overseas Filipino Workers]. WOMAN, 48, PHILIPPINES WOMAN, 48, PHILIPPINES

Among those who use social media, there are only minimal differences between the views of younger (ages 18 to 29) and older adults (those ages 50+) on these questions. However, there are some differences based on how extensively people rely on these platforms for information. In most countries, those who say social media are a very important news source are more likely to say these platforms have increased ordinary people’s ability to have a meaningful voice in politics, and that they have helped nongovernmental groups to promote their causes. At the same time, in seven countries this group is also more likely to say these platforms have increased the risk of people being manipulated by domestic politicians, compared with users who do not see social media as a very important source of information.

In several countries, sizable shares say they do not know how these platforms have impacted the broader political system

These questions were asked of all adults – regardless of whether they themselves use social media platforms or not. And in several of these countries, sizable shares of those who do not use any social media platforms are unable to offer an opinion on how social media have impacted these aspects of the political process. This is especially true in Jordan, Lebanon, India and Vietnam. Among people in these countries who do not use social media, as many as 21% of Vietnamese, 34% of Jordanians, 41% of Lebanese and 51% of Indians either do not know the answer to these individual questions or refused to offer a guess.

Similarly, demographic groups who use social media at low rates (such as older adults or those with lower levels of education) are often more likely to say they do not know how social media have impacted these elements of the political process.

• In India, Jordan, Lebanon and South Africa, non-internet users are less likely to offer a response. ↩
• Social media platform and messaging app users include those who say they use one or more of the seven specific online platforms asked about on the survey: Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter, Viber, Instagram, Snapchat and Tinder. Overall, a median of 64% use at least one of these platforms across these 11 countries. ↩
• For the purpose of comparing education groups across countries, we standardize education levels based on the United Nations’ International Standard Classification of Education. In all nations surveyed, the lower education category is below secondary education and the higher category is secondary or above. ↩
• This analysis excludes Vietnam, which has a single-party system, and Jordan, where fewer than 100 people said they had a partisan identification. ↩
• In some countries, non-social media users, those with lower levels of education or those who have no partisan affiliation are less likely to offer a response. ↩

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Listen to the essay, as read by Antero Garcia, associate professor in the Graduate School of Education.

As a professor of education and a former public school teacher, I’ve seen digital tools change lives in schools.

I’ve documented the ways mobile technology like phones can transform student engagement in my own classroom.

I’ve explored how digital tools might network powerful civic learning and dialogue for classrooms across the country – elements of education that are crucial for sustaining our democracy today.

And, like everyone, I’ve witnessed digital technologies make schooling safer in the midst of a global pandemic. Zoom and Google Classroom, for instance, allowed many students to attend classrooms virtually during a period when it was not feasible to meet in person.

So I want to tell you that I think technologies are changing education for the better and that we need to invest more in them – but I just can’t.

Given the substantial amount of scholarly time I’ve invested in documenting the life-changing possibilities of digital technologies, it gives me no pleasure to suggest that these tools might be slowly poisoning us. Despite their purported and transformational value, I’ve been wondering if our investment in educational technology might in fact be making our schools worse.

Let me explain.

When I was a classroom teacher, I loved relying on the latest tools to create impressive and immersive experiences for my students. We would utilize technology to create class films, produce social media profiles for the Janie Crawfords, the Holden Caulfields, and other literary characters we studied, and find playful ways to digitally share our understanding of the ideas we studied in our classrooms.

As a teacher, technology was a way to build on students’ interests in pop culture and the world around them. This was exciting to me.

But I’ve continued to understand that the aspects of technology I loved weren’t actually about technology at all – they were about creating authentic learning experiences with young people. At the heart of these digital explorations were my relationships with students and the trust we built together.

“Part of why I’ve grown so skeptical about this current digital revolution is because of how these tools reshape students’ bodies and their relation to the world around them.”

I do see promise in the suite of digital tools that are available in classrooms today. But my research focus on platforms – digital spaces like Amazon, Netflix, and Google that reshape how users interact in online environments – suggests that when we focus on the trees of individual tools, we ignore the larger forest of social and cognitive challenges.

Most people encounter platforms every day in their online social lives. From the few online retail stores where we buy groceries to the small handful of sites that stream our favorite shows and media content, platforms have narrowed how we use the internet today to a small collection of Silicon Valley behemoths. Our social media activities, too, are limited to one or two sites where we check on the updates, photos, and looped videos of friends and loved ones.

These platforms restrict our online and offline lives to a relatively small number of companies and spaces – we communicate with a finite set of tools and consume a set of media that is often algorithmically suggested. This centralization of internet – a trend decades in the making – makes me very uneasy.

From willfully hiding the negative effects of social media use for vulnerable populations to creating tools that reinforce racial bias, today’s platforms are causing harm and sowing disinformation for young people and adults alike. The deluge of difficult ethical and pedagogical questions around these tools are not being broached in any meaningful way in schools – even adults aren’t sure how to manage their online lives.

You might ask, “What does this have to do with education?” Platforms are also a large part of how modern schools operate. From classroom management software to attendance tracking to the online tools that allowed students to meet safely during the pandemic, platforms guide nearly every student interaction in schools today. But districts are utilizing these tools without considering the wider spectrum of changes that they have incurred alongside them.

Antero Garcia, associate professor of education (Image credit: Courtesy Antero Garcia)

For example, it might seem helpful for a school to use a management tool like Classroom Dojo (a digital platform that can offer parents ways to interact with and receive updates from their family’s teacher) or software that tracks student reading and development like Accelerated Reader for day-to-day needs. However, these tools limit what assessment looks like and penalize students based on flawed interpretations of learning.

Another problem with platforms is that they, by necessity, amass large swaths of data. Myriad forms of educational technology exist – from virtual reality headsets to e-readers to the small sensors on student ID cards that can track when students enter schools. And all of this student data is being funneled out of schools and into the virtual black boxes of company databases.

Part of why I’ve grown so skeptical about this current digital revolution is because of how these tools reshape students’ bodies and their relation to the world around them. Young people are not viewed as complete human beings but as boxes checked for attendance, for meeting academic progress metrics, or for confirming their location within a school building. Nearly every action that students perform in schools – whether it’s logging onto devices, accessing buildings, or sharing content through their private online lives – is noticed and recorded. Children in schools have become disembodied from their minds and their hearts. Thus, one of the greatest and implicit lessons that kids learn in schools today is that they must sacrifice their privacy in order to participate in conventional, civic society.

The pandemic has only made the situation worse. At its beginnings, some schools relied on software to track students’ eye movements, ostensibly ensuring that kids were paying attention to the tasks at hand. Similarly, many schools required students to keep their cameras on during class time for similar purposes. These might be seen as in the best interests of students and their academic growth, but such practices are part of a larger (and usually more invisible) process of normalizing surveillance in the lives of youth today.

I am not suggesting that we completely reject all of the tools at our disposal – but I am urging for more caution. Even the seemingly benign resources we might use in our classrooms today come with tradeoffs. Every Wi-Fi-connected, “smart” device utilized in schools is an investment in time, money, and expertise in technology over teachers and the teaching profession.

Our focus on fixing or saving schools via digital tools assumes that the benefits and convenience that these invisible platforms offer are worth it.

But my ongoing exploration of how platforms reduce students to quantifiable data suggests that we are removing the innovation and imagination of students and teachers in the process.

Antero Garcia is associate professor of education in the Graduate School of Education .

In Their Own Words is a collaboration between the Stanford Public Humanities Initiative  and Stanford University Communications.

If you’re a Stanford faculty member (in any discipline or school) who is interested in writing an essay for this series, please reach out to Natalie Jabbar at [email protected] .

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Brain health consequences of digital technology use


Consecuencias para la salud del cerebro del empleo de la tecnología digital, conséquences sur la santé cérébrale de l’usage des technologies numériques, gary w. small.

Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences and Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, the UCLA Longevity Center, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California, Los Angeles, California, US

Jooyeon Lee

Aaron kaufman, jason jalil, prabha siddarth, himaja gaddipati, teena d. moody, susan y. bookheimer.

Emerging scientific evidence indicates that frequent digital technology use has a significant impact—both negative and positive—on brain function and behavior. Potential harmful effects of extensive screen time and technology use include heightened attention-deficit symptoms, impaired emotional and social intelligence, technology addiction, social isolation, impaired brain development, and disrupted sleep. However, various apps, videogames, and other online tools may benefit brain health. Functional imaging scans show that internet-naive older adults who learn to search online show significant increases in brain neural activity during simulated internet searches. Certain computer programs and videogames may improve memory, multitasking skills, fluid intelligence, and other cognitive abilities. Some apps and digital tools offer mental health interventions providing self-management, monitoring, skills training, and other interventions that may improve mood and behavior. Additional research on the positive and negative brain health effects of technology is needed to elucidate mechanisms and underlying causal relationships.


La evidencia científica que está surgiendo muestra que el empleo frecuente de la tecnología digital tiene un impacto significativo, tanto negativo como positivo, en la función cerebral y en el comportamiento. Los posibles efectos nocivos del tiempo prolongado frente a la pantalla y del empleo de la tecnología incluyen síntomas como marcado déficit de atención, deterioro de la inteligencia emocional y social, adicción a la tecnología, aislamiento social, deterioro del desarrollo cerebral y alteraciones del sueño. Sin embargo, hay varias aplicaciones, videojuegos y otras herramientas en línea que pueden beneficiar la salud del cerebro. En las imágenes cerebrales funcionales se ha observado que los adultos mayores vírgenes a internet que aprenden a buscar en línea, muestran aumentos significativos en la actividad neuronal cerebral durante las búsquedas simuladas en internet. Ciertos programas computacionales y videojuegos pueden mejorar la memoria, las destrezas en tareas múltiples, la fluidez de la inteligencia y otras habilidades cognitivas. Hay varias aplicaciones y herramientas digitales que ofrecen intervenciones en salud mental y que proporcionan automanejo, monitoreo, capacitación junto a otras intervenciones que pueden mejorar el estado de ánimo y el comportamiento. Se require de investigación adicional acerca de los efectos positivos y negativos de la tecnología sobre la salud del cerebro para dilucidar los mecanismos y las relaciones causales subyacentes.

D’après de nouvelles données scientifiques, l’usage fréquent des technologies numériques influe significativement sur le comportement et le fonctionnement cérébral, de façon aussi bien négative que positive. Une pratique excessive des écrans et des technologies numériques peut avoir des effets néfastes comme des symptômes de déficit d'attention, une intelligence émotionnelle et sociale altérée, une dépendance à la technologie, un isolement social, un développement cérébral dégradé et des troubles du sommeil. Cependant, certaines applications, jeux vidéo et autres outils en ligne peuvent avoir des effets bénéfiques sur le cerveau. L'imagerie fonctionnelle montre une activité neuronale significativement augmentée chez des personnes âgées jamais exposées à Internet et qui apprennent à faire des recherches en ligne. Certains programmes informatiques et jeux vidéo peuvent améliorer la mémoire, les compétences multitâches, l'agilité de l’intelligence et d'autres capacités cognitives. Dans le domaine de la santé mentale, différents outils et applications numériques permettant l'autogestion, le suivi, l'acquisition de compétences et d'autres techniques sont susceptibles d'améliorer l'humeur et le comportement du patient. Les effets positifs et négatifs de la technologie sur la santé cérébrale nécessitent d’être encore étudiés afin d’en mieux comprendre les mécanismes et les relations de cause à effet.

Introduction


During the past three decades, digital technology has transformed our daily lives. People at every age are now taking advantage of the vast amounts of available online information and communication platforms that connect them with others. This technology helps us to generate, store, and process enormous amounts of information and interact with each other rapidly and efficiently.


Most adults use the internet daily, and nearly one out of four report being online most of the time. 1 Because of this transformation to an online world, neuroscientists have begun focusing their attention on how digital technology may be changing our brains and behavior. The emerging data suggest that constant technology use impacts brain function and behavior in both positive and negative ways. For example, older individuals suffering from cognitive decline could use the internet to access information to help them remain independent longer; however, many seniors with cognitive complaints are reluctant or unable to adopt new technologies. 2 Our group’s functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) research tracking neural activity during simulated internet searches suggests that simply searching online may represent a form of mental exercise that can strengthen neural circuits. 3 By contrast, the persistent multitasking that is characteristic of most technology users impairs cognitive performance. 4 In this review, we highlight some of the research suggesting potential benefits and possible risks of using digital technology.


Potential harmful effects of digital technology use


Reduced attention
.

Multiple studies have drawn a link between computer use or extensive screen time (eg, watching television, playing videogames) and symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). A 2014 meta-analysis indicated a correlation between media use and attention problems. 5 A recent survey of adolescents without symptoms of ADHD at the start of the study indicated a significant association between more frequent use of digital media and symptoms of ADHD after 24 months of follow-up. 6 Although most of the research linking technology use and ADHD symptoms has involved children and adolescents, this association has been identified in people at any age. 7 


The reason for the link between technology use and attention problems is uncertain, but might be attributed to repetitive attentional shifts and multitasking, which can impair executive functioning. 8 Moreover, when people are constantly using their technology, they have fewer opportunities to interact offline and allow their brain to rest in its default mode. 9 


Impaired emotional and social intelligence


Because of concern that a young, developing brain may be particularly sensitive to chronic exposure to computers, smartphones, tablets, or televisions, the American Academy of Pediatrics has recommended that parents limit screen time for children aged 2 years or younger, when the brain is particularly malleable. 10 Spending extensive periods of time with digital media translates to spending less time communicating face to face. 11 


Kirsh and Mounts 12 explored the hypothesis that playing videogames would interfere with the ability to recognize emotions conveyed through facial expressions. They examined the effects of playing videogames on recognition of facial expressions of emotions in 197 students (ages 17 to 23 years). Participants played violent videogames before watching a series of calm faces morph into either angry or happy faces. Participants were asked to quickly identify the emotion while the facial expression changed. The authors found that happy faces were identified faster than angry faces, and that playing violent videogames delayed happy-face recognition time. 


Our team at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) 13 hypothesized that preteens restricted from screen-based media would have more opportunities for face-to-face interactions, which would improve their ability to recognize nonverbal emotional and social cues. We studied 51 schoolchildren who spent five days at an overnight nature camp where television, computers, and smartphones were forbidden, and compared them with 54 school-based matched controls who continued their usual media practices (4 hours of screen time per day). At baseline and after 5 days, participants were assessed for their ability to recognize emotions from photographs of facial expressions and videotaped scenes of social interactions (without verbal cues). After 5 days, the nature camp participants restricted from screen time demonstrated significantly better recognition of nonverbal emotional and social cues than participants who continued their usual daily screen time. These findings suggest that time away from screen-based media and digital communication tools improves both emotional and social intelligence.


Technology addiction


Although not formally included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , 14 excessive and pathological internet use has been recognized as an internet addiction, which shares features with substance-use disorders or pathological gambling. Common features include preoccupations, mood changes, development of tolerance, withdrawal, and functional impairment. 15 , 16 The global prevalence of internet addiction is estimated at 6%, but in some regions such as the Middle East the prevalence is as high as 11%. 17 Students with internet addiction are more likely to suffer from ADHD symptoms than from other psychiatric disorders. 18 You and colleagues 16 reported that schoolchildren with internet addiction experienced significantly greater symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity than non–internet-addicted students. Panagiotidi and Overton 19 reported greater ADHD symptoms in adults aged 18 to 70 years with internet addiction: predictors of addiction included younger age, playing massively multiplayer online role-playing games, and spending more time online. Despite consistent associations between ADHD symptoms and internet addiction, a causal relationship has not been confirmed. It is possible that people with ADHD symptoms have a greater risk for developing technology addiction, but an alternative explanation is that extensive technology use from addictive behavior causes ADHD symptoms.


Social isolation


Ninety percent of young adults in the United States use social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat, and Instagram, and most visit these sites at least daily. 20 Paradoxically, social media use is linked to social isolation (ie, a lack of social connections and quality relationships with others), 21 which is associated with poor health outcomes and increased mortality. 1 


Primack and colleagues 20 studied 1787 young adults (ages 19 to 32 years) and found that using social media 2 or more hours each day dou- bled the odds for perceived social isolation compared with use less than 30 minutes each day. Similar associations between perceived social isolation and social media use were observed in 213 middle-aged and older adults. 22 Possible explanations for such findings include reduced offline social experiences and the tendency to make upward social comparisons based on highly curated social media feeds that produce unrealistic expectations of oneself. 1 Future research should explore casual explanations for such relationships and seek ways to address the needs of people who may benefit from social media–based interventions, such as geographically isolated individuals.


Adverse impact on cognitive and brain development


Screen time may also adversely impact cognitive and brain development. In a recent review, children under age 2 were reported to spend over 1 hour each day in front of a screen; by age 3, that number exceeded 3 hours. 23 Increased screen time (and less reading time) has been associated with poorer language development and executive functioning, particularly in very young children, 24 as well as poorer language development in a large cohort of minority children. 25 In infants, increased screen time was one of several factors that predicted behavioral problems. 26 For infants 6 to 12 months, increased screen time was linked to poorer early language development. 27 In children of preschool age and older, digital media directed toward active learning can be educational, but only when accompanied by parental interaction. 23 


Recent research has examined the effects of media exposure on brain development. In a study of children aged 8 to 12 years, more screen and less reading time were associated with decreased brain connectivity between regions controlling word recognition and both language and cognitive control. 24 Such connections are considered important for reading comprehension and suggest a negative impact of screen time on the developing brain. Structurally, increased screen time relates to decreased integrity of white-matter pathways necessary for reading and language. 28 Given the growing prominence of screen use among even very young children at stages when brain plasticity is greatest, there is significant concern about the cognitive and brain development of the current generation of screen-exposed children that requires greater understanding


Sleep


Recent studies indicate that screen exposure disrupts sleep, which can have a negative effect on cognition and behavior. Daily touch-screen use among infants and toddlers was shown to negatively impact sleep onset, sleep duration, and nighttime awakenings. 29 In adolescents, more time using smartphones and touch screens was associated with greater sleep disturbances, and tablet time was associated with poor sleep quality and increased awakenings after sleep onset. 30 In adults, increased smartphone use was associated with shorter sleep duration and less efficient sleep. 31 Poor sleep quality is associated with brain changes, such as reduced functional connectivity and decreased gray-matter volume, as well as an increased risk for age-associated cognitive impairment and Alzheimer disease. 32 , 33 


It is unclear whether the act of looking at screens or media content disrupts sleep; however, it is well-known that the wavelength of light exposure affects the circadian rhythms that govern sleep. Computer and phone light-emitting diode (LED) screens emit slow wave, blue light that interferes with circadian rhythms. Exposure to LED versus non-LED screens has been shown to produce changes in melatonin levels and sleep quality, and such exposure decreases cognitive performance. 34 Thus, it is important to recognize the effects of screen time on sleep as a moderator of various negative effects on cognition and brain function.


Brain-health benefits of digital technology


Despite these potential harmful brain-health effects of digital technology, emerging evidence points to several benefits for the aging brain in particular, including opportunities for brain-strengthening neural exercise, cognitive training, and the online delivery of mental-health interventions and support ( Table I

Neural exercise


Internet-savvy versus internet-naive adults
.

Functional neuroimaging allows scientists to observe regional neural activity during various mental tasks. Our group was the first to explore neural activity using functional MRI while research volunteers performed simulated internet searching. 3 Previous studies suggested that mentally challenging tasks, such as searching online, may benefit brain health and even delay cognitive decline. 35 , 36 We focused on internet searching because it is so common among people of all ages. 37 


We assessed patterns of brain neural activation in 24 cognitively normal middle-aged and older adults (ages 55 to 76 years): 12 of them had minimal internet search experience (net-naive group), and 12 had extensive experience (net-savvy group). In addition to the internet-search task, we used a control task of reading text on a computer screen formatted to simulate a printed book layout.


We found that text reading activated brain regions controlling language, reading, memory, and visual abilities (left inferior frontal, temporal, posterior cingulate, parietal, and occipital regions), and the magnitude and extent of activation were similar in the net-naive and net-savvy groups. During internet searching, net-naive subjects displayed activation patterns similar to those observed while reading text. However, net-savvy subjects demonstrated significant activity in neural signal intensity in additional regions controlling decision-making, complex reasoning, and vision (frontal pole, anterior temporal region, anterior and posterior cingulate, and hippocampus). During the internet-search task, the net-savvy group displayed a more than twofold increase in the extent of activation in the major regional clusters compared with the net-naive group (21 782 versus 8646 total activated voxels).


These findings suggest that searching online may be a form of brain neural exercise. Other research indicates that after several months, daily computer-game playing leads to reduced cortical neural activity. 38 Our other research indicates that memory training, along with healthy lifestyle behaviors (eg, physical exercise, healthy diet), leads to reduced dorsal prefrontal cortical metabolism after 2 weeks. 36 Such findings suggest that task repetition over time leads to lower neural activity during the task, which could reflect greater cognitive efficiency after mental training.


One model that could explain such findings is that novel and stimulating mental experiences, such as searching on the internet, initially lead to minimal activation before the internet user discovers strategies for solving the unfamiliar mental challenge. After such insights, a broader neural network is engaged. After repeated sessions, the initially novel mental task becomes routine and repetitive, no longer posing a mental challenge. The lower activity observed may thus reflect a more efficient neural response. These results also suggest that previous internet-search experience may alter the brain’s responsiveness in neural circuits controlling decision-making and complex reasoning. The net-savvy volunteers showed increased activation during the internet-search task, which suggests that internet searching may remain a novel and mentally stimulating process even after continued practice.


Internet training and brain function


We also used functional MRI to record brain neural activity during simulated internet-search tasks in 12 net-naive and 12 net-savvy subjects before and after internet training. 39 Based on our previous findings, we hypothesized that net-naive volunteers would recruit a larger frontal lobe network after internet training and that net-savvy volunteers would show either no increase or a decrease in activation after training because of greater cognitive efficiency due to training.


The training consisted of brief instructions on how to search online along with practice sessions (1 hour per day for a week). To increase motivation, participants were told that they would be quizzed on their knowledge of assigned search topics after the experiment.


During their first session, net-naive subjects recruited a neural network that included the superior, middle, and inferior frontal gyri, as well as the lateral occipital cortex and occipital pole. During the second session (after internet training), additional regions in the middle and inferior frontal gyri were recruited only in the net-naive group. By contrast, during their first scan session, the net-savvy subjects recruited a cortical network that, though overlapping with that of the net-naive subjects, showed more extensive regions of activation ( Figures 1 and 2 ). This cortical network included regions that control mental activities supporting tasks required for internet searches, including decision-making, working memory, and the ability to suppress nonrelevant information. Moreover, net-savvy participants showed a pattern of activation that was reduced after the training. This reduction is consistent with our hypothesis that the brain becomes more efficient and possibly habituates to the internet task over time. Overall, these findings suggest that internet searching for relatively short periods of time can change brain-activity patterns in middle-aged and older adults.


Other groups have explored the effects of internet-search training on brain structure and function. Dong and associates 40 studied the influence of short-term internet-search training on white-matter microstructure via diffusion tensor imaging. After 6 training days, they found that the 59 participants (mean age 21 years) showed increased fractional anisotropy (diffusion tensor imaging scans) in the right superior longitudinal fasciculus and within that region, decreased radial diffusivity. These findings suggest that short-term internet-search training may increase white-matter integrity in the right superior longitudinal fasciculus, which could result from increased myelination. 


Shapira and colleagues 41 assessed the psychological effects of learning computer and internet-search methods. They offered a course to 22 older adults (mean age 80 years), who were compared with 26 participants engaged in other activities. The investigators reported significant improvements in the intervention group in measures of life satisfaction, depression, loneliness, and self-control after 4 months, whereas the control group showed declines in each of these measures. These findings suggest that computer and internet training contribute to older adults’ well-being and sense of empowerment.


White and associates 42 performed a randomized controlled trial assessing the psychosocial impact of internet access to older adults during a 5-month period. The intervention group (n=29) received 9 hours of training (6 sessions over 2 weeks) and experienced less loneliness, less depression, and more positive attitudes toward computers than controls (n=19) who were not regular internet users.


Cognitive training


Memory ability
.

Findings showing that mental stimulation and cognitive training improve memory in older adults 43 , 44 have led to the development of several memory apps and computer games. Miller and associates 45 explored whether computerized brain-training exercises (Dakim Brain Fitness) improved cognitive performance in older adults without dementia (mean age of 82 years). Subjects were randomized into an intervention group (n=36) that used a computer program 5 days a week for 20 to 25 minutes each day, or a wait-list control group (n=33). Neuropsychological testing at baseline, 2 months, and 6 months showed that the intervention group improved significantly in delayed memory, and the control group did not. Moreover, participants who played the computer program for at least 40 sessions over 6 months improved in immediate memory, delayed memory, and language. These findings point to the potential benefit of cognitive training using a computerized, self-paced program. 


In a meta-analysis of computerized cognitive training, investigators found an overall moderate effect on cognition in mild cognitive impairment across 17 trials. 46 Small to moderate effects were reported for global cognition, attention, working memory, and learning abilities.


Multitasking skills


Multitasking has been defined as performing two simultaneous tasks, which is only possible when the tasks are automatic, but it can also refer to rapid switching between tasks. Research has shown that such task switching increases error rates. 47 Multitasking is common thanks to widespread technology use, and multiple studies point to its negative impact on cognitive performance. 48 However, certain computer games may enhance multitasking, one of the cognitive domains that declines in a linear fashion across the lifespan. 48 


Anguera and colleagues 49 trained volunteers (ages 60 to 85 years) over 4 weeks using a videogame called NeuroRacer, in which players control a car on a winding road while responding to signs that randomly appear. Out of 46 participants, 16 were trained in multitasking (both driving and sign reading), 15 in single-tasking mode (active controls; either sign reading or driving), and 15 received no training (no-contact controls). Only the multitasking training group showed significant improvements in performance scores, which not only exceeded that of untrained individuals in their twenties but was maintained for 6 months without additional training. Moreover, the multitasking training improved other cognitive skills, including working memory and divided and sustained attention.


Working memory and fluid intelligence


Fluid intelligence refers to the capacity to reason and think flexibly and requires working memory, the ability to retain information over a brief period of time. Investigators have found that training in working memory may improve fluid intelligence. 50 , 51 Jaeggi and associates 52 used a training program (n-back task) to investigate the effects of working-memory training on fluid intelligence. Healthy subjects (n=70) were randomized into working-memory training groups that were further randomized according to number of training sessions (8, 12, 17, or 19 days), or a control group that received no training. All subjects received pre- and post-testing on a measure of fluid intelligence at the same time intervals. The four groups not only showed significant improvements in working memory, but also on tests of fluid intelligence. Moreover, results demonstrated that the longer the training period, the greater the improvement in fluid intelligence. These results indicated successful transfer of improved working memory to improved fluid intelligence measures with a dose-dependent training effect. 


Visual attention and reaction time


Videogames have been popular for decades, and many gamers who began playing in the 1980s have continued to play through adulthood. Despite potential negative health effects of excessive playing (eg, attention deficits, social withdrawal, increased risk of obesity), recent research suggests potential benefits, such as improved visual attention processing, spatial visualization, reaction time, and mental rotation. Green and Bavelier 53 have shown that playing action videogames more than 4 days per week (at least 1 hour each day) for 6 months enhances visual attention (ie, the ability to recognize and process visual information), spatial attention over the visual field, and task-switching abilities.


Rosser and colleagues 54 examined a potential link between action videogaming and laparoscopic surgical skills and suturing. Surgeons who played videogames more than 3 hours each week made 37% fewer surgical errors, were 27% faster in response times, and scored 42% better in measures of laparoscopic and suturing skills than surgeons who do not play videogames. Moreover, the most experienced players in specific videogames (Super Monkey Ball 2, Star Wars Racer Revenge, and Silent Scope) made 47% fewer errors and performed 39% faster. These findings suggest that playing action videogames can improve cognitive and motor skills that improve surgical skills and lower error rates in the operating room.


Other mental health interventions


Technological advances have brought about novel approaches for delivering mental health support and interventions in the form of apps for smartphones or tablets, as well as through telepsychiatry. Internet-based mental health interventions offer the advantages of accessibility, cost-effectiveness, and anonymity. Between 2009 and 2015, the National Institute of Mental Health awarded more than 400 grants totaling $445 million for technology-enhanced mental-health interventions to further investigate roles for technology in preventing and treating mental disorders. 55 


Investigators have studied the efficacy of various online mental health interventions. For example, Peter and colleagues 56 found that an online, 4-week intervention using cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia reduced depression and insomnia ratings at levels comparable to traditional face-to-face interventions. Segal and associates 57 evaluated the effectiveness of treating residual depressive symptoms with a web-based program that delivers mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. They found that use of this program in addition to usual depression care significantly improved depression and functional outcomes compared with usual depression care alone.


Several digital mental health applications have been developed or are in development, such as self-management apps that provide user feedback (eg, medication reminders, stress management tips, heart rate, and breathing patterns). Other programs provide skills training using educational videos on anxiety management or the importance of social support. Some applications have the capacity to collect data using smartphone sensors that record movement patterns, social interactions (eg, number of texts and phone calls), and other behaviors throughout the day.


Despite some promising early research, systematic studies demonstrating the efficacy of these emerging apps are limited. A recent review 58 indicated that only 3% of downloadable apps had research to justify their effectiveness claims, and most of that research was performed by the program developers. Another recent survey 59 of online-technology use to support mental health and well-being indicated that smartphone apps were the most commonly used technology: 78% of respondents used them either alone or in combination with other technologies. The apps that are being used provide guided activities, relaxation, and tracking; social media and discussion forums; and web-based programs to assist in the management of daily stress and anxiety.


Conclusions


Research on the brain-health consequences of digital technology is beginning to elucidate how these novel devices and programs can both help and harm brain function. Their frequent use heightens ADHD symptoms, interferes with emotional and social intelligence, can lead to addictive behaviors, increases social isolation, and interferes with brain development and sleep. However, specific programs, videogames, and other online tools may provide mental exercises that activate neural circuitry, improve cognitive functioning, reduce anxiety, increase restful sleep, and offer other brain-health benefits. Future research needs to elucidate underlying mechanisms and causal relationships between technology use and brain health, with a focus on both the positive and negative impact of digital technology use.


Acknowledgments

The University of California, Los Angeles, owns a US patent (6,274,119) entitled “Methods for Labeling β-Amyloid Plaques and Neurofibrillary Tangles,” which has been licensed to Ceremark Pharma, LLC. Dr Small is among the inventors and is a cofounder of Ceremark Pharma, LLC. Dr Small also reports having served as an advisor to and/or having received lecture fees from AARP, Acadia, Avanir, Genentech, Handok, Herbalife, Medscape, RB Health, Roche, Theravalues, and WebMD, and having received research funds from The Wonderful Company. Supported in part by the Parlow-Solomon Professorship on Aging

Technology and Its Impact in the World Essay

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Introduction

Technology impacts, works cited.

Technology is defined as the use of tools, techniques and methods of organization in solving real world problems, which aims at performing specific tasks.

Technology has a profound root in the society; this is because today’s world relies on the advances in technology. These advances in technology in today’s world has sped people’s lives and made the world a smaller place to live in as it makes different locations closer to one another.

In addition, the fact that technology has become omnipresent in the world today due to its widespread use, is vital because it helps people in carrying out their chores in their daily livelihood. It is therefore important that the technology that exists be easily adaptable and able to solve the current world issues as human progress rate is increasing at an alarming rate (Oak 1).

The advances in technology have brought huge changes in the world today. Some of the areas where technology has brought important changes are as follows. First, technology has enabled the world in automating its critical processes in industries and households. The automobile industry has evolved from mechanical to automated automobiles simply because of the driving force that is technology.

Technology is applicable in performing tasks that are not accessible to man and are vital in automating crucial industrial processes. The technologies that are applicable when performing these crucial tasks include the use of robotics and artificial intelligence in carrying out challenging tasks such as space exploration and mining (Oak 1).

Another positive effect of technology is that it has changed the manner of communication. This has been made possible through the use computer technology; computers have the ability to process huge chunks of data at one go. Information digitization has proved to be a vital technology platform since it has made it possible in storing information and helps in enriching the information quality.

The advances in technology enable harnessing of water from natural sources to homes through robust transmission systems. Technology has brought the discovery of electricity that is important in lighting up the world. Electricity is easily generated by using renewable energy resources.

On the other hand, with all the advances in technology, it is unimaginable that technology has its side effects in the society even when the world is at the epitome of technology. In the medical technology world, technology can affect and also harm patients in cases where it involves a machine that has radiation rays.

On environmental technology, there is a lot of waste in terms of chemicals, which directly go back to the environment. Lastly, technology has a negative impact on people since they tend to be lazy and rely mostly on technology (Oak 1).

In conclusion, the advances brought about by technologies, which are the Internet, cell phones, and notebook computers are vital necessity for daily living. Due to these advances, it is easy for us to forget about those who suffer while attempting to provide for their basic needs, such as clean water, food and health care.

It is a good gesture by the developed world to make use of their technologies to help the underprivileged groups of people in the society. Through the continuous use of these technologies, there are advances that targets medical services, improved economy based on the Internet, emerging technologies in information systems sector, advanced farming methods and industrial sectors.

More importantly, educational needs for the people are taken into consideration by these technologies, since they help them become prosperous nations who do not require help from others but are able to get their own resources. Moreover, transferring technology from the developed world to the developing world has various benefits. There will be improvement in living standards, production efficiency and become a base for economic growth (Oak 1).

Oak, Manali. “ Positive Effects of Technology on Society .” Buzzle. 2011. Web.

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1. IvyPanda . "Technology and Its Impact in the World." June 11, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/impact-of-technology-in-the-world/.

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IvyPanda . "Technology and Its Impact in the World." June 11, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/impact-of-technology-in-the-world/.

The Impact of Digital Literacy and Technology Adoption on Financial Inclusion: Evidence from Emerging Economies in Africa, Asia, and Latin America

19 Pages Posted: 29 Aug 2024 Publication Status: Under Review

Higher Institute of Commerce and Business Administration; École Supérieure de Commerce et des Affaires (ESCA)

This paper explores the impact of digital literacy and new technology adoption on financial inclusion in emerging markets. It examines the joint effect of digital maturity and blockchain adoption on access to secure, transparent, and efficient financial services in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Using a two-step system GMM model, we analyze data from 56 emerging countries (2011-2021) and find robust empirical evidence on the significant impact of digital infrastructure, digital financial maturity, and new technology adoption on financial inclusion. Results vary by region: digital literacy positively impacts financial inclusion in Africa but negatively in Asia, while new technology adoption promotes financial inclusion in both Asia and Latin America. Additionally, internet penetration boosts financial inclusion in Latin America but negatively affects it in Asia. Government intervention negatively impacts financial inclusion in Africa but promotes it in Asia.

Keywords: Financial inclusion, Artificial intelligence, Blockchain, digital literacy, Emerging countries

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Nabil Adel (Contact Author)

Higher institute of commerce and business administration ( email ), école supérieure de commerce et des affaires (esca) ( email ), do you have a job opening that you would like to promote on ssrn, paper statistics, related ejournals, io: productivity, innovation & technology ejournal.

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The Impact of Technology on Communication

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Published: Feb 7, 2024

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Introduction, marc’s argument, carly’s argument, synthesis of marc and carly’s arguments.

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A Case Study on the Impact of Brand Image on Customer Buying Behaviour with Special Reference to Nilgiris Supermarket in Mangalore

• Harish S. Pai
• Published in INTERANTIONAL JOURNAL OF… 15 January 2024

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