conclusion of language acquisition essay

• Language Acquisition and Multilinguism in Theories Words: 1651
• Language Acquisition and Learning Methods Words: 1103
• The Main Language Development Theories Words: 1228
• Theories of Language and Thinking Words: 1142
• The Origins of Language Words: 853
• Development as a Language Learner Words: 1940
• Children Language Acquisition. Words: 2320
• How Do Human Infants Acquire a Language? Words: 661
• Language Acquisition Models Comparison Words: 909
• Culture and Second Language Acquisition Words: 1056
• Linguistics: Is There a ‘Superior’ Language? Words: 1262
• Exposing Babies to More Than One Language Words: 1692
• Second Language Acquisition and Different Age Ranges Words: 1685
• The Learning of the Second Language Words: 2483
• The Status of English as an International Language Words: 4114

Language Acquisition Concept and Theories

Introduction.

One of the most important topics in cognitive studies is language acquisition. A number of theories have attempted to explore the different conceptualization of language as a fundamental uniqueness that separates humans from other animals and non-living things (Pinker& Bloom, 1990). Similarly, Pinker (1994) recognizes language as a vehicle which engineers humans to know other people’s thoughts, and therefore, he reasons that the two (language and thought) are closely related. He adds that when one speaks his/her thoughts, he depicts some language. Else, he notes that a child’s first language is often times learnt well enough in the earlier periods of his life without having to be taught in school. With this astonishment, he believes children language acquisition has received a lot of attention in scholarly circles and debates (Pinker, 1994).

Indeed, accordingly, acquisition of language goes beyond it being interesting, but is an answer to the study of cognitive science. The recognition here is the many facets that language acquisition studies come with. These include Modularity, Human Uniqueness, Language and Thought, and Language and Innateness.

Historically, the scientific study of language and the way it is learnt began in the late 1950s, supposedly the time around which cognitive studies were launched. Pinker observes that the anchor of this was when Noam Chomsky reviewed Skinner’s verbal behavior (Pinker, 1994).

Understanding Language Acquisition

Language acquisition can be understood biologically. The understanding here is that human language came to be based upon the unique adaptations that the body and mind developed during the process of evolution (Pinker& Bloom, 1990).

Language and Evolution

Pinker (2000) begins by indicating that human’s vocal tracks appear to have been modified to respond to the demands of evolution. In addition, this is the basis of speech. Pinker (2000), citing Lieberman (1984) argues that the larynx is at the base of the throats and that the vocal tracts have a sharp right angle bend that creates two independently modified cavities.

The process/course of Language Acquisition

Pink and Bloom (1990) assert that a number of scholars and thinkers alike, have kept diaries of children’s speech for a long time, and it was only later that children’s speech began to be analyzed in developmental psychology. Language acquisition begins at a very early stage in human’s life span. This usually stems initially with Sound Patterns. Pinker notes that within the earliest five years of an individual’s existence, children acquire control of speech musculature and sensitivity to the phonetic distinctions in the maiden mother tongue. In addition, children acquire these skills even before they know or understand any words, and therefore at this stage, they only relate sound to meaning (Kuhl, 1992).

When a child is almost hitting one-year age mark, he slowly begins to muster and understand words, and eventually produce them. Interestingly, at this stage they produce the word in ‘isolation’, that is one word at a time, with this period lasting two to twelve months. The words they produce at this stage are similar the world over and include words such as baba, baby among others, and others such as up, off, eat (Pinker& Bloom, 1990).

At about the time a child is 1 year and 6 months, two changes in language acquisition occurs. One is that there is an increase in vocabulary growth and two is that primitive syntax emerges. When Vocabulary growth increases, the child systematically starts learning “words at a rate of one every two waking hours, and will keep learning that rate or faster through adolescence” (Pinker, 1994). Primitive syntax on the other hand involves ‘two word strings’; examples of such include expressions such as ‘see baby’, ‘more hot‘, among others. These two-word expressions, Pinker notes, are similar the world over; for instance, everywhere, children reject and request for activities and therefore ask about who, what and where (Pinker& Bloom, 1990).

Overall, “these sequences already reflect the language being acquired: in 95% of them, the words are properly ordered” (Ingram, 1989). More interestingly is the fact that before they put the words, they can at this stage fathom a sentence by use of syntax. Notably is the fact that the struggle and output depends on the complexity of the sentence at this stage.

Between the time Children are almost going through year two up to mid of year three of age, language evolves to fluency and blossoms into good grammatical expressions and the reasons for this rapidity is still subject of research to today. At this stage, the length of the sentences that the children produce increase steadily and the number of syntax types increases steadily as well (Pinker& Bloom, 1990).

Pinker (1994), notes that children may differ in language development by a span of 1 year. Regardless, the stages they go through in language development remain the same and many children acquire and can speak complex sentences before their second age. At the stage of grammar explosion, the sentences get longer and more complex, even though at age three children’s may have grammatical challenges of one nature or the other (Pinker, 1994).

Language System and Its maturation

A number of scholars have observed that as language circuits mature in a child’s early years so is language acquisition, i.e. a child masters language development from the initial years of his/her birth and the process continues as the child’s brain develops during his/her life (Pinker, 1994). He notes that it is usually nerve cell degenerate shortly before birth, and it is also during this time that they are allocated to brain. However, he observes that an individuals “head size, brain weight, and thickness of the cerebral cortex” continue to rapidly increase over the first year of birth (Pinker, 1994).

White matter is not fully complete until after the child gets to nine months of age. The emergence of synapses will continue and reach climax when one is between 9 months to 2 years; however, this is usually dependent relative on the brain region. The development process continues and as the synapses wither, adolescence sets, with the individual showing signs of transforming from childhood to adulthood.

What accrues here, accordingly therefore is that perhaps “first words, and grammar require minimum levels of brain size, long-distance connections, or extra synapses, particularly in the language centers of the brain” (Pinker, 1994). In addition, the assumption can also be that these changes are the rationale behind the low ability to learn language overtime as people age over a lifespan (Pinker, 1994).

This probably explains why most people in their adulthood cannot master foreign languages especially in their native accent and especially in the language aspect of phonology, and this is what leads to what is now popularly called referred to as foreign accent. No teaching or amount of correction can usually undo the errors that characterizes ‘foreign accent’. However, as Pinker notes, there exists differences depending on one’s efforts, attitudes, degree of exposure, teaching quality, and sometimes, plain talent. However, there is no empirical evidence that adduces learning of words as people age (Pinker, 1994).

Explaining Language Acquisition: Learnerbility Theory

Several theories have been developed in understanding language acquisition. One such theory is the learnerbility theory. This is a computer mathematical theory of language, which deals with learning procedures for children in acquiring grammar, riding on language evidence and exposure. For instance, a learning procedure is taken as an infinite loop running through endless tings of inputs, which are grammatical as chosen from a particular language. This theory by Gold largely shows that innate knowledge of universal grammar assists in learning (Pullum, 2000).

Language acquisition is a complicated issue that needs an elaborate research and study; indeed, some of the tenets of this issue have been addressed in this paper. It is a very central issue in understanding human growth and development. It captures a number of conceptualizations that relate directly to the Universal versus Context Specific development modules, as well as nature versus nurture controversy. Moreover, attempts to understand language scientifically has brought a number of frustrations, with a number of break thoughts as well. All in all, it is important to note that language acquisition begins from the initial periods of a child’s development and continues as the child grows.

Kuhl, P. K. (1992). Brain Mechanisms in Early Language Acquisition. Neuron Review. Web.

Pinker, S. (1994). Language Leanerbility and Language Development . Cambridge: Havard University Press. Web.

Pinker, S. (2000). Language Acquisition . Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Web.

Pinker, S. & Bloom, P. (1990). Natural language and natural selection . Behavioral and Brain Science. Web.

Pullum, G. (2000) . Learnerbilty . New York. Web.

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Language Acquisition Theory

Henna Lemetyinen

Postdoctoral Researcher

BSc (Hons), Psychology, PhD, Developmental Psychology

Henna Lemetyinen is a postdoctoral research associate at the Greater Manchester Mental Health NHS Foundation Trust (GMMH).

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Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

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On This Page:

Language is a cognition that truly makes us human. Whereas other species do communicate with an innate ability to produce a limited number of meaningful vocalizations (e.g., bonobos) or even with partially learned systems (e.g., bird songs), there is no other species known to date that can express infinite ideas (sentences) with a limited set of symbols (speech sounds and words).

This ability is remarkable in itself. What makes it even more remarkable is that researchers are finding evidence for mastery of this complex skill in increasingly younger children.

Infants as young as 12 months are reported to have sensitivity to the grammar needed to understand causative sentences (who did what to whom; e.g., the bunny pushed the frog (Rowland & Noble, 2010).

After more than 60 years of research into child language development, the mechanism that enables children to segment syllables and words out of the strings of sounds they hear and to acquire grammar to understand and produce language is still quite an enigma.

Behaviorist Theory of Language Acquisition

One of the earliest scientific explanations of language acquisition was provided by Skinner (1957). As one of the pioneers of behaviorism , he accounted for language development using environmental influence, through imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning.

In this view, children learn words and grammar primarily by mimicking the speech they hear and receiving positive feedback for correct usage.

Skinner argued that children learn language based on behaviorist reinforcement principles by associating words with meanings. Correct utterances are positively reinforced when the child realizes the communicative value of words and phrases.

For example, when the child says ‘milk’ and the mother smiles and gives her some. As a result, the child will find this outcome rewarding, enhancing the child’s language development (Ambridge & Lieven, 2011).

Over time, through repetition and reinforcement, they refine their linguistic abilities. Critics argue this theory doesn’t fully explain the rapid pace of language acquisition nor the creation of novel sentences.

Chomsky Theory of Language Development

However, Skinner’s account was soon heavily criticized by Noam Chomsky, the world’s most famous linguist to date.

In the spirit of the cognitive revolution in the 1950s, Chomsky argued that children would never acquire the tools needed for processing an infinite number of sentences if the language acquisition mechanism was dependent on language input alone.

Noam Chomsky introduced the nativist theory of language development, emphasizing the role of innate structures and mechanisms in the human brain. Key points of Chomsky’s theory include:

Language Acquisition Device (LAD): Chomsky proposed that humans have an inborn biological capacity for language, often termed the LAD, which predisposes them to acquire language.

Universal Grammar: He suggested that all human languages share a deep structure rooted in a set of grammatical rules and categories. This “universal grammar” is understood intuitively by all humans.

Poverty of the Stimulus: Chomsky argued that the linguistic input received by young children is often insufficient (or “impoverished”) for them to learn the complexities of their native language solely through imitation or reinforcement. Yet, children rapidly and consistently master their native language, pointing to inherent cognitive structures.

Critical Period: Chomsky, along with other linguists, posited a critical period for language acquisition, during which the brain is particularly receptive to linguistic input, making language learning more efficient.

Critics of Chomsky’s theory argue that it’s too innatist and doesn’t give enough weight to social interaction and other factors in language acquisition.

Universal Grammar

Consequently, he proposed the theory of Universal Grammar: an idea of innate, biological grammatical categories, such as a noun category and a verb category, that facilitate the entire language development in children and overall language processing in adults.

Universal Grammar contains all the grammatical information needed to combine these categories, e.g., nouns and verbs, into phrases. The child’s task is just to learn the words of her language (Ambridge & Lieven).

For example, according to the Universal Grammar account, children instinctively know how to combine a noun (e.g., a boy) and a verb (to eat) into a meaningful, correct phrase (A boy eats).

This Chomskian (1965) approach to language acquisition has inspired hundreds of scholars to investigate the nature of these assumed grammatical categories, and the research is still ongoing.

Contemporary Research

A decade or two later, some psycho-linguists began to question the existence of Universal Grammar. They argued that categories like nouns and verbs are biologically, evolutionarily, and psychologically implausible and that the field called for an account that can explain the acquisition process without innate categories.

Researchers started to suggest that instead of having a language-specific mechanism for language processing, children might utilize general cognitive and learning principles.

Whereas researchers approaching the language acquisition problem from the perspective of Universal Grammar argue for early full productivity, i.e., early adult-like knowledge of the language, the opposing constructivist investigators argue for a more gradual developmental process. It is suggested that children are sensitive to patterns in language which enables the acquisition process.

An example of this gradual pattern learning is morphology acquisition. Morphemes are the smallest grammatical markers, or units, in language that alter words. In English, regular plurals are marked with an –s morpheme (e.g., dog+s).

Similarly, English third singular verb forms (she eat+s, a boy kick+s) are marked with the –s morpheme. Children are considered to acquire their first instances of third singular forms as entire phrasal chunks (Daddy kicks, a girl eats, a dog barks) without the ability to tease the finest grammatical components apart.

When the child hears a sufficient number of instances of a linguistic construction (i.e., the third singular verb form), she will detect patterns across the utterances she has heard. In this case, the repeated pattern is the –s marker in this particular verb form.

As a result of many repetitions and examples of the –s marker in different verbs, the child will acquire sophisticated knowledge that, in English, verbs must be marked with an –s morpheme in the third singular form (Ambridge & Lieven, 2011; Pine, Conti-Ramsden, Joseph, Lieven & Serratrice, 2008; Theakson & Lieven, 2005).

Approaching language acquisition from the perspective of general cognitive processing is an economic account of how children can learn their first language without an excessive biolinguistic mechanism.

However, finding a solid answer to the problem of language acquisition is far from being over. Our current understanding of the developmental process is still immature.

Investigators of Universal Grammar are still trying to convince that language is a task too demanding to acquire without specific innate equipment, whereas constructivist researchers are fiercely arguing for the importance of linguistic input.

The biggest questions, however, are yet unanswered. What is the exact process that transforms the child’s utterances into grammatically correct, adult-like speech? How much does the child need to be exposed to language to achieve the adult-like state?

What account can explain variation between languages and the language acquisition process in children acquiring very different languages to English? The mystery of language acquisition is granted to keep psychologists and linguists alike astonished decade after decade.

What is language acquisition?

Language acquisition refers to the process by which individuals learn and develop their native or second language.

It involves the acquisition of grammar, vocabulary, and communication skills through exposure, interaction, and cognitive development. This process typically occurs in childhood but can continue throughout life.

What is Skinner’s theory of language development?

Skinner’s theory of language development, also known as behaviorist theory, suggests that language is acquired through operant conditioning. According to Skinner, children learn language by imitating and being reinforced for correct responses.

He argued that language is a result of external stimuli and reinforcement, emphasizing the role of the environment in shaping linguistic behavior.

What is Chomsky’s theory of language acquisition?

Chomsky’s theory of language acquisition, known as Universal Grammar, posits that language is an innate capacity of humans.

According to Chomsky, children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), a biological ability that enables them to acquire language rules and structures effortlessly.

He argues that there are universal grammar principles that guide language development across cultures and languages, suggesting that language acquisition is driven by innate linguistic knowledge rather than solely by environmental factors.

Ambridge, B., & Lieven, E.V.M. (2011). Language Acquisition: Contrasting theoretical approaches . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax . MIT Press.

Pine, J.M., Conti-Ramsden, G., Joseph, K.L., Lieven, E.V.M., & Serratrice, L. (2008). Tense over time: testing the Agreement/Tense Omission Model as an account of the pattern of tense-marking provision in early child English. Journal of Child Language , 35(1): 55-75.

Rowland, C. F.; & Noble, C. L. (2010). The role of syntactic structure in children’s sentence comprehension: Evidence from the dative. Language Learning and Development , 7(1): 55-75.

Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal behavior . Acton, MA: Copley Publishing Group.

Theakston, A.L., & Lieven, E.V.M. (2005). The acquisition of auxiliaries BE and HAVE: an elicitation study. Journal of Child Language , 32(2): 587-616.

Further Reading

An excellent article by Steven Pinker on Language Acquisition

Pinker, S. (1995). The New Science of Language and Mind . Penguin.

Tomasello, M. (2005). Constructing A Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition . Harvard University Press.

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Main Theories of Language Acquisition

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Language Acquisition, Change and Emergence—Essays in Evolutionary Linguistics

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• the genetic and cognitive bases for the phylogenetic emergence of language;
• several distinct accounts of the underlying cognitive processes by which children learn to acquire language;
• a critique of the methods employed by historical linguists in the last century;
• the modeling of language evolution using mathematical and computational techniques;
• discussions on the complexity of language.

1.   Introduction   Part 1 — Language Emergence 2.   Speech and language — A human trait defined by molecular       genetics  3.   Conceptual complexity and the brain: Understanding language       origins 4.   The emergence of grammar from perspective  5.   Polygenesis of linguistic strategies: A scenario for the emergence of       languages   Part 2 — Language Acquisition 6.   Multiple-cue integration in language acquisition: A connectionist       model of speech segmentation and rule-like behavior  7.   Unsupervised lexical learning as inductive inference via compression 8.   The origin of linguistic irregularity   Part 3 — Language Change 9.   The language organism: The Leiden theory of language evolution  10. Taxonomy, typology and historical linguistics  11. Modeling language evolution

Part 4 — Language and Complexity 12. Language and complexity 13. Language acquisition as a complex adaptive system 14. How many meanings does a word have? Meaning estimation in       Chinese and English 15. Typology and complexity

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Extended Essay

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• World studies extended essay
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• Language Acquisition

Language Acquisition Sample B

Extended Essay: Exemplar Commentary
Subject	Language B English	If applicable, theme for WSEE
If applicable, category for language essays	Category 3	If applicable, subjects used for WSEE
Title of essay	Real life violence against children compared to that depicted in fiction
Essay number	B	Examination session	May 2014
Assessment of extended essay
Criteria	Mark awarded	Commentary
A: Focus and method [6]	2	The topic is communicated, but the purpose and explanation remain vague. The intention of the question is understood, but is not clearly linked to the Research question as stated. Methodology and how the sources will be used is not well set out, apart from mentioning the novel. From the introduction, it is not entirely clear what direction the candidate has chosen for the discussion that follows.
B: Knowledge and understanding [6]	3	There is a basic knowledge of the plot of the novel and a number of examples of police or government violence in Brazil. Though the material used is mostly relevant, the connection to “overpopulation” is not very clear. Thus, the depth of understanding is somewhat dubious. The claim that overpopulation is a cause for violence works for the novel, but is strained in the examples from Brazil. Over-crowded conditions is partly related but not well explained.
C: Critical thinking [12]	5	The research is heavily dependent on plot summary in the case of the novel; however, the historical incidents in Brazil are well chosen. Unfortunately, the candidate has trouble clearly articulating the connection between these different contexts, though the idea is relevant and not lost on the reader. The conclusions are rather weakly put forward and only partly supported by the evidence. The weakness of the Research question is mirrored in the weaknesses apparent in the argument.
D: Presentation [4]	3	The essay structure is generally appropriate and the expected elements of an essay (title, introduction, conclusion, bibliography etc) are included, though the section titles of “Introduction”, “Body”, and “Conclusion” do not contribute to the subject whatsoever. The references are appropriate when used and the bibliography is properly set out. Overall, the weaknesses do not significantly impact the reader.
E: Engagement [6] (not included)		The assessment of an accompanying RPPF will affect the overall mark awarded and the grade achieved.
Total marks awarded	13	The student, though enthusiastic and engaged, has some language challenges as evidenced by the lack of a clear explanation of the connection between the incidents in the novel and those in Brazil in the past. The sources are appropriate for the topic, but neither the Research question nor the comparison is well articulated, which is reflected in the argument as well. Reading beyond the difficulties in language, the student does make an interesting comparison between the reasons for apparent state-sponsored violence toward children. The explanation of the topic seems a little too sophisticated for the candidate.

Language_acquisition Sample C

Extended Essay: Exemplar Commentary
Subject	Language B English	If applicable, theme for WSEE
If applicable, category for language essays	Category 2b	If applicable, subjects used for WSEE
Title of essay	The changing perceptions of women's football in Great Britain
Essay number	C	Examination session	May 2014
Assessment of extended essay
Criteria	Mark awarded	Commentary
A: Focus and method [6]	4	The candidate does identify and try to explain the Research question; however, as a category 2b essay (presumably women's football as a cultural icon or artifact), the focus of the essay seems somewhat clear in a descriptive historical sense, but is only partially appropriate because it does not focus on illustrating the changes in perception clearly (eg through changes in language or other clear measures). It would be useful to decide precisely what kind of evidence should be used to illustrate the change.
B: Knowledge and understanding [6]	4	There is a general knowledge of the topic evident, especially historically. Sources are adequate, though not always used to full advantage, eg the statistics on spectator attraction and the gender-biased language. The descriptive emphasis is only partly appropriate and limits evidence of understanding. The language and use of terminology are adequate.
C: Critical thinking [12]	6	The structure of the argument is vague, but there is potential. There is an attempt to present early attitudes toward the sport, but too much attention is given to historical developments that do not clearly show changing attitudes. The brief references to language in the media and later increased spectatorship show some thought, but are never exploited to contribute significantly to the argument. Thus, only some of the research and analysis is directly relevant and some key points are only partially supported or developed. The conclusion is mostly consistent, but remains somewhat superficial. It is an interesting idea, but not quite sharp enough in the presentation of the argument to earn higher marks.
D: Presentation [4]	3	The presentation contains all the required layout elements of an essay (title, TOC, introduction, conclusion, bibliography, etc) and the structure shows evidence of some planning. The references are generally appropriate. There are, however, some inconsistencies in the presentation of information and appropriate explanation as seen, for example, in the spectator graph.
E: Engagement [6] (not included)		The assessment of an accompanying RPPF will affect the overall mark awarded and the grade achieved.
Total marks awarded	17/28	This is an interesting topic that is appropriate for Language B, though it does lack focus on the concrete evidence illustrating how attitudes have changed over time. The historical approach is limited and focuses more on the early struggles. The “turning point” is not made very clear and more modern developments are left by the wayside. The number of spectators alone is not sufficient to show a change in perception. The lack of measurable evidence weakens the argument overall, resulting in a satisfactory but not insightful attempt to present the material. Please note: as a result of modifying existing extended essays for illustrative purposes, not all exemplars have an accompanying RPPF for assessment under criterion E (this is a mandatory element for all essays as of 2018). As a result, this essay has been marked out of 28 rather than 34.

• Last Updated: Oct 14, 2021 3:31 PM
• URL: https://keystoneacademy-cn.libguides.com/extended-essay

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Virtual Gilman Writing Workshop - Getting Started on the Three Essays!

Wednesday, September 11, 2024 4:00 p.m. - 5:00 p.m. Online Faculty, Staff, Students

Gilman Program Application Is Now Open ! 

NOW is the time to start on your essays by opening an application account in the IIE Gilman portal.  You will want to work closely with Katie Jones, the Graduate Assistant in the Fellowships Office and Dr. Brenda Tooley, who leads the GVSU Fellowship Office. In this Virtual Workshop, we will go over the three required essays, talking about the prompts for each. 

You’ll want to copy us on your google doc drafts of your essays – just use my gmail address, [email protected] (we work just like the Writing Center). Definitely DO NOT WAIT until the last minute to begin working on your essays! 

What is the IIE Gilman International Scholarship? It is a US State Department fellowship for US students who are Pell recipients to help defray the cost of undergraduate study abroad. Here is the Gilman blurb:

The U.S. Department of State’s Benjamin A. Gilman International Scholarship Program enables students of limited financial means (Pell recipients) to study or intern abroad, providing awards of up to $5,000 for study-abroad programs. The program aims to encourage students to study and intern in a diverse array of countries or areas and world regions. The program also encourages students to study languages, especially critical need languages (those deemed important to national security by adding a supplement of up to $3,000 for intensive language study of designated critical need languages). Are you planning to study abroad? Are you eligible for the IIE Benjamin A. Gilman International Scholarship? Join us to learn more about the application process!

AM I ELIGIBLE?

-  I am a U.S. citizen.

-  I am a GVSU undergraduate  in good standing  (not on probation; with no conduct violations).  Spring/Summer Applicants can walk at April graduation but their degree cannot be conferred until after they complete their study abroad program.

-  I am eligible for the  Pell Grant .    Not sure?  Ask  GVSU Financial Aid Office .

OR  —  dependent child of an active-duty military member(s) during the time of application . Parent/guardian must serve in the Air Force, Army, Marine Corps, Navy, or Coast Guard. Applicant must currently receive any type of Title IV federal financial aid. Study abroad program must meet all other Gilman eligibility. The  Gilman-McCain Scholarship uses the same application as the Gilman Scholarship .

Thinking about study abroad? Receive up to $5,000 to go abroad as a college student if you’re a U.S. citizen and Federal Pell Grant recipient! If you’re studying a critical need language in a country in which the language is predominantly spoken, you can apply for the supplemental Critical Need Language Award of up to $3,000. If you’re interested in conducting STEM-related research while studying or interning abroad, you could receive an additional $1,000 by applying for the STEM Supplemental Award.

The application closes October 10! Learn more at Gilman Scholarship Program - Study Abroad with a Gilman Scholarship . And see Application Overview - Benjamin A. Gilman International Scholarship (gilmanscholarship.org) for an overview of the application process!

And this is ONLY ONE of MANY fellowship opportunities that help with the costs of study abroad - others include IIE Freeman-Asia, Phi Kappa Phi, Bridging (for study in Japan), Watanabe (for year-long study in Japan), Boren (for intensive language study of a critical need language) and more.

Click here for additional information

RSVP for this event

Location Information

The information session will take place via Zoom. Once registered you will receive a link to the session. 

Contact Information

For information about this and other fellowships, email [email protected] .

academic careercenter cuse fellowships international studyabroad

This event was added to the calendar by Brenda Tooley ( tooleyb@gvsu.edu ) on Thursday, August 22, 2024 and was last updated on Wednesday, August 28, 2024 at 8:26 a.m.

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The Effects of Problem-Based Learning on the Writing Skills of Students Across Various Personality Types

• Jumariati Jumariati Universitas Lambung Mangkurat
• Elvina Arapah Universitas Lambung Mangkurat

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an approach where group discussions and collaboration are apparent during problem-solving activities. Accordingly, learners’ personality types that affect the way they think, feel, behave, and interact may potentially have a role in PBL classrooms. This study tries to reveal the possible roles personality types play in PBL by investigating the effects of PBL on the argumentative essay writing of both extroverted and introverted students. This study employed a quasi-experimental design by randomly selecting students in academic writing courses for both the experimental and comparison groups and involving them in the intact classes. The findings revealed that the students in the PBL group scored higher than those in the guided writing group. Moreover, the extroverted students in the PBL group achieved higher mean scores than the extroverted students in the comparison group; however, the difference was insignificant. On the contrary, the statistical analysis showed that the introverted students in the experimental group outperformed those in the comparison group. This is to say that the introverted students taught using PBL had better skills in writing argumentative essays compared to those taught using guided writing techniques. This finding implies the need to use suitable teaching strategies that facilitate both extroverts and introverts in developing their writing skills while also sharpening their communicative and social skills.

Author Biographies

Jumariati jumariati, universitas lambung mangkurat.

English Language Education Study Program

Elvina Arapah, Universitas Lambung Mangkurat

Alavinia, P. & Hassanlou, A. (2014). On the Viable Linkages between Extroversion/Introversion and Academic Iranian EFL Learners’ Writing Proficiency. English Language Teaching, 7(3), 167-185. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v7n3p167

Boroujeni, A., Roohani, A. & Hasanimanesh, A. (2015). The Impact of Extroversion and Introversion Personality Types on EFL Learners’ Writing Ability. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 5(1), 212-218. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0501.29

Burch, K. (2000). A Primer on Problem-Based Learning for International Relations Courses. International Studies Perspectives, 1(1), 31-44. Retrieved January 13th 2024 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/44218105 .

Cain, S. (2012). Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can't Stop Talking. New York, NY: Crown Publishers.

Cao, C. & Meng, Q. (2020). Exploring personality traits as predictors of English achievement and global competence among Chinese university students: English learning motivation as the moderator. Learning and Individual Differences, 77, Article 101814. DOI: https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.lindif.2019.101814

Dewaele, J. (2013). Personality in Second Language Acquisition. In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistic. Ed. Carol A. Chapelle. Blackwell Publishing Limited. DOI: 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0904

Dewaele, J. & Furnham, A. (1999). Extraversion: The Unloved Variable in Applied Linguistic Research. Language Learning, 49(3), 509–544. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/0023-8333.00098

Dörnyei, Z. & Skehan, P. (2003). Individual Differences in Second Language. In Catherine J. Doughty, Michael H. Long (eds.). The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, 589-630. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470756492.ch18

Dörnyei, Z. (2006). Individual differences in second language acquisition. AILA Review, 19, 42–68. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/aila.19.05dor

Dow, S.E. (2013). The Invisible Students in the Classroom: How to Include the Introverts Without Excluding the Extroverts. Education and Human Development Master's Theses, 268. Retrieved January 13th 2024 from http://digitalcommons.brockport.edu/ehd_theses/268

Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Graham, S. & Sandmel, K. (2011). The Process Writing Approach: A Meta-analysis. The Journal of Educational Research, 104(6), 396-407. DOI: http://doi.org./10.1080/00220671.2010.488703

Hajimohammadi, R. & Mukundan, J. (2011). Impact of Self-Correction on Extrovert and Introvert Students in EFL Writing Progress. English Language Teaching, 4(2), 161-168. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v4n2p161

Hallinger, P. & Lu, J. (2011). Implementing problem-based learning in higher education in Asia: challenges, strategies and effect. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 33(3), 267-285, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1360080X.2011.565000

He, T. (2019). Personality Facets, Writing Strategy Use, and Writing Performance of College Students Learning English as A Foreign Language. SAGE Open, 1-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019861483

Hemmatnezhad, S., Jahandar, S. & Khodabandehlou, M. (2014). The Impact of Extraversion vs. Introversion on Iranian EFL Learners' Writing Ability. Indian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Life Sciences, 4(1), 119-128. Retrieved February 5, 2023 from http://www.cibtech.org/jls.htm

Ho, D. W. L., Whitehill, T. L. & Ciocca, V. (2014). Performance of speech-language pathology students in problem-based learning tutorials and in clinical practice. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 28(1–2), 83–97. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/02699206.2013.812146

Hung, W. (2013). Problem-Based Learning: A Learning Environment for Enhancing Learning Transfer. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 137, 27-38. (Online), ( http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ace.20042)

Johnson, S. M. & Finucane, P. M. (2000). The emergence of problem-based learning in medical education. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 6(3), 281–291. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2753.2000.00267.x

Johnston, I. (2000). Essays and Arguments: A Handbook on Writing Argumentative and Interpretive Essays. Retrieved January 28, 2023 from http://www.mala.bc.ca/-johnston/arguments .

Jumariati, J. & Sulistyo, G.H. (2017). Problem-Based Writing Instruction: Its Effect on Students’ Skills in Argumentative Writing. Arab World English Journal (AWEJ), 8(2), 87-100. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol8no2.6

Khodabandeh, F. (2022). Exploring the applicability of virtual reality‐enhanced education on extrovert and introvert EFL learners’ paragraph writing. Educational Journal of Technology in Higher Education, 19-27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-022-00334-w

Kok, F. Z. & Duman, B. (2023). The effect of problem-based learning on problem-solving skills in English language teaching. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 7(1), 154-173. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202318642

Kumari, V., Ffytche, D. H. Williams, S. C. R. & Gray, J. A. (2004). Personality Predicts Brain Responses to Cognitive Demands. The Journal of Neuroscience, 24(47), 10636–10641. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3206-04.2004

Layeghi, F. (2011). Form and Content in the Argumentative Writing of Extroverted and Introverted Iranian EFL Learners. Iranian EFL Journal, 7(3), 166-183. Retrieved January 28, 2023 from http://www.iranian-efl-journal.com/2011

Li, X., & Liu, J. (2021). Mapping the taxonomy of critical thinking ability in EFL. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 41, 100880. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100880

Li, Y. (2013). Effects of Problem-Based English Writing Instruction on Thai Upper Secondary School Students’ Critical Thinking Abilities and Argumentative Writing Skills. Online Journal of Education, 8(1), 242-255. Retrieved January 28, 2023 from http://www.edu.chula.ac.th./ojed

Liang, H. Y. & Kelsen, B. (2018). Influence of Personality and Motivation on Oral Presentation Performance. Journal of Psycholinguist Research, 47(2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-017-9551-6

Lieberman, M. D. & Rosenthal, R. (2001). Why Introverts Can't Always Tell Who Likes Them: Multitasking and Nonverbal Decoding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(2), 294-310. DOI: https://doi.org/10.I037//O022-3514.80.2.294

Lin, Y. (2018). Core Issues in Developing Critical Thinking Skills. In: Developing Critical Thinking in EFL Classes. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7784-5_1

Liyanage, I. & Bartlett, B. (2013). Personality types and languages learning strategies: Chameleons changing colours. System, 41(3), 598-608. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2013.07.011

Marefat, F. (2006). Student Writing, Personality Type of the Student and the Rater: Any Interrelationship? The Reading Matrix, 6(2), 116-124. Retrieved February 2, 2023 from http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/marefat/article.pdf

Nejad, A. M., Bijami, M. & Ahmadi, M. R. (2012). Do Personality Traits Predict Academic Writing Ability? An EFL Case Study. English Linguistics Research, 1(2). DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/elr.v1n2p145

Othman, N & Shah, M. I. A. (2013). Problem-Based Learning in the English Language Classroom. English Language Teaching, 6(3), 125-134. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v6n3p125

Oxford, R. (2003). Language learning styles and strategies: An overview. GALA. 1-25. Retrieved December 13th 2023 from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254446824_Language_learning_styles_and_strategies_An_overview

Qanwal, S. & Ghani, M. (2019). Relationship Between Introversion/Extroversion Personality Trait and Proficiency in ESL Writing Skills. International Journal of English Linguistics, 9(4), 107-118. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v9n4p107

Sanjaya, D., Mokhtar, A. A., & Sumarsih. (2015). The Impact of Personality (Extroversion/Introversion) on Indonesian EFL Learners’ Essay Writing Achievement. The Asian EFL Journal Professional Teaching Article, 87, 4-19. Retrieved November 12th 2023 from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com

Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of Problem-Based Learning: Definitions and Distinctions. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 1, 9-20. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1002

Sharp, A. (2008). Personality and Second Language Learning. Asian Social Science, 11(4), 17-25. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ass.v4n11p17

Shorkpour, N. & Moslehi, S. (2015). The relationship between personality types and the type of correction in EFL writing skill. Pertanika Journal of Social Science and Humanities, 23(1), 35-46.

Smalley, R. L., Ruetten, M. K. & Kozyrev, J. R. (2001). Refining Composition Skills: Academic Writing and Grammar (Developing & Refining Composition Skills). Heinle Cengage Learning.

Soland, J., Hamilton, L. S. & Stecher, B. M. (2013). Measuring 21st-century competencies: Guidance for educators. Asia Society: RAND Corporation.

Swanberg, A. B., & Martinsen, O. L. (2010). Personality, approaches to learning and achievement. Educational Psychology, 30(1), 75-88. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1080/01443410903410474

Yuan, R., Yang, M., & Lee, I. (2021). Preparing pre-service language teachers to teach critical thinking: Can overseas field school experience make a difference? Thinking Skills and Creativity, 40, 100832. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100832

Zaswita, H. & Ihsan. R. (2020). The Impact of Personality Types on Students’ Writing Ability. Jurnal Pendidikan Indonesia, 9(1), 75-84. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.23887/jpi-undiksha.v9i1.21101

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APA Style for beginners

Then check out some frequently asked questions:

What is APA Style?

Why use apa style in high school, how do i get started with apa style, what apa style products are available, your help wanted.

APA Style is the most common writing style used in college and career. Its purpose is to promote excellence in communication by helping writers create clear, precise, and inclusive sentences with a straightforward scholarly tone. It addresses areas of writing such as how to

• format a paper so it looks professional;
• credit other people’s words and ideas via citations and references to avoid plagiarism; and
• describe other people with dignity and respect using inclusive, bias-free language.

APA Style is primarily used in the behavioral sciences, which are subjects related to people, such as psychology, education, and nursing. It is also used by students in business, engineering, communications, and other classes. Students use it to write academic essays and research papers in high school and college, and professionals use it to conduct, report, and publish scientific research .

High school students need to learn how to write concisely, precisely, and inclusively so that they are best prepared for college and career. Here are some of the reasons educators have chosen APA Style:

• APA Style is the style of choice for the AP Capstone program, the fastest growing AP course, which requires students to conduct and report independent research.
• APA Style helps students craft written responses on standardized tests such as the SAT and ACT because it teaches students to use a direct and professional tone while avoiding redundancy and flowery language.
• Most college students choose majors that require APA Style or allow APA Style as an option. It can be overwhelming to learn APA Style all at once during the first years of college; starting APA Style instruction in high school sets students up for success.

High school students may also be interested in the TOPSS Competition for High School Psychology Students , an annual competition from the APA Teachers of Psychology in Secondary Schools for high school students to create a short video demonstrating how a psychological topic has the potential to benefit their school and/or local community and improve people’s lives.

Most people are first introduced to APA Style by reading works written in APA Style. The following guides will help with that:

	Handout explaining how journal articles are structured and how to become more efficient at reading and understanding them
	Handout exploring the definition and purpose of abstracts and the benefits of reading them, including analysis of a sample abstract

Many people also write research papers or academic essays in APA Style. The following resources will help with that:

	Guidelines for setting up your paper, including the title page, font, and sample papers
	More than 100 reference examples of various types, including articles, books, reports, films, social media, and webpages
	Handout comparing example APA Style and MLA style citations and references for four common reference types (journal articles, books, edited book chapters, and webpages and websites)
	Handout explaining how to understand and avoid plagiarism
	Checklist to help students write simple student papers (typically containing a title page, text, and references) in APA Style
	Handout summarizing APA’s guidance on using inclusive language to describe people with dignity and respect, with resources for further study
	Free tutorial providing an overview of all areas of APA Style, including paper format, grammar and usage, bias-free language, punctuation, lists, italics, capitalization, spelling, abbreviations, number use, tables and figures, and references
	Handout covering three starter areas of APA Style: paper format, references and citations, and inclusive language

Instructors will also benefit from using the following APA Style resources:

	Recording of a webinar conducted in October 2023 to refresh educators’ understanding of the basics of APA Style, help them avoid outdated APA Style guidelines (“zombie guidelines”), debunk APA Style myths (“ghost guidelines”), and help students learn APA Style with authoritative resources
	Recording of a webinar conducted in May 2023 to help educators understand how to prepare high school students to use APA Style, including the relevance of APA Style to high school and how students’ existing knowledge MLA style can help ease the transition to APA Style (register for the webinar to receive a link to the recording)
	Recording of a webinar conducted in September 2023 to help English teachers supplement their own APA Style knowledge, including practical getting-started tips to increase instructor confidence, the benefits of introducing APA Style in high school and college composition classes, some differences between MLA and APA Style, and resources to prepare students for their future in academic writing
	Poster showing the three main principles of APA Style: clarity, precision, and inclusion
	A 30-question activity to help students practice using the APA Style manual and/or APA Style website to look up answers to common questions

In addition to all the free resources on this website, APA publishes several products that provide comprehensive information about APA Style:

	The official APA Style resource for students, covering everything students need to know to write in APA Style
	The official source for APA Style, containing everything in the plus information relevant to conducting, reporting, and publishing psychological research
	APA Style’s all-digital workbook with interactive questions and graded quizzes to help you learn and apply the basic principles of APA Style and scholarly writing; integrates with popular learning management systems, allowing educators to track and understand student progress
	APA’s online learning platform with interactive lessons about APA Style and academic writing, reference management, and tools to create and format APA Style papers

The APA Style team is interested in developing additional resources appropriate for a beginner audience. If you have resources you would like to share, or feedback on this topic, please contact the APA Style team . 

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Online Programs

Ap® english language and composition (intensive, ncaa approved).

• Advanced CTY-Level
• Session-Based
• Language Arts

Learn to write college-level essays, expand your vocabulary, and prepare to take the Advanced Placement® Exam in English Language and Composition during this intensive 12-week course. We’ll study a variety of nonfiction texts to understand the interplay between author’s purpose, message, and audience expectations. You’ll also write your own arguments and research-based and rhetorical analysis essays while developing your skills at analyzing diction, syntax, persuasive appeals, methods of development, and more. After each essay, you will write a reflection explaining and evaluating your writing process. You’ll receive feedback from your instructor and often from your peers, revising your work along the way. You will also practice answering multiple-choice questions similar to those on past AP® exams, and develop strong essay test-taking skills like organization and time management. Through written collaboration with classmates from around the world, you’ll explore new perspectives and develop your own ideas. This writing course has been reviewed and approved by the College Board to use the AP® designation.

Time Commitment: 6-10 hours of independent work per week.  

Course Overview

What we'll do

Over 10 course units, we will develop key reading and writing skills and apply them in activities, workshops, writing assignments, and revisions. We’ll hone our text comprehension and analysis skills with multiple-choice questions based on nonfiction passages. In addition, we’ll write 13 full essays, including three for a final practice exam that mimics a full AP exam. Through our reading and writing, we’ll explore how people communicate their ideas and feelings through language, how readers understand those ideas and feelings, and what types of communication are most effective for each situation. You will continually improve by applying instructor and classmate feedback on your own writing.

What we’ll learn

• To analyze an author’s use of diction, tone, syntax, comparisons, methods of development, figurative language, audience appeals, and formatting
• To write persuasively on a variety of topics based on given evidence and your own knowledge and experiences
• To effectively use strategies such as introducing and concluding an essay, writing strong thesis statements, seamlessly embedding quotations, qualifying arguments, rebutting counterarguments, and creating cohesion in an essay

By the end of the course, you will be able to:

• Explain how writers’ choices reflect the components of the rhetorical situation
• Make strategic choices in a text to address a rhetorical situation
• Identify and describe the claims and evidence of an argument
• Analyze and select evidence to develop and refine a claim
• Describe the reasoning, organization, and development of an argument
• Illuminate the line of reasoning in an argument with organization and commentary
• Explain how writers’ stylistic choices contribute to the purpose of an argument
• Select words and use elements of composition to advance an argument
• Annotate texts, narrow multiple-choice options, and outline essays to prepare for timed tests
• Communicate effectively and empathetically about topics that affect all people

How we'll measure learning

The objectives for this course align exactly with those released by the College Board for this exam, and course lessons cover all of these objectives. You will demonstrate mastery of course skills with multiple-choice quizzes in every unit and three different types of essays. All multiple-choice questions and essay prompts either appeared on a previous AP exam, or closely mimic AP style and format. In this graded course, each assignment will be assessed using a rubric aligned to AP grading standards.

This course is

Register for an Online course by selecting an open class below. If no open classes are listed, then course enrollment is currently closed. Note: You will need to have an active CTY Account to complete registration through MyCTY

This course is not open for enrollment at this time. Please check back later.

Testing and Prerequisites

	Math	Verbal
Required Level	Not required	Advanced CTY-Level

Students must achieve qualifying scores on an advanced assessment to be eligible for CTY programs. If you don’t have qualifying scores, you have several different testing options. We’ll help you find the right option for your situation.

Cost and Financial Aid

Application fee.

• Nonrefundable Application Fee - $15 (Waived for financial aid applicants)
• Nonrefundable International Fee - $20 (outside US only)

Financial Aid

We have concluded our financial aid application review process for Academic Year 2023-2024 Online Programs (Courses with start dates July 1, 2023-June 30, 2024). Our application for Academic Year 2024-2025 Online Programs is expected to open in January. We encourage those who may need assistance in the future to apply for aid as early as possible.

Course Materials

Please acquire all course materials by the course start date, unless noted as perishable. Items marked as “perishable” should not be acquired until the student needs them in the course . If you have questions about these materials or difficulty locating them, please contact [email protected] .  

No textbooks are required for this course

Technical Requirements

This course requires a computer with high-speed Internet access and an up-to-date web browser such as Chrome or Firefox. You must be able to communicate with the instructor via email. Visit the Technical Requirements and Support page for more details.

This course uses a virtual classroom for instructor-student communication. The classroom works on standard computers with the Zoom desktop client , and on tablets or handhelds that support the Zoom Mobile app . Recorded meetings can only be viewed on a computer with the Zoom desktop client installed. The Zoom desktop client and Zoom Mobile App are both free to download.

Terms & Conditions

Students may interact in online classrooms and meetings that include peers, instructors, and occasional special guests.

After a you complete a course, your projects may be used to illustrate work for future students. 

You will need to create an account on a third-party site to access course resources.

About Language Arts at CTY

Enhance your skills in creative writing and critical reading, learn to craft effective sentences, and develop an analytical approach to reading and writing through our Language Arts courses. Guided by our expert instructors, you can further develop your communication skills in our interdisciplinary visual fluency courses, and explore topics in communication theory, design theory, and cognitive psychology. Through coursework and online discussions with classmates from around the world, you’ll elevate your writing structure and style, hone your craft, and become an adept wordsmith fluent in the language of literary arts. 

Write, Edit, Publish

Walk in the shoes of a writer, editor, and publisher this fall in Master Class I: Writing, Editing, and Publishing , and then collaborate with peers to create the next issue of our CTY Online student-developed literary journal, Lexophilia , in Master Class II: Writing, Editing, and Publishing , offered in the winter.

Explore Greek Myths

Newly revised for fall 2021, you'll read, discuss, and write about Greek myths in Young Readers’ Series: Greek Myths Revisited , studying exciting, heroic characters and ancient narratives that continue to teach us all valuable lessons about life, love, and family.

Meet our Language Arts Instructors

I realize that I love teaching on an almost daily basis. It comes to me in the form of a student's 'ah-ha' moment, when everything clicks and the student understands a challenging concept. I get goose bumps just thinking about it!

Yvonne Borresen

Language Arts Instructor