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behaviour genetics

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behaviour genetics , the study of the influence of an organism’s genetic composition on its behaviour and the interaction of heredity and environment insofar as they affect behaviour. The question of the determinants of behavioral abilities and disabilities has commonly been referred to as the “nature-nurture” controversy.

The relationship between behaviour and genetics , or heredity, dates to the work of English scientist Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911), who coined the phrase “nature and nurture.” Galton studied the families of outstanding men of his day and concluded, like his cousin Charles Darwin , that mental powers run in families. Galton became the first to use twins in genetic research and pioneered many of the statistical methods of analysis that are in use today. In 1918 British statistician and geneticist Ronald Aylmer Fisher published a paper that showed how Gregor Mendel ’s laws of inheritance applied to complex traits influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors.

The first human behavioral genetic research on intelligence and mental illness began in the 1920s, when environmentalism (the theory that behaviour is a result of nongenetic factors such as various childhood experiences) became popular and before Nazi Germany’s abuse of genetics made the notion of hereditary influence abhorrent . Although genetic research on human behaviour continued throughout the following decades, it was not until the 1970s that a balanced view came to prevail in psychiatry that recognized the importance of nature as well as nurture. In psychology , this reconciliation did not take hold until the 1980s. Much behavioral genetic research today focuses on identifying specific genes that affect behavioral dimensions, such as personality and intelligence , and disorders, such as autism, hyperactivity, depression , and schizophrenia.

Quantitative genetic methods are used to estimate the net effect of genetic and environmental factors on individual differences in any complex trait , including behavioral traits. In addition, molecular genetic methods are used to identify specific genes responsible for genetic influence. Research is carried out in both animals and humans; however, studies using animal models tend to provide more-accurate data than studies in humans because both genes and environment can be manipulated and controlled in the laboratory.

By mating related animals such as siblings for many generations, nearly pure strains are obtained in which all offspring are genetically highly similar. It is possible to screen for genetic influence on behaviour by comparing the behaviour of different inbred strains raised in the same laboratory environment. Another method, known as selective breeding , evaluates genetic involvement by attempting to breed for high and low extremes of a trait for several generations. Both methods have been applied to a wide variety of animal behaviours, especially learning and behavioral responses to drugs , and this research provides evidence for widespread influence of genes on behaviour.

Because genes and environments cannot be manipulated in the human species, two quasi-experimental methods are used to screen for genetic influence on individual differences in complex traits such as behaviour. The twin method relies on the accident of nature that results in identical (monozygotic, MZ) twins or fraternal (dizygotic, DZ) twins. MZ twins are like clones , genetically identical to each other because they came from the same fertilized egg. DZ twins, on the other hand, developed from two eggs that happened to be fertilized at the same time. Like other siblings, DZ twins are only half as similar genetically as MZ twins. To the extent that behavioral variability is caused by environmental factors, DZ twins should be as similar for the behavioral trait as are MZ twins because both types of twins are reared by the same parents in the same place at the same time. If the trait is influenced by genes, then DZ twins ought to be less similar than MZ twins. For schizophrenia , for example, the concordance (risk of one twin’s being schizophrenic if the other is) is about 45 percent for MZ twins and about 15 percent for DZ twins. For intelligence as assessed by IQ tests, the correlation, an index of resemblance (0.00 indicates no resemblance and 1.00 indicates perfect resemblance), is 0.85 for MZ twins and 0.60 for DZ twins for studies throughout the world of more than 10,000 pairs of twins. The twin method has been robustly defended as a rough screen for genetic influence on behaviour.

The adoption method is a quasi-experimental design that relies on a social accident in which children are adopted away from their biological (birth) parents early in life, thus cleaving the effects of nature and nurture. Because the twin and adoption methods are so different, greater confidence is warranted when results from these two methods converge on the same conclusion—as they usually do. An influential adoption study of schizophrenia in 1966 by American behavioral geneticist Leonard Heston showed that children adopted away from their schizophrenic biological mothers at birth were just as likely to become schizophrenic (about 10 percent) as were children reared by their schizophrenic biological mothers. A 20-year study begun in the 1970s in the United States of intelligence of adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents showed increasing similarity from infancy to childhood to adolescence between the adopted children and their biological parents but no resemblance between the adopted children and their adoptive parents.

In contrast to traditional molecular genetic research that focused on rare disorders caused by a single genetic mutation , molecular genetic research on complex behavioral traits and common behavioral disorders is much more difficult because multiple genes are involved and each gene has a relatively small effect. However, some genes identified in animal models have contributed to an improved understanding of complex human behavioral disorders such as reading disability, hyperactivity, autism , and dementia .

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Top 10 Replicated Findings From Behavioral Genetics

Affiliations.

• 1 Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London [email protected].
• 2 Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado.
• 3 Department of Psychiatry, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island, and Departments of Psychiatry and Human Behavior and Behavioral and Social Sciences, Brown University.
• 4 Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University.
• PMID: 26817721
• PMCID: PMC4739500
• DOI: 10.1177/1745691615617439

In the context of current concerns about replication in psychological science, we describe 10 findings from behavioral genetic research that have replicated robustly. These are "big" findings, both in terms of effect size and potential impact on psychological science, such as linearly increasing heritability of intelligence from infancy (20%) through adulthood (60%). Four of our top 10 findings involve the environment, discoveries that could have been found only with genetically sensitive research designs. We also consider reasons specific to behavioral genetics that might explain why these findings replicate.

Keywords: DNA; cognitive abilities; heritability; personality; psychopathology.

© The Author(s) 2015.

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Results of a selection study…

Results of a selection study of open-field activity in mice. Replication was built…

Results of multivariate genetic latent…

Results of multivariate genetic latent variable analysis of general cognitive ability ( g…

A meta-analysis of 11,000 pairs…

A meta-analysis of 11,000 pairs of twins showed that heritability (A) of intelligence…

Results of bivariate model-fitting analysis…

Results of bivariate model-fitting analysis between mothers’ negativity and adolescents’ antisocial behavior. The…

A polygenic score based on…

A polygenic score based on a GWAS of educational attainment in adults correlates…

• Weak Genetic Explanation 20 Years Later: Reply to Plomin et al. (2016). Turkheimer E. Turkheimer E. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2016 Jan;11(1):24-8. doi: 10.1177/1745691615617442. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2016. PMID: 26817722
• Why Behavioral Genetics Matters: Comment on Plomin et al. (2016). Lee JJ, McGue M. Lee JJ, et al. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2016 Jan;11(1):29-30. doi: 10.1177/1745691615611932. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2016. PMID: 26817723 No abstract available.
• Avinun R, Knafo A. Parenting as a reaction evoked by children's genotype: A meta-analysis of children-as-twins studies. Personality and Social Psychology Review. 2014;18:87–102. doi: 10.1177/1088868313498308. - PubMed
• Bakker M, van Dijk A, Wicherts JM. The rules of the game called psychological science. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2012;7:543–554. doi: 10.1177/1745691612459060. - PubMed
• Baltes PB, Reese HW, Lipsitt LP. Life-span developmental psychology. Annual Review of Psychology. 1980;31:65–110. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ps.31.020180.000433. - PubMed
• Bartels M. Genetics of wellbeing and its components satisfaction with life, happiness, and quality of life: A review and meta-analysis of heritability studies. Behavior Genetics. 2015;45:137–156. doi: 10.1007/s10519-015-9713-y. - PMC - PubMed
• Bartels M, van den Oord EJ, Hudziak JJ, Rietveld MJ, Van Beijsterveldt CE, Boomsma DI. Genetic and environmental mechanisms underlying stability and change in problem behaviors at ages 3, 7, 10, and 12. Developmental Psychology. 2004;40:852–867. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.40.5.852. - PubMed

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IBG's mission is to conduct interdisciplinary research and training that examines the nature and origins of individual differences in behavior. Current research at IBG uses large scale family, twin, adoption, and molecular genetic studies in humans, and behavioral and molecular genetic studies in model organisms, in order to understand behaviors of societal and health relevance, such as aging and dementia, drug use and abuse, cognitive abilities, personality, learning disabilities, and psychopathology.

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55th Annual BGA Meeting in Atlanta, Georgia

Student travel fund, behavior genetics.

Founded in 1970, the Behavior Genetics Association (BGA) is an international society. Behavior genetics has a strong tradition in twin and family study designs, and more recently gene-finding studies.

The purpose of the BGA is to promote the scientific study of the interrelationship of genetic mechanisms and behavior, both human and animal; to encourage and aid the education and training of research workers in the field of behavior genetics; and to aid in the dissemination and interpretation to the general public of knowledge concerning the interrelationship of genetics and behavior, and its implications for health and human development and education.

We welcome scientists who share our interest in the interrelationships between genes and traits/behavior, both in humans and non-human animals.

BGA Banquet, London, England, 29 June 2024

** In memoriam of Professor Peter McGuffin CBE FMedSci **

New Research Uncovers Genetic Markers of Autism

Precision medicine through the detection of autism-related genetic markers..

Posted September 16, 2024 | Reviewed by Monica Vilhauer

• What Is Autism?
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• Autism spectrum disorders currently rely on behavioral observations over time, which can delay diagnosis.
• Transport based morphometry allowed detection of autism-related genetic markers with up to 89-95% accuracy.
• Autism may influence cognitive short cuts and rigidity in thinking and behavior.
• Precision care improves outcomes for those on the autism spectrum.

Imagine identifying autism before its behavioral signs appear.

This may become a reality thanks to a groundbreaking technique called “ transport-based morphometry ” (TBM). TBM is a method that uses advanced imaging technology to detect autism -related genetic markers with up to 89-95% accuracy. Developed by researchers from the University of Virginia, the University of California San Francisco, and Johns Hopkins University, this innovation could reshape how we diagnose and treat autism, shifting the focus from behavioral observations to including genetics and brain structure during evaluations.

TBM’s ability to pinpoint genetic markers early paves the way for earlier diagnoses (a cornerstone of positive outcomes) and more personalized treatment plans, offering new hope to individuals on the autism spectrum and their families.

A Shift From Behavior to Genetics

For decades, autism diagnoses have relied solely on observing behaviors and developmental patterns, which often vary significantly among individuals. This crude approach can lead to delayed interventions. TBM might change the game by focusing on genetic markers and brain structure rather than waiting for behavioral cues. By identifying autism-related variations in brain patterns, TBM allows doctors to tailor interventions earlier and more precisely to the individual’s unique neurological profile.

This shift to a genetics-first approach represents a significant leap in autism research, providing a potential opportunity for earlier and more effective interventions that can significantly improve outcomes.

Autism and Cognitive Shortcuts

Autism may influence cognitive shortcuts—mental processes that simplify complex decisions, often resulting in more rigid thinking. These shortcuts, while not harmful on their own, can make individuals with autism more prone to fixations, particularly in the absence of robust emotional and social support systems.

The new insights from this study help explain how specific genetic variations associated with autism affect brain structure and, by extension, cognitive processes. This understanding is crucial for developing strategies to support more adaptive thinking and coping mechanisms in individuals with autism.

Building Cognitive Resilience

One key takeaway from this research is the crucial role of early diagnosis in fostering cognitive resilience . Identifying autism-related genetic markers early allows for targeted interventions that help build flexibility in thinking, balancing the potential for rigid cognitive patterns.

Support strategies tailored to each individual, similar to approaches used in other cognitive conditions, can help promote self-awareness and social adaptability, encouraging personal growth and overall well-being.

A New Era of Personalized Care

The most significant implication of this research is its potential to revolutionize autism care through personalized, genetics-based interventions. By identifying genetic markers early, healthcare providers can create tailored treatment plans that address each individual’s neurological makeup. This marks a shift from general treatments to more precise, individualized care, improving outcomes for those on the autism spectrum.

This focus on the genetic and neurological foundations of autism allows for a more compassionate, science-driven approach that recognizes autism as part of neurodiversity .

Breaking the Stigma With Science

For too long, misconceptions about autism have fueled stigma . This research challenges those outdated ideas, offering scientific evidence that highlights the genetic and neurological foundations of autism. The findings encourage a shift from misconceptions toward a deeper appreciation of neurodiversity and the importance of individualized care. We know that many individuals can go on to make substantial positive contributions to society.

By advancing our understanding of autism and enabling earlier, personalized interventions, this research holds the promise of a brighter future for individuals with autism and their families—one where science replaces stereotypes and tailored care meets the unique needs of every individual on the spectrum.

Tahir Rahman, M.D. is an associate professor of psychiatry at Washington University. He has lectured at the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law and the FBI behavioral analysis unit, Quantico. He is the author of Extreme Overvalued Beliefs.

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Reconstruction of the Mitochondrial Genome of the Ancient Horse from the Ashna-Pando Hillfort (Middle Volga)

• ANIMAL GENETICS
• Published: 06 June 2019
• Volume 55 , pages 598–603, ( 2019 )

Cite this article

• E. I. Antonova 1 ,
• A. V. Solovyev 1 ,
• L. A. Vyazov 2 ,
• Y. A. Semykin 1 &
• A. V. Mishchenko 1  

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Reconstruction of the mitochondrial genome of a horse from the Ashna-Pando hillfort (the Sura River basin, Middle Volga, Ulyanovsk oblast, Russia) was performed using bone remains. It was established that, according to a fragment of the control region (D-loop), the specimen belongs to the B1 haplotype widespread among modern as well as ancient horses of Europe and Asia. However, in accordance with complete mitochondrial genome analysis, the horse is attributed to the M haplogroup that includes different modern breeds, with the Akhal-Teke breed among them. The obtained data make it possible to postulate the steppe origin of the horse. On the basis of our analysis, penetration of the southern horses deep into the broadleaf forest area likely dates to the second or third quarter of the first millennium BC and is probably connected with interactions of the sedentary population of the Sura River region with Scythian nomads.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are grateful to A.S. Graphodatsky, N.V. Vorobieva, A.S. Druzhkova, M.A. Kusliy, and V.A. Trifonov (Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk) for comprehensive assistance in conducting research and interpreting the obtained results.

This study was conducted with support of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, grant no. 18-44-730006.

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E. I. Antonova, A. V. Solovyev, Y. A. Semykin & A. V. Mishchenko

Institute of International Relations, History, and Oriental Studies, Kazan Federal University, 420008, Kazan, Russia

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Antonova, E.I., Solovyev, A.V., Vyazov, L.A. et al. Reconstruction of the Mitochondrial Genome of the Ancient Horse from the Ashna-Pando Hillfort (Middle Volga). Russ J Genet 55 , 598–603 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1134/S1022795419050041

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Received : 12 June 2018

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Accepted : 18 October 2018

Published : 06 June 2019

Issue Date : May 2019

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1134/S1022795419050041

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Behavioral Genomics

The first systematic studies of whether human behaviors are hereditary were conducted over 100 years ago by Sir Francis Galton, Charles Darwin's cousin. Galton was interested in determining whether human abilities, such as intelligence, could be inherited, and he realized that in order to do this, he must distinguish between those behaviors that were innate and those that were influenced by the environment . To make this distinction, Galton studied the behavioral characteristics of genetically identical twins who were raised in different environments. If twins who had similar traits at birth became dissimilar when reared under differing conditions, these results would support the idea that environment was the primary influence on human behavior. Using this method, Galton deduced that nature (genetics) rather than nurture (environment) played a significant role in behavior (Galton, 1874).

Galton's twin studies and other research involving inherited abilities made him a pioneer in the field of behavioral genetics. Today, modern behavioral geneticists have the same basic goal as Galton: to understand the genetic and environmental contributions to individual variations in behavior. However, current theories support the role of both genes and environment in behavioral outcomes (Robinson, 2004).

Can Single Genes Determine Our Actions?

Many people know about single-gene disorders , but few people know that these conditions are actually far less common than the numerous disorders and nondisease phenotypes that result from the intricate interplay between multiple genes and the environment. Furthermore, even with single-gene disorders (in which a mutation in just one gene manifests as disease), it is often the case that modifier genes at other loci contribute to the severity of the disease phenotype . Thus, sensational reports suggesting that scientists have found the individual gene responsible for a particular behavioral trait (be it alcoholism, sexual orientation, or another complex phenotype) are misleading. In reality, specific animal behaviors—including those of humans—are the result of multiple genes interacting with numerous environmental factors. Awareness of this complexity has shifted researchers' focus from individual genes to entire genomes, thus giving rise to the field of behavioral genomics .

From Behavioral Genetics to Behavioral Genomics

The candidate gene approach.

Traditionally, research efforts involving the potential impact of genes on inherited disorders have been advanced using the " candidate gene " approach, in which investigators ask whether a specific allele is more common in subjects who display a particular trait or behavior than in those subjects who do not (Fitzpatrick et al. , 2005). For a gene to be considered as affecting behavior, some a priori knowledge is usually required, including either pathological mechanisms (in the case of disorders) or how a specific gene affects similar behaviors in other organisms. The latter information can sometimes be obtained from one or more of the numerous databases detailing the genomes of a variety of species , including humans, mice, chickens, fruit flies, honeybees, worms, and zebrafish.

After a gene is selected as a "candidate," its expression pattern (most often in the brain) in subjects who display the behavior of interest is compared to that in subjects who do not display the behavior. This comparison can be performed under natural conditions (i.e., without manipulation) in order to gather correlative data regarding the gene and the behavior. However, a more causal link can be established if expression of the gene is manipulated via transgenic or knock-in/knock-out techniques and the resulting behavior is observed. Indeed, these techniques have been essential in determining the genes associated with adaptive behaviors that are evolutionarily conserved in diverse species (e.g., foraging and reproduction ), and they have also helped pinpoint genes associated with neurobehavioral disorders like autism.

Large-Scale Approaches

Unfortunately, a candidate-gene-by-candidate-gene approach is often inefficient. Thus, investigators are increasingly turning to the enormous amount of data available through the genome sequencing of many organisms. Use of this information allows researchers to adopt a more unbiased approach, simultaneously examining up to thousands of genes at once. Genomic tools also allow scientists to associate genetic variants, including single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), with specific behaviors or even with different gene expression patterns using microarray comparisons. Often, the genes identified through these large-scale genomic approaches are designated as candidate genes, and the effects of these candidates are then verified through more traditional approaches wherein individual genes and their functions are examined.

Candidate Genes for Adaptive Behaviors

As previously mentioned, various techniques have been used to successfully identify genes associated with a number of adaptive behaviors. Such behaviors include courtship and mating, foraging, and social interaction, all of which have been evolutionarily conserved.

Courtship and Mating

Male courtship in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster was one of the first behaviors for which researchers found strong evidence for specification by a gene—namely, the so-called "fruitless" gene (abbreviated fru ). In male fruit flies, courtship is a complex, ritualistic behavior that involves many visual, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, and acoustic cues, as well as intricate motor output directed toward attracting a suitable mate (i.e., a female that has not recently mated). During courtship, the male fruit fly orients to the female, taps her with his forelegs, sings a courtship-specific song by vibrating one wing, probes the female's genitalia, and then curves his abdomen to mate (Figure 1; Hall, 1994).

The fruitless gene first emerged as a candidate gene for sexual behavior when it was discovered that male flies with fru mutations were sterile due to defective performance of courtship and copulation (Gill, 1963). Years later, the mutated gene present in these flies was cloned, and the protein that it encodes was identified as a transcription factor (Ito et al. , 1996; Ryner et al. , 1996). Researchers have also determined that the fru gene is spliced differentially in males and females and that this gene generates various sex-specific messenger RNAs (Demir & Dickson, 2005; Kyriacou, 2005). Interestingly, not only does the male pattern of splicing elicit male courtship behavior, but it also influences sexual orientation, as evidenced by the finding that male splicing in otherwise normal females generated male behavior (e.g., singing) that was directed toward other females (Figure 2; Demir & Dickson, 2005). Functional conservation of the fru gene has only been shown in one other species, the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae (Gailey et al. , 2006), and a mammalian homologue for fru does not exist. Even so, fru is a good example of how genes can specify aspects of a complex inborn behavior.

Once the for gene was associated with foraging behavior in fruit flies, it was used as a candidate gene to study similar behaviors in other species. For example, the fruit fly for gene shows high sequence homology to the Amfor gene in honeybees. Changing Amfor expression can alter the foraging behavior of a honeybee, thereby transforming the bee from a "nurse" (a bee that cares for the young) to a "forager" (a bee that leaves the hive to find pollen and nectar). Like the rover fruit fly, the forager honeybee has higher levels of the PKG enzyme than do nurse bees (Ben-Shahar et al. , 2002). Researchers have also noted that an orthologue of for , called egl-4 , is associated with food-related behavior in the roundworm C. elegans (Fujiwara et al. , 2002). Taken together, these findings suggest that for could be used as a candidate gene for behaviors concerning food acquisition in other species.

Social Interaction

Researchers began their inquiry into these genes using voles, which are small rodents that look like mice, because there are two particular vole species that differ greatly in terms of social behavior . Specifically, prairie voles ( Microtus ochrogaster ) are affiliative and monogamous (i.e., each vole has only one mate), and both parents provide care for their young, whereas montane voles ( Microtus montanus ) are comparatively asocial, polygamous (i.e., each vole has multiple mates), and nonpaternal. In male prairie voles, living and/or mating with a female causes AVP release in the brain, and paternal and pair-bonding behavior is triggered. However, these behaviors can be disrupted by blocking the V 1a receptor for AVP with an antagonist. Thus, comparing AVP receptor expression between these two vole species was proposed as a useful way to determine which genes contribute to social behavior.

Indeed, prairie and montane voles have markedly different patterns of binding to the V 1a receptors within their brains (Figure 3; Young et al. , 1999). The polygamous montane vole has much more binding in the lateral septum of the brain than the prairie vole, whereas the monogamous prairie vole has a higher intensity of binding in the diagonal band of Broca, a brain area involved in appetitive reward (Young et al. , 1999; Insel & Young, 2000). Furthermore, elevating the expression of the V 1a receptor in the brains of promiscuous voles increased the pair-bonding behavior of males to females (Lim et al. , 2004). Thus, the social behavior of these two species of voles seems to be due to variations in gene expression of the V 1a receptor.

Candidate Genes for Human Disorders

Neurobehavioral disorders are debilitating psychiatric conditions that include depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and autism. Currently, diagnosis of these diseases is based primarily on clinical symptoms that vary immensely depending on the individual. This phenotypic variability makes effective treatment paradigms difficult to establish. For this reason, scientists have been searching for candidate genes that may influence the onset of these neuropsychiatric pathologies (Glatt & Freimer, 2002). Identifying these candidate genes is difficult, because there are often no clear biomarkers associated with a particular disease against which predictions about the effects of a gene could be tested. Despite such limitations, researchers have associated numerous genes with some neurobehavioral disorders, including autism and schizophrenia. In addition, microarray technology and new SNP-based, whole-genome association methods have helped combat these difficulties to some extent (Glatt & Freimer, 2002; Sutcliffe, 2008).

Autism is a severe neurobehavioral disorder characterized by impaired social skills and repetitive and stereotyped interests and behavior. Autism includes mental retardation in up to 70% of cases (Fombonne, 2003), and it affects many brain areas. Twin studies and examinations of family history suggest that the heritability of autism is roughly 90% (Freitag, 2007; Sutcliffe, 2008). Genetic aspects of the disorder have been substantiated by the identification of chromosomal translocations, inversions, and large deletions or duplications, which are more prevalent in individuals who have more severe cognitive problems. For example, several recent large-scale studies collectively screened almost 2,000 families with autism for recurrent copy number variations, which are small losses or gains in DNA . The consortium of researchers involved in these studies found that copy number variation in a gene called neurexin is linked to the presence of autism. The researchers also found a region on chromosome 11 that might contain sequences that are involved in the disorder (Autism Genome Project Consortium, 2007). Similarly, Weiss and colleagues (2008) found that a microdeletion and microduplication on chromosome 16p11.2 increased susceptibility for the disorder in 1% of cases. Other studies using DNA microarrays have identified many more copy number variations that can be sporadic or inherited and appear to be major genetic risk factors for autism in 10% to 20% of cases (Morrow et al. , 2008; Sutcliffe, 2008).

Table 1 summarizes the genes that have been implicated in autism thus far (Sutcliffe, 2008). Although these genes are diverse, most researchers suggest that they may be linked by a common mechanism, namely dysregulation of gene expression that occurs after neural activity (Morrow et al. , 2008). It is also evident that studying all of these genes, as well as the genes that they regulate and are regulated by, requires the large-scale analysis techniques employed in genomics.

Table 1: Putative and Known Autism-Related Genes

Adhesion Fragile X mental retardation 1 Neuroligin 3 Neuroligin 4 Neurexin 1 SH3 and multiple ankyrin repeat domains 3 Contactin-associated protein-like 2 Protocadherin 10 Contactin 3 Na /H exchanger isoform 9 Na /H exchanger isoform 6 Deleted in autism 1 Ataxin 2-binding protein 1 Fragile X mental retardation 1 Methyl CpG binding protein 2 Deleted in autism 1 Protocadherin 10 Na /H exchanger isoform 9 Ataxin 2-binding protein 1 Ubiquitin protein ligase E3A Fragile X mental retardation 1 Methyl CpG binding protein 2 Na /H exchanger isoform 6 Ataxin 2-binding protein 1 Ubiquitin protein ligase E3A Engrailed homeobox 2 Serotonin transporter (SERT, 5-HTT) Met proto-oncogene (c-Met, HGFR) Na channel, voltage-gated, type VII Ring finger protein 8

Table adapted from Sutcliffe, 2008

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a neuropsychiatric illness in which individuals have impaired perceptions of reality (e.g., hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thoughts). As with autism, genetic implications for this disorder arose from twin studies. For instance, such studies show that 45% of identical twins who are adopted by different families will both be schizophrenic. Furthermore, if one sibling within a family has been diagnosed with schizophrenia, the other siblings have a 10-time greater chance of also developing the disorder (Plomin et al. , 1994).

Identifying the genetic components of schizophrenia is complicated by the difficulties associated with diagnosing the disease itself, as different doctors often use different criteria to make the same diagnosis. Thus, when they perform studies of schizophrenia, investigators must be particularly careful to look at large populations of individuals with and without the illness, to ensure that all subjects have been diagnosed using the same criteria.

Recently, about 15% of patients with schizophrenia were found to have mutations in a large set of genes, many of which are important for brain development (Walsh et al. , 2008). Disturbances have also been found in the expression of genes related to synaptic function, energy metabolism , and oligodendrocyte function (Bray, 2008). These findings implicate hundreds of potential gene candidates and suggest that each person with the disorder could have a different genetic cause. Thus, despite the power of whole-genome analysis to link diseases to genes, considerable work is often required to separate the "wheat" from the "chaff" in such data sets.

Genetic Components of Human Behavior and Disease

The genetic components of the behaviors and disorders described in the previous sections are by no means comprehensive. Moreover, genes have also been linked to many other diverse traits and diseases, including addiction (e.g., alcohol and tobacco), handedness, bipolar disorder, depression, and dyslexia. With genome sequencing costs plummeting and new discoveries about the genes and environmental factors that affect behavior being made each day, it seems certain that in the years to come, we will develop an even better understanding of why we behave the way we do.

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Ulyanovsk State University

Usu, ulyanovsk russia, # 251-300 eeca university rankings, 56 undergraduate programs, 40 postgraduate programs, 135,000 rub tuition fee/year, find your perfect course, about ulyanovsk state university.

Ulyanovsk State University (USU) was founded in 1988 as a branch of Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov, the best university in the country and one of the most authoritative universities in the world. In 1996, USU received the status of an independent university.

In April 2017, Ulyanovsk State University won the competition of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation and received the status of a flagship university of the Ulyanovsk region.

In December 2017, Ulyanovsk State University was recognized as a university center for innovative, technological and social development of the region.

Currently, more than 13 thousand students study at the university, including over 7 thousand full-time students. There are more than 2,000 foreign citizens from 43 countries of the near and far abroad among students of different levels of education. From 1992 to 2020, USU had over 60 thousand graduates who have established themselves as good specialists in the regional and Russian labor markets, not only because they are successful, but also making a brilliant career in business and science.

The University is rightly proud of its staff capacity. Today, more than 900 lecturers work at USU, including 123 Doctors of Sciences and 461 Candidates of Sciences. Among them, there are world-renowned scientists, members of Russian and international Academies of Sciences, Honored Scientists of the Russian Federation.

Currently, USU is one of the largest universities in the Volga region. It is a modern scientific and educational complex with a well-developed infrastructure of scientific and innovative research and the training of highly qualified personnel.

Since its foundation and development, USU has not only continued, but also multiplied one of the main traditions of MSU – entering the world educational community. Intensive international contacts have led to the organization and development of international educational structures (Russian-American and Russian-German departments), which allow graduates to receive two diplomas. By the decision of the VIII Congress of the Eurasian Association of Universities in September 1999, Ulyanovsk State University was approved as its full member.

In 2020, USU together with other universities became a member of the Consortium for the joint fulfillment of large-scale, strategic, scientific-technical, educational, knowledge-intensive, competitive, industrial, innovative projects and programs implemented at various levels, and became part of the interregional Research and Education Center "Engineering of the Future".

Tuition fee and scholarships

• Tuition Fee
• Scholarships

Domestic Students

International students.

One of the important factors when considering a master's degree is the cost of study. Luckily, there are many options available to help students fund their master's programme. Download your copy of the Scholarship Guide to find out which scholarships from around the world could be available to you, and how to apply for them.

In this guide you will find:

Where to look for scholarship opportunities

How to apply to scholarships relevant to you

A list of available scholarships around the world

A scholarship application checklist

Rankings & ratings

Ulyanovsk State University is one of the top public universities in Ulyanovsk, Russia. It is ranked #251-300 in EECA University Rankings 2022.

EECA University Rankings

• 2016 #151-200
• 2018 #201-250
• 2019 #201-250
• 2020 #231-240
• 2021 #251-300
• 2022 #251-300

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Ulyanovsk State University Russia 2024-25: Courses, Admission, Eligibility, Fees, Ranking etc.

Ulyanovsk State University (USU Russia) is a top research university in Ulyanovsk, Russia. It was founded in 1988. The university offers many types of study programs, including full-time, part-time, and distance learning options for undergraduate, graduate, and post-graduate levels. Ulyanovsk State University staff includes 1,238+ experienced members, most of whom have doctorate degrees or other science qualifications.

Abroad University MBBS Application Form 2024
Manipal Pokhara College of Medical Science, Pokhara, Nepal
Kursk State Medical University, Russia
Grigol Robakidze University, Georgia

The campus has modern labs, libraries, and recreational areas that help students get a complete educational experience. Located in Ulyanovsk, a city with a rich history and culture, USU gives students a chance to enjoy both learning and cultural activities. Known for its high standards in education, research, and international connections, Ulyanovsk State University plays an important role in higher education both in Russia and around the world.

This article provides information about Ulyanovsk State University , Mainly for Indian Students, such as Courses, Admission Process, Eligibility, Documents, Fee Structure, Ranking, etc.

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[Page Index]

College summary.

Before finishing the summary of Ulyanovsk State University, let us review the key details about the university.

	Ulyanovsk, Russia
	1988
	Public (Govt)
	Boris Kostishko
	Urban
	08+
	1254+
	English & Russian
	Not Required
	NMC, WHO
	Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation
	MBBS
	$ 3,614/- (Annually) Rs. 3,00,000/- (Annually)
	EECA University Ranking- 231-300 Country Rank- 93 World Rank- 4128
	September Intake
	Yes (Male & Female)
	Baratayevka Airport
	https://www.ulsu.ru/en/

Affiliation and Recognition

The Ulyanovsk State University is one of the best medical universities in Russia, and it is affiliated with and recognized by various Medical Councils such as:

• National Medical Commission of India (NMC).
• World Health Organization (WHO).
• United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
• Ministry of Science & Higher Education of the Russian Federation.
• US Department of Education

Why Study MBBS at Ulyanovsk State University Russia?

• The Faculty of General Medicine is one of the oldest and most respected faculties at the university.
• Ulyanovsk State University is ranked as one of the best universities in Russia and all over the world.
• Over 3000 doctors have graduated since the university’s establishment. Currently, there are more than 500 Indian students enrolled.
• The environment of the University campus is safe and calm, with a large Infrastructure.
• The university has partnerships with various universities in the USA, Germany, India, UK, and others.
• Ulyanovsk State University Russia offers an affordable fee structure for students to study MBBS abroad.

Course Offered

Ulyanovsk State University offers great medical programs with really good teachers and modern facilities. The University is famous for its undergraduate medical course.

MBBS	6 Years (English Medium)

Admission Procedure

If you want to take Ulyanovsk State University admission in 2024, you must qualify for the National Eligibility Entrance Exam (NEET).

Eligibility Criteria

In this section, all the students check the eligibility Criteria of Ulyanovsk State University.

	Your age should be at least 17 years old on or before 31st December of the admission year. *No Upper Age Limit.
	Class 12th in Science, with PCB and English subjects from a board recognized by the authorities in India.
	60% in 10+2 (UR) 50% (SC/OBC/ST)
	(For Indian Students)

Graphical Representation of Eligibility Criteria

Documents Required

Before taking admission to Ulyanovsk State University, please do not forget to carry all these related documents.

• Passport (Minimum 18 months validity).
• 10th Certificate & Mark sheet.
• 12th Certificate & Mark sheet.
• Birth Certificate.
• 10 passport-size Photographs
• Official Invitation letter from the Medical University of Russia.
• Authorization of all documents from the Ministry of External Affairs, New Delhi.
• Legalization of all documents from the Russian Embassy.
• Bank receipt of 1st Year of Ulyanovsk State University fees (required for some Universities).
• HIV test documents.

FMGE Passing Rate 2021

Appeared	Pass	Pass (%)
22	3	13.64%

Fee Structure 2024-25

In this section, all the MBBS Students get information about the Ulyanovsk State University fee Structure.

Year	Tuition Fees in (USD)	Tuition Fees in (INR)	Hostel Fees in (USD)	Hostel Fees in (INR)	Total Fees in (USD)	Total Fees in (INR)
1st Year	3,614/-	Rs.3,00,000/-	602/-	Rs.49,966/-	4,216/-	Rs.3,49,928/-
	3,614/-	Rs.3,00,000/-	602/-	Rs.49,966/-	4,216/-	Rs.3,49,928/-
	3,614/-	Rs.3,00,000/-	602/-	Rs.49,966/-	4,216/-	Rs.3,49,928/-
	3,614/-	Rs.3,00,000/-	602/-	Rs.49,966/-	4,216/-	Rs.3,49,928/-
	3,614/-	Rs.3,00,000/-	602/-	Rs.49,966/-	4,216/-	Rs.3,49,928/-
	3,614/-	Rs.3,00,000/-	602/-	Rs.49,966/-	4,216/-	Rs.3,49,928/-

Ulyanovsk State University Ranking

Ulyanovsk State University is one of the highest-ranked universities in the world. According to the QS Ranking, it is placed between 231-300 in the EECA region (Eastern Europe and Central Asia). Ulyanovsk State University’s world ranking is 4128, and it ranks 93rd in its country according to EduRank.

MBBS Syllabus

The syllabus for studying MBBS at Ulyanovsk State University includes the following subjects:

	1  Semester	Anatomy
	2  Semester	Anatomy and Histology
	3  Semester	Histology, Biochemistry, Physiology cell biology, Microbiology, General pathology
	4  Semester	Biochemistry, Micro-Biology, Physiology
	5  Semester	Pathology, Pharmacology, Microbiology, and Path Physiology
	6  Semester	Pathology, Path Physiology and Pharmacology, Genetics
	7 -12  Semester	General Surgery, Neurology, Primary Care medicine, Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oncology, Internal Medicine, Pediatrics, Internal medicine, Neurology and Psychiatry, Psychology, ENT, Emergency Medicine, and Cardiology

Advantages of Study MBBS in Russia

About Ulyanovsk City

• Located on the Volga River in Russia.
• Birthplace of Vladimir Lenin, leader of the Bolshevik Revolution.
• Home to historical landmarks like the Lenin Memorial and Simbirsk Mother of God Cathedral.
• Houses the Ulyanovsk Regional Museum of Local Lore.
• Center for industries such as aviation and automotive manufacturing.
• Boasts a vibrant cultural scene and picturesque setting along the Volga River.

Temperature

Contact Details

Ulyanovsk State University Russia Address: Ulyanovsk, Ulyanovsk Oblast, Russia, 432700

Campus View

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