stanford psychology phd faculty

Department of Psychology

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Cutting-edge research on the workings of the human mind

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Training students for careers in research and teaching

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Understanding human behavior through scientific methods

21st Century Psychology

Ground breaking theoretical research that impacts the real world.

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PSYCH-PHD - Psychology (PhD)

Program overview.

There are no specific course requirements for admission to the doctoral program. Nevertheless, an applicant should have prior research experience and the equivalent of a bachelor’s degree. The Department of Psychology does not require the GRE for admission. The doctoral program’s primary focus is research training, and admission is highly selective.

In addition to fulfilling Stanford University requirements for the degree, the following departmental requirements are stipulated.

The Doctoral Training Program

A student typically concentrates in one of several areas within Psychology. Across all areas, the training program emphasizes the development of research competence, and students are encouraged to develop skills and attitudes appropriate to a career of continuing research productivity.

Two kinds of experience are necessary for this purpose. One is learning substantial amounts of theoretical, empirical, computational, and methods information. Several courses and seminars are provided to assist in this learning, and students are expected to construct a program in consultation with their advisor(s) to obtain this knowledge in the most stimulating and economical fashion.

A second aspect of training cannot be gained from the courses or seminars. This is first-hand knowledge of, and practical experience with, the methods of psychological investigation and study. Therefore, students are expected to spend half their time on research and take no more than ten units of coursework per quarter, beginning in the first quarter.

Students achieve competence in unique ways and at different rates. Students and advisors work together to plan a program leading to the objectives discussed above. For further information, contact the student services manager and refer to the Department Graduate Guide on the  Psychology Department website .

The Stanford Psychology Department values a shared appreciation of the full range of approaches and research questions spanned by the department’s five areas . The department seeks to train scientists who are well-prepared to pursue careers that build on their training in any one of these areas and who can interact with researchers in other fields of Psychology. Therefore, students within each department area are expected to construct a program of study in consultation with their primary advisor that includes exposure to other areas in the department while also achieving sufficient depth within their area of specialization to prepare them for their next career stage after graduating.

Free Form Requisites

Requirements

Professional Seminar Requirement

During the first quarter of graduate study, students must take  course  Professional Seminar for First-Year Ph.D. Graduate Students.

Core Course Requirement

Students must take four core courses, each from a different area of the Psychology department: Affective Science, Cognitive Science, Developmental Psychology, Neuroscience, and Social Psychology, as listed below. All core courses must be taken for a letter grade for three units and passed with a B- or better grade. Students are expected to complete four core courses by the end of the third year.

Consistent with the program’s goal of fostering breadth and engagement across all areas of the department, students are encouraged to take all five core courses spanning the five areas of the department. If a student takes five core courses, the units and grade of the fifth course are counted toward the student’s advanced units.

Students may be required by their advisors to take up to two additional graduate courses in their area of specialization. In these cases, the other courses are counted toward the advanced units requirement described below. Students should consult with their advisor about any additional requirements in their area of specialization. 

Quantitative Methods Course Requirement

Students are required to take two of the following Quantitative Methods courses:

At least one of these courses must be taken in the first year, and both should be completed by the end of the second year. Quantitative methods courses must be taken for a letter grade and passed with a B- or better grade.

In the case that a student has already taken similar graduate-level coursework, with the consent of the advisor, the student may petition to substitute an alternative course for one of the two required courses; for example, to take 252 and 253 but not 251, or to take 251 and another upper-division statistics course. Petitions must be submitted to the department’s student services office and approved by the department’s Director of Graduate Studies (DGS).

Students who did not take an undergraduate course in statistics should take PSYCH 10 (STATS 60) in the earliest possible quarter within the first year; this is a prerequisite to any graduate statistics course.

Advanced Units or Ph.D. Minor Requirement

Students must complete 12 units of advanced graduate coursework, referred to as advanced units (AU). Students earn AU by taking: (a) non-core graduate psychology courses and/or (b) graduate-level courses in other departments comparable in quality to graduate courses offered by the Psychology Department. If there is any question about the comparability of courses, the student should consult the advisor, student services, and, in some cases, the graduate program committee chair before taking the course.

Courses taken for a letter grade must receive a B- or better to count toward the advanced units requirement. Students may request to count up to 3 units of undergraduate-level coursework toward the AU requirement. The advisor should support the request, and the undergraduate course must be substantive and relevant to the student’s graduate research. Requests to count undergraduate-level coursework must be submitted to the student services manager and may be adjudicated by the Director of Graduate Studies and/or the Graduate Program Committee.

A student may complete a PhD minor in another department instead of the advanced units requirement. Students pursuing a minor should register this decision with the student services manager.

Advanced units and/or PhD minors must be completed by the end of the fourth year. The department expects all decisions related to the AUs or the PhD minor to be made in close consultation with the student’s advisor.

The goals of the graduate program in the Stanford Psychology Department are twofold. First, it aims to develop researchers who are expert scholars in their dissertations. The program expects graduates to be fluent in theoretical foundations and debates, empirical findings, and methods of their respective fields. Second, it aims to guide and foster students’ development of an original research program that significantly advances knowledge in their specialization. Therefore, the research requirements, implemented in a series of milestones, are intended to help students obtain the necessary research experience, receive expert and constructive feedback from their primary advisor(s) and their committee, and ensure the successful completion of their dissertation research at the end of the program.

Students are expected to spend at least half of their time engaged in research from the beginning of the first year of graduate study to the completion of the PhD, taking no more than ten units of coursework each quarter.

First Year Project (FYP)

At the end of their first year of graduate study, students must submit a written report of their first-year research activities, called the First Year Project (FYP). This report should resemble a journal article in their area. It is written in consultation with their advisor. The FYP proposal is due at the end of autumn quarter. The final FYP is due on June 1 of the first year. First-year students must also work with their advisor to identify a second FYP reader (another Psychology faculty member) by the end of October in autumn quarter of the first year. Both the advisor and the second FYP reader are expected to read the FYP and provide the student with constructive feedback. It is recommended that students meet with their FYP readers in the summer of the first year to receive feedback.

Dissertation Reading Committee

Students are expected to form a research committee, including the dissertation reading committee, before initiating their dissertation research. The research committee includes the dissertation advisor and at least two additional faculty members, for three members, at least two of whom should have primary appointments in the Psychology Department. See  Graduate Degrees for university guidelines for the composition of the dissertation reading committee.

Students must form the committee and submit the Dissertation Reading Committee form to the student services manager by February 1 of the third year.

Third-Year Committee Meeting and Research Plan

Students are required to meet with their committee annually beginning in their third year. For the annual committee meetings, if a member of the student’s regular committee is unavailable (e.g., on sabbatical), the student should recruit another department faculty member to attend instead.

Students must meet with their committee in winter or spring quarter of the third year no later than June 1. At least two weeks before this meeting, students must submit a 1-2 page research plan to the committee.

Research Plan

The third-year research plan, which is submitted to the committee, is a short (1-2 page) document containing a brief overview of the experiments that have been completed and the planned experiments. The research plan is due in winter or spring quarter of the third year and no later than two weeks before the committee meeting.

Third-Year Committee Meeting

The goal of the third-year committee meeting is for students to present their planned research and preliminary data and for the faculty to give students feedback on their research plan, feasibility, and progress. During the third-year committee meeting, students present and discuss with the committee:

Background and hypothesis being tested

Experiments and methods

Preliminary results

Potential outcomes as well as pitfalls

After the committee meeting, students should submit the research plan to the student services manager and report the date the meeting took place.

Fourth-Year Committee Meeting and Research Plan

Students must meet with their committee in the fourth year in the autumn or winter quarter. At least two weeks before the meeting, they must submit their Area Review and Research Roadmap (ARRR) to their committee.

Area Review and Research Roadmap (ARRR):

This document has two parts:

Area Review:  A manuscript written in the format of a review paper that summarizes current theories, debates, and empirical work in the area of the dissertation, which ultimately leads to the open questions that will be answered in the dissertation. The goal of writing this document is to enable the students to organize and develop scholarly knowledge relevant to their dissertation research. This document could serve as the basis for the introduction to the dissertation and/or a basis for a review paper. The department expects that this section will be the bulk of the ARRR. It expects students to consult with their advisor on this document’s scope and receive feedback from their committee during the fourth-year meeting.

Research Roadmap:  This section is short (1-2 pages) and contains a brief overview of the experiments that will be part of the dissertation. Given that this document is written during the fourth year, some of the experiments are expected to be completed, while others are planned/ongoing.

Fourth-Year Committee Meeting

The goal of the fourth-year committee meeting is for students to present their research progress and receive feedback from the committee members on the ARRR. The department expects the presentation to start with a review of the relevant work but focus on the research progress. During the meeting, students present and discuss with the committee:

Background and hypothesis being tests

Current Results

Planned experiments toward dissertation completion

After the committee meeting, students should submit the ARRR to the student services manager and report the date the meeting took place.

Note:  Students admitted before 2018-19 may choose to use the prior milestone documents (the Dissertation Proposal and Conceptual Analysis of Dissertation Area) instead of the ARRR. This decision should be registered with the student services manager. Refer to the Stanford Bulletin from your entering year for details about these prior requirements.

Fifth-Year Committee Meeting and Beyond

The department expects that students complete their Oral Exam by the end of the fifth year. Thus, typically, the Oral Exam replaces the fifth-year committee meeting. However, if a student defers the Oral Exam, they are expected to meet with their committee before June 1 of the fifth year to give an update on ongoing research progress and receive feedback. The same applies to the sixth year and so on. After each committee meeting, students should report to the student services manager when the committee meeting occurred.

Oral Examination

In the Department of Psychology, the Oral Examination is a dissertation defense. A 5-member committee is formed to review the oral examination. This committee includes the dissertation reading committee, an additional faculty member, and one oral examination committee chair from outside the Psychology department.

The oral examination consists of a 45-minute public presentation to the department of the completed dissertation research, followed by a 10-15 minute period of open questions and answers. Parents and friends are welcome to attend. Following the presentation, the student and the committee convene for a closed part of the oral exam. Each committee member asks the PhD candidate questions regarding their PhD research. After the closed session, the candidate leaves the room, the committee discusses the outcome of the exam, and members anonymously vote on whether the candidate passed the oral exam. Per university policy, the total duration of both parts of the oral examination should be less than three hours.

Dissertation

Per university policy, the candidate must complete a dissertation satisfactory to the dissertation reading committee. Typically, the candidate will submit the dissertation to the reading committee two weeks before the oral examination. Minor revisions to formatting may be made after the oral examination. It is allowable by university policy to have a single additional writing quarter after the defense to finalize the dissertation. The dissertation must be approved and signed by each member of the dissertation reading committee.

Students must complete their oral examination and submit their dissertation before their candidate status expires at the end of the seventh year (per university policy, candidacy status is granted at the end of year 2, and students have five years of candidacy in which to complete all requirements). See Graduate Degrees for more information. The Department will review petitions for a more extended candidacy period on a case-by-case basis.

Teaching Requirement

The department views experience in supervised teaching as an integral part of its graduate program. Regardless of their financial support source, all students must participate in at least five quarters of teaching experience during their graduate study.

Of these five teaching quarters, students are required to apply for 2 of the quarters providing teaching support to a service course, either two quarters of  course  Introduction to Psychology or two quarters of a core statistics course:  course  Introduction to Statistical Methods: Precalculus,  course  Experimental Methods,  course  Statistical Methods for Behavioral and Social Sciences, and/or  course  Advanced Statistical Modeling. Students report whether they prefer the PSYCH 1 or the stats path (or neutral) in their first year. 

Students are prohibited from teaching during the first year of graduate study. Students typically progress from closely supervised teaching to more independent teaching. Some students may be invited to offer a supervised, but essentially independent, seminar during their final year of graduate study.

Carol Dweck

Lewis and virginia eaton professor and professor, by courtesy, of education.

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My work bridges developmental psychology, social psychology, and personality psychology, and examines the self-conceptions people use to structure the self and guide their behavior. My research looks at the origins of these self-conceptions, their role in motivation and self-regulation, and their impact on achievement and interpersonal processes.

Academic Appointments

• Professor, Psychology
• Professor (By courtesy), Graduate School of Education
• Member, Wu Tsai Human Performance Alliance

Administrative Appointments

• Lewis and Virginia Eaton Professor of Psychology, Stanford University (2004 - Present)
• Professor, Department of Psychology, Columbia University (1989 - 2004)
• William B. Ransford Professor of Psychology, Columbia University (1989 - 2004)
• Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Illinois (1985 - 1989)
• Professor, Laboratory of Human Development, Harvard University (1981 - 1985)
• Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Illinois (1977 - 1981)
• Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Illinois (1972 - 1977)
• National Science Foundation Fellow, Yale University (1967 - 1971)

Honors & Awards

• Book Award for Self-Theories, World Education Federation (an organization of the United Nations and UNICEF) (2004)
• Donald Campbell Career Achievement Award in Social Psychology, Society for Personality and Social Psychology (2008)
• Award for Innovative Program of the Year, “Brainology” (2008)
• Ann L. Brown Award for Research in Developmental Psychology, University of Illinois (2009)
• Klingenstein Award for Leadership in Education, Klingenstein Center, Columbia University (2010)
• Thorndike Career Achievement Award in Educational Psychology, American Psychological Association (2010)
• Beckman Mentoring Award, Columbia University (2011)
• Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award, American Psychological Association (2011)
• Gallery of Scientists, Federation of Associations in Behavioral & Brain Sciences (2011)
• James McKeen Cattell Lifetime Achievement Award, Association for Psychological Science (2013)
• Distinguished Scholar Award, Society for Personality and Social Psychology (2013)

Boards, Advisory Committees, Professional Organizations

• Elected Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2002 - Present)
• Elected Member, Herbert Simon Fellow of the Academy of Political and Social Science (2010 - 2010)
• Elected Member, National Academy of Sciences (2012 - 2012)

Professional Education

• Ph.D., Yale University, Psychology (1972)
• B.A., Barnard College, Columbia University, Psychology (1967)
• Department of Psychology
• Stanford,  California  94305 
• (650) 724-9063 (office)
• 650-724-1138 (office)

Additional Info

• Mail Code: 2130
• Curriculum Vitae PDF

2023-24 Courses

• Developmental Psychology PSYCH 211 (Win)
• Rethinking the Development of the Self PSYCH 287A (Spr)
• Self Theories PSYCH 12N (Aut)
• Graduate Research PSYCH 275 (Aut, Win, Spr, Sum)
• Master's Degree Project SYMSYS 290 (Aut, Spr)
• Practicum in Teaching PSYCH 281 (Aut, Win, Spr)
• Reading and Special Work PSYCH 194 (Aut, Win, Spr, Sum)
• Special Laboratory Projects PSYCH 195 (Aut, Win, Spr, Sum)

2022-23 Courses

• Human Motivation PSYCH 235 (Spr)

2021-22 Courses

2020-21 courses.

• Changing Mindsets and Contexts: How to Create Authentic, Lasting Improvement PSYCH 273 (Spr)

Stanford Advisees

• Doctoral Dissertation Reader (AC) Luiza Almeida Santos , Kengthsagn Louis , Jenny Yang
• Postdoctoral Faculty Sponsor Elizabeth Blevins , Melis Muradoglu
• Doctoral Dissertation Co-Advisor (AC) Kris Evans , Kayla Good , Cedric Lim (Chun Hui)

All Publications

Two largely separate bodies of empirical research have shown that academic achievement is influenced by structural factors, such as socioeconomic background, and psychological factors, such as students' beliefs about their abilities. In this research, we use a nationwide sample of high school students from Chile to investigate how these factors interact on a systemic level. Confirming prior research, we find that family income is a strong predictor of achievement. Extending prior research, we find that a growth mindset (the belief that intelligence is not fixed and can be developed) is a comparably strong predictor of achievement and that it exhibits a positive relationship with achievement across all of the socioeconomic strata in the country. Furthermore, we find that students from lower-income families were less likely to hold a growth mindset than their wealthier peers, but those who did hold a growth mindset were appreciably buffered against the deleterious effects of poverty on achievement: students in the lowest 10th percentile of family income who exhibited a growth mindset showed academic performance as high as that of fixed mindset students from the 80th income percentile. These results suggest that students' mindsets may temper or exacerbate the effects of economic disadvantage on a systemic level.

View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.1608207113

View details for PubMedID 27432947

View details for PubMedCentralID PMC4978255

Previous experiments have shown that college students benefit when they understand that challenges in the transition to college are common and improvable and, thus, that early struggles need not portend a permanent lack of belonging or potential. Could such an approach-called a lay theory intervention-be effective before college matriculation? Could this strategy reduce a portion of racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic achievement gaps for entire institutions? Three double-blind experiments tested this possibility. Ninety percent of first-year college students from three institutions were randomly assigned to complete single-session, online lay theory or control materials before matriculation (n > 9,500). The lay theory interventions raised first-year full-time college enrollment among students from socially and economically disadvantaged backgrounds exiting a high-performing charter high school network or entering a public flagship university (experiments 1 and 2) and, at a selective private university, raised disadvantaged students' cumulative first-year grade point average (experiment 3). These gains correspond to 31-40% reductions of the raw (unadjusted) institutional achievement gaps between students from disadvantaged and nondisadvantaged backgrounds at those institutions. Further, follow-up surveys suggest that the interventions improved disadvantaged students' overall college experiences, promoting use of student support services and the development of friendship networks and mentor relationships. This research therefore provides a basis for further tests of the generalizability of preparatory lay theories interventions and of their potential to reduce social inequality and improve other major life transitions.

View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.1524360113

View details for PubMedID 27247409

Children's intelligence mind-sets (i.e., their beliefs about whether intelligence is fixed or malleable) robustly influence their motivation and learning. Yet, surprisingly, research has not linked parents' intelligence mind-sets to their children's. We tested the hypothesis that a different belief of parents-their failure mind-sets-may be more visible to children and therefore more prominent in shaping their beliefs. In Study 1, we found that parents can view failure as debilitating or enhancing, and that these failure mind-sets predict parenting practices and, in turn, children's intelligence mind-sets. Study 2 probed more deeply into how parents display failure mind-sets. In Study 3a, we found that children can indeed accurately perceive their parents' failure mind-sets but not their parents' intelligence mind-sets. Study 3b showed that children's perceptions of their parents' failure mind-sets also predicted their own intelligence mind-sets. Finally, Study 4 showed a causal effect of parents' failure mind-sets on their responses to their children's hypothetical failure. Overall, parents who see failure as debilitating focus on their children's performance and ability rather than on their children's learning, and their children, in turn, tend to believe that intelligence is fixed rather than malleable.

View details for DOI 10.1177/0956797616639727

View details for Web of Science ID 000378420100009

View details for PubMedID 27113733

There are many promising psychological interventions on the horizon, but there is no clear methodology for preparing them to be scaled up. Drawing on design thinking, the present research formalizes a methodology for redesigning and tailoring initial interventions. We test the methodology using the case of fixed versus growth mindsets during the transition to high school. Qualitative inquiry and rapid, iterative, randomized "A/B" experiments were conducted with ~3,000 participants to inform intervention revisions for this population. Next, two experimental evaluations showed that the revised growth mindset intervention was an improvement over previous versions in terms of short-term proxy outcomes (Study 1, N=7,501), and it improved 9th grade core-course GPA and reduced D/F GPAs for lower achieving students when delivered via the Internet under routine conditions with ~95% of students at 10 schools (Study 2, N=3,676). Although the intervention could still be improved even further, the current research provides a model for how to improve and scale interventions that begin to address pressing educational problems. It also provides insight into how to teach a growth mindset more effectively.

View details for DOI 10.1037/edu0000098

View details for Web of Science ID 000373687300007

View details for PubMedCentralID PMC4981081

The efficacy of academic-mind-set interventions has been demonstrated by small-scale, proof-of-concept interventions, generally delivered in person in one school at a time. Whether this approach could be a practical way to raise school achievement on a large scale remains unknown. We therefore delivered brief growth-mind-set and sense-of-purpose interventions through online modules to 1,594 students in 13 geographically diverse high schools. Both interventions were intended to help students persist when they experienced academic difficulty; thus, both were predicted to be most beneficial for poorly performing students. This was the case. Among students at risk of dropping out of high school (one third of the sample), each intervention raised students' semester grade point averages in core academic courses and increased the rate at which students performed satisfactorily in core courses by 6.4 percentage points. We discuss implications for the pipeline from theory to practice and for education reform.

View details for DOI 10.1177/0956797615571017

View details for Web of Science ID 000355857100010

View details for PubMedID 25862544

Laboratory research shows that when people believe that willpower is an abundant (rather than highly limited) resource they exhibit better self-control after demanding tasks. However, some have questioned whether this "nonlimited" theory leads to squandering of resources and worse outcomes in everyday life when demands on self-regulation are high. To examine this, we conducted a longitudinal study, assessing students' theories about willpower and tracking their self-regulation and academic performance. As hypothesized, a nonlimited theory predicted better self-regulation (better time management and less procrastination, unhealthy eating, and impulsive spending) for students who faced high self-regulatory demands. Moreover, among students taking a heavy course load, those with a nonlimited theory earned higher grades, which was mediated by less procrastination. These findings contradict the idea that a limited theory helps people allocate their resources more effectively; instead, it is people with the nonlimited theory who self-regulate well in the face of high demands.

View details for DOI 10.1037/pspp0000014

View details for Web of Science ID 000352321900008

View details for PubMedID 25844577

View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.1500252112

View details for PubMedID 25695973

View details for PubMedCentralID PMC4364198

Despite strong support for the efficacy of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) for social anxiety disorder (SAD), little is known about mechanisms of change in treatment. Within the context of a randomized controlled trial of CBT, this study examined patients' beliefs about the fixed versus malleable nature of anxiety-their 'implicit theories'-as a key variable in CBT for SAD. Compared to waitlist (n = 29; 58% female), CBT (n = 24; 52% female) led to significantly lower levels of fixed beliefs about anxiety (Mbaseline = 11.70 vs. MPost = 7.08, d = 1.27). These implicit beliefs indirectly explained CBT-related changes in social anxiety symptoms (κ(2) = .28, [95% CI = 0.12, 0.46]). Implicit beliefs also uniquely predicted treatment outcomes when controlling for baseline social anxiety and other kinds of maladaptive beliefs (perceived social costs, perceived social self-efficacy, and maladaptive interpersonal beliefs). Finally, implicit beliefs continued to predict social anxiety symptoms at 12 months post-treatment. These findings suggest that changes in patients' beliefs about their emotions may play an important role in CBT for SAD.

View details for DOI 10.1080/16506073.2014.974665

View details for PubMedID 25380179

A very simple reciprocal activity elicited high degrees of altruism in 1- and 2-y-old children, whereas friendly but nonreciprocal activity yielded little subsequent altruism. In a second study, reciprocity with one adult led 1- and 2-y-olds to provide help to a new person. These results question the current dominant claim that social experiences cannot account for early occurring altruistic behavior. A third study, with preschool-age children, showed that subtle reciprocal cues remain potent elicitors of altruism, whereas a fourth study with preschoolers showed that even a brief reciprocal experience fostered children's expectation of altruism from others. Collectively, the studies suggest that simple reciprocal interactions are a potent trigger of altruism for young children, and that these interactions lead children to believe that their relationships are characterized by mutual care and commitment.

View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.1419408111

View details for Web of Science ID 000345920800033

View details for PubMedID 25404334

View details for PubMedCentralID PMC4260564

View details for DOI 10.1177/0146167214552789

View details for Web of Science ID 000344851000004

Empathy is often thought to occur automatically. Yet, empathy frequently breaks down when it is difficult or distressing to relate to people in need, suggesting that empathy is often not felt reflexively. Indeed, the United States as a whole is said to be displaying an empathy deficit. When and why does empathy break down, and what predicts whether people will exert effort to experience empathy in challenging contexts? Across 7 studies, we found that people who held a malleable mindset about empathy (believing empathy can be developed) expended greater empathic effort in challenging contexts than did people who held a fixed theory (believing empathy cannot be developed). Specifically, a malleable theory of empathy--whether measured or experimentally induced--promoted (a) more self-reported effort to feel empathy when it is challenging (Study 1); (b) more empathically effortful responses to a person with conflicting views on personally important sociopolitical issues (Studies 2-4); (c) more time spent listening to the emotional personal story of a racial outgroup member (Study 5); and (d) greater willingness to help cancer patients in effortful, face-to-face ways (Study 6). Study 7 revealed a possible reason for this greater empathic effort in challenging contexts: a stronger interest in improving one's empathy. Together, these data suggest that people's mindsets powerfully affect whether they exert effort to empathize when it is needed most, and these data may represent a point of leverage in increasing empathic behaviors on a broad scale.

View details for DOI 10.1037/a0036738

View details for Web of Science ID 000348334600006

View details for PubMedID 25133727

People often exert willpower to choose a more valuable delayed reward over a less valuable immediate reward, but using willpower is taxing and frequently fails. In this research, we demonstrate the ability to enhance self-control (i.e., forgoing smaller immediate rewards in favor of larger delayed rewards) without exerting additional willpower. Using behavioral and neuroimaging data, we show that a reframing of rewards (i) reduced the subjective value of smaller immediate rewards relative to larger delayed rewards, (ii) increased the likelihood of choosing the larger delayed rewards when choosing between two real monetary rewards, (iii) reduced the brain reward responses to immediate rewards in the dorsal and ventral striatum, and (iv) reduced brain activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (a correlate of willpower) when participants chose the same larger later rewards across the two choice frames. We conclude that reframing can promote self-control while avoiding the need for additional willpower expenditure.

View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.1408991111

View details for Web of Science ID 000338514800030

View details for PubMedCentralID PMC4103380

The belief that personality is fixed (an entity theory of personality) can give rise to negative reactions to social adversities. Three studies showed that when social adversity is common-at the transition to high school-an entity theory can affect overall stress, health, and achievement. Study 1 showed that an entity theory of personality, measured during the 1st month of 9th grade, predicted more negative immediate reactions to social adversity and, at the end of the year, greater stress, poorer health, and lower grades in school. Studies 2 and 3, both experiments, tested a brief intervention that taught a malleable (incremental) theory of personality-the belief that people can change. The incremental theory group showed less negative reactions to an immediate experience of social adversity and, 8 months later, reported lower overall stress and physical illness. They also achieved better academic performance over the year. Discussion centers on the power of targeted psychological interventions to effect far-reaching and long-term change by shifting interpretations of recurring adversities during developmental transitions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).

View details for DOI 10.1037/a0036335

View details for PubMedID 24841093

Recent years have seen a rejuvenation of interest in studies of motivation-cognition interactions arising from many different areas of psychology and neuroscience. The present issue of Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience provides a sampling of some of the latest research from a number of these different areas. In this introductory article, we provide an overview of the current state of the field, in terms of key research developments and candidate neural mechanisms receiving focused investigation as potential sources of motivation-cognition interaction. However, our primary goal is conceptual: to highlight the distinct perspectives taken by different research areas, in terms of how motivation is defined, the relevant dimensions and dissociations that are emphasized, and the theoretical questions being targeted. Together, these distinctions present both challenges and opportunities for efforts aiming toward a more unified and cross-disciplinary approach. We identify a set of pressing research questions calling for this sort of cross-disciplinary approach, with the explicit goal of encouraging integrative and collaborative investigations directed toward them.

View details for DOI 10.3758/s13415-014-0300-0

View details for Web of Science ID 000338516800001

View details for PubMedCentralID PMC4986920

Adolescents face many academic and emotional challenges in middle school, but notable differences are evident in how well they adapt. What predicts adolescents' academic and emotional outcomes during this period? One important factor might be adolescents' implicit theories about whether intelligence and emotions can change. The current study examines how these theories affect academic and emotional outcomes. One hundred fifteen students completed surveys throughout middle school, and their grades and course selections were obtained from school records. Students who believed that intelligence could be developed earned higher grades and were more likely to move to advanced math courses over time. Students who believed that emotions could be controlled reported fewer depressive symptoms and, if they began middle school with lower well-being, were more likely to feel better over time. These findings illustrate the power of adolescents' implicit theories, suggesting exciting new pathways for intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).

View details for DOI 10.1037/a0035490

View details for PubMedID 24512251

Evaluating others is a fundamental feature of human social interaction-we like those who help more than those who hinder. In the present research, we examined social evaluation of those who not only intentionally performed good and bad actions but also those to whom good things have happened (the lucky) and those to whom bad things have happened (the unlucky). In Experiment 1a, subjects demonstrated a sympathetic preference for the unlucky. However, under cognitive load (Experiment 1b), no such preference was expressed. Further, in Experiments 2a and 2b, when a time delay between impression formation (learning) and evaluation (memory test) was introduced, results showed that younger (Experiment 2a) and older adults (Experiment 2b) showed a significant preference for the lucky. Together these experiments show that a consciously motivated sympathetic preference for those who are unlucky dissolves when memory is disrupted. The observed dissociation provides evidence for the presence of conscious good intentions (favoring the unlucky) and the cognitive compromising of such intentions when memory fails.

View details for DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0079091

View details for Web of Science ID 000327254700091

View details for PubMedID 24236093

View details for DOI 10.1080/01973533.2013.840632

View details for Web of Science ID 000327235400001

Past research found that the ingestion of glucose can enhance self-control. It has been widely assumed that basic physiological processes underlie this effect. We hypothesized that the effect of glucose also depends on people's theories about willpower. Three experiments, both measuring (experiment 1) and manipulating (experiments 2 and 3) theories about willpower, showed that, following a demanding task, only people who view willpower as limited and easily depleted (a limited resource theory) exhibited improved self-control after sugar consumption. In contrast, people who view willpower as plentiful (a nonlimited resource theory) showed no benefits from glucose-they exhibited high levels of self-control performance with or without sugar boosts. Additionally, creating beliefs about glucose ingestion (experiment 3) did not have the same effect as ingesting glucose for those with a limited resource theory. We suggest that the belief that willpower is limited sensitizes people to cues about their available resources including physiological cues, making them dependent on glucose boosts for high self-control performance.

View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.1313475110

View details for Web of Science ID 000324125100020

View details for PubMedID 23959900

In laboratory studies, praising children's effort encourages them to adopt incremental motivational frameworks--they believe ability is malleable, attribute success to hard work, enjoy challenges, and generate strategies for improvement. In contrast, praising children's inherent abilities encourages them to adopt fixed-ability frameworks. Does the praise parents spontaneously give children at home show the same effects? Although parents' early praise of inherent characteristics was not associated with children's later fixed-ability frameworks, parents' praise of children's effort at 14-38 months (N = 53) did predict incremental frameworks at 7-8 years, suggesting that causal mechanisms identified in experimental work may be operating in home environments.

View details for DOI 10.1111/cdev.12064

View details for Web of Science ID 000323829300005

View details for PubMedID 23397904

Past research has shown that hostile schemas and adverse experiences predict the hostile attributional bias. This research proposes that seemingly nonhostile beliefs (implicit theories about the malleability of personality) may also play a role in shaping it. Study 1 meta-analytically summarized 11 original tests of this hypothesis (N = 1,659), and showed that among diverse adolescents aged 13-16 a fixed or entity theory about personality traits predicted greater hostile attributional biases, which mediated an effect on aggressive desires. Study 2 experimentally changed adolescents' implicit theories toward a malleable or incremental view and showed a reduction in hostile intent attributions. Study 3 delivered an incremental theory intervention that reduced hostile intent attributions and aggressive desires over an 8-month period.

View details for DOI 10.1111/cdev.12062

View details for Web of Science ID 000323829300013

View details for PubMedID 23402434

View details for DOI 10.1016/j.jesp.2013.02.002

View details for Web of Science ID 000319852600008

Adolescents are often resistant to interventions that reduce aggression in children. At the same time, they are developing stronger beliefs in the fixed nature of personal characteristics, particularly aggression. The present intervention addressed these beliefs. A randomized field experiment with a diverse sample of Grades 9 and 10 students (ages 14-16, n = 230) tested the impact of a 6-session intervention that taught an incremental theory (a belief in the potential for personal change). Compared to no-treatment and coping skills control groups, the incremental theory group behaved significantly less aggressively and more prosocially 1 month postintervention and exhibited fewer conduct problems 3 months postintervention. The incremental theory and the coping skills interventions also eliminated the association between peer victimization and depressive symptoms.

View details for DOI 10.1111/cdev.12003

View details for Web of Science ID 000318624500016

View details for PubMedID 23106262

• Social-cognitive development: A renaissance Navigating the Social World: What infants, children, and other species can teach us Dweck, C. S. 2013
• Parent praise to 1-3 year-olds predicts children’s motivational frameworks 5 years later Child Development Gunderson, L., Gripshover, S., Romero, C., Goldin-Meadow, S., Dweck, C. S., Levine, S. 2013
• How universals and individual differences can inform each other: The case of social expectations in infancy Navigating the Social World: What infants, children, and other species can teach us Johnson, S. C., Dweck, C. S., Dunfield, K. edited by Banaji, M. R., Gelman, S. New York: Oxford. 2013

Intergroup contact plays a crucial role in moderating long-term conflicts. Unfortunately, the motivation to make contact with outgroup members is usually very low in such conflicts. We hypothesized that one limiting factor is the belief that groups cannot change, which leads to increased intergroup anxiety and decreased contact motivation. To test this hypothesis, we experimentally manipulated beliefs about group malleability in the context of the conflict between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and then assessed intergroup anxiety and motivation to engage in intergroup contact. Turkish Cypriots who were led to believe that groups can change (with no mention of the specific groups involved) reported lower levels of intergroup anxiety and higher motivation to interact and communicate with Greek Cypriots in the future, compared with those who were led to believe that groups cannot change. This effect of group malleability manipulation on contact motivation was mediated by intergroup anxiety.

View details for DOI 10.1037/a0028620

View details for Web of Science ID 000311878700003

View details for PubMedID 22642339

The authors test the assumption that the core of implicit motives is the desire for particular affective experiences and that motive satisfaction need not be tied to any particular domain. Using the context of romantic relationships, cross-sectional Study 1 and experimental Study 2 showed that people with a high affiliation motive were more satisfied when they experienced more affiliation-specific affect (calmness and relaxation). However, people with a higher power motive were more satisfied in their relationships when they experienced more power-specific affect (strength and excitement) in these relationships. The results support the idea that an implicit motive involves the desire for specific affective experiences and that frequent experiences of one's preferred affect can lead to enhanced satisfaction and well-being in a domain, even one that is not typically associated with that motive.

View details for DOI 10.1177/0146167212454920

View details for Web of Science ID 000311570600002

View details for PubMedID 22854792

Debates about human nature often revolve around what is built in. However, the hallmark of human nature is how much of a person's identity is not built in; rather, it is humans' great capacity to adapt, change, and grow. This nature versus nurture debate matters-not only to students of human nature-but to everyone. It matters whether people believe that their core qualities are fixed by nature (an entity theory, or fixed mindset) or whether they believe that their qualities can be developed (an incremental theory, or growth mindset). In this article, I show that an emphasis on growth not only increases intellectual achievement but can also advance conflict resolution between long-standing adversaries, decrease even chronic aggression, foster cross-race relations, and enhance willpower. I close by returning to human nature and considering how it is best conceptualized and studied.

View details for DOI 10.1037/a0029783

View details for Web of Science ID 000311008200006

View details for PubMedID 23163438

We identify a novel dimension of people's beliefs about intelligence: beliefs about the potential to become highly intelligent. Studies 1-3 found that in U.S. American contexts, people tend to believe that only some people have the potential to become highly intelligent. In contrast, in South Asian Indian contexts, people tend to believe that most people have the potential to become highly intelligent. To examine the implications of these beliefs, Studies 4-6 measured and manipulated Americans' beliefs about the potential for intelligence and found that the belief that everyone can become highly intelligent predicted increased support for policies that distribute resources more equally across advantaged and disadvantaged social groups. These findings suggest that the belief that only some people have the potential to become highly intelligent is a culturally shaped belief, and one that can lead people to oppose policies aimed at redressing social inequality.

View details for DOI 10.1037/a0029263

View details for Web of Science ID 000310042000005

View details for PubMedID 22800285

Prejudiced behavior is typically seen as emanating from prejudiced attitudes. Eight studies showed that majority-group members' beliefs about prejudice can create seemingly "prejudiced" behaviors above and beyond prejudice measured explicitly (Study 1b) and implicitly (Study 2). Those who believed prejudice was relatively fixed, rather than malleable, were less interested in interracial interactions (Studies 1a-1d), race- or diversity-related activities (Study 1a), and activities to reduce their prejudice (Study 3). They were also more uncomfortable in interracial, but not same-race, interactions (Study 2). Study 4 manipulated beliefs about prejudice and found that a fixed belief, by heightening concerns about revealing prejudice to oneself and others, depressed interest in interracial interactions. Further, though Whites who were taught a fixed belief were more anxious and unfriendly in an interaction with a Black compared with a White individual, Whites who were taught a malleable belief were not (Study 5). Implications for reducing prejudice and improving intergroup relations are discussed.

View details for DOI 10.1037/a0028849

View details for Web of Science ID 000307793500008

View details for PubMedID 22708626

Can young children, forming expectations about the social world, capture differences among people without falling into the pitfalls of categorization? Categorization often leads to exaggerating differences between groups and minimizing differences within groups, resulting in stereotyping. Six studies with 4-year-old children (N = 214) characterized schematic faces or photographs as falling along a continuum (really mean to really nice) or divided into categories (mean vs. nice). Using materials that children naturally group into categories (Study 3), the continuum framing prevented the signature pattern of categorization for similarity judgments (Study 1), inferences about behavior and deservingness (Studies 2 and 5), personal liking and play preferences (Study 4), and stable and internal attributions for behavior (Study 6). When children recognize people as members of continua, they may avoid stereotypes.

View details for DOI 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01774.x

View details for Web of Science ID 000306403700004

View details for PubMedID 22540868

Building cognitive abilities often requires sustained engagement with effortful tasks. We demonstrate that beliefs about willpower-whether willpower is viewed as a limited or non-limited resource-impact sustained learning on a strenuous mental task. As predicted, beliefs about willpower did not affect accuracy or improvement during the initial phases of learning; however, participants who were led to view willpower as non-limited showed greater sustained learning over the full duration of the task. These findings highlight the interactive nature of motivational and cognitive processes: motivational factors can substantially affect people's ability to recruit their cognitive resources to sustain learning over time.

View details for DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0038680

View details for Web of Science ID 000305730900016

View details for PubMedID 22745675

View details for PubMedCentralID PMC3382137

Legal precedent establishes juvenile offenders as inherently less culpable than adult offenders and thus protects juveniles from the most severe of punishments. But how fragile might these protections be? In the present study, simply bringing to mind a Black (vs. White) juvenile offender led participants to view juveniles in general as significantly more similar to adults in their inherent culpability and to express more support for severe sentencing. Indeed, these differences in participants' perceptions of this foundational legal precedent distinguishing between juveniles and adults accounted for their greater support for severe punishment. These results highlight the fragility of protections for juveniles when race is in play. Furthermore, we suggest that this fragility may have broad implications for how juveniles are seen and treated in the criminal justice system.

View details for DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0036680

View details for Web of Science ID 000305335800013

View details for PubMedID 22649496

View details for PubMedCentralID PMC3359323

View details for DOI 10.1016/j.jesp.2011.12.012

View details for Web of Science ID 000303075000016

Sense of belonging to math-one's feelings of membership and acceptance in the math domain-was established as a new and an important factor in the representation gap between males and females in math. First, a new scale of sense of belonging to math was created and validated, and was found to predict unique variance in college students' intent to pursue math in the future (Studies 1-2). Second, in a longitudinal study of calculus students (Study 3), students' perceptions of 2 factors in their math environment-the message that math ability is a fixed trait and the stereotype that women have less of this ability than men-worked together to erode women's, but not men's, sense of belonging in math. Their lowered sense of belonging, in turn, mediated women's desire to pursue math in the future and their math grades. Interestingly, the message that math ability could be acquired protected women from negative stereotypes, allowing them to maintain a high sense of belonging in math and the intention to pursue math in the future.

View details for DOI 10.1037/a0026659

View details for Web of Science ID 000301884100003

View details for PubMedID 22288527

Gender-based stereotypes undermine females' performance on challenging math tests, but how do they influence their ability to learn from the errors they make? Females under stereotype threat or non-threat were presented with accuracy feedback after each problem on a GRE-like math test, followed by an optional interactive tutorial that provided step-wise problem-solving instruction. Event-related potentials tracked the initial detection of the negative feedback following errors [feedback related negativity (FRN), P3a], as well as any subsequent sustained attention/arousal to that information [late positive potential (LPP)]. Learning was defined as success in applying tutorial information to correction of initial test errors on a surprise retest 24-h later. Under non-threat conditions, emotional responses to negative feedback did not curtail exploration of the tutor, and the amount of tutor exploration predicted learning success. In the stereotype threat condition, however, greater initial salience of the failure (FRN) predicted less exploration of the tutor, and sustained attention to the negative feedback (LPP) predicted poor learning from what was explored. Thus, under stereotype threat, emotional responses to negative feedback predicted both disengagement from learning and interference with learning attempts. We discuss the importance of emotion regulation in successful rebound from failure for stigmatized groups in stereotype-salient environments.

View details for DOI 10.1093/scan/nsq100

View details for Web of Science ID 000300227500012

View details for PubMedID 21252312

View details for DOI 10.1016/B978-0-12-394286-9.00003-2

View details for Web of Science ID 000306817800003

• An implicit theories of personality intervention reduces adolescent aggression in response to victimization and exclusion Child Development Yeager, D. S., Trzesniewski, K., Dweck, C. S. 2012 ; 84 : 970 - 988
• Expandable selves Handbook of self and identity Walton, G. M., Paunesku, D., Dweck, C. S. edited by Leary, M., Tangney, J. New York: Guilford. 2012

View details for DOI 10.1080/00461520.2012.722805

View details for Web of Science ID 000310142900003

Drawing upon the literatures on beliefs about magical contagion and property transmission, we examined people's belief in a novel mechanism of human-to-human contagion, emotional residue. This is the lay belief that people's emotions leave traces in the physical environment, which can later influence others or be sensed by others. Studies 1-4 demonstrated that Indians are more likely than Americans to endorse a lay theory of emotions as substances that move in and out of the body, and to claim that they can sense emotional residue. However, when the belief in emotional residue is measured implicitly, both Indians and American believe to a similar extent that emotional residue influences the moods and behaviors of those who come into contact with it (Studies 5-7). Both Indians and Americans also believe that closer relationships and a larger number of people yield more detectable residue (Study 8). Finally, Study 9 demonstrated that beliefs about emotional residue can influence people's behaviors. Together, these finding suggest that emotional residue is likely to be an intuitive concept, one that people in different cultures acquire even without explicit instruction.

View details for DOI 10.1037/a0024102

View details for Web of Science ID 000295196400003

View details for PubMedID 21688925

Four studies showed that beliefs about whether groups have a malleable versus fixed nature affected intergroup attitudes and willingness to compromise for peace. Using a nationwide sample (N = 500) of Israeli Jews, the first study showed that a belief that groups were malleable predicted positive attitudes toward Palestinians, which in turn predicted willingness to compromise. In the remaining three studies, experimentally inducing malleable versus fixed beliefs about groups among Israeli Jews (N = 76), Palestinian citizens of Israel (N = 59), and Palestinians in the West Bank (N = 53)--without mentioning the adversary--led to more positive attitudes toward the outgroup and, in turn, increased willingness to compromise for peace.

View details for DOI 10.1126/science.1202925

View details for Web of Science ID 000295121500049

View details for PubMedID 21868627

Three randomized experiments found that subtle linguistic cues have the power to increase voting and related behavior. The phrasing of survey items was varied to frame voting either as the enactment of a personal identity (e.g., "being a voter") or as simply a behavior (e.g., "voting"). As predicted, the personal-identity phrasing significantly increased interest in registering to vote (experiment 1) and, in two statewide elections in the United States, voter turnout as assessed by official state records (experiments 2 and 3). These results provide evidence that people are continually managing their self-concepts, seeking to assume or affirm valued personal identities. The results further demonstrate how this process can be channeled to motivate important socially relevant behavior.

View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.1103343108

View details for Web of Science ID 000293385700029

View details for PubMedID 21768362

View details for PubMedCentralID PMC3150938

Why do some adolescents respond to interpersonal conflicts vengefully, whereas others seek more positive solutions? Three studies investigated the role of implicit theories of personality in predicting violent or vengeful responses to peer conflicts among adolescents in Grades 9 and 10. They showed that a greater belief that traits are fixed (an entity theory) predicted a stronger desire for revenge after a variety of recalled peer conflicts (Study 1) and after a hypothetical conflict that specifically involved bullying (Study 2). Study 3 experimentally induced a belief in the potential for change (an incremental theory), which resulted in a reduced desire to seek revenge. This effect was mediated by changes in bad-person attributions about the perpetrators, feelings of shame and hatred, and the belief that vengeful ideation is an effective emotion-regulation strategy. Together, the findings illuminate the social-cognitive processes underlying reactions to conflict and suggest potential avenues for reducing violent retaliation in adolescents.

View details for DOI 10.1037/a0023769

View details for Web of Science ID 000292481800020

View details for PubMedID 21604865

View details for Web of Science ID 000292005700004

View details for DOI 10.1177/0022002710383670

View details for Web of Science ID 000289616700005

Four studies document underestimations of the prevalence of others' negative emotions and suggest causes and correlates of these erroneous perceptions. In Study 1a, participants reported that their negative emotions were more private or hidden than were their positive emotions; in Study 1b, participants underestimated the peer prevalence of common negative, but not positive, experiences described in Study 1a. In Study 2, people underestimated negative emotions and overestimated positive emotions even for well-known peers, and this effect was partially mediated by the degree to which those peers reported suppression of negative (vs. positive) emotions. Study 3 showed that lower estimations of the prevalence of negative emotional experiences predicted greater loneliness and rumination and lower life satisfaction and that higher estimations for positive emotional experiences predicted lower life satisfaction. Taken together, these studies suggest that people may think they are more alone in their emotional difficulties than they really are.

View details for DOI 10.1177/0146167210390822

View details for PubMedID 21177878

• Buried treasures: Depression, murder, praise, and intelligence Most Underappreciated: 50 Of the Most Eminent Social Psychologists Talk About Hidden Gems Dweck, C. S. edited by Arkin, R. New York: Oxford University Press. 2011
• Motivation and intelligence Handbook of Intelligence Carr, P. B., Dweck, C. S. edited by Fieldman, S., Sternberg, R. New York: Cambridge. 2011
• Self-Theories Handbook of theories in social psychology Dweck, C. S. edited by Lange, P. V., Kruglanski, A., Higgins, E. T. Thousand Oaks, CA.: Sage Publications. 2011
• Academic tenacity White paper prepared for the Gates Foundation Dweck, C. S., Walton, G. M., Cohen, G. 2011

Much recent research suggests that willpower--the capacity to exert self-control--is a limited resource that is depleted after exertion. We propose that whether depletion takes place or not depends on a person's belief about whether willpower is a limited resource. Study 1 found that individual differences in lay theories about willpower moderate ego-depletion effects: People who viewed the capacity for self-control as not limited did not show diminished self-control after a depleting experience. Study 2 replicated the effect, manipulating lay theories about willpower. Study 3 addressed questions about the mechanism underlying the effect. Study 4, a longitudinal field study, found that theories about willpower predict change in eating behavior, procrastination, and self-regulated goal striving in depleting circumstances. Taken together, the findings suggest that reduced self-control after a depleting task or during demanding periods may reflect people's beliefs about the availability of willpower rather than true resource depletion.

View details for DOI 10.1177/0956797610384745

View details for Web of Science ID 000285456800024

View details for PubMedID 20876879

View details for Web of Science ID 000281415800007

Despite the possible costs, confronting prejudice can have important benefits, ranging from the well-being of the target of prejudice to social change. What, then, motivates targets of prejudice to confront people who express explicit bias? In three studies, we tested the hypothesis that targets who hold an incremental theory of personality (i.e., the belief that people can change) are more likely to confront prejudice than targets who hold an entity theory of personality (i.e., the belief that people have fixed traits). In Study 1, targets' beliefs about the malleability of personality predicted whether they spontaneously confronted an individual who expressed bias. In Study 2, targets who held more of an incremental theory reported that they would be more likely to confront prejudice and less likely to withdraw from future interactions with an individual who expressed prejudice. In Study 3, we manipulated implicit theories and replicated these findings. By highlighting the central role that implicit theories of personality play in targets' motivation to confront prejudice, this research has important implications for intergroup relations and social change.

View details for DOI 10.1177/0956797610374740

View details for Web of Science ID 000285453600011

View details for PubMedID 20551213

Three visual habituation studies using abstract animations tested the claim that infants' attachment behavior in the Strange Situation procedure corresponds to their expectations about caregiver-infant interactions. Three unique patterns of expectations were revealed. Securely attached infants expected infants to seek comfort from caregivers and expected caregivers to provide comfort. Insecure-resistant infants not only expected infants to seek comfort from caregivers but also expected caregivers to withhold comfort. Insecure-avoidant infants expected infants to avoid seeking comfort from caregivers and expected caregivers to withhold comfort. These data support Bowlby's (1958) original claims-that infants form internal working models of attachment that are expressed in infants' own behavior.

View details for DOI 10.1111/j.1551-6709.2010.01112.x

View details for Web of Science ID 000279610500006

View details for PubMedID 21564237

Traditionally, researchers have conceptualized implicit theories as individual differences-lay theories that vary between people. This article, however, investigates the consequences of organization-level implicit theories of intelligence. In five studies, the authors examine how an organization's fixed (entity) or malleable (incremental) theory of intelligence affects people's inferences about what is valued, their self- and social judgments, and their behavioral decisions. In Studies 1 and 2, the authors find that people systematically shift their self-presentations when motivated to join an entity or incremental organization. People present their "smarts" to the entity environment and their "motivation" to the incremental environment. In Studies 3a and 4, they show downstream consequences of these inferences for participants' self-concepts and their hiring decisions. In Study 3b, they demonstrate that the effects are not due to simple priming. The implications for understanding how environments shape cognition and behavior and, more generally, for implicit theories research are discussed.

View details for DOI 10.1177/0146167209347380

View details for Web of Science ID 000274848000001

View details for PubMedID 19826076

• Self-theories: The roots of defensiveness The social psychological foundations of clinical psychology Dweck, C. S., Elliott-Moskwa, E. edited by Maddux, J. E., Tagney, J. P. New York: Guilford Press. 2010

View details for DOI 10.1017/S0140525X09991427

View details for Web of Science ID 000274676100011

View details for DOI 10.1016/j.jesp.2009.04.007

View details for Web of Science ID 000269278800033

View details for Web of Science ID 000270262700011

• Lay theories of personality: Cornerstones of meaning in social cognition Social Psychology Compass Plaks, J. E., Levy, S. R., Dweck, C. S. 2009 ; 3 : 1069 - 1081
• Foreword The Development of Giftedness and Talent Across the Life-Span Dweck, C. S. edited by Horowitz, F. D., Subotnik, R. F., Matthews, D. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. 2009
• On learning to become a member of one’s culture Why We Cooperate Dweck, C. S. edited by Tomasello, M., Dweck, C. S., Silk, J., Skryms, B., Spelke, E. S. Boston, MA.: Boston Review. 2009
• Augmenting cognition: Psychological studies of children Frontiers in Neuroscience Dweck, C. S. 2009

View details for DOI 10.1159/000242351

View details for Web of Science ID 000271818600004

View details for DOI 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01098.x

View details for Web of Science ID 000262830700025

View details for DOI 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00612.x

View details for Web of Science ID 000261627700007

View details for Web of Science ID 000257785000006

View details for PubMedID 18727778

How people maintain and repair their self-esteem has been a topic of widespread interest. In this article, the authors ask, What determines whether people will use direct, remedial actions, or defensive actions? In three studies, they tested the hypothesis that a belief in fixed intelligence (entity theory) would produce defensiveness, whereas a belief in improvable intelligence (incremental theory) would foster remediation. In each study, participants assigned to the entity condition opted for defensive self-esteem repair (downward comparison in Studies 1 and 3; a tutorial on already mastered material in Study 2), but those in the incremental condition opted for self-improvement (upward comparison in Studies 1 and 3; a tutorial on unmastered material in Study 2). Experiment 3 also linked these strategies to self-esteem repair; remedial strategies were the most effective in recovering lost self-esteem for those in the incremental condition, whereas defensive strategies were most effective for those in the entity condition.

View details for DOI 10.1177/0146167207312960

View details for Web of Science ID 000255167900002

View details for PubMedID 18276895

View details for DOI 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00074.x

View details for Web of Science ID 000261999900003

For millennia, human beings have believed that it is morally wrong to judge others by the fortuitous or unfortunate events that befall them or by the actions of another person. Rather, an individual's own intended, deliberate actions should be the basis of his or her evaluation, reward, and punishment. In a series of studies, the authors investigated whether such rules guide the judgments of children. The first 3 studies demonstrated that children view lucky others as more likely than unlucky others to perform intentional good actions. Children similarly assess the siblings of lucky others as more likely to perform intentional good actions than the siblings of unlucky others. The next 3 studies demonstrated that children as young as 3 years believe that lucky people are nicer than unlucky people. The final 2 studies found that Japanese children also demonstrate a robust preference for the lucky and their associates. These findings are discussed in relation to M. J. Lerner's (1980) just-world theory and J. Piaget's (1932/1965) immanent-justice research and in relation to the development of intergroup attitudes.

View details for DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.94.5.757

View details for Web of Science ID 000255293700002

View details for PubMedID 18444737

• Self-theories: The construction of free will Are we free? Psychology and free will Dweck, C. S., Molden, D. C. edited by Baer, J., Kaufman, J. C., Baumeister, R. F. New York: Oxford University Press. 2008
• Self-theories motivate self-regulated learning Motivation and self-regulated learning: Theory, Research, and Applications Dweck, C. S., Master, A. edited by Shunk, D., Zimmerman, B. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 2008
• Self-theories, goals, and meaning The handbook of motivational science Dweck, C. S., Grant, H. edited by Shah, J., Gardner, W. New York: Guilford. 2008
• The hidden zero effect: Representing standalone choices as extended sequences reduces impulsive choice Psychological Science Magen, E., Dweck, C. S., Gross, J. J. 2008 ; 19 : 648 - 649

View details for Web of Science ID 000249944600006

View details for Web of Science ID 000247263800007

View details for PubMedID 17576262

View details for Web of Science ID 000246152000008

View details for PubMedID 17470255

Two studies explored the role of implicit theories of intelligence in adolescents' mathematics achievement. In Study 1 with 373 7th graders, the belief that intelligence is malleable (incremental theory) predicted an upward trajectory in grades over the two years of junior high school, while a belief that intelligence is fixed (entity theory) predicted a flat trajectory. A mediational model including learning goals, positive beliefs about effort, and causal attributions and strategies was tested. In Study 2, an intervention teaching an incremental theory to 7th graders (N=48) promoted positive change in classroom motivation, compared with a control group (N=43). Simultaneously, students in the control group displayed a continuing downward trajectory in grades, while this decline was reversed for students in the experimental group.

View details for Web of Science ID 000244517400014

View details for PubMedID 17328703

• Self-theories: The mindset of a champion Sport and exercise psychology: International perspectives Dweck, C. S. edited by Morris, T., Terry, P., Gordon, S. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. 2007
• Social identity, stereotype threat, and self-theories Contesting stereotypes and constructing identities Good, C., Dweck, C. S., Aronson, J. edited by Fuligni, A. New York: Russell Sage. 2007
• The secret to raising smart kids Scientific American: Mind Dweck, C. S. 2007 : 36 - 43

The way individuals choose to handle their feelings during interpersonal conflicts has important consequences for relationship outcomes. In this article, the authors predict and find evidence that people's implicit theory of personality is an important predictor of conflict behavior following a relationship transgression. Incremental theorists, who believe personality can change and improve, were likely to voice their displeasure with others openly and constructively during conflicts. Entity theorists, who believe personality is fundamentally fixed, were less likely to voice their dissatisfactions directly. These patterns were observed in both a retrospective study of conflict in dating relationships (Study 1) and a prospective study of daily conflict experiences (Study 2). Study 2 revealed that the divergence between incremental and entity theorists was increasingly pronounced as conflicts increased in severity: the higher the stakes the stronger the effect.

View details for DOI 10.1177/0146167206291476

View details for Web of Science ID 000241331200007

View details for PubMedID 17030891

View details for DOI 10.1016/j.jesp.2005.11.005

View details for Web of Science ID 000241366900004

View details for Web of Science ID 000242289600005

View details for PubMedID 17100783

Students' beliefs and goals can powerfully influence their learning success. Those who believe intelligence is a fixed entity (entity theorists) tend to emphasize 'performance goals,' leaving them vulnerable to negative feedback and likely to disengage from challenging learning opportunities. In contrast, students who believe intelligence is malleable (incremental theorists) tend to emphasize 'learning goals' and rebound better from occasional failures. Guided by cognitive neuroscience models of top-down, goal-directed behavior, we use event-related potentials (ERPs) to understand how these beliefs influence attention to information associated with successful error correction. Focusing on waveforms associated with conflict detection and error correction in a test of general knowledge, we found evidence indicating that entity theorists oriented differently toward negative performance feedback, as indicated by an enhanced anterior frontal P3 that was also positively correlated with concerns about proving ability relative to others. Yet, following negative feedback, entity theorists demonstrated less sustained memory-related activity (left temporal negativity) to corrective information, suggesting reduced effortful conceptual encoding of this material-a strategic approach that may have contributed to their reduced error correction on a subsequent surprise retest. These results suggest that beliefs can influence learning success through top-down biasing of attention and conceptual processing toward goal-congruent information.

View details for DOI 10.1093/scan/nsl013

View details for Web of Science ID 000208129700002

View details for PubMedID 17392928

Much of psychology focuses on universal principles of thought and action. Although an extremely productive pursuit, this approach, by describing only the "average person," risks describing no one in particular. This article discusses an alternate approach that complements interests in universal principles with analyses of the unique psychological meaning that individuals find in their experiences and interactions. Rooted in research on social cognition, this approach examines how people's lay theories about the stability or malleability of human attributes alter the meaning they give to basic psychological processes such as self-regulation and social perception. Following a review of research on this lay theories perspective in the field of social psychology, the implications of analyzing psychological meaning for other fields such as developmental, cultural, and personality psychology are discussed.

View details for Web of Science ID 000236824300001

View details for PubMedID 16594836

• Mindset Dweck, C. S. New York: Random House. 2006
• Self-theories and conflict resolution Handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice Dweck, C. S., Ehrlinger, J., Deutsch, M., Coleman, P. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. 2006
• Is math a gift? Beliefs that put females at risk Why aren’t more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence Dweck, C. S. edited by Ceci, S. J., William, W. M. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. 2006
• A motivational approach to reasoning, resilience, and responsibility The other 3 R’s: Reasoning, resilience, and responsibility Good, C., Dweck, C. S. edited by Subotonik, R., Sternberg, R. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. 2006
• How stereotypes influence the meaning students give to academic settings Navigating the future: Social identity, coping, and life tasks Lawrence, J. S., Crocker, J., Dweck, C. S. edited by Downey, G., Eccles, J., Chatman, C. New York: Russell Sage. 2006

Beginning with the assumption that implicit theories of personality are crucial tools for understanding social behavior, the authors tested the hypothesis that perceivers would process person information that violated their predominant theory in a biased manner. Using an attentional probe paradigm (Experiment 1) and a recognition memory paradigm (Experiment 2), the authors presented entity theorists (who believe that human attributes are fixed) and incremental theorists (who believe that human attributes are malleable) with stereotype-relevant information about a target person that supported or violated their respective theory. Both groups of participants showed evidence of motivated, selective processing only with respect to theory-violating information. In Experiment 3, the authors found that after exposure to theory-violating information, participants felt greater anxiety and worked harder to reestablish their sense of prediction and control mastery. The authors discuss the epistemic functions of implicit theories of personality and the impact of violated assumptions.

View details for DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.88.2.245

View details for Web of Science ID 000226585400002

View details for PubMedID 15841857

• Self-Theories: Their impact on competence motivation and acquisition The handbook of competence and motivation Dweck, C. S., Molden, D. C. 2005
• The handbook of competence and motivation edited by Elliot, A., Dweck, C. S. New York: Guilford. 2005

View details for Web of Science ID 000225587900003

• Motivational effects on attention, cognition, and performance Motivation, emotion, and cognition: Integrated perspectives on intellectual functioning Dweck, C. S., Mangels, J., Good, C. edited by Dai, D. Y., Sternberg, R. J. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 2004
• The role of mental representation in social development Appraising past, present, and prospective research agendas in the human development sciences Dweck, C. S. edited by Ladd, G. Detriot: Wayne State University Press. 2004

The study of achievement goals has illuminated basic motivational processes, though controversy surrounds their nature and impact. In 5 studies, including a longitudinal study in a difficult premed course, the authors show that the impact of learning and performance goals depends on how they are operationalized. Active learning goals predicted active coping, sustained motivation, and higher achievement in the face of challenge. Among performance goals, ability-linked goals predicted withdrawal and poorer performance in the face of challenge (but provided a "boost" to performance when students met with success); normative goals did not predict decrements in motivation or performance; and outcome goals (wanting a good grade) were in fact equally related to learning goals and ability goals. Ways in which the findings address discrepancies in the literature are discussed.

View details for DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.541

View details for Web of Science ID 000185259200013

View details for PubMedID 14498789

• Ability conceptions, motivation, and development British Journal of Educational Psychology (Special Issue: Motivation and Development) Dweck, C. S. 2003
• The development of ability conceptions The development of achievement motivation Dweck, C. S. edited by Wingfield, A., Eccles, J. New York: Academic Press. 2002
• In the eye of the beholder: Implicit theories and the perception of groups The psychology of group perception Plaks, J., Levy, S., Dweck, C. S., Strossner edited by Yzerbyt, V., Corneille, O., Judd, C. New York: Psychology Press. 2002
• Beliefs that make smart people dumb Why smart people do stupid things Dweck, C. S. edited by Sternberg, R. J. New Haven: Yale University Press. 2002
• Self-systems give unique meaning to self-variables Handbook of self and identity Dweck, C. S., Higgins, E. T., Grant, H. edited by Leary, M., Tagney, J. New York: Guilford. 2002
• Messages that motivate: How praise molds students' beliefs, motivation, and performance (In Surprising Ways) Improving academic achievement Dweck, C. S. edited by Aronson, J. New York: Academic Press. 2002

How do people respond to information that counters a stereotype? Do they approach it or avoid it? Four experiments showed that attention to stereotype-consistent vs. -inconsistent information depends on people's implicit theories about human traits. Those holding an entity theory (the belief that traits are fixed) consistently displayed greater attention to (Experiments 1 and 4) and recognition of (Experiments 2 and 3) consistent information. whereas those holding an incremental (dynamic) theory tended to display greater attention to (Experiment 1) and recognition of (Experiment 3) inconsistent information. This was true whether implicit theories were measured as chronic structures (Experiments 1, 2, and 4) or were experimentally manipulated (Experiment 3). Thus, different a priori assumptions about human traits and behavior lead to processing that supports versus limits stereotype maintenance.

View details for DOI 10.1037//0022-3514.80.6.876

View details for Web of Science ID 000170456200004

View details for PubMedID 11414372

• Person theories and attention allocation: Preference for stereotypic vs. counterstereotypic information Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Plaks, J., Stroessner, S., Dweck, C. S., Sherman, J. 2001 ; 80 : 876 - 893
• Cross-cultural response to failure: Considering outcome attributions within different goals Student motivation: The culture and context of learning Grant, H., Dweck, C. S. edited by Salili, F., Chiu, C., Hong, Y. New York: Plenum. 2001

View details for Web of Science ID 000168592200006

• Teorie del se': Intelligenza, motivazione, personalita' e sviluppo Self-Theories: Their role in motivation, personality and development Dweck, C. S. Philadelphia: Taylor and Francis/Psychology Press. 2000
• Meaning and motivation Intrinsic motivation Molden, D., Dweck, C. S. edited by Sansone, C., Harackiewicz, J. San Diego, CA: Academic Pres. 2000

View details for Web of Science ID 000082743400012

View details for Web of Science ID 000083197900009

Conventional wisdom suggests that praising a child as a whole or praising his or her traits is beneficial. Two studies tested the hypothesis that both criticism and praise that conveyed person or trait judgments could send a message of contingent worth and undermine subsequent coping. In Study 1, 67 children (ages 5-6 years) role-played tasks involving a setback and received 1 of 3 forms of criticism after each task: person, outcome, or process criticism. In Study 2, 64 children role-played successful tasks and received either person, outcome, or process praise. In both studies, self-assessments, affect, and persistence were measured on a subsequent task involving a setback. Results indicated that children displayed significantly more "helpless" responses (including self-blame) on all dependent measures after person criticism or praise than after process criticism or praise. Thus person feedback, even when positive, can create vulnerability and a sense of contingent self-worth.

View details for Web of Science ID 000080687800021

View details for PubMedID 10380873

View details for Web of Science ID 000077691800002

• Self-Theories: Their role in motivation, personality and development Dweck, C. S. Philadelphia: Taylor and Francis/Psychology Press. 1999
• Mastery-oriented thinking Coping Dweck, C. S., Sorich, L. edited by Snyder, R. New York: Oxford University Press. 1999
• Children’s static vs. dynamic person conceptions as predictors of their stereotype formation Child Development Levy, S. R., Dweck, C. S. 1999 ; 70 : 1163 - 1180
• Content vs. structural models of self-regulation Advances in social cognition Grant, H., Dweck, C. S. 1999
• Caution: Praise can be dangerous American Educator Dweck, C. S. 1999 ; 23 (1) : 4 - 9
• Modes of social thought: Implicit theories and social understanding Dual process models in social psychology Levy, S., Plaks, J. E., Dweck, C. S. edited by Chaiken, S., Trope, Y. New York: Guilford Press. 1999
• A goal analysis of personality and personality coherence Social-cognitive approaches to personality coherence Grant, H., Dweck, C. S. edited by Cervone, D., Shoda, Y. New York: Guilford Press. 1999 : 345–371

View details for Web of Science ID 000074328700001

The relation between the way in which children interpret human behavior and their beliefs about the stability of human traits is investigated. In interviews with 202 7- and 8-year-olds across 2 studies, the belief that traits are stable predicted a greater tendency to make trait judgments, and an increased focus on outcomes and behaviors through which traits can be judged. In the academic domain, a belief in trait stability was associated with an emphasis on the evaluative meanings of performance outcomes, as opposed to mediating processes such as effort. In the sociomoral domain, the same belief was associated with an emphasis on the evaluative meanings of behaviors (e.g., whether the person is good or bad), as opposed to factors that mediate behavior, such as intention. Results suggest that beliefs about the stability of traits may serve an important role in thinking about and functioning within the academic and sociomoral domains.

View details for Web of Science ID 000073343300011

View details for PubMedID 9586214

View details for Web of Science ID 000074161300009

• The development of early self-conceptions: Their relevance for motivational processes Motivation and self-regulation across the life span Dweck, C. S. edited by Hechausen, J., Dweck, C. S. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1998 : 257–280
• Motivation and self-regulation across the life span Dweck, C. S. edited by Heckhausen, J., Dweck, C. S. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1998
• Intelligence praise can undermine motivation and performance Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Mueller, C. M., Dweck, C. S. 1998 ; 75 : 33 - 52

View details for Web of Science ID A1997YD81800003

Lay dispositionism refers to lay people's tendency to use traits as the basic unit of analysis in social perception (L. Ross & R. E. Nisbett, 1991). Five studies explored the relation between the practices indicative of lay dispositionism and people's implicit theories about the nature of personal attributes. As predicted, compared with those who believed that personal attributes are malleable (incremental theorists), those who believed in fixed traits (entity theorists) used traits or trait-relevant information to make stronger future behavioral predictions (Studies 1 and 2) and made stronger trait inferences from behavior (Study 3). Moreover, the relation between implicit theories and lay dispositionism was found in both the United States (a more individualistic culture) and Hong Kong (a more collectivistic culture), suggesting this relation to be generalizable across cultures (Study 4). Finally, an experiment in which implicit theories were manipulated provided preliminary evidence for the possible causal role of implicit theories in lay dispositionism (Study 5).

View details for Web of Science ID A1997XG51500002

View details for PubMedID 9216077

View details for Web of Science ID A1997WX63900005

Two studies examined children's thought patterns in relation to their responses to social challenge. In Study 1, 4th and 5th graders tried out for a pen pal club under either a performance goal (stressing the evaluative nature of the tryout) or a learning goal (emphasizing the potential learning opportunities). In their behavior and attributions following rejection, children who were focused on a performance goal reacted with more helplessness, whereas children given a learning goal displayed a more mastery-oriented response. Study 2 found that in response to hypothetical socially challenging situations, 4th, 5th, and 6th graders who believed personality was nonmalleable (entity theorists) vs. malleable (incremental theorists) were more likely to endorse performance goals. Together, these studies indicate that children's goals in social situations are associated with their responses to social failure and are predicted by their implicit theories about their personality.

View details for Web of Science ID A1997WM80500007

View details for PubMedID 9147835

View details for Web of Science ID A1996VT73000005

• Implicit theories as organizers of goals and behavior The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior Dweck, C. S. edited by Gollwitzer, P., Bargh, J. New York: Guilford. 1996
• Social motivation: Goals and social-cognitive processes Social Motivation Dweck, C. S. edited by Juvonen, J., Wentzel, K. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1996

This article presents an expanded view of the bases of helpless reactions to failure. This view stems from recent findings of helplessness in young children. Previous formulations have stressed the attainment of invariant trait conceptions as a necessary condition for helplessness to occur and have suggested that children are relatively invulnerable to helplessness prior to this attainment. We review a series of studies documenting that key aspects of helplessness are present in preschool and early elementary school children (ages 4-7). We then propose a preliminary model in which (a) a general conception of self and (b) the notion of this self as an object of contingent worth are sufficient conditions for helplessness. We integrate this view with Dweck and Leggett's model of helplessness in older individuals, in which more differentiated trait conceptions play an important role.

View details for Web of Science ID A1995TN06500010

View details for PubMedID 8556895

• The development of children’s achievement motivation patterns and conceptions of intelligence Merrill-Palmer Quarterly Cain, K., Dweck, C. S. 1995 ; 41 : 25 - 52

View details for Web of Science ID A1995QF63100002

View details for Web of Science ID A1995RX39600001

• The development of self-conceptions and person conceptions Review of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 15: Social Development Ruble, D. N., Dweck, C. S. edited by Eisenberg, N. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 1995
• Implicit theories of intelligence: Reconsidering the role of confidence in achievement motivation Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem Hong, Y. Y., Chiu, Y. Y., Dweck, C. S., edited by Kemis, M. New York: Plenum. 1995

View details for Web of Science ID A1995RX39600012

Developmental research has generally not found evidence of helpless responses to failure in young children; a prevailing view is that young children lack the cognitive prerequisite for helplessness. However, recent evidence suggests that even preschoolers are vulnerable to helplessness in some situations. In the present study with 4- and 5-year-olds, we tested a goal-confidence model that predicts achievement behavior during failure for older children. We first categorized preschoolers' orientations toward "learning" or "performance" goals based on their preference for a challenging or nonchallenging task. As for older children, goal orientation was independent of ability and predicted cognitions and emotions during failure. Further, consistent with the model, within a learning goal, children displayed the mastery-oriented pattern regardless of confidence level, whereas within a performance goal, children with low confidence were most susceptible to helplessness. These behavior patterns were found on a second task as well. Thus, our findings show that individual differences in achievement goals emerge very early.

View details for Web of Science ID A1994QA68600014

View details for PubMedID 7859551

• The development of achievement motivation International encyclopedia of education Heyman, G. D., Dweck, C. S. edited by Weinert, F. London: Pergamon Press. 1994
• Toward an integrative model of personality and intelligence: A general framework and some preliminary steps Personality and intelligence Chiu, C. Y., Hong, Y. Y., Dweck, C. S. edited by Stenberg, R., Ruzgis, G. New York: Cambridge. 1994

View details for Web of Science ID A1993LY98900014

Social judgment and trait ascription have long been central issues in psychology. Two studies tested the hypothesis that children who believe that personality is a fixed quality (entity theorists) would make more rigid and long-term social judgments than those who believe that personality is malleable (incremental theorists). Fourth and fifth graders (mean age 10.2 years) viewed a slide show of a boy displaying negative behaviors (Study 1--being shy, clumsy, and nervous; Study 2--lying, cheating, and stealing) and then made a series of ratings. Half of the subjects saw a consistent (negative) ending, and half saw an inconsistent (more positive) ending. Even when they viewed positive counterevidence, entity theorists did not differ in their ratings of the focal traits, but incremental theorists did. Entity theorists in Study 2 also predicted significantly less change in the short term and the long term than did incremental theorists. Study 2 further revealed that, when the behaviors were more negative, entity theorists made more generalized and global negative trait evaluations of the target, showed less empathy, and recommended more punishment. Differences in the social judgment processes of entity and incremental theorists are discussed, and implications for issues (such as stereotyping) are explored.

View details for Web of Science ID A1993LJ94100016

View details for PubMedID 8339700

View details for Web of Science ID A1992KF99500005

View details for Web of Science ID A1992HX39400004

Motivational helplessness, linked to conceptions of intelligence, has been well documented in older children. While some researchers have reported that children just starting school are motivationally invulnerable, others have found evidence of helplessness when these children encounter failure. The present study seeks to determine whether the reactions associated with helplessness can be identified in a new context, that of criticism, and whether any such responses are related to the child's conceptions of goodness. Subjects were 107 5- and 6-year-old children who enacted achievement situations in which teacher criticism was presented. The 39% of children whose own assessments were undermined by criticism exhibited the affect, task choices, and nonconstructive problem-solving strategies characteristic of helplessness. They were also more likely to make global negative self-judgments following criticism, including negative judgments of their goodness. Finally, these children were more likely to endorse stable and global beliefs about goodness.

View details for Web of Science ID A1992HP15600013

View details for PubMedID 1611943

View details for Web of Science ID A1991HT08000004

• Motivation Foundations for a cognitive psychology of education Dweck, C. S. edited by Glaser, R., Lesgold, A. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 1990
• Achievement and motivation in adolescence: A new model and data At the threshold: The developing adolescent Henderson, V., Dweck, C. S. edited by Fieldman, S., Elliot, G. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1990
• Children’s theories of intelligence: A developmental model Advances in the study of intelligence Cain, K., Dweck, C. S. edited by Sternberg, R. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 1989
• The functions of a personality theory Advances in social cognition Bergen, R., Dweck, C. S. edited by Wyre, R., Srull, T. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 1989

View details for Web of Science ID A1988N009600004

This study tested a framework in which goals are proposed to be central determinants of achievement patterns. Learning goals, in which individuals seek to increase their competence, were predicted to promote challenge-seeking and a mastery-oriented response to failure regardless of perceived ability. Performance goals, in which individuals seek to gain favorable judgments of their competence or avoid negative judgments, were predicted to produce challenge-avoidance and learned helplessness when perceived ability was low and to promote certain forms of risk-avoidance even when perceived ability was high. Manipulations of relative goal value (learning vs. performance) and perceived ability (high vs. low) resulted in the predicted differences on measures of task choice, performance during difficulty, and spontaneous verbalizations during difficulty. Particularly striking was the way in which the performance goal-low perceived ability condition produced the same pattern of strategy deterioration, failure attribution, and negative affect found in naturally occurring learned helplessness. Implications for theories of motivation and achievement are discussed.

View details for Web of Science ID A1988L778300001

View details for PubMedID 3346808

View details for Web of Science ID A1986E614300003

The present study was designed to investigate the development of children's trait explanations and self-evaluations in the 2 domains. 144 white, middle-class children in kindergarten, first, second, and fourth grades (mean ages 5-8, 7-0, 7-9, and 10-0 years, respectively) were interviewed individually about their explanations for both academic and social outcomes and their evaluations of their own outcomes. Trait explanations emerged earlier in the social domain. In addition, trait explanations emerged earlier for success than for failure. Self-evaluations became less positive in both domains and less similar across domains with increasing grade level. An experiential theory of the development of understanding of a domain is presented.

View details for Web of Science ID A1986E196100009

View details for PubMedID 3769605

• Intrinsic motivation, perceived control, and self-evaluation maintenance: An achievement goal analysis Research on motivation in education Dweck, C. S. edited by Ames, R., Ames, C. New York: Academic Press. 1985
• Sex differences in achievement orientations: Consequences for academic choices and attainments Sex differentiation and schooling Licht, B. G., Dweck, C. S. edited by Marland, M. London: Heinemann. 1984

View details for Web of Science ID A1984TA61500012

• Achievement motivation Handbook of child psychology Dweck, C. S., Elliot, E. S. edited by Mussen, P., Hetherington, E. M. New York: Wiley. 1983
• Children’s theories of intelligence: Implications for learning Learning and motivation in children Dweck, C. S., Bempechat, J. edited by Paris, S., Olson, G., Stevenson, H. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 1983
• Learned helplessness, anxiety, and achievement motivation: Neglected parallels in cognitive, affective, and coping responses Achievement, stress, and anxiety Dweck, C. S., Wortman, C. edited by Krohne, H. W., Laux, L. Washington, DC: Hemisphere. 1982
• Social-cognitive processes in children’s friendships The development of children’s friendships Dweck, C. S. edited by Asher, S. R., Gottman, J. M. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1981

Helpless children attribute their failures to lack of ability and view them as insurmountable. Mastery-oriented children, in contrast, tend to emphasize motivational factors and to view failure as surmountable. Although the performance of the two groups is usually identical during success of prior to failure, past research suggests that these groups may well differ in the degree to which they perceive that their successes are replicable and hence that their failures are avoidable. The present study was concerned with the nature of such differences. Children performed a task on which they encountered success and then failure. Half were asked a series of questions about their performance after success and half after failure. Striking differences emerged: Compared to mastery-oriented children, helpless children underestimated the number of success (and overestimated the number of failures), did not view successes as indicative of ability, and did not expect the successes to continue. subsequent failure led them to devalue ;their performance but left the mastery-oriented children undaunted. Thus, for helpless children, successes are less salient, less predictive, and less enduring--less successful.

View details for Web of Science ID A1980KS20700017

View details for PubMedID 7441483

View details for Web of Science ID A1980JN14000011

Helplessness in social situations was conceptualized as the perceived inability to surmount rejection, as revealed by causal attributions for rejection. Although current research on children's social adjustment emphasizes differences in social skills between popular and unpopular children or behavioral intervention as an aid for withdrawn children, the present study explores responses to rejection across popularity levels. The results show that individual differences in attributions for rejection are related to disruption of goal-directed behavior following rejection. As predicted, the most severe disruption of attempts to gain social approval (withdrawal and perseveration) was associated with the tendency to emphasize personal incompetence as the cause of rejection, regardless of popularity level. The findings suggest that cognitive mediators of overt social behavior and ability to solve problems when faced with difficulties need to be considered in the study of children's social relations.

View details for Web of Science ID A1980KE45800006

View details for PubMedID 7411393

• Learned helplessness and intellectual achievement Human helplessness: Theory and application Dweck, C. S., Licht, B. G. edited by Seligman, M. E., Garber, J. New York: Academic Press. 1980

View details for Web of Science ID A1978FA11100001

• Attributions and learned helplessness New directions in attribution research Dweck, C. S. edited by Harvey, J., Ickes, W., Kidd, R. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 1978

View details for Web of Science ID A1978FG91200002

• Achievement Socio-personality development Dweck, C. S., Lamb, M. E. New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston. 1978

View details for Web of Science ID A1978FA62800009

• Learned helplessness and childhood depression: A developmental approach Depression in childhood: Diagnosis, treatment and conceptual models Dweck, C. S. edited by Schulterbrandt, J. G., Raskin, A. New York: Raven Press. 1977

View details for Web of Science ID A1977DH43300003

• Children’s interpretation of evaluative feedback: The effect of social cues on learned helplessness Merrill-Palmer Quarterly Dweck, C. S. edited by Dweck, C. S., Hill, K. T., Redd, W. H., Steinman, W. M., Parke, R. D. 1976 : 83–92

View details for Web of Science ID A1976BJ03000009

• The impact of social cues on children's behavior Merrill-Palmer Quarterly Dweck, C. S. 1976 : 83–92

View details for Web of Science ID A1975W168100009

View details for Web of Science ID A1975AQ71300006

View details for Web of Science ID A1975AZ92700017

View details for Web of Science ID A1973O635300014

• Personal politics Langer, E. J., Dweck, C. S. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 1973
• Situational cues and the correlation between CS and US as determinants of the conditioned emotional response Psychonomic Science Dweck, C. S., Wegner, A. R. 1970 ; 18 : 145 - 147

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The Stanford Memory Lab admits graduate students primarily through the  Psychology PhD Program  and the  Neurosciences PhD Program  (follow links for more details about the programs and how to apply). We are committed to training students in memory and cognitive control theory, along with behavioral, imaging, electrophysiological, and computational methods.

Past and present graduate students have had varied backgrounds prior to joining the lab – inclusive of, but not limited to, undergraduate degrees in psychology, neuroscience, cognitive science, computer science, engineering, and biophysics. Entering graduate students typically have had extensive research experience, often at the undergraduate level combined with postbac training as a full-time research assistant. Through graduate training at Stanford, our aims are to enable students to conduct cutting-edge science and to gain strong technical skills, positioning them to be the next leaders in the field or to thrive in industry.

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Jeremy bailenson.

Thomas More Storke Professor of Communication Director, Doctoral Program in Communication [email protected] 650.723.0701 web.stanford.edu/~bailenso McClatchy Hall, Rm. 328

Bailenson studies the psychology of Virtual and Augmented Reality, in particular how virtual experiences lead to changes in perceptions of self and others.

R.B. Brenner

Lecturer 650.497.1443 McClatchy Hall, Rm. 300E [email protected]

Angèle Christin

Associate Professor Richard E. Guggenhime Faculty Scholar [email protected] 650.725.6113 www.angelechristin.com McClatchy Hall, Rm. 334

Christin's research examines how algorithms and analytics transform professional values, expertise, and work practices.

James S. Fishkin

Janet M. Peck Professor of International Communication [email protected] 650.723.4611  cdd.stanford.edu McClatchy Hall, Rm. 350

Fishkin’s work focuses on deliberative democracy and democratic theory.

Theodore L. Glasser

Professor of Communication, Emeritus [email protected] web.stanford.edu/~glasser

Glasser’s research focuses on media practices and performance, with emphasis on questions of press responsibility and accountability.

James T. Hamilton

Hearst Professor of Communication Chair,  Department of Communication Director, Stanford Journalism Program [email protected] 650.723.5448 McClatchy Hall, Rm. 340  CV

Hamilton’s research focuses on computational journalism and he is exploring how the costs of story discovery can be lowered through better use of data and algorithms.

Jeff Hancock

Harry and Norman Chandler Professor of Communication [email protected] 650.723.5499 sml.stanford.edu McClatchy Hall, Rm. 300J

Hancock works on understanding psychological and interpersonal processes in social media.

Gabriella Harari

Assistant Professor [email protected] 650.497.9912 maplab.stanford.edu McClatchy Hall, Rm. 324

Harari studies personality expression, behavior change, and digital media use in daily life.

Thomas Hayden

Professor of the Practice, Earth Systems [email protected] 650.721.5722 Y2E2, Rm. 171

Shanto Iyengar

William Robertson Coe Professor Professor of Political Science Professor of Communication [email protected] 650.723.5509 pcl.stanford.edu Encina Hall, Rm. 419

Iyengar’s areas of expertise include the role of mass media in democratic societies, public opinion, and political psychology.

Jon A. Krosnick

Frederic O. Glover Professor in Humanities and Social Sciences Professor of Communication Professor of Political Science [email protected] 650.725.3031 McClatchy Hall, Rm. 432

Krosnick does research on attitude formation, change, and effects, on the psychology of political behavior, and on survey research methods.

Xiaochang Li

Assistant Professor [email protected] McClatchy Hall, Rm. 436

Li’s research examines questions surrounding the relationship between information technology and knowledge production and its role in the organization of social life.

Geri Migielicz

Hearst Professional in Residence [email protected] 650.723.2910 McClatchy Hall, Rm. 332

Jennifer Pan

Sir Robert Ho Tung Professor in Chinese Studies Professor of Communication Senior Fellow, Freeman Spogli Institute For International Studies [email protected] 650.725.7326 jenpan.com McClatchy Hall, Rm. 330

Pan’s research examines the role of digital media in the politics of authoritarian and democratic contexts.

Nathaniel Persily

Professor of Law Professor of Communication by courtesy [email protected] 650.725.9875

Persily’s scholarship and legal practice focus on American election law.

Cheryl Phillips

Hearst Professional in Residence Director, Big Local News [email protected],  @cephillips 650.723.2504 McClatchy Hall, Rm 300C

Phillips specializes in data journalism and investigative journalism that uses data.

Gary M. Pomerantz

Lecturer [email protected] @garympomerantz 650.723.1941 www.garympomerantz.com

Gary M. Pomerantz is a nonfiction author and journalist, and has served the past fourteen years as a lecturer in the Department of Communication at Stanford University.

Professor of Communication Professor of Psychology [email protected] McClatchy Hall, Room 300A

Ram studies the dynamic interplay between psychological and media processes and how they change from moment-to-moment and across the life span.

Byron Reeves

Paul C. Edwards Professor of Communication [email protected] 650.725.3033 McClatchy Hall, Rm. 300D

Reeves’ research includes message processing, social cognition, and social and emotion responses to media.

James V. Risser

Professor (Teaching), Emeritus Director Emeritus, John S. Knight Journalism Fellowships

Donald F. Roberts

Professor, Emeritus

Serdar Tumgoren

Lorry I. Lokey Visiting Professor in Professional Journalism [email protected] 650.725.7092 McClatchy Hall, Rm. 342

Tumgoren is passionate about open source tools and platforms that help journalists uncover data-driven stories.

Fred Turner

Harry and Norman Chandler Professor of Communication [email protected] 650.723.0706  McClatchy Hall, Rm. 438

Turner studies media, technology and American cultural history.

James Wheaton

Lecturer [email protected] www.thefirstamendment.org

Janine Zacharia

Carlos Kelly McClatchy Lecturer [email protected] 650.723.0780 janinezacharia.net McClatchy Hall, Rm. 300H

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The Consortium faculty includes a number of distinguished faculty from both Pacific Graduate School of Psychology (PGSP) at Palo Alto University , Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences , offering a wide range of research interests and clinical specializations. Most are engaged in both clinical practice and research, and thus provide the knowledge, enthusiasm, and insights of those actively working in the field of psychology. Every faculty member is selected to model excellence in their specific professional endeavors; they teach and supervise based on their own extensive clinical and academic experience.

The Consortium faculty are classified as core, associated, and other. Core Faculty are the backbone of the program. They spend at least 50% of their professional time in program activities for the program. Many act as academic advisors, teaching faculty dissertation chairs, & clinic supervisors. Associated faculty members other than those identified as the program's core faculty, but have responsibilities within the program for teaching, advising, etc. This would include other faculty within the department and university that teach program courses. Other contributors, provide teaching, clinical supervision, and research in areas that are not otherwise represented by core or associated faculty. 

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50 Years of Context Effects: Merging the Behavioral and Quantitative Perspectives

Over the past 50 years, consumer researchers have presented extensive evidence that consumer preference can be swayed by the decision context, particularly the configuration of the choice set. Importantly, behavioral research on context effects has inspired prominent quantitative research on multialternative decision-making published in leading psychology, management, economics, and general interest journals. While both streams of research seem to agree that context effects are an important research area, there has been relatively limited interaction, communication, and collaboration between the two research camps. In this article, we seek to initiate an active dialogue between the two sides. We begin by providing a critical overview of the two literatures on context effects, discussing both their strengths and weaknesses, as well as disparities and complementarities. Here, we place particular emphasis on deepening consumer researchers’ understanding of context effects by drawing on prominent quantitative research published in non-marketing journals over the last decades. Importantly, we provide a roadmap for the future that can inspire further research and potential collaborations between the two camps, overcoming silos in knowledge creation.

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2023-24 EPIC Community College Fellows

Daniella Graves

Associate professor of sociology, ventura county community college.

Daniella Graves is a first-generation college graduate and daughter of Mexican immigrants. She has had 14 years of experience in higher education—filling both administrative and academic roles. For the last seven years, she has taught sociology at Ventura Community College, recently earning tenure. Daniella has an academic background in sociology and organizational leadership. She earned both a B.A. and M.A. in sociology (from UCLA and CSUN, respectively) and a Ph.D. in organizational leadership from The Chicago School of Professional Psychology. When she is not working, Daniella enjoys running, yoga, and spending time with her family.

Project: Global Foodways and Practices: Bridging Societal Structures and Personal Experiences

My project examines the impact of international systems on food practices. To do so, I develop a two pronged-approach which explores how larger socio-historical global forces shape current societal food patterns, while also looking at food as a vehicle for negotiating personal identities. Together, these findings will help develop a deeper understanding of the influence of food pathways on community and individual practices. Ultimately, this project aims to cultivate an awareness that food is both a fundamental human right and a means to better comprehend global systems.

Chemistry Instructor, Central Community College

Dr. Yunteng He is a chemistry instructor at Central Community College in Kearney, NE. He received his Ph.D. in chemistry from Oregon State University, along with a graduate certificate in college and university teaching. Yunteng has been committed to developing innovative teaching strategies to improve student learning and engagement. His work has led to talks and workshops at several national and international education conferences, with papers published in Journal of College Science Teaching , College Teaching , and The Teaching Professor . He is also a board member of the American Chemical Society-Nebraska section and the recipient of the League Excellence Award for Innovation in the Community College. He enjoys playing basketball and Rubik’s cubes.

Project: Cultural Elements in Chemistry Education: Implementing Stories from Different Cultures into Chemistry Curriculum for Enhanced Diversity and Inclusion

I plan to blend stories from different cultures into college-level chemistry courses to bring cultural elements into science education and to engage students with diverse backgrounds in chemistry. This project aims to engage a diverse group of students, including historically underrepresented students and female students, in chemistry education to promote diversity and inclusion in STEM fields in general.

Julie Jenkins

Professor of anthropology and global studies, foothill college.

Julie Jenkins is a full-time faculty member at Foothill College in anthropology and global studies, and is currently the faculty chair of the Global Studies Program. She received her Ph.D. in anthropology from the University of Sussex and her M.Sc. in anthropology and international development from the London School of Economics. Her teaching and research interests include religion, contemporary forms of slavery, gender inequality, international development and aid, and visual and media representations. As a community college instructor, Julie is passionate about building authentic learning moments where students feel empowered in developing a broader understanding of global interconnections.

Project: Building a Globally-Minded Community

This project will explore global issues that require interdisciplinary perspectives and collaboration to anchor a global studies community and identity, especially global issues that bridge STEM, humanities, and the social sciences. The goal of the project will be to create an interdisciplinary network of students and faculty who are interested in global issues and perspectives.

Denise Maduli-Williams

Associate professor of english and elac, san diego miramar college.

Dr. Denise Maduli-Williams is an associate professor of English and ELAC (English Language Acquisition) at San Diego Miramar College teaching online, hybrid, and in-person. She earned her M.A. in TESOL from Teachers College, Columbia University, and her Ed.D. in educational leadership through the Joint Doctoral Program at the University of California San Diego and California State University San Marcos, where her research focused on factors of connection and social presence for students of color in online community college courses. Denise has had the privilege of teaching English and ESOL for over two decades in various settings including a California prison, a village in Botswana as a Peace Corps Volunteer, and New York City public high schools. She finally found her home in community colleges, teaching at Harold Washington College in Chicago and the City College of San Francisco. In addition to her faculty position, she has also served as the Online Faculty Mentor, Online Accessibility Mentor, and Faculty Evaluations Coordinator. Denise deeply believes accessible, equitable, humanized online experiences support student success and is absolutely delighted with the future of educational technology.

Project: Empowering Multicultural Learners: An Online Toolkit for Creating Accessible Learning Environments with Universal Design for Learning and Online Accessibility Practices

The project aims to develop a framework that will support ESOL community college students with disabilities by utilizing Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and Online Accessibility Practices. The overarching goal is to ensure that both online and in-person courses are accessible to the global student body; therefore, increasing student accessibility, engagement, and success. I plan to develop an online toolkit of resources and strategies that consider disability in online experiences. This toolkit can be used to support online accessibility for multicultural students in a variety of educational settings and modalities.

Saburo Matsumoto

Professor of mathematics, college of the canyons.

Born in Kobe, Japan, Saburo (“Sab”) Matsumoto came to the U.S. as a high school student. After earning his Ph.D. in mathematics at Michigan, Sab became a researcher in geometric topology in Australia and Japan before returning to the U.S. to be a full-time professor. At College of the Canyons (COC), Sab has served as a curriculum committee member, an academic senator, department chair, and an SLO coordinator. He also helped COC win the prestigious National Bellwether Award in 2021. Recently Sab compiled an OER textbook on liberal arts mathematics. He is now involved in various comprehensive internationalization projects on campus.

Project: Global Views and Practices in College Mathematics Education

Various countries have different ways of teaching mathematics, significantly informed by what their educators believe about mathematics, teaching, and students. In my project I will pursue how these beliefs influence the way mathematics is taught around the world, with the goal of developing specific internationalization strategies to be implemented in mathematics courses in community colleges. This may include re-examining course content, particularly in courses like liberal arts mathematics and statistics, reflecting on pedagogical practices in the U.S., and developing student activities such as international collaborative projects.

Kelly Metz-Matthews

Faculty, english as a second language, san diego college of continuing education.

Dr. Kelly Metz-Matthews is faculty and assistant program chair in the English as a Second Language Department at San Diego College of Continuing Education. In addition to teaching in the field of English-language acquisition, Kelly has taught across the disciplines of rhetoric, academic writing, and teacher education. She is a proud alumna of the U.S. State Department’s English Language Fellow Program and an erstwhile San Diego Area Writing Project Fellow. Kelly’s research centers on collaborative and participatory writing practices, language ideologies in multilingual contexts, and the intersections of language, gender, and symbolic power.

Project: Internationalizing Second-Language Communication: Redesigning an Adult ESL Conversation Course

This project leverages elements of critical applied linguistics, intercultural communication, and cultural responsiveness to redesign an intermediate/advanced ESL conversation course. The course will engage students in speaking and listening activities that connect to their experiences as immigrants in U.S. contexts and to their unique experiences outside of that context. With the realities of linguistic imperialism and linguicism in mind, the course will utilize authentic listening materials from English speakers across the globe, highlighting World Englishes rather than promoting certain Englishes as being of inherently more value.

Lauren Movius

Associate professor of communication and media studies, santa monica college.

Lauren Movius is an associate professor of communication and media studies at Santa Monica College. She received her Ph.D. in communication studies from the University of Southern California and M.Sc. in global media from the London School of Economics and Political Science. Her research interests include global communications, international regulation, and the impact of mass media on society. Prior to teaching at SMC, Lauren was a visiting assistant professor at USC and taught in their study abroad program in England. Lauren is passionate about teaching and assisting her students in their academic and professional growth.

Project: International Media Flows

This project will develop innovative curricular materials to implement in the Global Media Studies course. I will develop new course modules and case studies on various topics in global communication studies, including the topic of international media flows and how developing countries produce and export media products globally. The broad goal of the project is for students to gain a deeper understanding of different cultures and global issues, thereby helping them to become global citizens.

Ted Preston

Professor of philosophy, rio hondo college.

Dr. Ted Preston is a professor of philosophy at Rio Hondo College in Whittier, California. He earned his Ph.D. in philosophy from UC Riverside, his M.A. in philosophy from CSU Long Beach, and his B.A. in both philosophy and psychology from Claremont McKenna College. His original professional focus was ancient philosophy, but he has shifted attention to political philosophy and the philosophy of social justice. In addition to his passion for philosophy as a way of life, Ted is a life-long martial artist.

Project: Introduction to Philosophy: Global Perspectives

This project seeks to go beyond increasing the diversity of voices consulted in the “great conversation” of philosophy by centering historically neglected and under-utilized philosophers and traditions from Asia, the African diaspora, and the Americas. A new online course will be created and designed according to the OEI rubric, and made available on the CVC Exchange for all interested students.

Kevin Sherman

Professor of cinema, city college of san francisco.

Kevin Sherman is a media scholar and producer who specializes in documentary and ethnographic film/video. His films have screened at over 50 international festivals including Visions du Réel, Full Frame Documentary Film Festival, True/False Film Festival, Big Sky Documentary Film Festival, Sheffield Doc/Fest, and AFI Docs. His co-production Give (with director David de Rozas) was nominated in 2019 for an Emmy for Outstanding New Approaches: Documentary and won the 2019 Full Frame Jury Award for Best Short. Give is distributed by PBS/POV. Sherman is co-producer of The Blessings of the Mystery , a multimedia video installation project by de Rozas and Carolina Caycedo. Blessings was the Film/Visual Art Summer 2022 exhibition at Ballroom Marfa and exhibited as part of the Elaine Dannheisser Projects Series at the MoMA in New York in Fall 2022.

Project: The International Cinematic History of Underrepresented People (1890-1950)

The "International Cinematic History of Underrepresented People (1890-1950)" is an open-source curricular unit that highlights the neglected early cinematic history of marginalized people. The database includes hundreds of clips from overlooked American and European filmmakers alongside world cinemas that most film history textbooks neglect such as Latin America, India, Asia Pacific, and Africa. All clips will originate from the best possible sources and will include ADA compliant captions.

Jane Le Skaife

Professor of sociology, sierra college.

Dr. Jane Le Skaife received her Ph.D. in sociology at the University of California, Davis in 2013. Her doctoral dissertation involved a cross-national comparison of Vietnamese refugees in France and the United States. She had spent significant time in each of her research sites as well as Vietnam prior to conducting 130 in-depth interviews for her doctorate. As a daughter of Vietnamese refugees and also a former English as a Second Language (ESL) student, Dr. Skaife is very passionate about equitable instruction and has been applying equitable practices in her own courses ever since she started teaching. She is the recipient of the statewide 2023 Hayward Award for "Excellence in Education" in California and is currently teaching sociology and ethnic studies at Sierra College. She has also taught at the University of Tampa and University of California, Davis. Her research interests include international migration, racial and ethnic relations, Asia and Asian America, globalism and transnationalism, and sex and gender.

Project: Globalizing Asian American Studies

My project seeks to globalize the curriculum for Introduction to Asian American Studies in ethnic studies. These courses tend to be Americentric by design. However, my project would demonstrate the benefits of including perspectives beyond the United States by pursuing a trifold approach: 1) incorporating literature on Asian experiences in other countries, 2) making connections with higher education institutions in other countries similarly studying the Asian experience, and 3) institutionalizing the intellectual utility of cross-national comparisons in ethnic studies courses.

View Jane's presentation

Neuroscientists use AI to simulate how the brain makes sense of the visual world

A research team at Stanford’s Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute has made a major stride in using AI to replicate how the brain organizes sensory information to make sense of the world, opening up new frontiers for virtual neuroscience.

Watch the seconds tick by on a clock and, in visual regions of your brain, neighboring groups of angle-selective neurons will fire in sequence as the second hand sweeps around the clock face. These cells form beautiful “pinwheel” maps, with each segment representing a visual perception of a different angle. Other visual areas of the brain contain maps of more complex and abstract visual features, such as the distinction between images of familiar faces vs. places, which activate distinct neural “neighborhoods.” 

Such functional maps can be found across the brain, both delighting and confounding neuroscientists, who have long wondered why the brain should have evolved a map-like layout that only modern science can observe. 

To address this question, the Stanford team developed a new kind of AI algorithm — a topographic deep artificial neural network (TDANN) — that uses just two rules: naturalistic sensory inputs and spatial constraints on connections; and found that it successfully predicts both the sensory responses and spatial organization of multiple parts of the human brain’s visual system. 

After seven years of extensive research, the findings were published in a new paper — “A unifying framework for functional organization in the early and higher ventral visual cortex” — on May 10  in the journal Neuron .

The research team was led by Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute Faculty Scholar  Dan Yamins , an assistant professor of psychology and computer science; and Institute affiliate  Kalanit Grill-Spector , a professor in psychology. 

Unlike conventional neural networks, the TDANN incorporates spatial constraints, arranging its virtual neurons on a two-dimensional "cortical sheet" and requiring nearby neurons to share similar responses to sensory input. As the model learned to process images, this topographical structure caused it to form spatial maps, replicating how neurons in the brain organize themselves in response to visual stimuli. Specifically, the model replicated complex patterns such as the pinwheel structures in the primary visual cortex (V1) and the clusters of neurons in the higher ventral temporal cortex (VTC) that respond to categories like faces or places.

Eshed Margalit , the study’s lead author, who completed his PhD working with Yamins and Grill-Spector, said the team used self-supervised learning approaches to help the accuracy of training models that simulate the brain. 

“It’s probably more like how babies are learning about the visual world,” Margalit said. “I don’t think we initially expected it to have such a big impact on the accuracy of the trained models, but you really need to get the training task of the network right for it to be a good model of the brain.”

The fully trainable model will help neuroscientists better understand the rules of how the brain organizes itself, whether for vision, like in this study, or other sensory systems such as hearing.

“When the brain is trying to learn something about the world — like seeing two snapshots of a person — it puts neurons that respond similarly in proximity in the brain and maps form,” said Grill-Spector, who is the Susan S. and William H. Hindle Professor in the School of Humanities and Sciences. “We believe that principle should be translatable to other systems, as well.”

This innovative approach has significant implications for both neuroscience and artificial intelligence. For neuroscientists, the TDANN provides a new lens to study how the visual cortex develops and operates, potentially transforming treatments for neurological disorders. For AI, insights derived from the brain's organization can lead to more sophisticated visual processing systems, akin to teaching computers to 'see' as humans do.

The findings could also help explain how the human brain operates with such stellar energy efficiency. For example, the human brain can compute a billion-billion math operations with only 20 watts of power,  compared with a supercomputer that requires a million times more energy to do the same math. The new findings emphasize that neuronal maps — and the spatial or topographic constraints that drive them — likely serve to keep the wiring connecting the brain’s 100 billion neurons as simple as possible. These insights could be key to designing more efficient artificial systems inspired by the elegance of the brain.

“AI is constrained by power,” Yamins said. “In the long run, if people knew how to run artificial systems at a much lower power consumption, that could fuel AI’s development.”

More energy-efficient AI could help grow virtual neuroscience, where experiments could be done more quickly and at a larger scale. In their study, the researchers demonstrated as a proof of principle that their topographical deep artificial neural network reproduced brain-like responses to a wide range of naturalistic visual stimuli, suggesting that such systems could, in the future, be used as fast, inexpensive playgrounds for prototyping neuroscience experiments and rapidly identifying hypotheses for future testing.

Virtual neuroscience experiments could also advance human medical care. For example, better training an artificial visual system in the same way a baby visually learns about the world might help an AI see the world like a human, where the center of gaze is sharper than the rest of a field of view. Another application could help develop prosthetics for vision or simulate exactly how diseases and injuries affect parts of the brain.

“If you can do things like make predictions that are going to help develop prosthetic devices for people that have lost vision, I think that’s really going to be an amazing thing,” Grill-Spector said.

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Welcome to our Incoming 2024-25 Immunology Program Class

May 30, 2024

We'd like to welcome our outstanding first year class to begin their graduate training in Autumn 2024. We look forward to having them become part of our Stanford Immunology community.

ISHA ARORA Cornell University

KATIE FANG UC Berkeley

KEALA GAPIN University of Colorado Boulder

ANIA HOWLEY College of the Holy Cross

HUMZA KHAN UCLA

YUJUNG PARK UC Berkeley

HYUNGJIN KIM Yonsei University

SONIA PRESTI Brandeis University

CHRIS PROVIDO Bowie State University

ALEXANDER STANFORD Dartmouth College