research questions about social media marketing

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4 Questions to Boost Your Social Media Marketing

• Deepa Prahalad
• Ananthanarayanan V

Are you communicating with customers in real time?

Global internet users spend more than two hours each day browsing social media — a double-edged sword for companies who have the opportunity to reach more consumers, but also have more people to engage with and respond to. To develop your social media strategy, the authors recommend you ask yourself the following questions: 1) What are your goals? 2) Which platforms should you use? 3) What’s your content strategy? 4) Are you ready to talk with your audience — in real time?

Companies of all sizes today are looking to improve the effectiveness of their social media marketing — and with good reason: Digital platforms are constantly innovating the way that brands are discovered, shared and experienced. The data speaks for itself: The number of worldwide social network users is expected to reach 3.09 billion monthly active users by 2021 , and global internet users spend some 136 minutes per day surfing social networks. Many organizations have responded by allocating more resources to digital marketing — technology now accounts for 29% of total marketing expense budgets, according to a recent Gartner estimate , and digital ad spend for 2020 is estimated at about $385 billion .

• DP Deepa Prahalad is a speaker, design strategist and expert on emerging markets innovation. She co-authored  Predictable Magic  (Pearson) and consults for corporates and startups. Deepa mentors leading social entrepreneurs and serves on several international nonprofit boards and is on Twitter @deepaprahalad
• AV Ananthanarayanan V is the founder & CEO of Techdivine Creative Services, a digital marketing agency that has catered to clients across 8 countries and the author of Social Media Marketing Brand ROI book. He also trains and coaches leading corporates & c-suite professionals on digital marketing and is on Twitter  @AnanthV9 .

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30 Common Questions About Social Media Marketing Answered

• JoAnn Yoshida
• April 18, 2024

Here at Zen Media, we often get questions from businesses about online marketing, and we do our best to answer each one! However, it occurred to us recently that it might be helpful to create a blog that answered the most common questions we get related to web marketing. So here we go! Our responses to your 30 most common social media marketing questions.

30 Social Media Marketing Questions Answered

1. what is social media marketing .

Social media marketing (SMM) is a type of digital marketing that enables companies to market their products or services using social networking websites and mobile applications. These platforms allow consumers to share opinions about brands directly with others who they know socially. These sites also provide analytics tools to track consumer engagement, which can help shape your social media strategy.

There are different types of online communities, including Facebook groups, LinkedIn, Instagram, Snapchat, YouTube, Pinterest, X (formerly Twitter), Tumblr, TikTok, Reddit, and blogs; each may require its own set of unique tags. Each platform provides its users various ways to interact with the network by posting comments, uploading content, sharing images/videos, blogging, messaging friends, voting, commenting on other people’s posts, and much more.

Consider your audience demographics to determine the best platforms and strategies to guide your marketing efforts, social presence, and digital marketing strategy.

2. How does social media differ from traditional advertising techniques?

Traditional advertising methods have been around for a long time. Marketers have relied on printed materials, radio, television, and even billboards to advertise their brand. While these forms of advertisements still exist today, they are not effective in communicating with modern audiences. In comparison, social media provides marketers a way to connect directly with consumers through online communities. Through social networks, businesses can post content, build trust, and receive feedback about their product or service. If done right, these interactions can lead to sales. 

3. Can social media marketing really help my business?

Most definitely! It’s been proven again and again by business after business. In fact, more than half of internet users (56%) purchase a product online each week. Omnichannel marketing is highly effective, with most consumers using at least three channels for each purchase journey. Having an online presence is expected these days, therefore not utilizing social media marketing can actually harm your business.

4. What are the benefits of social media marketing for my company?

Whether or not your business is taking advantage of it, social media has forever changed the way that consumers communicate with businesses, and vice versa. Being accessible to your customers – and your prospective clients – via social media is a vital means of developing relationships with them and helping them through the sales funnel.

Here are just a few of the benefits of using social media marketing for your company:

Increased visibility

As mentioned earlier, social media gives your company increased exposure. People can find your business no matter what city they live in simply by searching for your name.

Targeted traffic

Another benefit of social media marketing is that you can target specific audiences based on demographics, location, interests, age, gender, and even income level.

Improved SEO rankings

Since search engines favor social media results over traditional web pages, having a strong presence on social media can help improve SEO rankings .

More customer service

Many social media sites give you the chance to communicate directly with your customers. If someone asks a question, you can answer them directly. This is important considering 53% of X users find it helpful to see how brands handle issues and answer questions on the platform. 

Brand awareness

Having a strong social media presence helps create positive word-of-mouth advertising. Your customers can feel free to talk about your business and engage with you on social media without feeling self-conscious.

Customer loyalty

A final benefit of social media marketing that should not be overlooked is building customer loyalty. When 61% of consumers recommend your brand to friends and family, that’s trust that will lead to repeat purchases and new customers. When your customers love what you sell, they’ll likely buy from you again—and tell everyone they know about it.

5. How should companies measure their social media marketing success?

Social media marketing success is measured using the same metrics you use for any other marketing activity: traffic, leads, and customers. Counting the number of fans or followers you have can help you understand your social media reach, but the bottom line that determines its success is how many people it drives to your site, how many of them are qualified leads, and how many of them actually become customers.

6. How much does social media marketing cost? What’s the ROI?

One thing is for certain – social media marketing is never free. Whether you’re spending your own valuable time on it, asking an employee to add it to their workload, hiring a social media employee, or outsourcing to a marketing firm, there is always a cost. The key is to get the maximum ROI out of the time or money you put into it. It’s important to remember, however, that ROI doesn’t have to mean revenue. It can also mean meeting other objectives, such as getting new leads, increasing email subscriptions, or even boosting customer satisfaction. The ROI you end up with is the direct result of how focused your social media marketing strategy is.

7. How can I get started when I’m not even familiar with social marketing? 

Not sure how to shape a strong social strategy? Don’t worry, we’ve got you covered. Our team of experts can take care of everything from brainstorming ideas to posting content and monitoring analytics. We’re here to help you build your online community.

8. Which social media platform s should my business have a presence on?

There’s no set answer to this question because you need to have a presence wherever your customers are—and different businesses have different audiences. One demographic spends most of their time on Facebook, while another really only engages on LinkedIn, and some divide their time equally between three or more sites. Find out where your customers are and follow them there.

9. Does my company really need a blog for social media marketing ?

Yes! A blog is one of those non-negotiable assets you need in marketing. Apart from all of the benefits it provides on its own—such as increasing your credibility as an industry expert and providing fresh, keyword-rich content on a regular basis to please the search engines—a blog is a vital component of social media marketing. Links to blog posts are some of the most effective types of content to post on social media, especially on Facebook after its recent algorithm changes . Without fresh blog posts being shared on a regular basis, you won’t have nearly as much to talk about with your consumers, and you won’t drive as much traffic to your site, either.

10. Is social media marketing better for B2C or B2B businesses?

It’s important for both, but in different ways. While B2C businesses can focus on more light-hearted, fun social media posts, B2B businesses need to use social media to share valuable B2B content marketing . However, social media is a vital tool to both when it comes to connecting a business with its customers. 

11. How should we be using Facebook for marketing?

Facebook is the social media platform of choice for over 1 billion people worldwide. Use it to connect and interact with your audience, and to share your content in a way that encourages your fans to share it as well.

12. How should we be using X (formerly Twitter) for marketing?

X has over 619 million users and is ideal for sharing your content and connecting with other influencers in your industry.

13. How should we be using LinkedIn for marketing?

LinkedIn has over 1 billion members . It is a great place to share your credentials with the world, but more importantly, it’s the perfect place to interact with your audience online. Using LinkedIn Groups, you can answer questions and contribute to discussions in order to demonstrate your industry thought leadership as well as your willingness to help others generously.

14. How should we be using Instagram for marketing?

Instagram is under the Meta umbrella and boasts over 2 billion active monthly users globally. With Stories, Reels, and photos, Instagram allows you to get creative and reach your target audience in a variety of ways. The social platform’s ability to zero in on target demographics and push toward aesthetics makes it a worthwhile investment for a wide range of marketing and advertising tactics. 

15. Is video important for marketing?

While TikTok is growing in popularity, YouTube retains its title as the top video-sharing platform. Generally speaking, videos are becoming more and more important in the world of social media marketing. YouTube sits behind Google in the list of most visited sites worldwide and over 500 hours of content are uploaded to the site every minute! But TikTok isn’t far behind. The video-forward app is expected to surpass 2 billion users in 2024.

Popular for its short-form video content, TikTok has had a massive influence on the content other platforms are prioritizing. Even YouTube became a direct competitor by offering Shorts, videos that closely follow the TikTok model. This pivot has paid off and Shorts bring YouTube over 70 billion views a day. Promote your brand’s image through a video, engage in fun and relevant trends, let your audience have a peek behind the scenes at your business, or make a how-to video.

16. Is outreach an important part of social media marketing ?

Inviting an influencer to write a guest post for your company’s blog is one of the most effective modes of outreach, and social media can significantly boost your outreach efforts. Connect with other influencers in your industry via social media, then build relationships with them through conversations and help them promote their own content. Building a relationship this way before reaching out for a guest blogging opportunity can boost your chances of success. And when your audience sees that you regularly converse with other experts via social media, they’ll see you as an expert, too!

17. How can I use social media marketing to take control of my brand online?

Taking “control” of your brand isn’t really possible anymore, thanks to social media. Whether or not you’re in the conversation, people will talk about you online, and there’s no way for you to “control” what they say. What you can do is join in those conversations and influence them by being a part of them. From negative reviews on Yelp to customer complaints on X, the way to influence your audience’s perception of your brand is to participate in the conversations and steer them in a direction you’re happy with.

18. Should each department in my company have its own social media initiatives?

A company’s social media activities don’t all have to come from the same place, but they do need to be coordinated, and that can be hard to do when each department is doing their own thing. Sending different messages causes more confusion to customers than anything else, so remember: consistency is key.

19. What type of social media content converts best?

Just like question #5, this one depends on your audience. The best way to find out what type of content converts most effectively for you is to test, tweak, and test again until you find the right fit.

20. How much time should social media marketing take each week?

Social media is all real-time marketing. This is both a positive and a negative. Social media is good because it gives you the opportunity to reach your specific audience in real time. Alternatively, timing is everything. Social media management is an all-day task. Consider your marketing goals to determine how much time should be spent on your social channels.

21. How long does it take before I’ll start seeing results from social media marketing ?

With social media constantly evolving, this depends on variables such as the time and effort you’re putting into your social media marketing management, budget, audience, strategy, and whether or not you’re using paid ads. Regardless, it’s important to remember that social media is a marathon, not a race.

22. What are some common social media marketing mistakes businesses make?

One of the worst mistakes is inconsistency—only posting sporadically, and not responding when consumers reach out to engage. Another problem is using social media as a place to announce your own content and nothing more, without ever engaging in discussions or adding comments to the post that make your audience want to click, like, or share.

23. Which marketing metrics are the most important to track?

The most important metrics to track are: traffic, conversions, and revenue. Traffic measures the amount of visitors to your website and conversion rate calculates how well they convert into customers. Revenue is how much money you make from each customer.

24. What are some general tips for social media success?

Post consistently. Let your passion and personality shine through. Engage in conversations. Answer questions. Encourage audience engagement. Provide valuable content freely, without getting salesy. Be creative.

25. Is it better to outsource social media marketing , or take care of it in-house?

If your company has all the time and resources it needs to successfully manage social media marketing, then handling it in-house can be beneficial. But allowing a marketing firm like Zen Media to handle your B2B social media marketing frees you up to do what you do best while we do what we do best. We have the experience, expertise, technology, and cutting-edge industry insider knowledge to leverage social media marketing and elevate your business.

26. How can I create content that stands out on social media?

Creating content that stands out on social media requires a focus on high-quality visuals, attention-grabbing headlines and captions, and providing value to your audience through informative or entertaining content. You can also incorporate tactics like using emojis, asking questions, and using humor to make more engaging content.

27. How often should I post on social media?

The frequency of your social media posts depends on the platform and your audience. As a general rule, you should post at least once a day on platforms like X and Instagram, and 2-3 times a week on platforms like Facebook and LinkedIn. However, you should also pay attention to your engagement rate s and adjust your posting frequency accordingly.

28. How can I build a strong social media community?

To build a strong social media community, you should regularly engage with your audience, provide valuable content, respond to comments and messages, and participate in relevant discussions, trends, and hashtags. You can also use tactics like hosting social media contests or featuring user-generated content to encourage participation and build relationships with your followers.

29. How can I create a social media content calendar?

To create a content calendar, start by identifying important dates, events, and campaigns that you want to align with your content. This could include holidays, industry events, or product launches. Once you have a list of important dates, determine the types of content you want to create for each date. For example, you might create a promotional post for a product launch, a holiday-themed post for Valentine’s Day, or a behind-the-scenes post for an industry event.

In addition to aligning your content with important dates, it’s also important to include a mix of different types of content in your calendar. This could include photos, videos, blog posts, infographics, or user-generated content. By varying the types of content you post, you can keep your audience engaged and interested in what you have to say.

To organize your content calendar, you can use a template or tool that allows you to schedule your posts in advance. This will help ensure your content is posted during optimal times for maximum reach and engagement.

30. What are some other lesser-known platforms I can use for social media marketing?

Although TikTok has gained significant popularity in recent years, it is still a relatively new platform for B2B marketers to tap into. It has a younger demographic and provides an opportunity to create short-form, engaging videos.

Reddit is a platform that allows users to create communities and participate in discussions on a wide range of topics. Marketers can use Reddit to engage with their target audience and share relevant content.

Like Reddit, Discord is all about community, but brands have more control over the different servers, channels, and moderators. Create a Discord server for your brand, then add channels that are informative, encourage community participation, and provide customer service. 

Quora is a question-and-answer platform where users can ask and answer questions on a wide range of topics. Marketers can use Quora to establish thought leadership and provide valuable insights and advice to potential customers.

Twitch is a live-streaming platform primarily used for gaming, but it has a growing community of creatives and influencers. Marketers can use Twitch to sponsor streamers, demonstrate products, or create their own live content. Reach out to us today if you need any assistance with your social media marketing! We’re here to help you build your online community.

• Social Media Marketing
• business marketing strategies , Facebook Marketing , linkedin , Online Marketing , social media , Social Media Marketing , twitter

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Social Media Research: A Comprehensive Guide

Guv Callahan

May 20, 2024

8 min. read

Social media research helps you unlock the potential of social content for business. We’re living in a world where tweets hold power and likes shape perceptions. When you know what to publish and who you’re posting it for, you can construct a stronger strategy that helps you meet key goals.

Data isn’t just about numbers; it’s about uncovering narratives and following the breadcrumbs of likes, shares, and comments to gain deeper understandings. There’s a method to the madness of selfies and status updates. The right approach to social media research helps you learn more about the collective consciousness of society — and use it to your advantage.

Let’s explore the language of social media likes and shares and dig beneath the surface of our digital interactions.

What is Social Media Research?

Tools and techniques for social media research, understanding the difference: social media research vs. traditional research, harnessing the power of social media research for your business, ethics and privacy in social media research, success stories: real world examples of social media research.

Social media research is the process of using social media data to learn about trending topics, audiences, and content performance. Reviewing social data gives you quantitative insights (e.g., engagement rates , best posting times ), but it can also lead to qualitative learnings like human behaviors, preferences, and opinions.

When conducting social media research, companies can look for patterns and sentiments to drive their social media marketing strategy. They can decide what content to create, which channels to post on, how to reach their audience, when to post content, and a myriad of other decisions that will lead to faster results.

There’s no single best way to do social media research. You can manually review engagement on your posts or look at your competitors’ content. Or you can use third-party social listening tools to aggregate social data for you. 

Social media research can be formal (like a traditional research project) or informal. You might have a certain goal in mind, or you might not know what you’re looking for and just want to see what pops up. 

Let’s review some options.

Social media analytics

No matter what channels you choose, you can gain a wealth of insights from built-in social analytics. Platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter give you instant intel about your content performance and audiences. 

Even better, you don’t always need to know what you’re looking for. You can start combing through your analytics, then jot down questions or ideas you want to explore further.

Tip: Learn more in our blog The Complete Guide to Social Media Analytics .

Google Alerts

Google Alerts is a free and underrated tool that gives you unique angles and insights on a given topic. You can set up a Google Alert related to a keyword or topic of your choice, then receive a daily digest of articles published on that topic. 

From there, you can learn more about what other brands and businesses are publishing. Repurpose your findings into your social media content to get ahead of trends and topics. You can lead conversations instead of joining them after they blow up on social.

Social listening tools

Social listening tools like Meltwater let you be the fly on the wall in the social world. You can “listen” to what your audience is saying and truly be everywhere all at once. 

These tools monitor billions of publicly available data points across multiple social channels, like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram. They help brands track mentions of their products or brand names in real time so you can become part of important conversations. 

You can also track topics related to your niche or learn more about what your audience is talking about beyond your brand. This gives you direct insight into their lifestyles so you can meet them where they are authentically.

Want to learn more about how Meltwater could help your social media research? Fill out the form below and an expert will be in touch!

Media intelligence tools

Taking social listening a step further, you can add media intelligence tools to the mix to learn what’s being talked about beyond social media. Meltwater’s media intelligence suite lets you monitor TV and radio channels, blogs, print media, and other new sources around the world.

This gives you more comprehensive insights into hot topics and trends that you can repurpose for social media. News-worthy events make their way to social media, giving you an easy “in” to your audience’s attention. 

Aside from the social-specific aspect, social media research holds a few advantages over traditional research. 

For starters, social research gives you real-time data that’s constantly changing. You can also get the most specific insights according to your audience and social channels, not just general info. This means you can shorten the research curve and get faster insights about topics that matter to you.  

By comparison, traditional research is often a more structured approach with specific goals in mind. It typically requires lots of sources and manual effort. It takes time to find and vet sources, cross-reference data, and ensure a high level of accuracy. 

Combining both types of research can give you the most comprehensive view of your audience.

Now that you know what social media research is, let’s explore some ways you can apply it to your business.

Identify your target audience

Analyzing social media data can help you pinpoint who your target audience is (because it’s not always who you think). You might have your audience defined on the surface with basics like age, gender, and geographic location, but social research can dig several layers deeper to uncover new audience segments you haven’t considered. 

Audiences evolve all the time. Their preferences, needs, and interests change. This means that who you want to reach today might not be the same person you want to connect with in the future. Constantly finding new things about your audience will help you continue generating content that captures their interests.

Improve brand reputation

Monitoring online conversations and feedback gives companies a direct path to reputation management . You can more easily spot when trouble might be brewing so you can act fast and defend against hits to your brand image.

Proactively engaging with customers on social platforms shows that the company values their opinions and is committed to providing excellent customer service. This not only builds trust and loyalty but also strengthens the brand's reputation as a customer-centric organization.

Optimize social media marketing campaigns

When you know more about your audience and past content performance, you’re in a better position to create better posts that resonate. Learn what type of content your audience prefers based on engagement metrics. Tailor your content and messaging to reflect their interests and needs.

You’ll also have insights about what’s hot in the social media world. You can use these trends as the foundation for your own content, taking the guesswork out of what you should talk about. 

Tip: Learn more about tailoring your content and messaging in our Personalization at Scale Guide !

Collecting social media research from outside data sources brings ethics and privacy into question. Marketers should be proactive in asking where their data is coming from and how it was obtained. 

Ideally, you’ll choose tools that are in compliance with regulations like GDPR and CCPA. Know how they obtain data and whether they safeguard individual users’ information. Getting ahead of your competitors shouldn't be at the expense of your customers’ privacy or potential legal challenges.

Companies around the world use social media research to drive engagement, create better content, and grow their brand presence. 

Take Shiseido , for instance. This Meltwater customer uses our Explore solution to learn what makes their brand special across 120 markets. The company uses social listening to monitor competitors, unify social mentions in a single dashboard, and understand the brand’s presence on a global stage.

Another Meltwater customer, Fifty Acres , uses the platform to learn about relevant narratives happening on social media. Learning what others are talking about allows them to shape their own stories, pitch new ideas for business growth, and connect with people in the right places at the right times.

W Hotels in Singapore is another great example of social media research at work. The company uses Meltwater to learn more about what customers like when traveling, allowing them to create custom experiences in their hotels.

Last but not least, Mailchimp uses Meltwater to inform its content strategy. The company looks for trends and themes on social media that resonate with creators, allowing them to easily scale their content by making their audience go bananas over every post.

Learn more when you request a demo by filling out the form below.

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Social Media Marketing: The Ultimate Guide

Discover how social media marketing can help you generate leads, boost conversions, and increase brand awareness.

THE SOCIAL MEDIA CONTENT CALENDAR TEMPLATE

Manage and plan your social media content with this free template

Updated: 01/24/24

Published: 01/24/24

Marketers’ top goal with social media marketing is increasing engagement. However, their top challenge is creating content that inspires the engagement they look for.

Since social media plays such an essential top-of-the-funnel role, it’s important to understand how to use the platform to meet your goals.

In this post, we'll dive into all things social media marketing — what it is, its benefits, and how to build a social media marketing strategy that drives the results you want.

Benefits of Social Media Marketing

Create a Social Media Marketing Strategy

Social Media Marketing Resources

What is social media marketing.

Social media marketing is the process of creating content for social media platforms to promote your products and/or services, build community with your target audience, and drive traffic to your business. With new features and platforms emerging every day, social media marketing is constantly evolving.

Social media marketing is all about meeting your target audience and customers where they are and as they socially interact with each other and your brand.

While social media marketing is incredibly valuable and beneficial to your business growth (as you'll see in the following section), your strategy will differ based on which social networks your audience spends their time on.

Before we dig deeper into social media marketing, let's segment the strategy by platform .

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The State of Social Media in 2024

Explore the top trends in social media for brands to know and optimize your social strategy.

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To illustrate the benefits of social media marketing, let's take a look at the experience from the user's perspective. Well, my perspective, to be exact.

As I scroll through my Instagram feed every day (cough, cough...multiple times a day), I consistently notice new posts and stories by The Frye Company . I’ve always been a fan of their boots, clothing, and accessories, but I also love the content they share on their Instagram profile.

All of their photos have the same filter to ensure they match — this makes their profile look professional, artistic, and organized when visitors, like myself, browse their page.

Frye’s account also encourages interaction between the company and its followers by providing them with a specific hashtag to use so they can be featured on the page when they post photos with Frye products.

Frye’s Instagram account is a great example of successful social media marketing — it’s attractive, distinctly Frye, engages their ~200K followers, and promotes their products.

But why is social media marketing so important? And how do you build a social media marketing strategy that’ll work for your business?

There are a variety of reasons why your company should use social media marketing. We've created a list of the most beneficial reasons to consider.

Let's dive in.

1. Increase your brand awareness.

Due to the sheer number of people on social media, you're missing out on the potential to reach thousands, and even millions, if you don't have a presence.

In fact, social media has proven to boost brand awareness by driving up engagement, including things like comments, likes, shares, reposts, and saves.

It also helps you increase brand awareness by directing traffic straight to your site. You can do this by including links to your website and other offers in your profile, bio, and posts.

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2. Generate leads and boost conversions.

Promoting and sharing your products on social media is a simple way to improve lead generation, boost conversions, and increase sales because you're advertising to people who have opted to engage with you by following your account.

Here are some examples of ways to use social media to generate more leads.

• Create contests for your visitors and followers to participate in on your social media profiles.
• Include links to your website and offers in the bio sections of your profiles.
• Host live videos to announce new products and provide updates or details about exciting news at your company.
• Implement a social media marketing campaign on one of your channels.

If you don't already have a Facebook page for your site, here's how to make one. 

3. Foster relationships with your customers.

Connecting and engaging with your social media followers can build lasting relationships between them and your business. You can do this by interacting with them on your posts, responding to their questions and comments, and providing them with any help they may need.

You can also ask your followers questions about your products and their pain points or create giveaways to help you build trust and show them how much you value their input and support.

4. Learn from your competitors.

Social media is a great way to keep tabs on your competitors — whether it's their social media tactics, the products they're promoting, the campaigns they're implementing, or their level of interaction with followers.

Social media allows you to look at what is and isn't working for your competition and, therefore, helps you decide what should or shouldn't change regarding your company's approach.

Lastly, reviewing your competitors' social accounts can help you make sure your marketing stands out and is unique to your brand.

Learn how to conduct a competitive analysis to discover how you can beat the competition.

Now, let's talk strategy. I'll walk you through the steps below, but if you're a visual learner, check out this helpful video that dives into everything you need to know.

How to Create a Social Media Marketing Strategy

• Set clear goals.
• Research your buyer personas and audience.
• Determine which social platforms you’ll market on.
• Establish your most important metrics and KPIs.
• Get to know your competition.
• Create unique and engaging content.
• Organize a schedule for your posts.
• Review and adjust your strategy.

Although social media constantly evolves, most foundational steps to succeed stay the same. Essentially, you're following the same steps you would take to create a marketing strategy and narrowing it to a specific channel.

I'll cover these steps in more detail so you can begin applying them to your business.

Step 1: Set clear goals.

The first step to creating a social media marketing strategy is to define your social media goals and ensure that they align with your overall business objectives.

Ask yourself: What do you want to achieve through your social media efforts? Examples could be increasing brand awareness, driving website traffic, generating leads, boosting customer engagement, or improving customer satisfaction.

Once you've set your high-level goals, break them down into smaller, actionable steps. This helps you identify the specific actions and strategies needed to achieve your goals.

For example, if my goal is to increase website traffic through social media, helpful, actionable steps could include increasing posting frequency, optimizing content for sharing, or running targeted ad campaigns.

Recommended Resources:

• How to Write a SMART Goal

Step 2: Research your buyer personas and audience.

Whatever Thoreau once said about building castles and setting foundations under them is absolutely true.

Okay, yes , he was definitely not talking about social media marketing, but bear with me — you’ve set your goals (built castles), and now you need to define how you’ll meet them (the foundation). Your goals will mean nothing without the foundation that helps you meet them.

That’s why, after establishing your goals, the next step is to outline how you’ll meet them, and one of the best ways to start is to determine who your buyer personas and audience are so you can target their needs and interests appropriately.

Without knowing who they are, you won’t be able to share the content they’re looking for to entice a response from them that helps you meet your goal.

To do this, consider the people you're trying to reach, why, and how you would classify them as a group. For example, if your company sells trendy leggings and joggers, you might classify your target audience as millennials who like to wear stylish athletic apparel regularly — a style known as athleisure .

By considering your buyer personas and audience, you'll then be able to determine what content will attract the type of followers and customers you hope to gain. Plus, learn how to create engaging content to keep your followers interested.

Pro Tip : I recommend gathering feedback from your followers to get insights into their preferences, pain points, and satisfaction levels. This data can help you identify areas for improvement and refine your buyer personas.

Recommended Tools

• Buyer Persona Templates
• Make My Persona Tool

Step 3: Determine which social platforms you'll market on.

As a social media marketer, it’s important to determine which platforms you’ll use.

I can’t give you a yes or no list regarding which social channels your business should use — it's more about the needs of your target audience, where they spend their time, and the kind of content you want to create.

"It's important to be where your audience of potential customers is today, and where they might be tomorrow," said Andrew Delaney, former social media marketing manager at HubSpot. "It's better to be ahead of the curve than behind."

For example, Gen Z is all about TikTok . If that’s your primary audience, I would consider it a best practice to use that platform and meet them where they already are.

If you're going for that target audience of athleisure-loving millennials, you may want to focus most of your social media efforts on Instagram — millennials are the largest user base on the platform.

Stephanie Morgan , founder and CEO of Social Lock , a top social media agency , echoes this sentiment.

"Think about their behaviors and where they hang out online. If that's Pinterest, use that platform for your brand. If that's TikTok, use that platform for your brand," Morgan adds. "Don't waste time on a platform that your ideal client avatar is not very active on."

When it comes to the content you want to create, consider what each platform specializes in. For example, if you want to share video-forward content, a platform that favors that, like YouTube, is your best bet.

All of this to say, you aren’t restricted to best-fit channels. Having a presence on multiple platforms is important, and I always encourage experimentation on emerging platforms or platforms that don’t entirely align with your social media marketing needs. Not only does it diversify your strategy, but it also helps you interact with the unique audiences and requirements of each platform.

However, I can only recommend this type of experimentation for businesses with established marketing strategies on platforms that work and deliver your desired results. Placing all of your stake in something new if you’re just getting started can do more harm than good.

Recommended Tools and Resources

• A Marketer's Guide to Snapchat for Business
• 50 Facebook Ad Examples We Actually Clicked
• YouTube for Business: A 30-Day Roadmap for Growth
• How to Use Twitter for Business (+ Follower Tracking Template)
• 12 Pinterest Templates for Business

Step 4: Establish your most important metrics and KPIs.

Your social media strategy should be data-driven, regardless of your goals or industry.

That means focusing on the social media metrics that matter . Rather than focus on vanity metrics, dig into data that aligns directly with your goals.

What metrics am I talking about? Check out the breakdown below:

• Reach . Post reach is the number of unique users who saw your post. How much of your content actually reaches users’ feeds?
• Clicks . This is the number of clicks on your content or account. Tracking clicks per campaign is essential to understanding what drives curiosity or encourages people to buy.
• Engagement . The total number of social interactions divided by the number of impressions. This shows how well your audience perceives you and their willingness to interact.
• Hashtag performance . What were your most-used hashtags? Which hashtags were most associated with your brand? Having these answers can help shape the focus of your content going forward.
• Organic and paid likes . Beyond a standard “Like” count, these interactions are attributed to paid or organic content. Given how much harder organic engagement is to gain, many brands turn to ads. Knowing these differences can help you budget your ad spend and the time you invest in different formats.
• Sentiment . This measures how users react to your content, brand, or hashtag. Did customers find your recent campaign offensive? What type of sentiment do people associate with your campaign hashtag? It’s always better to dig deeper and discover how people talk or feel about your brand.

Recommended Resources

• Which Social Media Metrics Are Marketers Tracking?
• The Ultimate Guide to Social Media Analytics

Step 5: Get to know your competition.

Whether you’re just starting with social media marketing or have years under your belt, it’s always important to understand the current state of your industry, especially when it comes to your competitors.

This is where I call your attention to a trusty competitive analysis: it allows you to understand who the competition is and what they’re doing well (and not so well). You’ll get a good sense of what’s expected in your industry, which will help you set your own social media targets.

It will also help you spot opportunities. Say, for example, my main competitor is dominant on Facebook but puts little effort into Twitter or Instagram. Rather than solely focusing on winning fans away from a dominant player, I can also look to networks where my audience is underserved. I’m not abandoning Facebook (because I know it works), but I’m diversifying my strategy and building a presence where an untapped audience is ready to hear from me.

Pro Tip: I recommend monitoring your competitors’ customer reviews to gain insights into what their customers like and dislike about them. Pay attention to common complaints or recurring themes to understand their pain points, and aim to solve those pains in your own strategy.

• What's a Competitive Analysis & How Do You Conduct One?
• A Marketer's Guide To Competitive Intelligence
• How to Monitor Your Competitors' Every Move in Social Within HubSpot

Step 6: Create unique and engaging content.

With billions of social media users around the globe, there's no question that at least some of your followers — or the people browsing your profile — have also seen your competitor's content or that of other businesses in your industry.

This is why it’s important to have engaging social media content that stands out and provides viewers with a reason to click that "Follow" button and interact with your brand. If your content keeps them engaged, social media algorithms will also work in your favor and prioritize showing them your content because they’ve demonstrated an interest in it.

This is entirely true of my social media experience. I follow quite a few brands on Instagram, but I only regularly see content from 3 or 4 because they have the most engaging content that inspires me to interact. The algorithm learns what I like and prioritizes their posts over others, so I only get to their Stories when I’ve relentlessly tapped through every other story (doesn’t happen that often) or scrolled to the bottom of my feed (happens even less).

Not sure what's considered engaging? Morgan has a recommendation.

"My number one tip to brands for creating engaging content on social media is to do market research first because what will be engaging depends on the audience," Morgan said. "When you know what your audience likes and needs to know, you can create content that engages those interests."

Want some hard facts about what content to create? Here’s some insights directly from consumers, thanks to my teammate Max Iskiev's research into consumer trends:

• Consumers spend the most time engaging with visual content, specifically images/photos/infographics (53%) and short-form video content (44%)
• Millennials spend the most time engaging with short-form video content
• Gen Z, Millennials, and Gen X enjoy video content the most, and Boomers enjoy images/photos/infographics.
• Relatable content is the most memorable content overall among consumers. For Gen Z and Millennials, funny content is the most memorable.

Another tip to help you get creative is to consider the content your competitors are sharing and how you can uniquely promote your products.

Also, take advantage of the features offered by the platforms you use. For example, you can create live videos on Facebook to share the latest details about a product launch or conduct a giveaway.

You can also use your current customers' and promoters’ content (user-generated content) and re-post their content or encourage them to use a hashtag to share their experiences and pictures with your products.

Lastly, leverage trends. Social media trends are always coming up, especially on short-form video platforms like TikTok. Don't be afraid to join in but you still have to be intentional about how you do it.

"If the trend started happening three weeks ago, you've probably missed the boat," Morgan said. "Catching the trends early is the best way to capitalize on it without coming across as inauthentic or like you're trying too hard, or worse [as] 'chuegy' – see Gen Z for that one."

• The Social Media Trends Report

Step 7: Organize a schedule for your posts.

Using a social media management solution is one of the easiest ways to ensure your content is shared as planned. These tools let you write captions, prepare pictures and videos, and schedule posts in advance. Some even automatically share your content on schedule and monitor post interactions and engagement.

I recently tested a few social media content calendar tools ( you can check out my tests here ), and I can’t recommend them enough. They were all extremely easy to use, and the time-saving benefits are a worthwhile investment for any social media marketer looking to optimize their process and save time.

Here are a few examples of some of your options.

HubSpot offers a social media tool — as part of the marketing software — to help you publish and monitor your content and create real connections with your followers. You can schedule and publish your content in advance and compare in-depth reports on your posts’ engagement to understand the performance of various platforms, types of content, and posting times.

Sprout Social

Image Source

Sprout Social is a social media marketing and management solution designed to help your team organize and plan content creation, manage campaigns, understand engagement, and review content reports and analysis.

Hootsuite is a social media management platform for finding, scheduling, managing, and reporting on your content. You can schedule posts in advance on all of your channels at once and measure your ROI with comprehensive content analysis.

How often should you post on social media?

As a rule of thumb, you should only post on social media when you have quality content to share (meaning that there’s a reason you’re posting it). This can help you strike the right balance when it comes to posting frequency.

Morgan says the top mistake she sees brands make regarding social media marketing is focusing on quantity of content instead of the quality of content.

"They think they need to post every day, so they force themselves to create posts to fill up the calendar," she said. "Odds are, every single one of those posts isn't going to be very valuable to the ideal customer, I've coined this 'clutter content.'"

Instead, she recommends downsizing in quantity and upping the quality.

"It's better to post two or three times a week with super valuable content, versus posting seven times a week with only one or two valuable posts," said Morgan.

There are plenty of studies and resources available explaining social media post frequency standards by industry and platform for you to follow. Every business is different, so find what works for your audience.

I do have a cheat code for you, though. Iskiev, who I mentioned above, asked marketers how often they post on social media, and they most commonly said multiple times per week. This can be a guiding metric but, as always, make final decisions based on your audience.

Look at your analytics to see when you get the most engagement, and create a posting schedule that speaks to those times. Then, you can begin experimenting with more or fewer posts – as well as other factors such as the time of day you're posting on social – to determine what provides the highest level of engagement.

• Social Media Content Calendar Template
• Social Media Content Calendar Template for Startups

Step 8: Review and adjust your strategy.

Social media is always evolving, so it’s important to periodically check in and make sure your strategy is still effective.

I recommend setting a regular cadence for reviewing your social media strategy. This could be monthly, quarterly, or annually, depending on your business needs and resources. Use these reviews to determine what's working, what needs improvement, and what new opportunities to explore.

When conducting these reviews, take the time to assess whether you're making progress toward your social media goals and objectives. Compare your actual performance against the benchmarks and KPIs you established. Then, identify any gaps or areas that need improvement.

It’s also important to keep up with the latest trends. Be sure to monitor changes in social media algorithms, user behavior, or new features, as well as emerging platforms and technologies.

For instance, if you heavily use Twitter as part of your social media strategy, consider the implications of the platform's rebrand to X and the new competitors since Elon Musk purchased it.

Before we dive into analyzing your social media marketing efforts, lets take a look at key social media platforms to give you a sense of how social media strategies look on different platforms.

Social Media Marketing Platforms

• Users : 2.8 billion daily active users worldwide
• Audience : Cusp of Gen Z and Millennials ( most users aged 24-35 )
• Industry impact : B2C
• Best for : Brand awareness, advertising, community building

Facebook is the largest and most established social media platform. Since its launch in 2004, it has become an invaluable tool for B2C businesses, offering advanced advertising tools and organic opportunities.

Featured Resources:

• Facebook Marketing: The Ultimate Guide
• How to Run Facebook Ads: Step-by-Step Guide to Advertising on Facebook

• Users : 1 billion active monthly global users
• Audience : Primarily Gen Z followed by Millennials
• Industry impact : B2C, then B2B
• Best for : Short-form, creative video content, user-generated content, building brand awareness

When you think of short-form video , you probably think of TikTok. The platform rose in popularity in 2020 and shows no signs of slowing down. It's one of the best platforms for community building, with marketers ranking it in third place behind YouTube .

• How to Use TikTok: A Step-by-Step Guide
• How Does the TikTok Algorithm Work?
• 13 Best TikTok Tips & Tricks, According to HubSpot’s Social Team + Marketer Data

• Users : 1 billion monthly active users
• Audience : Nearly even distribution of Gen Z and Millennials
• Best for : High-quality images and videos; user-generated content; advertising

Instagram launched 13 years ago and has taken the world by storm. When it comes to sharing visually compelling content, Instagram is where brands go. Another thing that sets the platform apart is its advanced eCommerce tools.

Today, users can discover brands, browse their products and/or services, and complete a purchase without leaving the app – making Instagram a hard platform to beat. In fact, consumers say Instagram offers the best in-app shopping experience , and Instagram Shops is the most popular social selling feature among social media marketers.

• Instagram Marketing: The Ultimate Guide
• How to Gain Your First (or Next) 1,000 Instagram Followers - 31 Tips
• 41 Instagram Features, Hacks, & Tips Everyone Should Know About

X (formerly Twitter)

• Users : 550 million daily active users worldwide
• Audience : Primarily Millennials
• Industry impact : B2B and B2C
• Best for : Public relations, customer service, community building

While Instagram focuses on visuals, X (formerly Twitter) focuses on words. Since the early days of 140-character Tweets (the limit is now 280), the platform has now expanded to include an audio tool called X Spaces , a community-building tool for creators called Twitter Subscriptions, and Twitter Blue for those interested in an elevated Twitter experience.

Featured Resource:

• Twitter Marketing: The Ultimate Guide

• User s : 770 million active users worldwide
• Audience : Older Gen Z (24+), Millennials (largest user base), and Gen X
• Industry impact : B2B
• Best for : B2B relationships, business development, and social selling

LinkedIn is Facebook's professional cousin. It's perhaps the only platform where its audience is clearly defined: Working professionals looking to network and seek out new opportunities.

That makes it the ideal platform for B2B companies looking to identify key decision-makers and build an industry-specific community.

• The Beginner’s Guide to LinkedIn Marketing
• Social Selling on LinkedIn: The Ultimate Guide
• How to Craft the Perfect LinkedIn Profile

• Users : Over 2.4 billion users worldwide
• Audience : Primarily Millennials but has a strong audience across gender and age demographics
• Industry impact : B2C and B2B
• Best for : Brand awareness, long-form entertainment, how-to and explainer videos, SEO, advertising

YouTube is the second most visited website in the world . In addition, marketers name it the second-best platform to build community.

In addition to being an incredibly popular platform, its users tend to stay longer because it features mostly long-form content – making it an ideal platform to share educational content.

• YouTube Marketing: The Ultimate Guide
• YouTube Ads for Beginners: How to Launch & Optimize a YouTube Video Advertising Campaign
• YouTube Demographics & Data to Know

• Users : 4 06 million daily active users worldwide
• Audience : Primarily Generation Z
• Best for : Brand awareness, advertising, location-based marketing

When Snapchat came out in 2011, leading the charge in ephemeral content. It introduced content that you could share with your friends and that would expire after 24 hours.

Many thought the brand would disappear once Instagram introduced Stories, the same feature with a different name, but it continues to be popular among young adults.

• Snapchat Marketing: The Ultimate Guide

• Users : 482 million monthly active users worldwide
• Audience : Primarily Millennials with a solid audience in Gen Z
• Best for : Visual advertising; inspiration

Think of Pinterest as a visual storyboard that allows users to get inspiration for everything from fashion to home decor.

85% of Pinners say Pinterest is where they go to start a new project. In addition, 80% of weekly Pinners say they've discovered a new brand or product on the platform. So, not only is it a great discovery tool, but it's also a way for brands to build their narrative through visual stories.

• The Ultimate Guide to Pinterest Marketing
• How to Use Pinterest to Promote Your Business or Blog

• Users : 10 million weekly active users worldwide ( according to latest data from 2022 )
• Best for : Visu

Clubhouse made a strong impression as soon as it entered the social media world in 2020. The audio-only platform allows people to start interesting conversations with followers as well as strangers and build community.

The platform also gained some buzz for its invitation-only set up when it was in beta testing. Today, the platform is open to everyone globally and on both IOS and Android devices. Another big selling point to this platform is that it works well for both B2B and B2C businesses and leverages audio, which has made a huge comeback in recent years.

Now that we've detailed the fundamentals of each social media network, how to analyze your results once you use them.

How to Analyze Your Social Media Marketing Impact and Results

One of the most important aspects of social media marketing is ensuring your efforts are successful in helping you meet your goals. To determine this, you'll need to keep track of your posts on every channel. You can do this by reviewing and managing your social media metrics.

Social Media Metrics

Social media metrics are data related to the success of your posts and your impact on your audience and customers on various platforms. These metrics may include data about levels of engagement, likes, follows, shares, and all other interactions on each platform.

These are the ten most important metrics I recommend tracking:

• Engagement: This includes clicks, comments, likes, and replies on your social media posts. There are also platform-specific types of engagement, such as " Saved " posts on Instagram and " Pinned " posts on Pinterest.
• Reach: The number of people who have seen any content associated with your page or profile is your reach.
• Followers: This is the number of people who have clicked your "Follow" button and regularly see your content in their feeds.
• Impressions: This is the number of times a post is seen, regardless of interaction. Impressions usually come from someone scrolling through their feed.
• Video views: On Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, or any other social channel with video capabilities, this is the number of views each gets.
• Profile visits: The number of people who have visited your profile is the number of profile visits.
• Mentions and tags: This is when someone mentions your brand, business, or profile in their own post. Someone might add your profile’s hand to a piece of their content with a direct tag, usually using the “@” symbol. For example, “loving these new shoes from @nike.”
• Reposts: This is when a member of your audience posts a piece of your content on their profile.
• Shares: This is the number of times people have shared content from your profile to their own or with their network.

You can influence all of these metrics, increase your social following, and improve overall engagement on your profile by using the same tactics you use to generate leads and boost conversions.

Morgan adds that the metrics you focus on will depend on your business’ level of maturity:

• If you're new, focus on building an audience and awareness. Key metrics: reach, impressions, audience growth.
• If you're growing, focus on building trust. Key metrics: Likes, saves, comments, DMs.
• If you're established, focus on retaining and nurturing. Key metrics: Likes, saves, comments, DMs.
• If you're launching something, focus on selling. Key metrics: DMs and clickthrough rate

How to Measure Social Media Metrics

There are multiple ways to monitor your social media metrics. Some platforms even have built-in analytics tools for you to use:

• X Analytics
• Facebook Analytics
• Instagram Insights

You might also choose to use an analytics and tracking tool such as Google Analytics . I view it as a great option if you want to track your social media and website metrics. Lastly, many social media scheduling solutions — as we reviewed earlier — have built-in monitoring and analytics tools.

Any metrics tracking tool you use will give you a better understanding of what your followers and audience respond well to and what you should consider modifying to improve engagement.

Now that we've reviewed the benefits of social media marketing and how to build your strategy, let's go over additional resources available to help you along the way.

There are a plethora of social media marketing resources out there that can help you build a social strategy for your company. Let’s go over some high-quality options.

Social Media Marketing Courses and Training

Here are two ways to earn an education in the field of social media marketing if you feel it's necessary for your specific business situation.

1. Earn a certificate administered by a company.

A certificate is a quick and simple way to gain a deep understanding of social media marketing courses.

HubSpot offers a free social media certification course, which teaches you how to engage with your customers and improve conversions. You'll also get a better understanding of how to develop your strategy, extend your reach, and measure your social media ROI.

LinkedIn Learning is another platform where you can earn a certification and share it on your profile.

2. Leverage YouTube university.

YouTube is a goldmine of educational content.

With a quick search, you'll find hundreds of long-form videos offering in-depth courses on social media marketing. Granted, you can't connect with a live educator. However, it's free and can be a great starting point before you dive into a paid course.

Social Media Marketing Books

Reading relevant content about social media marketing is another great way to learn more about the field. Here are a few examples of some highly-regarded books on the topic.

1. Likable Social Media, Third Edition: How to Delight Your Customers, Create an Irresistible Brand, and Be Generally Amazing on All Social Networks That Matter by Dave Kerpen

This New York Times Bestseller covers the reasons why being likable and engaging with followers on social media is one of the most powerful ways to grow your base of customers and promoters.

The book teaches you how to make impactful content for your followers to interact with and share with their networks. Author Dave Kerpen also describes why you need to ensure you're consistently delighting your followers to avoid losing them at any point in time.

2. Jab, Jab, Jab, Right Hook: How to Tell Your Story in a Noisy Social World by Gary Vaynerchuk

According to author Gary Vaynerchuk, the key to social media marketing success isn't about pushing out a lot of content — it's about pushing out specific content tailored towards your target audience and using the right platform to do so.

In his book, Vaynerchuk covers how to do this as well as connect with your followers and customers on a deeper level through social media. You'll learn how to create memorable and unique content that stands out in comparison to the competition's content.

3. The B2B Social Media Book: Become a Marketing Superstar by Generating Leads with Blogging, LinkedIn, Twitter, Facebook, Email, and More by Kipp Bodnar

HubSpot's CMO, Kipp Bodnar, writes about the ways B2B businesses can generate more leads and conversions through social media marketing.

There are actionable methods you can take to increase your base of followers and drive leads as well as understand the ROI of various B2B social media marketing strategies.

Emerging Social Media Platforms

Recent HubSpot Blog Research found that marketers are constantly on the lookout for new or emerging platforms.

Though it can take a while for platforms to take off, once they do, you’ll want to have a plan of attack.

Chipotle, for example, was one of the first brands to try sharing short-form video content on TikTok, and it now has a strong presence on the platform. Other brands haven’t been so lucky and still struggle to find their place. (TikTokers don’t shy away from telling brands when they don’t like something and won’t mince their words).

Emerging platforms can offer a new avenue to reach your target audience in a way that may be more effective than what you're doing now. In 2024, Threads and Lemon8 are among some of the most popular emerging platforms, and Bereal is also working to make its mark.

Want to learn more about what's out there? Check out this article on social media platforms to keep an eye on this year.

Start Marketing on Social Media

Considering there are billions of people on social media today, it's easy to see why so many businesses and marketers use the channel to promote their products and engage with customers.

Although determining your company's social media course of action may seem daunting, you can avoid feeling overwhelmed by understanding how social media marketing works and leveraging the resources available about the topic (like this piece!)

Start working on your business’s social media marketing strategy today to increase your followers, improve engagement, and boost conversions.

Editor's note: This post was originally published in March 2019 and has been updated for comprehensiveness.

Don't forget to share this post!

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What Is Social Media Marketing? [Complete 2024 Guide]

This complete guide will help you get started with social media marketing and follow the right best practices from day one.

Table of Contents

More than three-quarters of the world’s population aged 13+ uses social media. A whopping 4.74 billion people are active social media users.

Social media marketing provides a unique opportunity to connect with this massive audience on the platforms where they already spend their time.

But what exactly does social media marketing entail? Is it right for your business? How do you “do” social media marketing, and how do you get started?

In this post, we’ll walk you through everything you need to know about marketing your brand on social media.

Bonus: Get a free social media strategy template   to quickly and easily plan your own strategy. Also use it to track results and present the plan to your boss, teammates, and clients.

What is social media marketing?

Social media marketing is the practice of using social media platforms and tools to promote a business and connect with existing and potential customers .

The intended outcomes can range from the somewhat abstract (like brand building ) to the very specific (like selling products through social commerce ).

At its core, social media marketing is about building relationships with your audience in the places they already spend their time online.

Unlike traditional advertising, social media marketing allows for two-way communication between individuals and brands. There’s also potential for building a sense of community, which creates brand loyalty.

Social marketers do a lot more than scroll through TikTok all day.

All in a day's work 🥱 Shout out to all the social media managers juggling so many hats while keeping their social channels afloat. You're all the true MVPs 🌟 pic.twitter.com/7jtsbgkbhK — Hootsuite 🦉 (@hootsuite) December 8, 2022

Social media marketing activities can include:

• Content planning and creation . This is the most visible component of social media marketing. It’s the art of creating appropriate types of content for each platform to connect with the audience there.
• Content scheduling and publishing . This is the task of actually getting your content onto the appropriate platforms at the appropriate time .
• Social media analytics . Using analytics tools to track how content performs, report on progress towards social media goals, and plan ways to improve overall response.
• Social listening . Using social tools to keep a virtual ear to the ground, learning what’s being said about your brand and your industry. This is also a powerful tool for competitor research.
• Community management . Connecting with followers to build a community online, then working to keep that community active and healthy by responding to messages and creating ongoing opportunities for engagement.
• Social media advertising . Using paid tools on the social networks to get your content in front of a larger audience. This may include working with influencers or external content creators.

The benefits of social media marketing

Social networks are the second-most-popular type of website or app, topped only by chat and messaging.

Source: Hootsuite’s Global State of Digital 2022 Report (October Update)

They offer incredible reach and opportunities to engage with an audience in ways that are simply impossible in any other marketing format.

Here’s what that looks like in terms of real benefits for any brand that gets social media marketing right.

Build brand identity and awareness

From the smallest business to multinational corporations, every brand needs to stand for something if they want to connect with consumers. Social media gives you a chance to consistently show the personality behind your brand.

How do you differentiate yourself from your competitors? On social, you can participate in conversations, encourage engagement, and even interact with your audience in real time.

Create community and brand loyalty

People naturally organize themselves into communities on social media. That might mean a Facebook Group or a hashtag like #DIYTok. When brands support and engage in these communities, they gain credibility with people who are naturally inclined to be interested in their products and services.

Providing helpful resources, information, or even entertaining content on social media helps people identify with your brand. They become loyal brand advocates who make repeat purchases and spread the word about your brand through their own social media channels.

Test ideas in near real time

Social media networks are an ideal platform for testing , as the feedback gathered through social media analytics tools shows you almost immediately what works and what doesn’t in your marketing.

This allows you to refine your marketing strategy very quickly, and reveals lessons you can apply to areas of marketing beyond social, too.

Support business goals

Social media marketing doesn’t always get credit for its contribution to the bottom line. Social media can drive customers to your website and generate sales leads . Social marketing efforts can even support social commerce sales, in which customers purchase from your brand without ever leaving the social platform.

Your social media marketing team also supports (or sometimes provides) social customer service .

Source: Hootsuite 2023 Social Trends Report

Customers expect to be able to connect with your brand on social media for service and support. Having an easily accessible and responsive social care team can win back annoyed customers or provide the extra boost of confidence needed for first-time customers to complete a purchase.

Top networks for social media marketing

There’s a social network out there to connect with every audience. These are our top picks, sorted by number of users.

Facebook is still the world’s most-used social platform, with 2.934 billion global active users. It’s also the “favorite” platform of the largest number of social media users. And it accounts for the vast majority (71.64%) of web traffic referrals to third-party websites.

Check out our guide to marketing on Facebook .

Instagram is the next-most-popular social network with 1.386 billion active users. It’s known to sometimes be a source of frustration for social media marketers because of its frequent feature updates and algorithm changes.

View this post on Instagram A post shared by Hootsuite 🦉 (@hootsuite)

But the frustration is worth it, because nearly half ( 44% ) of Instagram users shop weekly on the platform.

Learn more about how to market your brand on Instagram .

TikTok has skyrocketed seemingly out of nowhere to become an incredibly important social network for marketing in the last few years. It has 1 billion active users, a year-over-year increase of 14.6%.

And here’s an interesting fact – if we’d sorted this list by average time spent on the app, TikTok would have come out on top. Users spend an average of 22.9 hours per month on the platform, more than any other social network. That addictive quality makes it an important network for brands to understand.

We’ve got all the details you need to know in our post on how to create a TikTok marketing strategy .

LinkedIn is unique on this list in that it’s a social network specifically focused on business life. That means its 875 million members are primed for business discussions and purchasing research. It’s a critical platform for anyone working in B2B, or for any companies that hire anyone, ever.

Business to consumer brands can find success on LinkedIn too. We explain all the details in our post on LInkedIn marketing for both B2B and B2C brands .

Snapchat may get less press than TikTok, but it’s still an important platform with 576 million active users. It’s far from fading into obscurity – in fact, the platform is still growing, adding 38 million users from Q4 2021 to Q4 2022.

Snapchat is particularly useful for brands targeting an audience ages 18 to 24. We explain all the details in our post on how to use Snapchat for business.

Twitter has been in a bit of turmoil since its purchase by Elon Musk in October 2022. But social marketers still have the network’s 544 million active users on their radar, and its value as a marketing platform remains strong heading into 2024.

Twitter is especially useful for brands looking to participate in real-time trends and conversations, as we explain in our Twitter marketing guide .

Pinterest has the lowest number of active users on this list at 433 million. But it’s an important platform for social media marketing because of the way people spend time there.

The top reason people say they use Pinterest is to follow or research brands and products. The very top reason! That’s a key distinction from most of the other platforms, where people tend to focus on connections with people over brands.

Learn how to use this shopping-oriented usage pattern to your advantage in our post on using Pinterest for business .

Most important social media statistics

Here are the most important social media statistics marketers need to understand in 2024.

People spend nearly 2.5 hours per day on social media

• Specifically, 2 hours and 28 minutes . That provides plenty of opportunities to connect with your audience on social platforms.

Nearly half of internet users seek out brands on social

• To be exact, 49.2% of internet users worldwide use social media to learn about brands and see their content. And it’s not just kids – even in the 55-to-64-year-old age group, 41.3% of women are seeking out brands on social media.
• Social media is also an important vehicle for brand discovery: 27% of Internet users aged 16 to 64 discover new brands through social ads, and 43.3% use social networks as a primary source of information for brand research.
• For younger users, social networks are the preferred source of information for brand research (50%), outanking even search engines (46%).

Social media users play the field

• The average person uses 7.2 social media platforms every month. That gives you the opportunity to reach them through multiple touchpoints. But it’s a better idea to use one or two platforms really well than to spread yourself too thin by trying to be everywhere at once.

Short-form vertical video is critical

• TikTok’s ad reach grew 14.6% from Q4 2021 to Q4 2022, now reaching 945 million adults over age 18. Note that ad reach is an important statistic even if you only plan to use TikTok organically, as it can be used as a general indicator of how many people are using the platform.
• The global audience for ads in Facebook Reels grew by almost 40% from Q3 2022 to Q4.

5 essential social media marketing tips

1. research your audience.

In order for your social media marketing to be successful, you need to understand who you’re trying to reach. This will involve some audience research .

You can start your research by understanding the different demographics of each social platform. We’ve done a lot of the work here for you, comparing the key demographic details you need to know:

• Facebook demographics
• Twitter demographics
• Instagram demographics
• Pinterest demographics
• Snapchat demographics
• LinkedIn demographics
• TikTok demographics

But this is just the starting point. You need to understand your specific audience, so you can get a clear picture of how to tailor your social media content, which platforms to use, and how to develop your brand voice.

As you come to understand who you want to reach, it can be helpful to develop audience personas .

2. Understand social media goals and KPIs

Everything you do on social media should be underpinned by a solid strategy based on realistic social media goals. Each of those goals will be tied to measurable data in the form of key performance indicators (KPIs).

For inspiration on what kinds of goals to set for your social media marketing efforts, look to the advantages of social media outlined at the top of this post. For example, you could aim to:

• Increase brand awareness
• Improve community engagement
• Drive online sales

We’ve got a whole blog post filled with examples of social media marketing goals , if you need some help getting started.

One critical element of goal setting is determining how you will track and measure your success. That’s where KPIs come in.

Fortunately, social media analytics make it quite straightforward to track and report on your social media performance. For details, consult our post on everything you need to know about social media analytics .

3. Plan and schedule your content in advance

Creating effective social content takes planning. Rather than creating your content on the fly, take the time to map out your posts in advance . This allows you to be strategic and consistent in your messaging across platforms.

Creating and scheduling content in batches allows you to make much more effective use of your time. Instead of interrupting your work multiple times per day (or night) to post on social, you can create content in dedicated blocks of your workday, then schedule your posts to go live on the right networks at the right time. A social media marketing dashboard like Hootsuite will help you schedule all of your posts in one place and keep a bird’s eye view of your content strategy at all times.

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This advance planning also allows you to bring multiple people into the content creation process, so you can access more skill sets or just have a fresh set of eyes look at your captions before you post.

4. Involve your community

Social media marketing is unlike marketing on any other platform. It’s a two-way street, with communication flowing from the brand to consumers and consumers back to the brand.

So, it’s important to get your community involved in your brand. You could try a social media contest , or use a branded hashtag to collect user-generated content to share on your feed.

Above all, make sure to respond when your followers engage with your content. Answer comments, thank particularly active users, and be sure to stay on top of your DMs.

5. Monitor your competition

Social media is an incredibly effective platform for competitor research. You can see what your competitors are doing in real time, and even listen in on the conversation happening about competitive brands.

Social listening is a great jumping-off point for your competitor research. Using automated tools, you can track mentions of your competitors, even when they’re not tagged. You can see what’s working for them, and what strategies might backfire.

This is extremely valuable information as you develop your own social marketing strategy. You don’t want to copy your competitors, but you can certainly learn from their successes and mistakes. You can also learn about new promotions, products, or company shakeups in real time.

Helpful social media marketing courses and resources

Hootsuite academy.

Hootsuite Academy offers social media training and certification through online courses taught by professionals in the marketing and social media industries. More than half a million people have taken courses through Hootsuite Academy, and more than 1,000 universities are enrolled in the programs.

Once you pass the exam for a Hootsuite Academy program, you receive a digital certification you can display on your LInkedIn profile to highlight your expertise.

Native training and certifications from the social platforms

The social platforms want brands to find success with their tools. To that end, many of them have created their own social media marketing courses along with training and certification resources to help businesses and social media marketers learn how to use all of their features.

• Meta Blueprint
• Twitter Flight School
• TikTok Business Learning Center
• Pinterest Webinars

Udacity Nanodegree in digital marketing

This three-month online program takes you from the fundamentals through to immersive projects that help you understand how digital marketing really works. You get access to a mentor and career support.

Insider Intelligence

Insider Intelligence is known for its forecasts and analysis. Full access requires a subscription, but you can gain plenty of insight from the freely accessible articles and podcasts.

In particular, their daily Behind The Numbers podcast is packed with digital marketing insights, and is available wherever you get your podcasts.

The #AskGaryVee Podcast

Gary Veynerchuk accepts questions on Twitter using the #AskGaryVee branded hashtag, then answers some of the most pressing in every episode.

If you’re an audio learner, there are plenty of podcasts to help you develop your social marketing skills. We’ve compiled a list of some of our faves .

#TwitterSmarter

Whether you join in the weekly #TwitterSmarter Twitter chat or listen to the podcast, you’ll gain important and up-to-the-minute insights on how best to incorporate Twitter into your social media marketing strategy. Host Madalyn Sklar is a top expert in the Twitter space, and regularly participating in #TwitterSmarter will help you, well, do Twitter smarter.

Social Media Marketing: The Next Generation of Business Engagement

This textbook by social media strategist Dave Evans, founder of Digital Voodoo, offers practical tips on how to establish a social media strategy and increase engagement with your social followers.

This book also gets into the details of how to connect social media throughout your organization. Rather than focusing only on the social media team, it explains how to use social media for customer service, employee engagement, and even product development.

Google Scholar

If you want to dive into the latest academic research on social media marketing, Google Scholar is the place to start your search.

Some interesting reads include:

• Friedland, The Next Step in Social Media Marketing?
• Saravanakumar & SuganthaLakshmi, Social Media Marketing
• Mason, Narcum & Mason, Social media marketing gains importance after Covid-19

Should you do social media marketing?

So, is social media marketing right for your brand? Let’s look at a few of the arguments for and against.

Pros of social media marketing

• Connect with your audience where they already spend time online
• Low barriers to entry – it’s free to create a business account on all major social platforms
• Create brand loyalty
• Expand your audience
• Get audience feedback that can apply to all areas of your business
• Learn about your audience through social analytics
• Refine your strategy with real-time testing

Cons of social media marketing

• Requires some time to do it right
• Initial follower growth can be a challenge
• Potential security risks if not managed correctly

For most businesses, the advantages of social media marketing far outweigh the risks. If your audience is already on social media, they expect to find you there. Without an active social media presence, you’re missing out on an important way to grow your brand.

Fortunately, it’s easy to get started. You don’t need to do everything all at once. The first step is building your social media marketing strategy .

Social media marketing FAQ

Social media marketing is the practice of using social media platforms to promote a brand and connect with customers.

The intended outcomes can range from building brand awareness to increasing sales.

How do beginners start social media marketing?

If you’re a complete beginner, start with research. Identify a few competitors, find their social accounts, and take note of what seems to be working for them. Then, create accounts on the social platforms that best fit your audience demographic and start creating your own content. Post consistently and closely watch your performance stats to get an understanding of which strategies are the most effective — and do more of what works.

What skills should I learn for social media marketing?

Important social media marketing skills include copywriting, graphic design, community management, marketing strategy planning, and performance analysis.

Manage all of your social media marketing from one place with Hootsuite. Create and schedule social posts, interact with your audience, track your results, and keep an eye on competitors from one easy-to-use dashboard. Try it free today.

Get Started

Do it better with Hootsuite , the all-in-one social media tool. Stay on top of things, grow, and beat the competition.

Become a better social marketer.

Get expert social media advice delivered straight to your inbox.

Christina Newberry is an award-winning writer and editor whose greatest passions include food, travel, urban gardening, and the Oxford comma—not necessarily in that order.

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54 answers to the most common social media questions

Written by by Natalie O'Grady

Published on  April 22, 2024

Reading time  14 minutes

With the social media landscape constantly evolving, there’s always something new to learn for both novice and experienced marketers alike. Naturally, you might have many pressing social media marketing questions you’re embarrassed to ask because they seem like common knowledge. But no social media question is too simple because it can be challenging to catch up, especially in 2024, when changing social media regulations bring something different every day.

In this post, we answer some of the most common and important social media questions. Besides general FAQs, we’ll also tackle platform-specific questions. Let’s get started!

Table of contents:

General social media questions

Instagram faqs, facebook faqs, youtube faqs, linkedin faqs, 1. how many people are on social media.

As of January 2024, a total of 5.04 billion people around the world use social media, putting the worldwide social media penetration rate at 62%.

2. What is the most popular social media platform?

Based on user count alone, Facebook continues to be the most popular social media platform. It had 3 billion monthly active users in Q4 2023.

3. How long does the average person spend on social media per day?

As of 2024, the average social media user spent around 2 hours and 23 minutes per day on social media according to Statista . Interestingly, this is down from 2 hours and 31 minutes the previous year.

4. What is the fastest-growing social media platform?

While Facebook remains the largest overall platform at three billion users, TikTok has climbed to the fifth largest platform in a short time, with 1.5 billion users. YouTube, WhatsApp and Instagram round out the top five largest platforms.

5. What’s the best time to post on social media?

The best time to post on social media depends on several factors. While your choice of platform and your industry both matter, your audience activity plays the biggest role. You should look at your post performance to get valuable data about the perfect post timing for your business.

You can also use our guide on the best time to post as a starting point before you find what works best for your business and industry.

6. How often should I post on social media?

Again, this largely depends on your audience. While you definitely should publish at least one post every day, you should see if posting more often will make any difference in your performance. Once you find a posting frequency that works for you, create a publishing calendar , and follow it consistently.

7. Which social media platform should I use to promote my business?

Having a presence on all popular platforms can be counterproductive if not executed with a strategy. Instead, focus on the platforms that are highly popular among your target audience. The best platforms to use will vary for each business. Check out our guide on how to choose the best social media channels for your business.

8. How do I get started with social media marketing?

There are a few things you need to begin marketing on social media—a goal, target audience and strategy. Determine what you want to achieve through social media marketing and what types of people you want to attract. Then create a social media strategy to streamline and organize your approach.

9. What kind of content should I post?

This also depends on your industry and what appeals to your target audience, although visuals typically take the cake on social media. Try out some of our social media post ideas and see which ones perform the best to find out what type of content your audience likes.

10. How can I get more followers on social media?

Growing your social media following involves a lot of planning and strategizing as well as posting the right content and targeting the right audience. Use our comprehensive guide on how to grow your social media audience to get started.

11. Can I use social media to build a B2B marketing strategy?

Absolutely. With 53% of consumers saying their social media usage has increased over the last two years, your target audience is active on these platforms more than ever. Sprout’s Social Listening tools provide indepth insights including demographic information such as audience segmentation based on factors like age, gender and location when analyzing social conversations about a specific topic for a more comprehensive grasp of your prospects.

Leverage our guide to building a customer-centric B2B social media strategy to start planning.

12. How can I use social media data for market research?

Annual market research is critical for keeping your overall marketing strategy ahead of the curve, and social media data is ripe with actionable insights. Uncover useful insights like audience intent, trends your customers are following and how customers are using your products and services. We have a full article on ways to use social media for market research to get you started.

13. What are the best social media metrics to track?

It’s important to track social media metrics that are important to your organization. Vanity metrics like follower growth and audience still tell a part of your overall story, and can be useful to include. You’ll also want to consider customer satisfaction metrics like reply time, total response volume and customer satisfaction scores (CSAT). Awareness is trackable through metrics like reach, and customer retention is spotlighted in reviews and net promotor score (NPS). Find a full list of suggestions in our guide to the best social media metrics to track in 2024.

14. How can I build an effective influencer marketing strategy?

Influencer marketing has evolved greatly over the years; no longer are brands required to shell out major money for sponsorships with celebrities. The type of influencer you need will depend on your brand persona and target audience. You don’t always need macro influencers with millions of followers to make an impact; micro-influencers with niche followers might just be what your brand needs. Here is a complete guide on the key considerations you need to keep in mind to build an  effective influencer marketing strategy.

Influencer marketing tools like Tagger are pivotal in optimizing influencer marketing efforts. They help you find the right influencers from thousands of vetted content creators, manage contract negotiations and analyze campaigns in real time so you get prompt performance insights and use them to improve your strategy.

15. What are the best metrics to track for influencer marketing?

Once you’ve got a solid influencer marketing strategy built, hone in on what metrics you need to track, such as post performance and the influencer’s overall account performance. We suggest these 10 best metrics to track for influencer marketing including audience engagement and website traffic.

16. How many active users does Instagram have and can it really help my brand?

Over 2 billion users are active on the platform monthly. Additionally, there are over 200 million business accounts on Instagram. And on average, most Instagram users are between the ages of 18 and 34. Learn more Instagram stats .

Instagram data reveals that 70% of consumers research brands and products on the platform for their next purchase. Instagram is also the most-used platform for influencer marketing and 80.8% of marketers plan to use it to strengthen their influencer marketing strategy in 2024. Instagram Stories has further solidified the network’s status as the primary platform to promote visual content and  Instagram Story ads has resulted in more advertisers promoting their products through Instagram Stories than ever before.

There are several apps you can use to enhance your Instagram marketing strategy —apps that can save you time and effort in content creation, scheduling and reporting. Check out a curated list of Instagram apps you’ll need to meet your marketing goals on the platform.

17. How many followers does the average Instagram user have?

The average Instagram personal account has about 150 followers . For public influencer accounts, the number varies widely; an account is considered a micro-influencer with around 1,000 followers.

18. What percentage of Instagram followers sees your post?

While Instagram hasn’t made anything official, many users have noticed that their posts reach only about 7% of their followers. This is because the platform prioritizes posts from accounts you regularly interact with.

19. What is the average age of Instagram users?

On average, most Instagram users are between the ages of 18 and 34. Learn more Instagram demographic stats .

20. Does Instagram sell your information?

No. According to Instagram’s data policy , the network promises to never sell your information. It does, however, share analytics data about users’ activity and preferences with third-party partners such as advertisers and analytics services.

21. What information does Instagram collect?

Besides your device information, Instagram collects the content, communication and information you provide. This can include metadata about your content such as the location. It also collects information about how you use the platform and the people, accounts and hashtags you interact with. Read the full Instagram data policy to learn more.

22. Can you export Instagram followers?

Yes. While not in the Instagram app itself, several tools such as IGExport and Phantombuster will let you export your Instagram followers into a .csv file.

23. Is there a way to download Instagram posts?

Instagram gives you an option to download a copy of all the posts you’ve shared on the platform. Find out how to do this through the Instagram Help Center . As for posts shared by other people, Instagram won’t let you download them directly but you can use third-party apps like DownloadGram and Ingramer. Check out Instagram’s terms of use for image downloading, reposting and embedding.

24. How do you save someone else’s picture on Instagram?

Click on the “Save” button at the bottom of the post and Instagram will add it to your collection. This isn’t the same as downloading a photo or video. To download a picture, you’ll need to use third-party apps.

25. How can I see who saved my pictures on Instagram?

Instagram doesn’t give you the option to see who’s saved your posts, but with an Instagram Business Profile can find out how many times a post has been saved. You can find this information under Post Insights.

26. How do you remove pictures from Instagram?

To remove pictures or videos you’ve posted on Instagram, tap on the “Options” button above your post and then choose “Delete.” You’ll need to tap “Delete” again to confirm that you want to remove the post from Instagram.

27. How do you get your “Top Live” on Instagram?

You could access this “Top Live” section at the top of your “Explore” page before, but Instagram has since removed it. Your curated “Explore” page may show suggested Lives alongside Reels and regular posts.

28. How can I share live video replays?

Choose “Share Video” when you see the option at the bottom of your screen once the broadcast ends. You’ll also get the option to “Download Video” in case you want to save it to your camera roll or “Delete Video” if you don’t want to keep it.

29. How can I see who is live on Instagram?

When someone you follow goes live on Instagram, you’ll see their profile picture at the top of your Feed with a colorful ring around it along with the word “Live.” Tap on the profile picture to start watching their live video.

30. How can I see active users on Instagram?

If users are currently active, you’ll see a green dot next to their profile picture and username. You won’t be able to see this feature if users have turned off their activity status.

31. What is Threads and can I use it for my brand?

Threads is a social platform with a similar structure to Twitter/X that connects directly to Instagram. Users can sign up for Threads via their Instagram account.

Threads can be a piece of your overall social strategy and leveraged in much the same way you use Twitter. One thing to note is that your audience on Threads will likely be identical to your Instagram audience. This offers new ways for your brand to engage with this specific following, reaching them in a different format.

32. How do I get started with Threads?

You can set up a Threads account through your established Instagram account. Download the Threads app from the App Store or Google Play Store and login with your Instagram credentials to get started. The username you use on Instagram will carry over to Threads, and you’ll have the option to customize your profile and bio on the new platform. If you already have the Instagram app downloaded, you can also search “Threads” and tap the ticket icon that appears in the search bar. Read everything you need to know about getting started with Threads.

33. What is Meta Business Suite?

Meta Business Suite is a desktop and mobile app that lets you connect both your Facebook and Instagram accounts in one place. Connect your Facebook and Instagram business pages to Meta Business Suite and dive into scheduling posts, parsing data insights and connecting third party tools like Sprout Social . You can manage Facebook, Instagram, Messenger posts, ads and communications and track their content performance. You can also add and manage an Ad account with Business Manager.

34. What is the Creator Studio for Facebook and Instagram?

Creator Studio is a platform that allows brands and content creators to manage their content, track audience engagement and monetize content on Meta platforms. There are several tools you can use on the platform; we recommend reviewing our full guide to Creator Studio for Facebook and Instagram .

35. What are the best times to post on Facebook?

The short answer is whenever your target audience is most often on the platform. The longer answer is that it varies by industry and day of the week. In general, Monday through Thursday, 8 a.m. to early afternoon are the best times to post, with any time on Sunday being the worst. You can get more specific in our guide to the best times to post on Facebook .

36. How can you schedule Facebook posts?

It’s difficult to imagine running an entire social media strategy without being able to schedule Facebook posts . There are a few ways you can schedule content ahead of time. First, navigate to the main dashboard of the Meta Business Suite. From here, choose the planner tab and then “Create Post.”

You also have two options for scheduling posts in Sprout. The first is by choosing the “Compose” icon, drafting your post and then choosing a time to schedule. The other path is to use Sprout Queue, found in the “Publishing” tab of your Sprout dashboard. This is a great option when you have content you don’t need to go out at a specific time, as you can let the Sprout Queue choose the best option with the Viral Post feature.

37. How do hashtags work on Facebook for businesses?

Hashtags on Facebook are great for tracking influencer campaigns as well as trending topics. They can be used to categorize conversations your brand is having on the platform. Make sure you avoid spaces between words and all forms of punctuation in the hashtag.

TikTok FAQs

38. how many active users does tiktok have.

As of 2024, TikTok has over 1.5 billion monthly active users. This makes it the fifth most popular social media platform in the world.

39. How often should I post on TikTok?

TikTok suggests a best practice of posting one to four times a day, and experimenting with times and types of content. Ultimately, how often you post on TikTok should be guided by your audience and how often you can intentionally create quality content to share.

40. What are the best times to post on TikTok?

The optimum times to post on TikTok are generally Tuesday to Wednesday, in two time blocks: 2 p.m. to 5 p.m. or 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. To get more specific, we have a guide to the best times to post on TikTok broken down by industry.

41. How do I get started with ads on TikTok?

TikTok offers a wide variety of ad types, including both video and image. To get started, you’ll need to create an account on TikTok Ads Manager . Once you’re all signed up, dive into our full guide to ads on TikTok for next steps, including how to install the TikTok Pixel on your website.

42. How do I increase my TikTok engagement rate?

The number one approach to increasing your TikTok engagement rate is to focus on quality over quantity.. For example, posting a well-planned and executed video once a week will give you better results than posting subpar content multiple times a week. Also ensure you post at optimal times (see above) and invite your audience to engage in the comments.

43. How can I use TikTok for influencer marketing?

As a video-forward platform, TikTok is a goldmine for brands looking to strengthen their influencer marketing strategy. There are over 100,000 influencers on TikTok in the US alone. Using TikTok in your influencer strategy involves identifying the right influencers, tracking trending hashtags and keeping a pulse on conversations relevant to your brand. Read more in our guide to TikTok for influencer marketing .

44. What are YouTube Shorts and how can I use them to promote my brand?

Consumers love short-form content . If you’re familiar with Instagram’s Reels or TikTok in general, YouTube Shorts will feel similar. These vertical videos tend to be 60 seconds or less, and creators use them as standalone pieces or to share clips of their longer videos. You can use the same approach you would with TikTok, tweaking to speak specifically to your YouTube subscribers.

45. Are marketers using YouTube Stories?

Yes! According to a report, 59% of marketers currently using YouTube plan to increase their usage. This was the largest percentage of any social media platform.

46. How do I promote my videos on YouTube?

YouTube’s Help page offers an in-depth guide on how to promote videos on YouTube. Suggestions include cross-posting, interacting with your audience and using Google Ads for Video.

47. How can I optimize my videos on YouTube?

Search engine optimization (SEO) is key to making sure your videos get in front of your target audience. There are several things to consider—thankfully, we have a guide for YouTube SEO that breaks it down.

48. What are YouTube hashtags and why should I use them?

YouTube hashtags are similar to hashtags on other platforms. They help you categorize your content and help users find your videos. However, on YouTube, hashtags come with a few extra benefits in the SEO realm. Hashtags help YouTube understand the context of your video, and increase the chances of your content getting in front of the right people.

49. How can I use YouTube for influencer marketing?

YouTube is the second most popular platform for influencer marketing, and it’s easy to see why. With options for both short form and long-form videos, brands can work with influencers to tell visual, engaging stories in multiple ways. Use our YouTube influencer marketing guide to build your strategy.

50. How many members does LinkedIn have around the world?

Globally, LinkedIn membership exceeds 900 million in 200 countries and regions.

51. How can I create an effective LinkedIn Business Page?

Creating an effective LinkedIn Business Page comes down to building and managing it like a true marketing asset. There are many different sections, sub pages and approaches that allow you to be creative and explore new ways to connect with your target audience.

52. Are LinkedIn Ads worth the hype?

Linked Ads can bring a high return on investment. LinkedIn is rated the number one platform for B2B lead generation, and brands have seen a 33% increase in purchase intent from ad exposure on LinkedIn. Marketers say they see two times higher conversion rate on LinkedIn.

53. How do LinkedIn hashtags work?

LinkedIn hashtags are keywords and phrases that help bring your content to your target audience.. You can add them to your posts and on your business and personal pages. Unlike other platforms, LinkedIn heavily encourages using multiple hashtags, including a space where you can select up to three relevant hashtags for your business page.

54. What are the most important LinkedIn metrics to track?

Ultimately, your brand may have specific metrics you want to track, even if these don’t appear on common “most important” lists. However, we recommend focusing on data in the visitors, followers and engagement spaces. These LinkedIn metrics will give you a solid look at how your content is performing and who is coming to your page.

Bonus Question

Did we answer most of your social media questions?

Let us know if you have any other pressing questions about social media or platform FAQs that you’d like us to answer. We understand that things change quickly and you need answers just as fast. Be sure to check out our social media stats to understand the landscape better across all social platforms.

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The increasing use and effectiveness of social media influencers in marketing have intrigued both academic scholars and industry professionals. To shed light on the foundations and trends of this contemporary phenomenon, this study undertakes a systematic literature review using a bibliometric-content analysis to map the extant literature where consumer behavior, social media, and influencer marketing are intertwined. Using 214 articles published in journals indexed by the Australian Business Deans Council (ABDC), Chartered Association of Business Schools (CABS), and Web of Science (WOS) from 2008 to 2021, this study unpacks the articles, journals, methods, theories, themes, and constructs (antecedents, moderators, mediators, and consequences) in extant research on social media influencer marketing. Noteworthily, the review highlighted that the major research streams in social media influencer marketing research involve parasocial interactions and relationships, sponsorship, authenticity, and engagement and influence. The review also revealed the prominent role of audience-, brand-, comparative-, content-, influencer-, social-, and technology-related factors in influencing how consumers react to social media influencer marketing. The insights derived from this one-stop, state-of-the-art review can help social media influencers and marketing scholars and professionals to recognize key characteristics and trends of social media influencer marketing, and thus, drive new research and social media marketing practices where social media influencers are employed and leveraged upon for marketing activities.

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The future of social media in marketing

Social media marketing strategy: definition, conceptualization, taxonomy, validation, and future agenda

Online influencer marketing

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1 Introduction

Social media influencers are increasingly popular and affecting consumers’ attitudes, perceptions, preferences, choices, and decisions. Social media influencers are regular everyday people who have created an online presence from the grassroots level through their social media channel or page and, in the process, have created an extensive network of followers (Bastrygina and Lim [ 10 ]. In that sense, social media influencers are different than traditional celebrities or public figures, who rely on their existing careers (e.g., actors, singers, politicians) to become popular and exert influence [ 88 ].

Influencers first appeared in the early 2000s, and have since progressed from a home-based hobby to a lucrative full-time career. Influencer marketing has become so attractive that with the growing industry, there is an ever-growing set of social media users that aim to become an influencer. Influencers are now capitalizing on their popularity and visibility to further their career in mainstream media such as the film and television industry [ 1 ]. The segmentation of influencers is on the number of followers they have, whereby influencers can be classified as micro-, meso- and macro-influencers [ 44 ]. According to Lou and Yan [ 88 ], posts by influencers have two essential purposes from a marketing perspective: the first purpose is to increase the purchase intention of their followers, and the second purpose is to enhance their followers’ attractiveness and product knowledge. Influencers often curate posts with information and testimonials about the features of the product that they are promoting, which results in increased information value and product knowledge. In the process, they leverage and relay their attractiveness and aesthetic value through the use of sex appeal and posing [ 104 ].

Social media influencers have been defined by many scholars in numerous ways. Freberg et al. [ 44 ] characterized social media influencers as a new type of independent third-party endorser who shapes audience attitudes through blogs, tweets, and the use of other social media. Abidin [ 1 ] construed social media influencers as a form of microcelebrities who document their everyday lives from the trivial and mundane to the exciting snippets of the exclusive opportunities in their line of work, thereby shaping public opinion through the conscientious calibration of persona on social media. De Veirman et al. [ 28 ] defined social media influencers as people who built a large network of followers and are regarded as trusted tastemakers in one or several niches. Ge and Gretzel [ 45 ] denoted social media influencers as individuals who are in a consumer’s social graph and has a direct impact on the behavior of that consumer. More recently, Dhanesh and Duthler [ 30 ] described social media influencers as people who, through personal branding, build and maintain relationships with their followers on social media, and have the ability to inform, entertain, and influence their followers’ thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors. When these definitions are taken collectively and espoused through a marketing lens, social media influencers are essentially people who develop and maintain a personal brand and a following on social media through posts that intertwin their personality and lifestyle with the products (e.g., goods, services, ideas, places, people) that they promote, which can influence the way their followers behave (e.g., attitudes, perceptions, preferences, choices, decisions), positively (e.g., purchase) or negatively (e.g., do not purchase) .

Social media influencers, as digital opinion leaders, participate in self-presentation on social media. They form an identity by creating an online image using a rich multimodal narrative of their everyday personal lives and using it to attract a large number of followers [ 59 ]. Most critical to their success is the influencer-follower relationship [ 1 ], which future follower behavior (e.g., interaction, purchase intention) is dependent upon [ 13 ], [ 37 ], [ 126 ]. Indeed, social media influencers are often perceived to be credible, personal, and easily relatable given their organic rise to fame [ 28 ], [ 31 ], [ 104 ].

In collaborations between brands and social media influencers, the role of a social media influencer is to act as a brand ambassador by designing sponsored content for the brand to convey and enhance its brand image and brand name [ 104 ], and to drive brand engagement and brand loyalty [ 72 ]. Such content is often curated by social media influencers, as independent third-party endorsers, by sharing their experiences and lives in relation to the brand through pictures, texts, stories, hashtags, and check-ins, among others [ 28 ]. Indeed, social media influencers are highly sought after by brands because they have established credibility with their followers as a result of their expertise, which allow them to exert influence on the decision-making of their followers [ 60 ]. Moreover, influencer marketing through social media can provide opportunities to influencers and their followers to contribute to the co-creation of the brand’s image on social media [ 88 ].

With the growing importance of influencer marketing and the popularity of social media influencers, various brands have started promoting their products with the help of social media influencers in an attempt to influence consumers to behave in desired ways (e.g., forming positive brand attitudes and encourage product brand purchases) [ 104 ]. However, consumer behavior is highly complex [ 81 ], and increasing inconsistency has been noted in the effectiveness of this medium [ 124 ]. Thus, it is essential to understand the factors (i.e., antecedents) underpinning consumer decision making (i.e., consequences or decisions) toward brands promoted by social media influencers, including the factors (i.e., mediators and moderators) responsible for the inconsistency in consumer responses. In this regard, attempts to consolidate extant knowledge in the field is arguably relevant to address the extant gap and needs of marketing scholars and professionals interested in social media influencer marketing.

In recognition of the growing influence of social media influencers and influencer marketing in consumer decision making, this study aims to provide a one-stop, state-of-the-art overview of the articles, journals, methods, theories, themes, and constructs (antecedents, moderators, mediators, and consequences) relating to social media influencer marketing using a systematic review of articles in the area from 2008 to 2021. Though a recent review on social media influencers was conducted by Vrontis et al. [ 124 ], the present review remains warranted because the existing review only considered a small sample of 68 articles published in journals indexed in the Chartered Association of Business Schools Academic Journal Guide, and thus, cannot holistically encapsulate the state of the field. Indeed, the insights and the integrative framework resulting from their review was relatively lean, which can be attributed to the sample limitations that the authors had imposed for their review. The same can be said about another recent review by Bastrygina and Lim [ 10 ], which considered only 45 articles in Scopus that narrowly focused only on the consumer engagement aspect of social media influencers. To overcome these limitations , the present review will consider a more inclusive search and inclusion criteria while upholding to the highest standards of academic quality by relying on a broader range of indexing sources. The motivation of the present review is also in line with the call by Lim et al. [ 86 ] and Paul et al. [ 98 ] for new reviews that address the shortcoming of existing reviews in order to redirect research in the area onto a clearer and more refined path for progress. In addition, the present review adopts a bibliometric-content analysis to consolidate current findings, uncover emerging trends and extant gaps, and curate a future agenda for social media influencer marketing. Noteworthily, the rigorous multi-method review technique (i.e., the combination of a bibliometric analysis and a content analysis) adopted for the present review is in line with the recommendation of Lim et al. [ 86 ] to facilitate a deeper dive into the literature, and thus, enabling the curation of a richer depiction of the nomological network characterizing the field [ 94 ], in this case, the field of social media influencer marketing. In doing so, this study contributes to answering the following research questions (RQs):

RQ1. What is the publication trend of social media influencer marketing research, and which are the key articles?

RQ2. Where is research on social media influencer marketing published?

RQ3. How has social media influencer marketing research been conducted?

RQ4. What are the theories that can be used to inform social media influencer marketing research?

RQ5. What are the major themes of social media influencer marketing research?

RQ6. What are the constructs (i.e., antecedents, mediators, moderators, and consequences) employed in social media influencer marketing research?

RQ7. Where should social media influencer marketing be heading towards in the future?

The rest of the paper is structured as follows. The next section provides an account of the methodology used in the research, followed by the findings and conclusions of the study in subsequent sections.

2 Methodology

This study conducts a multi-method systematic literature review on social media influencer marketing using a bibliometric-content analysis in line with the recommendation of Lim et al. [ 86 ] and recent systematic literature reviews (e.g., Kumar et al. [ 64 ]. The assembling, arranging, and assessing techniques stipulated in the Scientific Procedures and Rationales for Systematic Literature Reviews ( SPAR-4-SLR ) protocol by Paul et al. [ 98 ] to carry out a systematic literature review are also adopted and explained in the next sections.

2.1 Assembling

Assembling relates to the identification (i.e., review domain, research questions, source type, and source quality) and acquisition (i.e., search mechanism and material acquisition, search period, search keywords) of articles for review. In terms of identification , the review domain relates to social media influencer marketing, but within the subject areas of business management, social sciences, hospitality, tourism, and economics due to their immediate relevance to the review domain, and thus, articles in other subject areas such as computer science, engineering, medical, and mathematics, which are peripheral to the review domain, were not considered. Next, the research questions underpinning the review pertain to the articles, journals, methods, theories, themes, and constructs in the field and were presented in the introduction section. Only journals were considered as part of source type as they are the main sources of academic literature that have been rigorously peer reviewed Nord & Nord, [ 96 ]. The source quality was inclusive yet high quality, whereby articles published in journals indexed in the Australian Business Deans Council (ABDC), Chartered Association of Business Schools (CABS), and Web of Science (WOS) were included. In terms of acquisition , the search mechanism and material acquisition relied on the WOS database, which is connected to myriad publishers such as Emerald, Sage, Springer, Taylor and Francis, and Wiley. The search period starts from 2008 and ends in 2021. The year 2008 was selected as the starting year because it was the year that the concept of influencer was first introduced by Kiss and Bichler [ 63 ], and thus, a review staring from 2008 can provide a more accurate and relevant account of the extant literature on influencer marketing, particularly from the lenses of consumers and social media influencers. The end year 2021 was selected because it is the most recent full year at the time of search—a practice in line with Lim et al. [ 83 ]. The search keywords—i.e., “consumer behavio*” (truncation technique), “social media,” “influencer,” and “marketing”—were curated through brainstorming and endorsed by disciplinary experts in marketing and methodological experts in review studies. In total, 320 articles were returned from the search, but 17 articles were removed as they were related to engineering, mathematics, and medicine, which resulted in only 303 articles that were retrieved for the arranging stage.

2.2 Arranging

Arranging relates to the organization (i.e., organizing codes) and purification (i.e., exclusion and inclusion criteria) of articles returned from the search. In terms of organization , the content of articles was coded based on the key focus of each research question: journal title, method, theory, and construct (antecedent, mediator, moderator, consequence). The bibliometric details of the articles were also retrieved and organized accordingly in this stage. In terms of purification , 89 articles were eliminated as they were not published in journals indexed by ABDC and CABS, with the rest of the 214 articles included for review.

2.3 Assessing

Assessing relates to the evaluation (i.e., analysis method, agenda proposal method) and reporting (i.e., reporting conventions, limitations, and sources of support) of articles under review. In terms of evaluation , a bibliometric analysis and a content analysis were conducted.

For the bibliometric analysis, the Bibliometrix package in R studio software [ 4 ] was used to conduct (1) a performance analysis to reveal the publication trend as well as the key articles and journals (RQ1 and RQ2), and (2) a science mapping to uncover the major themes in the field (RQ5) in line with the bibliometric guidelines by Donthu et al. [ 32 ]. With regards to science mapping, a triangulation technique was adopted in line with the recommendation of Lim et al. [ 86 ] using:

co-citation using PageRank , wherein the major themes are revealed through the clustering of articles that are most cited by highly-cited articles,

bibliographic coupling , wherein the major themes are revealed through the clustering of articles that cite similar references, and

keyword co-occurrence , wherein the major themes are revealed through the clustering of author specified keywords that commonly appear together [ 32 ], [ 64 ].

For the content analysis, the within-study and between-study literature analysis method by Ngai [ 95 ] was adopted (RQ3, RQ4, and RQ6). The within-study literature analysis evaluates the entire content of the article (e.g., theoretical foundation, methodology, constructs), whereas the between-study literature analysis consolidates, compares, and contrasts information between two or more articles. The future research agenda proposal method is predicated on the expert evaluation of a trend analysis by the authors (RQ7). In terms of reporting , the conventions for the outcomes reported include figures, tables, and words, whereas the limitations and sources of support are acknowledged at the end.

The findings of the review are organized based on the research questions (RQs) of the study: articles, journals, methods, theories, themes, and constructs.

3.1 Articles

The first research question (RQ1) deals with the publication trend and key articles of social media influencer marketing research.

Figure  1 indicates that research on social media influencer marketing began to flourish 10 years (i.e., 2018 onwards) after the concept of was introduced in 2008 [ 63 ]. This implies that interest in social media influencer marketing is fairly recent (i.e., within the last five years at the time of analysis), wherein its stratospheric growth appears to have coincided with that of highly interactive and visual content-focused social media such as Instagram (e.g., Instagram Stories feature launched in December 2017) [ 17 ] and TikTok (e.g., international launch in September 2017) [ 129 ]. The growth of triple-digit publications observed in 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic is especially noteworthy as it signals the importance of social media influencer marketing in the new normal and reaffirms past observations of an acceleration in technology adoption [ 77 ], [ 79 ].

Publication trend of social media influencer marketing research

Table 1 presents the top articles on social media influencer marketing. The most cited article is De Veirman et al.’s [ 28 ] (464 citations), which focused on social media influencer marketing using Instagram and revealed the impact of the number of followers and product divergence on brand attitudes among the followers of social media influencers. The burgeoning interest on Instagram as seen through this most cited article despite its recency corroborates the earlier observation on the stratospheric growth in research interest on highly interactive and visual content-focused social media. The top-cited articles in recent years demonstrate increasing research interest in comparative studies (e.g., celebrity versus social media influencer endorsements, [ 104 ],Instagram versus YouTube; [ 108 ], as well as review studies (e.g., Hudders et al., [ 48 ], [ 124 ], albeit the latter being limited (e.g., small review corpus, niche review focus) and thus reaffirming the necessity and value of the present review.

3.2 Journals

The second research question (RQ2) deals with the outlets that publish social media influencer marketing research and the source type chosen according to the recommendation of Paul et al. [ 98 ] is journals on the basis of academic quality and rigor. In total, the 214 articles in the review corpus were published in 87 journal titles indexed in ABDC, CABS, and WOS. Out of the 87 journal titles, 80 (37.38%) articles are published by the top 10 journals with the most articles on social media influencer marketing, with Journal of Business Research , International Journal of Advertising , and Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services emerging as the top three journals in terms of numbers of articles published in the area (Table 2 ).

3.3 Methods

The third research question (RQ3) focuses on the methods that can inform social media influencer marketing research and were identified and coded manually using the within-study technique and consolidated to portray the outcome of a between-study literature analysis suggested by Ngai [ 95 ]. In total, seven categories of methods were employed in 214 articles on social media influencer marketing research (Table 3 ). As a category, quantitative methods in the form of surveys were most prevalent ( n  = 64), followed by qualitative methods ( n  = 52), with individual interviews being the most popular method ( n  = 19). Experimental ( n  = 38) and machine learning ( n  = 33) methods were noteworthy too. Non-empirical methods ( n  = 19) such as conceptual ( n  = 9) and review ( n  = 10) methods were less prominent. Similarly, mix methods ( n  = 8) were the least popular. As a whole, the review indicates that extant research on social media influencer marketing were mostly empirical in nature albeit in silos (i.e., single rather than mixed methods).

3.4 Theories

The fourth research question (RQ4) pertains to the theories that can inform social media influencer marketing research and were identified, coded, and reported using the same Ngai [ 95 ] informed within- and between-study literature analysis as reported for the methods in the preceding section. In total, 46 different theories employed in 94 (43.93%) articles on social media influencer marketing research were revealed (Table 4 ). Persuasion knowledge theory emerged as the most popular theory with eight articles, whereas social learning theory, social comparison theory, social cognitive theory, social exchange theory, social identity theory, social influence theory, source credibility theory, reactance theory, theory of para-social interaction, theory of planned behavior, and uses and gratifications theory were among the other popular theories ( n  ≥ 3). The broad range of theories indicate that social media influencer marketing is an area of research with multi-faceted aspects worthy of exploration and investigation. The sociological theories manifested in the most ways—namely Bourdieu’s theory, Graph theory, network theory, observational learning theory, optimal distinctiveness theory, social cognitive theory, social comparison theory, social exchange theory, social identity theory, social influence theory, social learning theory, structural hole theory, system justification theory, and theory of para-social interaction—whereas media theories were not far behind—namely advertising literacy theory, media dependency theory, megaphone effect theory, source credibility theory, transfer theory, two-step flow theory, uses and gratifications theory, and visual framing theory. The manifestation of theories that infused “media” and “sociology” together , such as social media influencer value model and social-mediated crisis communication theory, were observed as well. Psychological theories , such as associative learning theory, attachment theory, attribution theory, consistency theory, construal level theory, dissonance theory, dual process theory, elaboration likelihood model, halo effect theory, reactance theory, similarity-attraction model, theory of planned behavior, and theory of reasoned action, and marketing theories , such as Doppelganger effect theory, human brand theory, relationship management theory, and source effect theory, were also noteworthy. Management theories , such as charismatic and transformational leadership theory and resource dependency theory, were also observed. Interestingly, only one economic (i.e., cost-signaling theory) and one technology (i.e., technology acceptance model) theory were observed, which may indicate that the economic and technology aspects are underexplored as compared to the media, psychological, management, marketing, and social aspects of social media influencer marketing.

The fifth research question (RQ5) involves the mapping of extant research on social media influencer marketing. To do so, three science mapping techniques that rely on different sources of bibliographic data were relied upon—namely (1) a co-citation analysis using PageRank to identify clusters of articles that are most cited by highly-cited articles, (2) a bibliographic coupling to locate clusters of articles that share common references, and (3) a keyword co-occurrence analysis to uncover clusters of author specified keywords that commonly co-appear [ 32 ], [ 65 ].

3.5.1 Foundational themes (or foundational knowledge)

The foundational themes and the top articles for each foundational theme in social media influencer marketing research are depicted in Table 5 . In essence, foundational themes exemplify the perspectives that a field’s research relies upon, and thus, these themes may encompass articles inside and outside that field [ 32 ]. In the case of social media influencer marketing, four foundational themes were revealed by the co-citation analysis using PageRank. Noteworthily, the PageRank scores indicate article prestige, wherein a higher score indicates that the article is cited more by highly-cited articles in the field, whereas the betweenness and closeness centrality scores reflect the article’s relevance across and within themes, wherein a higher score indicates greater relevance across and within themes, respectively [ 32 ].

The first foundational theme depicts the foundations and models for social media influencer marketing . The articles in this foundational theme signify the key characteristics of concepts associated to social media influencer marketing, such as the concept of engagement [ 49 ], “Instafamous” [ 55 ], influencer marketing [ 88 ], and social media influencers [ 44 ], including the difference between traditional celebrities and contemporary social media influencers [ 104 ].

The second foundational theme denotes the influence and impact perspectives for social media influencer marketing . The articles in this foundational theme represent a collection of insights in relation to influence and impact. For example, the most prestigious article under this theme examines the impact of the number of followers of Instagram influencers and the divergence of the products promoted by these influencers on the brand attitudes of their followers [ 28 ]. Other examples of influence and impact outcomes include attitudes and behavioral intentions [ 37 ], engagement [ 120 ], perceptions Lee & Watkins, [ 67 ], and purchase decisions [ 31 ].

The third foundational theme highlights the importance of endorsement and resonance perspectives for social media influencer marketing . The articles in this theme, which are widely cited by highly cited articles on social media influencer marketing, emphasize the importance of endorsement and resonance literature in grounding the reasons for and outcome of social media influencer marketing. This can be seen by the prominence of celebrity endorsement (e.g., [ 34 ], Mccracken, [ 93 ], Silvera & Austad, [ 107 ]) and congruence (e.g., Till & Busler, [ 116 ]; [[ 128 ]] literature that make up the most prestigious articles under this theme.

The fourth foundational theme relates to the profiling and measurement perspectives for social media influencer marketing research . This theme signifies and reaffirms the value of personal characteristics (e.g., personalities, profiles; [ 31 ], Ferchaud et al., [ 40 ]), measurement scales (e.g., expertise trustworthiness and attractiveness; Ohanian, [ 97 ]), and evaluation methods (e.g., structural models; Fornell & Larcker, [ 43 ]) in guiding and informing social media influencer marketing research, and thus, they form a considerable part of the knowledge relied upon by research in the field.

3.5.2 Major themes (or major research streams)

The major themes build upon the foundational themes to curate new knowledge and understanding on social media influencer marketing [ 32 ]. To uncover the major themes, a keyword co-occurrence analysis was initially conducted to gain a sense of the nomological network for the major themes [ 94 ], followed by a bibliographic coupling to gain an in-depth understanding of the content under each major theme in the field [ 32 ].

The keyword co-occurrence analysis indicates that four major themes characterize the knowledge curated by extant research focusing specifically on social media influencer marketing (Fig.  2 and Table 6 ), which is triangulated by the six major themes revealed through bibliographic coupling, in which four bibliographic coupling clusters corresponds to two keyword clusters (Table 7 ). The key peculiarities of these themes are presented as follows.

Nomological network of research streams in social media influencer marketing research

Parasocial interactions and relationships in social media influencer marketing . This major theme is most prominent (eight keywords) and relatively recent (2020.1429–2020.7499). This theme highlights the importance of the “credibility” ( n  = 6), “persuasion knowledge” ( n  = 7), and “source credibility” ( n  = 7) of social media influencers as essential “persuasion” ( n  = 5) factors that influence the “parasocial interactions” ( n  = 8) and “parasocial relationships” ( n  = 12) in social media influencer marketing. Most research in this area is conducted in the context of “Instagram” ( n  = 27), wherein “purchase intention” ( n  = 13) is a common outcome expected and examined. Noteworthily, extant research concentrating on influencing parasocial interactions have highlighted the importance of self-influencer congruence (Shan et al., [ 105 ]; [ 128 ] and the value of message value [ 88 ] and credibility [ 108 ], including the moderating role of audience comments [ 102 ], in fostering consumer trust and purchase intention toward branded content [ 88 ], [ 102 ], Shan et al., [ 105 ], [ 108 ], [ 128 ], whereas those focusing on developing and managing parasocial relationships emphasized the importance of being entrepreneurial (Fink et al., [ 41 ]) and personal branding (Ki et al., [ 61 ]) in the pursuit of becoming famous and garnering brand equity and loyalty among followers [ 18 ], [ 55 ], [ 57 ].

Sponsorship in social media influencer marketing . This major theme is fairly prominent (six keywords) and recent (2019.8–2021). This theme highlights the importance of “sponsorship disclosure” ( n  = 6) in “celebrity endorsement” ( n  = 5) and among “social media influencers” ( n  = 60) engaged for “native advertising” ( n  = 7) in “influencer marketing” ( n  = 63), with “YouTube” ( n  = 9) featuring prominently in this space. Noteworthily, extant research on this theme is divided into two notable streams, wherein the first stream sheds light on the commercialization and value of social media influencer marketing (Britt et al., [ 16 ]; Harrigan et al., [ 47 ]; Hudders et al., [ 48 ]; [ 124 ],), which highlights the importance of the second stream pertaining to the impact of disclosure (i.e., macro, micro—e.g., declaring sponsorship to establish and reaffirm the credibility of social media influencers and the brands they represent) on the behavioral responses of social media followers [ 13 ], [ 30 ], [ 58 ], [ 104 ], [ 110 ].

Authenticity of marketing and public relations in social media influencer marketing . This major theme is fairly prominent (five keywords) but with a longer history (2017.4286–2021) than the other major themes. This theme highlights the continuing importance of “authenticity” ( n  = 7) in the “marketing” ( n  = 5) and “public relations” ( n  = 7) endeavors of “influencers” ( n  = 29) on “social media” ( n  = 56). Thus, it is no surprise that extant research in this theme have focused on traditional marketing concepts such as advertorial campaigns [ 1 ], personal branding [ 59 ], rhetoric [ 45 ], strategic communication [ 33 ], and self-presentation [ 6 ].

Engagement and influence in social media influencer marketing . This major theme is fairly prominent (five keywords) and recent (2019.4–2020.6). This theme encapsulates “social media marketing” ( n  = 16) research that concentrates on the “social influence” ( n  = 5) of “opinion leadership” ( n  = 5) and the equivalent outcome of “brand engagement” ( n  = 5), with “Twitter” ( n  = 7) featuring prominently in this space. Noteworthily, the prominent studies under this theme concentrate on the power of social networks of social media influencers, including examining the influence of the number of followers [ 28 ], measuring the influence of customer networks [ 63 ] and social media influencers [ 5 ], and the value of opinion leaders [ 87 ] and sponsored campaigns [ 49 ] across these networks.

Taken collectively, these themes, which were triangulated across two bibliographic sources of data (i.e., keywords and references) and analytical techniques (i.e., keyword co-occurrence analysis and bibliographic coupling), suggests that social media influencer marketing has tremendous commercial value, which justify the sponsorship that brands are willing to provide to social media influencers in return for marketing and public relation campaigns for their brands and products. Nevertheless, it is important to note that the power of social media influencers resides in their authenticity, which is a crucial reason as to why social media influencers are followed and relied upon by their followers. The management of parasocial interactions and relationships are also highly important as they are essential to foster desired engagement among followers and influence their behaviors in ways desired by social media influencers and the brands that they represent. The next section provides a deeper dive into the mechanisms (constructs) that transpire in social media influencer marketing.

3.6 Constructs

The sixth research question (RQ6) involves the unpacking of constructs that relevantly explain consumer behavior toward social media influencer marketing, which were revealed through the same within- and between-study literature analysis as reported in the methods and theories sections previously [ 95 ]. The constructs (Fig.  3 ) were arranged according to testable categories in the form of antecedents (Table 8 ), mediators (Table 9 ), moderators (Table 10 ), and consequences (Table 11 ), with each category having sub-categories that encapsulate relevant constructs that fall under the theme of that sub-category. The thematic naming of sub-categories are mostly self-explanatory (i.e., audience-, brand-, content-, influencer-, social-, and technology-related), with only one sub-category being uncommon yet sensible due to the unique nature of the context under study—that is, the comparative-related sub-category, which captures the essence of constructs where comparison exist between two or more sub-categories (e.g., influencer-follower relationship is a construct that accounts for the comparison transcending the audience- and influencer-related sub-categories, whereas product-endorser fit is a construct that reflects the comparison between the brand- and influencer-related sub-categories).

Consumer behavior toward social media influencer marketing

In terms of antecedents , four sub-categories emerged, namely comparative-, content-, influencer-, and social-related antecedents (Table 8 ). The comparative-related antecedents (six counts) comprise of influencer-follower relationship (two counts) and perceived similarity (four counts). The content-related antecedents (36 counts) consist of authenticity (four counts), disclosure (14 counts), informativeness (nine counts), message construal (one count), perceived quality (two counts), perceived quantity (two counts), perceived originality (one count), and post credibility (three counts). The influencer-related antecedents (34 counts) consist of engagement and interaction (two counts), influencer attractiveness (10 counts), influencer credibility (six counts), influencer expertise (nine counts), influencer likeability (one count), perceived trustworthiness (five counts), and perceived uniqueness (one count). The social-related antecedent (four count) contains parasocial relationship (four count) only. In total, 18 antecedents emerged across four sub-categories. Content-related antecedents appear to be the most researched (36 counts), followed by influencer-related antecedents (34 counts), with few studies examining comparative- (six counts) and social- (four count) related antecedents. Disclosure (14 counts) is the antecedent that has been studied the most, followed by influencer attractiveness with 10 counts. As a whole, there is good breadth and depth for antecedents as a category, but is mixed for its sub-categories.

In terms of mediators , seven sub-categories were revealed, namely audience-, brand-, comparative-, content-, influencer-, social-, and technology-related mediators (Table 9 ). The audience-related mediators (13 counts) comprise of attachment (one count), attitude (five counts), interest (one count), psychological ownership (one count), and trust (five counts). The brand-related mediators (eight counts) consist of brand recognition (five counts), product attractiveness (one count), and sponsorship transparency (two counts). The comparative-related mediator (four counts) contains self-influencer connection (four counts) only. The content-related mediators (seven counts) encapsulate disclosure (two counts), message appeal (one count), message credibility (one count), message process involvement (one count), and source credibility (two counts). The influencer-related mediators (15 counts) encompass engagement and interaction (two counts), expertise (two counts), influencer credibility (five counts), opinion knowledge leadership (five counts), and perceived popularity (one count). The social-related mediators (three counts) include electronic word of mouth (one count) and parasocial interaction (two counts). The technology-related mediators (two counts) incorporate perceived ease of use (one count) and perceived usefulness (one count). In total, 22 mediators were revealed across seven sub-categories. Influencer- and audience-related mediators appear to be the most researched with 15 and 13 counts respectively, followed by brand- (eight counts) and content- (seven counts) related mediators. Attitude, brand recognition, influencer credibility, opinion leadership knowledge, and trust are the mediators studied the most with five counts each. Overall, there is reasonable breadth and depth for mediators as a category, but is mixed for its sub-categories.

In terms of moderators , six sub-categories were unpacked, namely audience-, brand-, comparative-, content-, influencer-, and social-related moderators (Table 10 ). The audience-related moderators (10 counts) comprise of advertisement literacy (one count), audience engagement (two counts), domains of interest (one count), envy identification (one count), interaction propensity (one count), purchase intention (one count), self-discrepancy (two counts), and social identification with social commerce (one count). The brand-related moderator (one count) consists of brand attitude (one count) only. The comparative-related moderators (three counts) contain perceived closeness (one count), perceived fit (one count), and product-endorser fit (one count). The content-related moderators (nine counts) encapsulate audience comments (one count), disclosure (one count), download volume (one count), message process involvement (one count), message valence (one count), number of hashtags (one count), online ratings (one count), structural assurance (one count), and visionary insights (one count). The influencer-related moderators (four counts) encompass influencer socio-economic status (one count), number of followers (one count), perceived self-serving motive (one count), and type of influencer (one count). The social-related moderators (two counts) include parasocial relationship (one count) and parental mediation (one count). In total, 27 moderators were unpacked across six sub-categories. Audience-related moderators (10 counts) appear to be the most researched, followed by content-related moderators (nine counts). All moderators had only one count except audience engagement and self-discrepancy, which have two counts, and thus indicating its breadth but not depth.

In terms of consequences , three sub-categories were unveiled, namely brand-, influencer-, and social-related consequences (Table 11 ). The brand-related consequences (73 counts) comprise of brand attitude (17 counts), brand awareness (one count), brand involvement (two counts), brand purchase or patronage (46 counts), brand recall (two counts), and brand trust (five counts). The influencer-related consequences (19 counts) consist of engagement and interaction (11 counts), following influencer (five counts), and influence (three counts). The social-related consequences (12 counts) contain recommendation and referral propensity (nine counts) and social sharing (three counts). In total, 11 consequences were unveiled across three sub-categories. Brand-related consequences (73 counts) appear to be the most researched, followed by influencer- (19 counts) and social- (12 counts) related consequences. Brand purchase or patronage (46 counts) represent the most studied consequence, followed by brand attitude (17 counts) and engagement and interaction (11 counts). Taken collectively, the consequences unveiled indicate its depth but not breadth.

4 Trend analysis and future research directions

Agendas for future research are a hallmark of systematic literature reviews [ 84 ]. While there are many approaches to develop future research agendas, the present study adopts an approach that the authors found to be most objective and pragmatic—that is, a trend analysis from thematic and topical perspectives. The suggestions for future research based on the analysis from these perspectives are presented in the next sections.

4.1 Thematic perspective

The thematic perspective comprises a trend analysis of bibliographic clusters representing the major themes of social media influencer marketing research. The choice of focusing on bibliographic clusters as opposed to keyword clusters was a deliberate decision taken in light of the finer-grained research streams in the former (six clusters) over the latter (four clusters), as well as the availability of the alternative perspective (i.e., the topical perspective) that will use keywords to shed light on the topical trend in the field.

The productivity of the six major themes (research streams) in social media influencer marketing research has generally improved in recent years, particularly in 2021, with the exception of research on parasocial relationships in social media influencer marketing (Cluster 6), which experience a slight decline (i.e., seven in 2020 to six in 2021). Though closely-related research on parasocial interactions has proliferated (Cluster 5), the difference between the two research streams and their relatively lower number of studies as compared to other research streams suggest that new research in both streams is very much required. Similarly, the research stream on disclosures (Cluster 4) is highly important, yet it remains relatively low as compared to its more popular counterpart, that is, the research stream on commercialization and value of social media influencer marketing (Cluster 3), both of which are important research streams to the larger umbrella research stream on sponsorship revealed by the keyword co-occurrence analysis. While the research streams on authenticity (Cluster 2) and engagement and influence (Cluster 1) in social media influencer marketing are highly popular, further research remains necessary in light of the evolving changes in the social media landscape. Notwithstanding the productivity of the research streams, several promising avenues avail for advancing knowledge across all research streams.

In terms of engagement and influence in social media influencer marketing (Cluster 1), the emergence of augmented, virtual, and mixed realities, including the metaverse, signals the need for new research that unpacks the opportunities for engagement in these new social avenues along with the effectiveness of these avenues as compared to existing avenues for social media influencer marketing. In addition, the nature of engagement will benefit from finer-grained examination to account for the differences between its varied cognitive, affective, and behavioral manifestations [ 80 ], [ 85 ], which remains underexplored in social media influencer marketing.

In terms of authenticity in social media influencer marketing (Cluster 2), the key markers of authenticity and the strategies to communicate and strengthen a sense of authenticity are potential avenues to enrich understanding of this area. Noteworthily, future research on authenticity will need to go beyond traditional measures (e.g., scales; Ohanian, [ 97 ]) and engage in purposeful exploration to uncover the attributes and actions that if available and taken will enhance followers’ perceptions of the authenticity of social media influencers. In this regard, future qualitative and experimental research in this research stream is encouraged, wherein the former will lead to the discovery of new authenticity markers that the latter can test for cause and effect. Such research should lead to meaningful extensions on the understanding of authenticity that goes beyond treating the concept as a singular construct in the field.

In terms of commercialization and value of social media influencer marketing (Cluster 3), the potential of non-economic returns of social media influencer marketing could be explored in future research. With the advent of corporate social responsibility and environmental social governance (Lim et al., [ 83 ], it is imperative that the expectations and evaluations of returns goes beyond those that are economic in nature (e.g., sales) [ 78 ]. The advocacy and support of socio-environmental causes (e.g., hashtags of actions and statements) could be explored, which can be subsequently useful to develop sustainability ratings beneficial for illustrating the impact of both social media influencers and the brands that they represent.

In terms of disclosure in social media influencer marketing (Cluster 4), future research could explore the different ways in which explicit and implicit disclosures could be curated and signaled by social media influencers to their followers. Such research should be potentially useful as not all social media platforms provide options of explicit labels (e.g., sponsor ad) to social media users, especially when such social media posts are not paid to extend its reach and thus relies on social media users themselves to self-disclose. Moreover, the effectiveness of these forms of disclosure, including their combination, have not been adequately studied and thus should be worthwhile exploring. The negative connotation that may be attached to such disclosures should also be addressed in ways that make such disclosures an asset rather than a liability.

In terms of parasocial interactions in social media influencer marketing (Cluster 5), the multitude ways in which parasocial interactions could be curated represent a potentially fruitful avenue for future exploration. At present, the general focus has been on the influence of social media influencer credibility and the congruence of such interactions to follower expectations and perceptions [ 108 ]. In this regard, future research is encouraged to explore the different ways in which parasocial interactions could be curated, and in the midst of doing so, theorizing the entry points and sustaining factors that make such interactions parasocial between social media influencers and their followers. Given the complex nature of parasocial interactions, future research in this space could benefit from employing neuroscientific tools (e.g., eye tracker, wearable biosensors, [ 73 ], [ 74 ] to gain nuanced insights into biological responses that can be used to supplement self-reported responses in order to better ascertain the parasocial nature of interactions among social media influencers and their followers.

In terms of parasocial relationships in social media influencer marketing (Cluster 6), deeper insights on what makes parasocial relationships gratifying and lasting should be developed in future research. Such research should provide a better understanding on the constitution of parasocial relationships and how social media influencers can foster and maintain them over time. Nevertheless, errors or mistakes are bound to happen (e.g., slip of inappropriate word, unintentional non-disclosure of sponsorship). Thus, the repair and recovery of negatively-affected parasocial relationships among social media influencers and their followers could also be given scholarly attention in future research.

Taken collectively, these suggestions for future research should enrich research across all research streams in social media influencer marketing. The next section builds on the insights from this section and takes a closer look on topical trends in the field (Fig. 4 ).

Productivity trend of major themes in social media influencer marketing research. Note: Cluster 1 = Engagement and influence in social media influencer marketing. Cluster 2 = Authenticity in social media influencer marketing. Cluster 3 = Commercialization and value of social media influencer marketing. Cluster 4 = Disclosure in social media influencer marketing. Cluster 5 = Parasocial interactions in social media influencer marketing. Cluster 6 = Parasocial relationships in social media influencer marketing

4.2 Topical perspective

The productivity of topical research in social media influencer marketing has evolved over the years (Fig.  5 ). Noteworthily, the extant literature on social media influencer marketing has been largely predicated on “communication management”, “centrality”, and “viral marketing” up to 2018. Newer research has nonetheless made a stronger and more explicit connection to “influencer marketing” and “social media”, with “Instagram” emerging as the most prominent social media in the field. The transmission of “eWOM” or “electronic word-of-mouth” and how this translates into “parasocial interaction” or “immersion” between “social media influencers” and “followers” has taken center stage alongside “online marketing” and “social media marketing” considerations such as “advertising”, “brands”, “brand awareness”, and “purchase intention” from a “neoliberalism” perspective.

Productivity trend of major topics in social media influencer marketing research

Notwithstanding the trending topics in social media influencer marketing revealed by the trend analysis, it is clear that new research focusing on new phenomena is very much required. For example, new social media platforms such as Clubhouse and TikTok have been extremely popular platforms for social media influencers in recent years, and thus, future research should also consider exploring social platforms other than Instagram. Furthermore, the proliferation of augmented and virtual realities remains underexplored for social media influencer marketing. The rebranding of Facebook to Meta is a signal of the future rise of the metaverse . New research in this direction focusing on new-age technologies for social media influencer marketing should provide new knowledge-advancing and practice-relevant insights into contemporary trends and realities that remain underrepresented in the literature. Similarly, the diversity and evolution of social media followers also deserve further attention in light of accelerated technology adoption by societies worldwide in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the new normal [ 77 ], as well as the changing nature of generational cohorts in the society [ 79 ].

5 Conclusion

The importance of consumerism for business survival and growth albeit in a more authentic, meaningful, and sustainable way [ 76 ] along with the increasing use of digital media such as social media [ 82 ] have led to the proliferation of social media influencer marketing and its burgeoning interest among academics and professionals [ 10 ], [ 124 ]. This was evident in the present study, wherein the consumer behavior perspective of social media influencer marketing took center stage. Using the SPAR-4-SLR protocol as a guide, a bibliometric-content analysis as a multi-method review technique, and a collection of 214 articles published in 87 journals indexed in ABDC, CABS, and WOS as relevant documents for review, this study provides, to date, the most comprehensive one-stop state-of-the-art overview of social media influencer marketing. Through this review, this study provides several key takeaways for theory and practice and additional noteworthy suggestions for future research.

5.1 Theoretical contributions and implications

From a theoretical perspective, this study provides two major takeaways for academics.

First, the review indicates that most articles on social media influencer marketing published in journals indexed in ABDC, CABS, and WOS were not guided by an established theory, as only 94 (43.93%) out of the 214 articles reviewed were informed by theories (e.g., persuasion knowledge theory, social learning theory, source credibility theory, theory of planned behavior). This implies that most articles relied on prior literature only to explain their study’s theoretical foundation, which may be attributed to a lack of awareness on the possible theories that may be relevant to their study. In fact, a similar review on the topic albeit with a relatively smaller sample of articles (i.e., 68 articles only) due to protocol limitations (i.e., CABS-indexed journals only) had acknowledged the issue but unfortunately failed to deliver a collection of theories informed by prior research [ 124 ]. In this vein, this study hopes to address this issue as it has revealed 46 different theories that were employed in prior social media influencer marketing research, which can be used to ground future research in the area. Furthermore, the list of theories can be used to justify the novelty of future research where a new theory is applied. In addition, future studies can take inspiration from the manifestation of theories emerging from multiple theoretical perspectives, such as the social influencer value model and the social-mediated crisis communication theory informed by the media and sociological theoretical perspectives, to develop new theories in the field, which may be challenging but certainly possible [ 81 ]. Alternatively, future studies can consider theoretical integration by using two or more theories in a single investigation, which can reveal richer insights on the phenomenon (e.g., which theoretical perspective is more prominent or which factors from which theoretical perspective yield strong impacts and therefore warrant investment prioritization).

Second, the review shows that social media influencer marketing research does not have to be limited to a simple direct antecedent-consequence relationship or the multiply of such relationships. Instead, research in the area can benefit from testing the mediating and moderating effects of various factors to enrich the insights derived from their study. Interestingly, the review reveals that antecedents can also play the role of mediators (e.g., engagement and interaction) and moderators (e.g., parasocial relationship) and vice versa, which implies that the conditions in research design setup are fundamental to the conclusions made about the consequences of social media influencer marketing [ 75 ], which can take the form of consumer responses to the brand (e.g., brand purchase or patronage), the influencer (e.g., following influencer), and the community (e.g., recommendation, social sharing). In total, seven categories in the form of audience-, brand-, comparative-, content-, influencer-, social-, and technology-related factors that could manifest as antecedents, mediators, and moderators were revealed. Noteworthily, the comparative-related factors such as perceived closeness, perceived fit, perceived similarity, self-influencer connection, and product-endorser fit transcended across multiple categories (e.g., audience and influencer, brand and influencer), which indicate the promise of social media influencer marketing as a research context suitable for the development of new factors to describe consumer behavior of a comparative nature. Indeed, comparative-related factors is, to the best knowledge of the authors, a new categorization that has not been revealed by prior systematic literature reviews, and thus, represent a key contribution to the literature that should be noted in future research and reviews. Moreover, the mapping of constructs in Fig.  3 and their counts in Tables 8 , 9 , 10 , and 11 provide useful starting points to identify the extant gaps in prior research (e.g., brand-related factors remain underexplored as moderators, comparative-related factors remain underexplored as mediators) and to inform the direction of future research accordingly. Finally, the constructs and their associated categories revealed can also be compared and contrasted in future investigations to delineate the difference in impact between constructs of different categories, and when paired with appropriate theories, can provide stronger grounds for managerial recommendations to brands and influencers interested to leverage off the benefits of social media influencer marketing to attract and persuade desired consumer behavior.

5.2 Managerial contributions and implications

From a managerial perspective, this study provides two major takeaways for brands and influencers.

First, the review indicates that brands indirectly influence consumers through influencers—that is to say, the strategy of brands engaging in influencer marketing on social media places influencers at the forefront, with brands taking a backseat in that strategy. This was evident from the literature review, where brand-related antecedents were absent; instead, the influence of brands manifests in the form of mediators (e.g., brand recognition, product attractiveness, sponsorship transparency) and moderators (e.g., brand attitude). In that sense, it is important that brands identify and engage with influencers strategically, particularly those who are perceived to be attractive, credible, engaging and interactive, experts, a good fit for their products, likeable, opinion leaders, popular, trustworthy, unique, and without overly self-serving motives in order to encourage desired consumer behavior toward their brands (e.g., brand purchase and patronage, brand trust), as revealed by the review herein.

Second, the review reveals that social media influencers directly influence consumer behavior toward the brands they promote (e.g., brand attitude, brand awareness, brand involvement, brand recall, brand trust), the influencers themselves (e.g., follower, influence), and the social media community at large (e.g., recommendation, social sharing). In particular, the content that influencers curate on social media can affect how consumers respond to these stakeholders. The review indicates that such content should be authentic, credible, informative, original, and transparent (disclosure). The message appeal and message process involvement are also important mediators to strengthen the influencer’s ability to encourage desired consumer behavior among their followers (e.g., positive audience, brand, influencer, and social behavior), whereas audience comments, assurance, hashtags, insights, and volume of posts can moderate or nullify the potential desired impact that influencers could elicit from their followers on social media. Indeed, the importance of electronic word of mouth, parasocial interaction, and perceptions of closeness and fit have also been highlighted through the review. Importantly, when promoting to kids and youth, it is essential that influencers consider what parents would think about their posts, as parental mediation was observed to occur in the review.

5.3 Review limitations and future review directions

From a review perspective, this study acknowledges three major limitations that can inform the curation of future reviews.

First, the systematic literature review herein does not capture article performance (i.e., citations) because it was mainly interested in unpacking the articles, journals, theories, methods, and content (themes, constructs) underpinning existing research on social media influencer marketing, and it kept in mind the space limitation of the journal. Notwithstanding the comprehensive and rigorous insights revealed using the SPAR-4-SLR protocol, future reviews may wish to pursue an impact analysis, which can lead to rich insights pertaining to article performance (e.g., difference in citations [e.g., total citations, average citations per year, h -index, g -index] between papers with and without theory, using empirical and non-empirical methods, or across different methods and thematic categories).

Second, the systematic literature review herein encapsulates only a qualitative evaluation of the constructs in existing social media influencer marketing research. To build on the insights herein, future reviews may wish to pursue a meta-analytical review, where a meta-analysis involving the antecedents, mediators, moderators, and consequences revealed in Tables 8 , 9 , 10 , and 11 in this review (in the short run) or unveiled in future reviews (in the long run) is performed. Such an endeavor should also provide finer-grained insights on conflicting findings and provide a resolution to such findings in the same study.

Third, the systematic literature review herein focuses only on the consumer behavior perspective of social media influencer marketing, which is mainly due to the maturity of research from this perspective [ 98 ], as seen through the number of articles available for review (i.e., 214 articles) under a rigorous protocol (i.e., the SPAR-4-SLR protocol). Moving forward, future reviews may wish to pursue a systematic review of social media influencer marketing from the business and industrial perspective, wherein the impact of influencer marketing on social media for business and industrial brands in general and across different industries are reviewed and reported.

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This paper uses the SPAR-4-SLR protocol as a guide, a collection of 214 articles published in 87 journals indexed in ABDC, CABS, and WOS as relevant documents, and a bibliometric-content analysis to curate an enriching one-stop, state-of-the-art review on the articles, journals, methods, theories, themes, and constructs (antecedents, moderators, mediators, and consequences) in extant research on social media influencer marketing.

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Joshi, Y., Lim, W.M., Jagani, K. et al. Social media influencer marketing: foundations, trends, and ways forward. Electron Commer Res (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10660-023-09719-z

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300+ Social Media Research Topics

Social media has become an integral part of our lives, and it has transformed the way we communicate, share information, and interact with each other. As social media platforms continue to evolve and gain popularity, they have also become a rich source of data for researchers. Social media research is a rapidly growing field that encompasses a wide range of topics , from understanding the psychological and social effects of social media to analyzing patterns of user behavior and identifying trends in online conversations. In this era of data-driven decision-making, social media research is more important than ever, as it provides insights into how we use and are influenced by social media. In this post, we will explore some of the most fascinating and relevant social media research topics that are shaping our understanding of this powerful medium.

Social Media Research Topics

Social Media Research Topics are as follows:

• The effects of social media on mental health
• The role of social media in political polarization
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• The influence of social media on music consumption
• The impact of social media on academic performance
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• The impact of social media on mental health
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• The use of social media for political activism and social justice movements.
• The role of social media in promoting cultural diversity and inclusivity.
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• The impact of social media on the music industry and the role of social media influencers.
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• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards racial justice and police brutality.
• The impact of social media on privacy concerns and data security.
• The use of social media for promoting interfaith dialogue and religious tolerance.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards income inequality and economic justice.
• The impact of social media on the film and television industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among military personnel.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards privacy and data security.
• The impact of social media on the hospitality industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting intergenerational communication and understanding.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards animal welfare and animal rights.
• The impact of social media on the gaming industry and gamer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting digital literacy and technology skills among seniors.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards renewable energy and sustainability.
• The impact of social media on the advertising industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among children and adolescents.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards online privacy and security.
• The impact of social media on the beauty industry and consumer behavior.
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• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards criminal justice reform.
• The impact of social media on the automotive industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among marginalized communities.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards sustainable development goals.
• The impact of social media on the fashion industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting intercultural communication in the workplace.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards mental health policies.
• The impact of social media on the travel industry and sustainable tourism practices.
• The use of social media for health information seeking and patient empowerment.
• The role of social media in promoting environmental activism and sustainable practices.
• The impact of social media on consumer behavior and brand loyalty.
• The use of social media for promoting education and lifelong learning.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards mental health issues.
• The impact of social media on the fashion industry and fast fashion practices.
• The use of social media for promoting social entrepreneurship and social innovation.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards gun control.
• The impact of social media on the mental health and well-being of adolescents.
• The use of social media for promoting intercultural exchange and understanding.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards climate change.
• The impact of social media on political advertising and campaign strategies.
• The use of social media for promoting healthy relationships and communication skills.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards police brutality and racial justice.
• The use of social media for promoting financial literacy and personal finance management.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards LGBTQ+ rights.
• The impact of social media on the music industry and fan engagement.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among marginalized populations.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards immigration and border policies.
• The impact of social media on the professional development and networking of journalists.
• The use of social media for promoting community building and social cohesion.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards healthcare policies.
• The impact of social media on the food industry and consumer behavior.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards gender equality.
• The impact of social media on the sports industry and athlete-fan interactions.
• The use of social media for promoting financial inclusion and access to banking services.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards animal welfare.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among college students.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards privacy and data security.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards income inequality and poverty.
• The use of social media for promoting digital literacy and technology skills.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards renewable energy.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among elderly populations.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards online privacy and security.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards criminal justice reform.
• The impact of social media on online activism and social movements.
• The use of social media for business-to-business communication and networking.
• The role of social media in promoting civic education and engagement.
• The impact of social media on the fashion industry and sustainable fashion practices.
• The use of social media for promoting cultural diversity and inclusion.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards police reform.
• The impact of social media on the mental health and well-being of frontline healthcare workers.
• The use of social media for promoting financial literacy and investment education.
• The role of social media in promoting environmental sustainability and conservation.
• The impact of social media on body image and self-esteem among adolescent girls.
• The use of social media for promoting intercultural dialogue and understanding.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards immigration policies and refugees.
• The impact of social media on the professional development and networking of healthcare professionals.
• The use of social media for promoting community resilience and disaster preparedness.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards the Black Lives Matter movement.
• The impact of social media on the music industry and artist-fan interactions.
• The use of social media for promoting healthy eating habits and nutrition education.
• The role of social media in promoting mental health and well-being among college students.
• The impact of social media on the entertainment industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting workplace diversity and inclusion.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards climate change policies.
• The impact of social media on the travel industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among military veterans.
• The role of social media in promoting intergenerational dialogue and understanding.
• The impact of social media on the professional development and networking of educators.
• The use of social media for promoting animal welfare and advocacy.
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• The use of social media for online activism and social justice movements.
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• The impact of social media on the fashion industry.
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• The use of social media for political lobbying and activism.
• The impact of social media on travel and tourism behavior.
• The use of social media for customer feedback and market research.
• The impact of social media on the restaurant industry.
• The role of social media in political activism
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• The relationship between social media use and body image concerns
• The impact of social media on self-esteem
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• The use of social media by non-profit organizations for fundraising
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion
• The influence of social media on language and communication patterns
• The use of social media in crisis communication and emergency management
• The role of social media in promoting environmental awareness
• The influence of social media on music preferences
• The impact of social media on body positivity movements
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• The impact of social media on job satisfaction and employee engagement
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• The influence of social media on language learning and language use
• The use of social media for political satire and humor
• The impact of social media on social capital and community building
• The role of social media in shaping gender identity and expression
• The influence of social media on fashion and beauty advertising.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Social Media Marketing Research Paper Topics

Here, we provide a comprehensive list of social media marketing research paper topics , divided into 10 categories, to help students choose a topic that is both interesting and relevant to the field. Social media marketing research is a rapidly evolving field that requires a deep understanding of social media platforms, consumer behavior, and emerging trends. Choosing a relevant and interesting topic for a research paper can be challenging. Additionally, we provide expert advice on how to choose a topic, conduct research, and write a high-quality research paper. For those who need extra help, iResearchNet offers writing services that provide customized solutions on any social media marketing research paper topic.

Social Media Marketing Topics Guide

Social media marketing has become an essential aspect of modern-day marketing strategies. With the increasing prevalence of social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and LinkedIn, businesses are leveraging social media to connect with their target audience, build brand awareness, and drive sales. However, effective social media marketing requires a deep understanding of consumer behavior, social media metrics and analytics, and emerging trends.

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In addition, we offer expert advice on how to choose a topic, conduct research, and write a high-quality research paper. Our goal is to help you succeed in your academic pursuits and make a valuable contribution to the ongoing discourse in the field of social media marketing.

100 Social Media Marketing Research Paper Topics

Social media marketing research encompasses a wide range of topics, from social media platforms and advertising to consumer behavior and brand reputation. To help you choose a relevant and interesting topic for your research paper, we have divided the topics into 10 categories, with 10 topics in each category:

Social Media Platforms

• The role of Facebook in social media marketing
• The effectiveness of Instagram in reaching younger audiences
• The impact of Twitter on social media conversations
• The rise of TikTok and its implications for social media marketing
• The potential of LinkedIn for B2B social media marketing
• The impact of Snapchat on visual social media marketing
• The effectiveness of Pinterest for driving e-commerce sales
• The role of YouTube in video content marketing
• The use of WhatsApp for social media marketing in emerging markets
• The role of WeChat in social media marketing in China

Social Media Strategy

• The development of a social media marketing plan
• The importance of storytelling in social media marketing
• The role of influencer marketing in social media strategy
• The use of social media for crisis communication
• The effectiveness of social media for building brand loyalty
• The role of social media in customer relationship management
• The impact of user-generated content on social media marketing
• The use of humor in social media marketing
• The impact of personalization on social media marketing
• The role of chatbots in social media customer service

Social Media Advertising

• The effectiveness of social media advertising compared to traditional advertising
• The use of micro-targeting in social media advertising
• The impact of ad blockers on social media advertising
• The role of native advertising in social media marketing
• The use of sponsored content in social media marketing
• The impact of social media influencers on advertising effectiveness
• The effectiveness of video ads on social media platforms
• The use of retargeting in social media advertising
• The role of emotion in social media advertising
• The impact of user-generated ads on social media marketing

Social Media Metrics and Analytics

• The development of a social media metrics and analytics plan
• The use of social media analytics for measuring campaign success
• The impact of social media engagement on brand awareness
• The effectiveness of sentiment analysis in social media marketing
• The use of social media analytics for competitive analysis
• The impact of social media on website traffic and SEO
• The use of social media analytics for product development
• The effectiveness of social media analytics in measuring ROI
• The role of social media analytics in crisis management
• The impact of social media analytics on decision making in social media marketing

Social Media Influencers

• The role of social media influencers in brand endorsement
• The effectiveness of celebrity influencers in social media marketing
• The impact of micro-influencers on social media marketing
• The use of nano-influencers in social media marketing
• The effectiveness of influencer marketing on social media platforms
• The impact of influencer fraud on social media marketing
• The role of brand ambassadors in social media marketing
• The use of employee advocacy in social media marketing
• The effectiveness of customer advocates in social media marketing
• The role of virtual influencers in social media marketing

Social Media and Consumer Behavior

• The impact of social media on consumer behavior
• The role of social media in the consumer decision-making process
• The impact of social media on product and service reviews
• The effectiveness of social media in building brand trust
• The role of social media in customer service
• The impact of social media on purchase intention
• The use of social media for customer co-creation
• The role of social media in building brand communities
• The impact of social media on word-of-mouth marketing
• The effectiveness of social media for building customer loyalty

Social Media and Brand Reputation

• The role of social media in brand reputation management
• The impact of social media on brand perception
• The effectiveness of social media in crisis management
• The use of social media for brand storytelling
• The role of social media in building a brand personality
• The impact of social media on brand identity
• The use of social media for brand advocacy
• The role of social media in brand positioning
• The effectiveness of social media in brand differentiation
• The impact of social media on brand equity

Social Media and Crisis Management

• The role of social media in crisis communication
• The impact of social media on crisis response times
• The use of social media for crisis anticipation and prevention
• The role of social media in managing reputation during a crisis
• The impact of social media on crisis recovery
• The use of social media for crisis management in the travel industry
• The role of social media in crisis management in the food industry
• The effectiveness of social media in crisis management for nonprofit organizations
• The impact of social media on crisis management in the healthcare industry

Social Media and Politics

• The impact of social media on political campaigning
• The use of social media for political advocacy
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion
• The effectiveness of social media in mobilizing voters
• The impact of social media on political discourse
• The use of social media for political fundraising
• The role of social media in shaping policy decisions
• The effectiveness of social media in crisis management for political campaigns
• The impact of social media on political polarization
• The use of social media for political propaganda

Emerging Trends in Social Media Marketing

• The impact of artificial intelligence on social media marketing
• The use of virtual and augmented reality in social media marketing
• The role of blockchain in social media marketing
• The effectiveness of voice-activated assistants in social media marketing
• The impact of 5G on social media marketing
• The use of gamification in social media marketing
• The role of chatbots in social media marketing
• The effectiveness of personalized marketing on social media platforms
• The impact of social media on brand activism
• The use of ephemeral content in social media marketing

Choosing a topic from one of these categories can help narrow down your focus and provide a starting point for your research.

Choosing a Social Media Marketing Research Paper Topic

Choosing a social media marketing research paper topic can be a challenging task, especially with the vast array of topics available. However, by following these expert tips, you can choose a topic that is both interesting and relevant to the field:

Choose a relevant and current topic

One of the most important things to consider when choosing from a multitude of social media marketing research paper topics is relevance. You want to choose a topic that is both timely and relevant to the current state of social media marketing. Look for topics that are currently trending, or have recently emerged as important issues in the field.

For example, a current trend in social media marketing is the use of micro-influencers. Micro-influencers are individuals with smaller followings on social media, but with high engagement rates. Choosing a topic related to micro-influencers would be both relevant and timely.

Another way to find relevant topics is to look at current events and news stories. For example, the Cambridge Analytica scandal in 2018 brought attention to the issue of data privacy in social media marketing. A research paper on this topic would be both relevant and important in today’s digital landscape.

Choose a unique angle

While it is important to choose a topic that is relevant, it is also important to find a unique angle. Look for topics that have not been extensively covered in existing literature, or that offer a different perspective on a well-covered topic.

For example, if you choose to research the effectiveness of social media advertising, you might want to focus on a specific aspect of social media advertising that has not been extensively researched. Alternatively, you could take a unique angle on a well-covered topic, such as the impact of social media advertising on body image.

By choosing a unique angle, you can add value to the existing literature and contribute to the ongoing discourse in the field.

Use a variety of sources

To write a well-rounded research paper, it is important to use a variety of sources. This can include academic journals, industry reports, news articles, and social media posts.

Academic journals are a great source for in-depth research and theoretical frameworks. Industry reports can provide valuable insights into current trends and practices in social media marketing. News articles can be used to contextualize your research and provide real-world examples. Social media posts can be a valuable source of qualitative data and consumer insights.

By using a variety of sources, you can ensure that your research is well-rounded and provides a comprehensive view of the topic.

Narrow down your topic

Once you have identified a broad topic, it is important to narrow it down to a specific research question. This will help focus your research and ensure that your paper is well-structured.

For example, if you choose to research the impact of social media on consumer behavior, you might want to narrow your topic down to a specific aspect of consumer behavior, such as the impact of social media on purchase intention.

By narrowing down your topic, you can ensure that your research is focused and well-structured, and that you can provide in-depth analysis on a specific aspect of the topic.

Consider the scope of the project

Before choosing a topic, consider the scope of the project. Make sure that the topic is feasible within the timeframe and resources available.

Consider the length of the research paper and the time available for research and writing. Ensure that the topic is feasible within these constraints. Additionally, consider the availability of data and resources for the topic. If there is limited data available on a specific topic, it may be difficult to provide in-depth analysis.

By considering the scope of the project, you can ensure that your research paper is feasible and that you can provide high-quality analysis within the given constraints.

Consult with your instructor or advisor

When in doubt, consult with your instructor or advisor. They can provide guidance on choosing a topic that is relevant and feasible within the context of the course or program.

Additionally, they can provide valuable insights into the current discourse in the field and suggest potential sources or research questions.

Use social media platforms as a resource

Social media platforms can be a valuable resource for finding research paper topics. Follow thought leaders and experts in the field on platforms such as Twitter and LinkedIn. Look for conversations and debates in the field and identify gaps in the literature that could be addressed through research.

By using social media platforms as a resource, you can stay up-to-date on the latest trends and conversations in the field and identify potential research paper topics.

Consider your personal interests

Finally, consider your personal interests when choosing from different social media marketing research paper topics. Choosing a topic that you are passionate about can help motivate you throughout the research and writing process and ensure that you produce a high-quality paper.

For example, if you have a personal interest in the impact of social media on mental health, you could choose a research paper topic related to this area. By choosing a topic that aligns with your personal interests, you can ensure that the research process is enjoyable and fulfilling.

By following these expert tips, you can choose a social media marketing research paper topic that is both interesting and feasible to research. Remember to choose a relevant and current topic, find a unique angle, use a variety of sources, narrow down your topic, consider the scope of the project, consult with your instructor or advisor, use social media platforms as a resource, and consider your personal interests.

How to Write a Social Media Marketing Research Paper

Once you have chosen a social media marketing research paper topic, it is important to write a high-quality paper that provides valuable insights and contributes to the ongoing discourse in the field. Here are some tips to help you write a social media marketing research paper:

Develop a research question

The first step in writing a social media marketing research paper is to develop a research question. The research question should be specific, focused, and answerable through research.

For example, if your topic is the impact of social media on consumer behavior, your research question might be: How does social media influence purchase intention among millennials?

By developing a clear research question, you can ensure that your research is focused and well-structured.

Conduct a literature review

A literature review is an important step in any research paper. It involves reviewing existing literature on the topic and identifying gaps or areas for further research.

Conduct a literature review by reading academic journals, industry reports, news articles, and social media posts. Identify key themes and ideas that are relevant to your research question and use these to inform your analysis.

Collect and analyze data

Depending on your research question, you may need to collect and analyze data. This can involve conducting surveys, interviews, or analyzing social media data.

When collecting data, ensure that it is relevant to your research question and that it is collected ethically and with informed consent.

Once you have collected data, analyze it using appropriate statistical or qualitative methods. Use your analysis to support your research question and provide valuable insights into the topic.

Structure your paper

A well-structured research paper is essential to ensure that your research is communicated effectively. Use the following structure as a guide:

• Introduction: Introduce your research question and provide background information on the topic.
• Literature Review: Provide an overview of the existing literature on the topic and identify gaps or areas for further research.
• Methodology: Describe the methods used to collect and analyze data.
• Results: Present the results of your analysis and use them to answer your research question.
• Discussion: Interpret your results and provide insights into the topic.
• Conclusion: Summarize your findings and suggest areas for further research.

Use appropriate formatting and citation styles

It is important to use appropriate formatting and citation styles in your research paper. Use a style guide such as APA, MLA, or Chicago to ensure that your paper is formatted correctly.

Additionally, ensure that all sources are properly cited in your paper to avoid plagiarism and provide credit to the original authors.

By following these tips, you can write a high-quality social media marketing research paper that provides valuable insights and contributes to the ongoing discourse in the field.

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• Top quality : We provide top-quality writing services that meet the highest academic standards, ensuring that your research paper is well-written and well-researched.
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By using our writing services, you can ensure that your social media marketing research paper is well-written, well-researched, and meets the highest academic standards.

Order a Custom Social Media Marketing Research Paper Today

In conclusion, social media marketing is a rapidly evolving field that offers a wealth of research opportunities for students. Choosing a relevant and feasible social media marketing research paper topic is the first step in writing a high-quality research paper.

By using the expert advice outlined in this guide, you can choose a social media marketing research paper topic that is both interesting and feasible to research. Remember to choose a current and relevant topic, find a unique angle, use a variety of sources, narrow down your topic, consider the scope of the project, consult with your instructor or advisor, use social media platforms as a resource, and consider your personal interests.

Once you have chosen a social media marketing research paper topic, use the tips outlined in this guide to write a high-quality research paper. Develop a research question, conduct a literature review, collect and analyze data, structure your paper, and use appropriate formatting and citation styles.

If you need assistance with your social media marketing research paper, iResearchNet offers custom writing services that provide expert degree-holding writers, custom written works, in-depth research, custom formatting, top quality, customized solutions, flexible pricing, short deadlines up to 3 hours, timely delivery, 24/7 support, absolute privacy, easy order tracking, and a money-back guarantee.

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Social Media Marketing 2024: Ultimate Guide

Many think of social media as a place to keep up with friends or watch funny videos rather than a business tool. However, social media platforms are a powerhouse for engagement, branding and sales. That’s no surprise considering 45% of consumers check social media reviews before making a routine purchase, like buying a new phone.

Small businesses can harness social media marketing to connect with consumers and drive revenue. We at the MarketWatch Guides team created this ultimate guide to help you craft a successful social media strategy for your business.

What Is Social Media Marketing?

Social media marketing involves creating and posting content and responding to online trends. Businesses create digital marketing content for social media to achieve sales goals, grow general brand awareness and increase loyalty among followers.

This can include large-scale social media marketing campaigns, like Spotify Wrapped , or organic posts that take off, like Wendy’s viral tweets . A company’s social media strategy could include influencer marketing to promote and sell products or consist of posting regular updates and content to engage followers and maintain a positive brand image.

Social Media Marketing Benefits

Being active on social media is one part of a brand’s broader marketing strategy. By posting engaging content, businesses help consumers discover new products or services and, in turn, generate potential sales.

Here are some of the top benefits of social media marketing for businesses:

• Free to set up: Businesses can set up accounts on social media networks for free. Unless you pay someone to run your brand account or want to invest in paid ads, social media marketing can be a low or no-cost operation.
• Increased traffic: With direct link sharing or link-in-bio features, you can lead social media followers to your website or online shop.
• Gain new customers: Your social media profile could be a new customer’s first impression of your business. By posting interesting content, you can attract more followers and entice potential customers to learn more about your product or service. 
• Engagement: You’ll engage with some of your most loyal followers on social media. One way brands can interact with customers is to encourage and re-share user-generated content (UGC) — posts, photos or videos made by followers about your product or brand.
• Sell products: Many social media platforms feature built-in shopping or product listing which can help you promote your products and make buying easier for customers.
• Reputation management: By responding to negative comments or reviews and engaging in social listening, businesses can monitor public perception and head off potential crises. This allows you to manage your brand’s reputation and creates opportunities to turn bad reviews into positive customer experiences.

How To Create a Strong Social Media Marketing Strategy

The first step for success on social media comes well before your first post. Creating a strong social media marketing strategy is essential to guide your decision-making around content. To help you devise your business’s social media strategy, we’ve detailed below six steps.

1. Set Goals 

Identify exactly what you want to achieve for your business on social media. Why does social media seem like the right marketing channel for your message? What do you hope to accomplish — more followers, more sales or something else? When you identify the key performance indicators (KPIs), you can track progress toward your goals and make strategic decisions around the timing of posts and content.

2. Identify Your Target Audience

Consider what type of user your brand is trying to reach on social media. Are you looking to expand into a new demographic, or do you want social media to be an alternative channel for your current audience? Each social media platform attracts a segment of consumers, based on factors like age, gender, occupation and more. By identifying the specific audience you want to reach, you can make smarter decisions about which platform to use and what type of content to produce.

3. Study the Competition 

Competitive analysis is always a good idea, and checking your competitors’ social media accounts is easy. Take note of which platforms other brands use, how often they post and the type of content they create and share. This research gives you a better understanding of what’s working for businesses in your industry or niche. You may also find ideas for social media where your business could dominate and do better. This is also a good time to take note of any competitor strategies or approaches you want to avoid.

4. Choose Your Social Media Platforms

Once you establish goals, fine-tune your audience targeting, and know what your competitors are up to, you should have a good idea of which social media platforms will work best for your business. The type of content you want to make also plays a significant role. Some platforms will be better suited to short videos, like Instagram or TikTok, while some will be better suited to text-only updates, like Facebook or LinkedIn. Before committing, make sure you can create content that will resonate on your chosen platforms.

5. Create and Optimize Your Accounts 

Creating your social media accounts is more than just adding your business name and uploading your logo. First, choose an account name and other profile information that makes your brand easy to find. Ask yourself: If someone were to search for my business’s core product or services, what would they type? This can help with your account’s SEO (search engine optimization) as well as your visibility on social media. It’s also important to keep your branding consistent across all accounts. This means using the same logo, colors and naming conventions as well as a consistent voice or tone when communicating with followers.

6. Plan Your Social Content 

Create a social media content calendar to plan your posting schedule. You can do this yourself or with the help of social media management software like Hootsuite or Sprout Social. Tools like these can help you manage content, create posts across platforms and track social media marketing performance. It’s best practice to post consistently and keeping to a schedule can help you perform better based on social media site algorithms.

Best Social Media Platforms

As trends and best practices on social media change frequently, businesses must embrace the fast pace to make the most of social media marketing. The platforms you use impact your marketing strategy and your brand’s overall online presence. While your business may be active on every major platform, you could select only those that tend to attract the bulk of your target audience. Below you’ll find our round-up of the top social media platforms that could be potential starting points for your brand’s marketing effort.

The well-known social media giant was founded in 2004 . Facebook now has over 3 billion monthly active users, making it the world’s most-used social media platform. Facebook is a popular choice for small or local businesses and it’s easy to set up a business page to create a presence for your brand. Businesses with an advertising budget may want to consider PPC (pay-per-click) marketing through Facebook Ad Manager. Or you can drive brand awareness and loyalty by posting updates or announcements for your Facebook followers. Video, images and text are all popular content types on Facebook’s platform.

Owned by Google, YouTube is widely influential with billions of videos posted to the site since it launched in 2005 . Today, YouTube users watch everything from how-to videos to music videos and product reviews. As part of a social media strategy, starting a YouTube channel can help your brand establish authority or thought leadership. Posting helpful, insightful or entertaining videos related to topics in your niche can drive traffic to your business.

Initially launched in 2010 as a photo-sharing app, Instagram has morphed into a multi-media channel for social media strategists. Instagram was purchased by Meta, Facebook’s parent company, and expanded to include video, livestreaming and a text post platform called Threads. With over 2 billion users worldwide , the platform is popular for sharing photos and short vertical videos called Reels. American adults under 30 report using Instagram more than any other age group , making it a key platform for brands targeting younger demographics. Sharing photo and video content on an Instagram business profile can be essential to any social media strategy targeting Gen Z and millennials. Instagram Reels are similar to TikTok’s video format, and Instagram Live allows you to stream videos to your followers in real-time.

TikTok is one of the newest breakout social media platforms, known for its viral short-form videos and ever-changing trends. It first gained popularity in the U.S. after merging with a similar social video app called Musical.ly. In 2023, there were 150 million Americans on TikTok . TikTok should be top of mind for e-commerce businesses, especially those targeting younger demographics. Products that go viral on the platform consistently sell out, often without major marketing campaigns, though influencer marketing is common. Word-of-mouth or earned media exposure on TikTok can be immensely powerful for brands and this platform’s popularity make it a vital part of your social media marketing strategy.

This image-sharing platform is less focused on social interactions and more centered on the discovery of ideas. Pinterest users “pin” photos, recipes, tutorials and other content to boards for sharing and inspiration. Especially popular with women, Pinterest reached 450 million users in 2023. Businesses can make the most of Pinterest by tapping into the typical users’ curiosity to discover products. Creating content that users can pin to their inspiration boards can also help boost brand awareness.

LinkedIn is a professional social networking site that boasts over 1 billion users . Users profiles function similarly to digital resumes and LinkedIn features both content sharing and job posting opportunities. If you’re looking to attract and hire new talent, LinkedIn should be part of your social media strategy. Businesses can create LinkedIn platforms to share updates about the company and establish thought leadership through collaborative articles and unique posts. This platform is especially critical for business-to-business (B2B) sales and marketing. 

Snapchat is a messaging and social media app that gained popularity for its concept of temporary messages that disappear after the recipient has opened them. Since then, it’s popularized the “stories” format, which are online images that are no longer shared after a certain amount of time, usually 24 hours. Snapchat reached over 750 million users in 2023 and is especially popular among users aged 24 and younger. Businesses targeting younger demographics can consider using Snapchat as an advertising platform through its Discover page feature .

X (Formerly Twitter)

Formerly called Twitter, the X platform is popular with users looking for news, especially on politics, and entertaining memes. Originally posts were limited to 140 characters but that expanded to 280 characters in 2017. The platform was acquired and renamed in 2022. Small business leaders can use Twitter to establish their brand or themselves as a credible or insightful voice in their niche. Hashtags and geotags are popular on Twitter as are threads and live trending discussions.

Pros and Cons of Social Media Marketing

Social media is a powerful tool for small businesses but it takes time and effort — and financial commitment — to engage well on all platforms. Below we’ve outlined the pros and cons to weigh while building your social media marketing strategy.

• Direct engagement: Interacting with potential and current customers on social media helps create a more authentic image or positive perception of your brand.
• Relative low-cost: Getting started on social media doesn’t require a considerable investment. It’s free and relatively easy to create social media content. Compared to other forms of advertising, this is a low-cost way to reach your target audience and build brand recognition.
• Word-of-mouth marketing: Social media users often want to research products or businesses and see what others say about your brand. Both online reviews and social media posts by your fans can create a positive social media presence and a ripple effect of engagement.
• Targeted reach: Social media can help your business reach a wider audience than other marketing channels, especially in terms of younger consumers or more niche products.
• Rapid pace: Best practices and trends are constantly shifting on social media. Algorithms dictate whether your content is viewed and it takes time to keep up with changes. Businesses must move quickly to stay on top of trends.
• Long-term payoff: It can take some time to see results. You’ll need much more than a handful of social media posts to reap marketing benefits. Creating your social presence and building your follower base take time and persistence.
• Luck is involved: Huge viral success is far from guaranteed and while strategy helps, luck and timing play a major role. While creating popular online content will boost your business, there’s no formula for going viral. Businesses shouldn’t expect high engagement numbers especially early on.
• Time intensive: Because trends are always changing, social media success requires more involvement than other advertising and marketing channels. Small businesses will need to plan content and post consistently to see growth. Upkeep and monitoring are time-intensive, hands-on tasks.

Best Practices and Tips for Social Media Marketing

It’s best to be wary of any method or strategy claiming instant success or guaranteed results on social media. As social media algorithms change, so do best practices. One of the best things you can do as a business on social media is to remain flexible with your strategy and be open to change. What worked last week may not work in a month.

Across platforms, maintain a consistent brand voice and prioritize authenticity when interacting with followers. Many brands want to go viral, but going viral for the wrong reasons can be detrimental. Social media profiles have a huge impact on how your brand is perceived. Here are some best practices: 

• Keep brand reputation top of mind: Your social content can typically be more fun and engaging than any other content or marketing materials you create. But make sure you consider how a post or image might be perceived before hitting publish.
• Maintain your originality and brand voice: Even when quickly reacting to trends and staying current, it’s important to make sure you’re not simply following what other brands are doing. Find ways to bring your own spin to trending topics and content, keeping your unique brand voice front and center.
• Make use of different content types: Social media platforms will offer a variety of post types and typically include functionality for hashtags and geotags. Use these to your advantage rather than simply posting text and photos. Make use of popular hashtags and mix things up with video, live stream or story content. Local businesses with physical store locations should make sure to tag their location on social media as well.
• Encourage engagement: Interact with your followers by responding to comments and reposting user-generated content. These small interactions can go a long way in fostering positive associations with your brand and increasing engagement.

The Bottom Line

Effective social media marketing takes time and effort but with the right approach, small businesses can see a major return on investment. Being active with engaging and helpful social media content helps followers and potential customers connect deeply with your business. In addition, responding to reviews and comments can build trust among your audience and solidify your brand’s voice.

Depending on whether you want to drive traffic to your site, increase sales or promote new products, you can find a platform to reach your goal. Creating a social media marketing plan is essential, and there are social media planning and analytics tools that can help with this. Before you get started, draft a content calendar with topics and ideas to guide upcoming posts. Be sure to source both text and a variety of visuals for your social media account content.

Frequently Asked Questions About Social Media Marketing

What is the best social media marketing software.

There’s a wide range of social media marketing software to help brands elevate engagement with followers, reach new audiences and promote new products or services. Many software options automate functions like scheduling and recycling posts, which can save time. The best social media platform for your business depends on your specific goals. Consider which features are most important to your strategy. Popular features include real-time social media analytics and content calendar management. Start by identifying the problems you want to solve and compare software solutions based on your needs.

Why is social media marketing important for business?

Social media can be a powerful marketing channel to help businesses increase brand awareness, sell products and create a positive reputation online. One reason social media marketing is important for business is because it allows brands to interact directly with followers, which can heighten loyalty and overall consumer interest.

Which social media platform has the most users?

Facebook has the most users of any social media platform, with more than 3 billion monthly users worldwide.

What is earned media in social media marketing?

Earned media on social media is the equivalent of word-of-mouth marketing. It’s when social media users talk about your brand online without being asked or paid to do so.

If you have feedback or questions about this article, please email the MarketWatch Guides team at  editors@marketwatchguides. com .

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The future of social media in marketing

1 Marshall School of Business, University of Southern California, 701 Exposition Blvd, Los Angeles, CA 90089 USA

Lauren Grewal

2 Tuck School of Business, Dartmouth College, 100 Tuck Hall, Hanover, NH 03755 USA

Rhonda Hadi

3 Saïd Business School, University of Oxford, Park End Street, Oxford, OX1 1HP UK

Andrew T. Stephen

4 Monash Business School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia

Social media allows people to freely interact with others and offers multiple ways for marketers to reach and engage with consumers. Considering the numerous ways social media affects individuals and businesses alike, in this article, the authors focus on where they believe the future of social media lies when considering marketing-related topics and issues. Drawing on academic research, discussions with industry leaders, and popular discourse, the authors identify nine themes, organized by predicted imminence (i.e., the immediate, near, and far futures), that they believe will meaningfully shape the future of social media through three lenses: consumer, industry, and public policy. Within each theme, the authors describe the digital landscape, present and discuss their predictions, and identify relevant future research directions for academics and practitioners.

Introduction

Social media is used by billions of people around the world and has fast become one of the defining technologies of our time. Facebook, for example, reported having 2.38 billion monthly active users and 1.56 billion daily active users as of March 31, 2019 (Facebook 2019 ). Globally, the total number of social media users is estimated to grow to 3.29 billion users in 2022, which will be 42.3% of the world’s population (eMarketer 2018 ). Given the massive potential audience available who are spending many hours a day using social media across the various platforms, it is not surprising that marketers have embraced social media as a marketing channel. Academically, social media has also been embraced, and an extensive body of research on social media marketing and related topics, such as online word of mouth (WOM) and online networks, has been developed. Despite what academics and practitioners have studied and learned over the last 15–20 years on this topic, due to the fast-paced and ever-changing nature of social media—and how consumers use it—the future of social media in marketing might not be merely a continuation of what we have already seen. Therefore, we ask a pertinent question, what is the future of social media in marketing?

Addressing this question is the goal of this article. It is important to consider the future of social media in the context of consumer behavior and marketing, since social media has become a vital marketing and communications channel for businesses, organizations and institutions alike, including those in the political sphere. Moreover, social media is culturally significant since it has become, for many, the primary domain in which they receive vast amounts of information, share content and aspects of their lives with others, and receive information about the world around them (even though that information might be of questionable accuracy). Vitally, social media is always changing. Social media as we know it today is different than even a year ago (let alone a decade ago), and social media a year from now will likely be different than now. This is due to constant innovation taking place on both the technology side (e.g., by the major platforms constantly adding new features and services) and the user/consumer side (e.g., people finding new uses for social media) of social media.

What is social media?

Definitionally, social media can be thought of in a few different ways. In a practical sense, it is a collection of software-based digital technologies—usually presented as apps and websites—that provide users with digital environments in which they can send and receive digital content or information over some type of online social network. In this sense, we can think of social media as the major platforms and their features, such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. We can also in practical terms of social media as another type of digital marketing channel that marketers can use to communicate with consumers through advertising. But we can also think of social media more broadly, seeing it less as digital media and specific technology services, and more as digital places where people conduct significant parts of their lives. From this perspective, it means that social media becomes less about the specific technologies or platforms, and more about what people do in these environments. To date, this has tended to be largely about information sharing, and, in marketing, often thought of as a form of (online) word of mouth (WOM).

Building on these definitional perspectives, and thinking about the future, we consider social media to be a technology-centric—but not entirely technological—ecosystem in which a diverse and complex set of behaviors, interactions, and exchanges involving various kinds of interconnected actors (individuals and firms, organizations, and institutions) can occur. Social media is pervasive, widely used, and culturally relevant. This definitional perspective is deliberately broad because we believe that social media has essentially become almost anything—content, information, behaviors, people, organizations, institutions—that can exist in an interconnected, networked digital environment where interactivity is possible. It has evolved from being simply an online instantiation of WOM behaviors and content/information creation and sharing. It is pervasive across societies (and geographic borders) and culturally prominent at both local and global levels.

Throughout the paper we consider many of the definitional and phenomenological aspects described above and explore their implications for consumers and marketing in order to address our question about the future of marketing-related social media. By drawing on academic research, discussions with industry leaders, popular discourse, and our own expertise, we present and discuss a framework featuring nine themes that we believe will meaningfully shape the future of social media in marketing. These themes by no means represent a comprehensive list of all emerging trends in the social media domain and include aspects that are both familiar in extant social media marketing literature (e.g., online WOM, engagement, and user-generated content) and emergent (e.g., sensory considerations in human-computer interaction and new types of unstructured data, including text, audio, images, and video). The themes we present were chosen because they capture important changes in the social media space through the lenses of important stakeholders, including consumers, industry/practice, and public policy.

In addition to describing the nature and consequences of each theme, we identify research directions that academics and practitioners may wish to explore. While it is infeasible to forecast precisely what the future has in store or to project these on a specific timeline, we have organized the emergent themes into three time-progressive waves, according to imminence of impact (i.e., the immediate, near, and far future). Before presenting our framework for the future of social media in marketing and its implications for research (and practice and policy), we provide a brief overview of where social media currently stands as a major media and marketing channel.

Social media at present

The current social media landscape has two key aspects to it. First are the platforms—major and minor, established and emerging—that provide the underlying technologies and business models making up the industry and ecosystem. Second are the use cases; i.e., how various kinds of people and organizations are using these technologies and for what purposes.

The rise of social media, and the manner in which it has impacted both consumer behavior and marketing practice, has largely been driven by the platforms themselves. Some readers might recall the “early days” of social media where social networking sites such as MySpace and Friendster were popular. These sites were precursors to Facebook and everything else that has developed over the last decade. Alongside these platforms, we continue to have other forms of social media such as messaging (which started with basic Internet Relay Chat services in the 1990s and the SMS text messaging built into early digital mobile telephone standards in the 2000s), and asynchronous online conversations arranged around specific topics of interest (e.g., threaded discussion forums, subreddits on Reddit). More recently, we have seen the rise of social media platforms where images and videos replace text, such as Instagram and Snapchat.

Across platforms, historically and to the present day, the dominant business model has involved monetization of users (audiences) by offering advertising services to anyone wishing to reach those audiences with digital content and marketing communications. Prior research has examined the usefulness of social media (in its various forms) for marketing purposes. For example, work by Trusov et al. ( 2009 ) and Stephen and Galak ( 2012 ) demonstrated that certain kinds of social interactions that now happen on social media (e.g., “refer a friend” features and discussions in online communities) can positively affect important marketing outcomes such as new customer acquisition and sales. More recently, the value of advertising on social media continues to be explored (e.g., Gordon et al. 2019 ), as well as how it interacts with other forms of media such as television (e.g., Fossen and Schweidel 2016 , 2019 ) and affects new product adoption through diffusion of information mechanisms (e.g., Hennig-Thurau et al. 2015 ).

Although the rise (and fall) of various kinds of social media platforms has been important for understanding the social media landscape, our contention is that understanding the current situation of social media, at least from a marketing perspective, lies more in what the users do on these platforms than the technologies or services offered by these platforms. Presently, people around the world use social media in its various forms (e.g., news feeds on Facebook and Twitter, private messaging on WhatsApp and WeChat, and discussion forums on Reddit) for a number of purposes. These can generally be categorized as (1) digitally communicating and socializing with known others, such as family and friends, (2) doing the same but with unknown others but who share common interests, and (3) accessing and contributing to digital content such as news, gossip, and user-generated product reviews.

All of these use cases are essentially WOM in one form or another. This, at least, is how marketing scholars have mainly characterized social media, as discussed by Lamberton and Stephen ( 2016 ). Indeed, online WOM has been—and, we contend, will continue to be—important in marketing (e.g., in the meta-analysis by Babić Rosario et al. 2016 the authors found, on average, a positive correlation between online WOM and sales). The present perspective on social media is that people use it for creating, accessing, and spreading information via WOM to various types of others, be it known “strong ties” or “weak ties” in their networks or unknown “strangers.” Some extant research has looked at social media from the WOM perspective of the consequences of the transmission of WOM (e.g., creating a Facebook post or tweeting) on others (e.g., Herhausen et al. 2019 ; Stephen and Lehmann 2016 ), the impact of the type of WOM content shared on others’ behavior (e.g., Villarroel Ordenes et al. 2017 ; Villarroel Ordenes et al. 2018 ), and on the motivations that drive consumer posting on social media, including considerations of status and self-presentation (e.g., Grewal et al. 2019 ; Hennig-Thurau et al. 2004 ; Hollenbeck and Kaikati 2012 ; Toubia and Stephen 2013 ; Wallace et al. 2014 ).

While this current characterization of WOM appears reasonable, it considers social media only from a communications perspective (and as a type of media channel). However, as social media matures, broader social implications emerge. To appropriately consider the future, we must expand our perspective beyond the narrow communicative aspects of social media and consider instead how consumers might use it. Hence, in our vision for the future of social media in marketing in the following sections, we attempt to present a more expansive perspective of what social media is (and will become) and explain why this perspective is relevant to marketing research and practice.

Overview of framework for the future of social media in marketing

In the following sections we present a framework for the immediate, near, and far future of social media in marketing when considering various relevant stakeholders. Themes in the immediate future represent those which already exist in the current marketplace, and that we believe will continue shaping the social media landscape. The near future section examines trends that have shown early signs of manifesting, and that we believe will meaningfully alter the social media landscape in the imminent future. Finally, themes designated as being in the far future represent more speculative projections that we deem capable of long-term influence on the future of social media. The next sections delve into each of the themes in Table ​ Table1, 1 , organized around the predicted imminence of these theme’s importance to marketing (i.e., the immediate, near, and far futures).

Framework for the future of social media as it relates to marketing issues

The immediate future

To begin our discussion on the direction of social media, in this section, we highlight three themes that have surfaced in the current environment that we believe will continue to shape the social media landscape in the immediate future. These themes—omni-social presence, the rise of influencers, and trust and privacy concerns—reflect the ever-changing digital and social media landscape that we presently face. We believe that these different areas will influence a number of stakeholders such as individual social media users, firms and brands that utilize social media, and public policymakers (e.g., governments, regulators).

Omni-social presence

In its early days, social media activity was mostly confined to designated social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter (or their now-defunct precursors). However, a proliferation of websites and applications that primarily serve separate purposes have capitalized on the opportunity to embed social media functionality into their interfaces. Similarly, all major mobile and desktop operating systems have in-built social media integration (e.g., sharing functions built into Apple’s iOS). This has made social media pervasive and ubiquitous—and perhaps even omnipotent—and has extended the ecosystem beyond dedicated platforms.

Accordingly, consumers live in a world in which social media intersects with most aspects of their lives through digitally enabled social interactivity in such domains as travel (e.g., TripAdvisor), work (e.g., LinkedIn), food (e.g., Yelp), music (e.g., Spotify), and more. At the same time, traditional social media companies have augmented their platforms to provide a broader array of functionalities and services (e.g., Facebook’s marketplace, Chowdry 2018 ; WeChat’s payment system, Cheng 2017 ). These bidirectional trends suggest that the modern-day consumer is living in an increasingly “omni-social” world.

From a marketing perspective, the “omni-social” nature of the present environment suggests that virtually every part of a consumer’s decision-making process is prone to social media influence. Need recognition might be activated when a consumer watches their favorite beauty influencer trying a new product on YouTube. A consumer shopping for a car might search for information by asking their Facebook friends what models they recommend. A hungry employee might sift through Yelp reviews to evaluate different lunch options. A traveler might use Airbnb to book future accommodation. Finally, a highly dissatisfied (or delighted) airline passenger might rant (rave) about their experience on Twitter. While the decision-making funnel is arguably growing flatter than the aforementioned examples would imply (Cortizo-Burgess 2014 ), these independent scenarios illustrate that social media has the propensity to influence the entire consumer-decision making process, from beginning to end.

Finally, perhaps the greatest indication of an “omni-social” phenomenon is the manner in which social media appears to be shaping culture itself. YouTube influencers are now cultural icons, with their own TV shows (Comm 2016 ) and product lines (McClure 2015 ). Creative content in television and movies is often deliberately designed to be “gifable” and meme-friendly (Bereznak 2018 ). “Made-for-Instagram museums” are encouraging artistic content and experiences that are optimized for selfie-taking and posting (Pardes 2017 ). These examples suggest that social media’s influence is hardly restricted to the “online” world (we discuss the potential obsolescence of this term later in this paper), but is rather consistently shaping cultural artifacts (television, film, the arts) that transcend its traditional boundaries. We believe this trend will continue to manifest, perhaps making the term “social media” itself out-of-date, as it’s omni-presence will be the default assumption for consumers, businesses, and artists in various domains.

This omni-social trend generates many questions to probe in future research. For example, how will social interactivity influence consumer behavior in areas that had traditionally been non-social? From a practitioner lens, it might also be interesting to explore how marketers can strategically address the flatter decision-making funnel that social media has enabled, and to examine how service providers can best alter experiential consumption when anticipating social media sharing behavior.

The rise of new forms of social influence (and influencers)

The idea of using celebrities (in consumer markets) or well-known opinion leaders (in business markets), who have a high social value, to influence others is a well-known marketing strategy (Knoll and Matthes 2017 ). However, the omnipresence of social media has tremendously increased the accessibility and appeal of this approach. For example, Selena Gomez has over 144 million followers on Instagram that she engages with each of her posts. In 2018, the exposure of a single photo shared by her was valued at $3.4 million (Maxim 2018 ). However, she comes at a high price: one post that Selena sponsors for a brand can cost upwards of $800,000 (Mejia 2018 ). However, putting high valuations on mere online exposures or collecting “likes” for specific posts can be somewhat speculative, as academic research shows that acquiring “likes” on social media might have no effect on consumers’ attitudes or behaviors (John et al. 2017 ; Mochon et al. 2017 ). Moreover, Hennig-Thurau et al. ( 2015 ), show that while garnering positive WOM has little to no effect on consumer preferences, negative WOM can have a negative effect on consumer preferences.

While celebrities like Selena Gomez are possible influencers for major brands, these traditional celebrities are so expensive that smaller brands have begun, and will continue to, capitalize on the popularity and success of what are referred to as “micro-influencers,” representing a new form of influencers. Micro-influencers are influencers who are not as well-known as celebrities, but who have strong and enthusiastic followings that are usually more targeted, amounting anywhere between a few thousand to hundreds of thousands of followers (Main 2017 ). In general, these types of influencers are considered to be more trustworthy and authentic than traditional celebrities, which is a major reason influencer marketing has grown increasingly appealing to brands (Enberg 2018 ). These individuals are often seen as credible “experts” in what they post about, encouraging others to want to view the content they create and engage with them. Furthermore, using these influencers allows the brand via first person narration (compared to ads), which is considered warmer and more personal, and was shown to be more effective in engaging consumers (Chang et al. 2019 ).

Considering the possible reach and engagement influencers command on social media, companies have either begun embracing influencers on social media, or plan to expand their efforts in this domain even more. For example, in recent conversations we had with social media executives, several of them stated the growing importance of influencers and mentioned how brands generally are looking to incorporate influencer marketing into their marketing strategies. Further, recent conversations with executives at some globally leading brands suggest that influencer marketing spending by big brands continues to rise.

While influencer marketing on social media is not new, we believe it has a lot of potential to develop further as an industry. In a recent working paper, Duani et al. ( 2018 ) show that consumers enjoy watching a live experience much more and for longer time periods than watching a prerecorded one. Hence, we think live streaming by influencers will continue to grow, in broad domains as well as niche ones. For example, streaming of video game playing on Twitch, a platform owned by Amazon, may still be niche but shows no signs of slowing down. However, live platforms are limited by the fact that the influencers, being human, need to sleep and do other activities offline. Virtual influencers (i.e., “CGI” influencers that look human but are not), on the other hand, have no such limitations. They never get tired or sick, they do not even eat (unless it is needed for a campaign). Some brands have started exploring the use of virtual influencers (Nolan 2018 ), and we believe that in coming years, along with stronger computing power and artificial intelligence algorithms, virtual influencers will become much more prominent on social media, being able to invariably represent and act on brand values and engage with followers anytime.

There are many interesting future research avenues to consider when thinking about the role of influencers on social media. First, determining what traits and qualities (e.g., authenticity, trust, credibility, and likability) make sponsored posts by a traditional celebrity influencer, versus a micro-influencer, or even compared to a CGI influencer, more or less successful is important to determine for marketers. Understanding whether success has to do with the actual influencer’s characteristics, the type of content being posted, whether content is sponsored or not, and so on, are all relevant concerns for companies and social media platforms when determining partnerships and where to invest effort in influencers. In addition, research can focus on understanding the appeal of live influencer content, and how to successfully blend influencer content with more traditional marketing mix approaches.

Privacy concerns on social media

Consumer concerns regarding data privacy, and their ability to trust brands and platforms are not new (for a review on data privacy see Martin and Murphy 2017 ). Research in marketing and related disciplines has examined privacy and trust concerns from multiple angles and using different definitions of privacy. For example, research has focused on the connections between personalization and privacy (e.g., Aguirre et al. 2015 ; White et al. 2008 ), the relationship of privacy as it relates to consumer trust and firm performance (e.g., Martin 2018 ; Martin et al. 2017 ), and the legal and ethical aspects of data and digital privacy (e.g., Culnan and Williams 2009 ; Nill and Aalberts 2014 ). Despite this topic not seeming novel, the way consumers, brands, policy makers, and social media platforms are all adjusting and adapting to these concerns are still in flux and without clear resolution.

Making our understanding of privacy concerns even less straightforward is the fact that, across extant literature, a clear definition of privacy is hard to come by. In one commentary on privacy, Stewart ( 2017 ), defined privacy as “being left alone,” as this allows an individual to determine invasions of privacy. We build from this definition of privacy to speculate on a major issue in privacy and trust moving forward. Specifically, how consumers are adapting and responding to the digital world, where “being left alone” isn’t possible. For example, while research has shown benefits to personalization tactics (e.g., Chung et al. 2016 ), with eroding trust in social platforms and brands that advertise through them, many consumers would rather not share data and privacy for a more personalized experiences, are uncomfortable with their purchases being tracked and think it should be illegal for brands to be able to buy their data (Edelman 2018 ). These recent findings seem to be in conflict with previously established work on consumer privacy expectations. Therefore, understanding if previously studied factors that mitigated the negative effects of personalization (e.g., perceived utility; White et al. 2008 ) are still valued by consumers in an ever-changing digital landscape is essential for future work.

In line with rising privacy concerns, the way consumers view brands and social media is becoming increasingly negative. Consumers are deleting their social media presence, where research has shown that nearly 40% of digitally connected individuals admitted to deleting at least one social media account due to fears of their personal data being mishandled (Edelman 2018 ). This is a negative trend not only for social media platforms, but for the brands and advertisers who have grown dependent on these avenues for reaching consumers. Edelman found that nearly half of the surveyed consumers believed brands to be complicit in negative aspects of content on social media such as hate speech, inappropriate content, or fake news (Edelman 2018 ). Considering that social media has become one of the best places for brands to engage with consumers, build relationships, and provide customer service, it’s not only in the best interest of social media platforms to “do better” in terms of policing content, but the onus of responsibility has been placed on brands to advocate for privacy, trust, and the removal of fake or hateful content.

Therefore, to combat these negative consumer beliefs, changes will need to be made by everyone who benefits from consumer engagement on social media. Social media platforms and brands need to consider three major concerns that are eroding consumer trust: personal information, intellectual property and information security (Information Technology Faculty 2018 ). Considering each of these concerns, specific actions and initiatives need to be taken for greater transparency and subsequent trust. We believe that brands and agencies need to hold social media accountable for their actions regarding consumer data (e.g., GDPR in the European Union) for consumers to feel “safe” and “in control,” two factors shown necessary in cases of privacy concerns (e.g., Tucker 2014 ; Xu et al. 2012 ). As well, brands need to establish transparent policies regarding consumer data in a way that recognizes the laws, advertising restrictions, and a consumer’s right to privacy (a view shared by others; e.g., Martin et al. 2017 ). All of this is managerially essential for brands to engender feelings of trust in the increasingly murky domain of social media.

Future research can be conducted to determine consumer reactions to different types of changes and policies regarding data and privacy. As well, another related and important direction for future research, will be to ascertain the spillover effects of distrust on social media. Specifically, is all content shared on social media seen as less trustworthy if the platform itself is distrusted? Does this extend to brand messages displayed online? Is there a negative spillover effect to other user-generated content shared through these platforms?

The near future

In the previous section, we discussed three areas where we believe social media is immediately in flux. In this section, we identify three trends that have shown early signs of manifesting, and which we believe will meaningfully alter the social media landscape in the near, or not-too-distant, future. Each of these topics impact the stakeholders we mentioned when discussing the immediate social media landscape.

Combatting loneliness and isolation

Social media has made it easier to reach people. When Facebook was founded in 2004, their mission was “to give people the power to build community and bring the world closer together... use Facebook to stay connected with friends and family, to discover what’s going on in the world, and to share and express what matters to them” (Facebook 2019 ). Despite this mission, and the reality that users are more “connected” to other people than ever before, loneliness and isolation are on the rise. Over the last fifty years in the U.S., loneliness and isolation rates have doubled, with Generation Z considered to be the loneliest generation (Cigna 2018 ). Considering these findings with the rise of social media, is the fear that Facebook is interfering with real friendships and ironically spreading the isolation it was designed to conquer something to be considered about (Marche 2012 )?

The role of social media in this “loneliness epidemic” is being hotly debated. Some research has shown that social media negatively impacts consumer well-being. Specifically, heavy social media use has been associated with higher perceived social isolation, loneliness, and depression (Kross et al. 2013 ; Primack et al. 2017 ; Steers et al. 2014 ). Additionally, Facebook use has been shown to be negatively correlated with consumer well-being (Shakya and Christakis 2017 ) and correlational research has shown that limiting social media use to 10 min can decrease feelings of loneliness and depression due to less FOMO (e.g., “fear of missing out;” Hunt et al. 2018 ).

On the other hand, research has shown that social media use alone is not a predictor of loneliness as other factors have to be considered (Cigna 2018 ; Kim et al. 2009 ). In fact, while some research has shown no effect of social media on well-being (Orben et al. 2019 ), other research has shown that social media can benefit individuals through a number of different avenues such as teaching and developing socialization skills, allowing greater communication and access to a greater wealth of resources, and helping with connection and belonging (American Psychological Association 2011 ; Baker and Algorta 2016 ; Marker et al. 2018 ). As well, a working paper by Crolic et al. ( 2019 ) argues that much of the evidence of social media use on consumer well-being is of questionable quality (e.g., small and non-representative samples, reliance on self-reported social media use), and show that some types of social media use are positively associated with psychological well-being over time.

Managerially speaking, companies are beginning to respond as a repercussion of studies highlighting a negative relationship between social media and negative wellbeing. For example, Facebook has created “time limit” tools (mobile operating systems, such as iOS, now also have these time-limiting features). Specifically, users can now check their daily times, set up reminder alerts that pop up when a self-imposed amount of time on the apps is hit, and there is the option to mute notifications for a set period of time (Priday 2018 ). These different features seem well-intentioned and are designed to try and give people a more positive social media experience. Whether these features will be used is unknown.

Future research can address whether or not consumers will use available “timing” tools on one of many devices in which their social media exists (i.e., fake self-policing) or on all of their devices to actually curb behavior. It could also be the case that users will actually spend less time on Facebook and Instagram, but possibly spend that extra time on other competing social media platforms, or attached to devices, which theoretically will not help combat loneliness. Understanding how (and which) consumers use these self-control tools and how impactful they are is a potentially valuable avenue for future research.

One aspect of social media that has yet to be considered in the loneliness discussion through empirical measures, is the quality of use (versus quantity). Facebook ads have begun saying, “The best part of Facebook isn’t on Facebook. It’s when it helps us get together” (Facebook 2019 ). There have been discussions around the authenticity of this type of message, but at its core, in addition to promoting quantity differences, it’s speaking to how consumers use the platform. Possibly, to facilitate this message, social media platforms will find new ways to create friend suggestions between individuals who not only share similar interests and mutual friends to facilitate in-person friendships (e.g., locational data from the mobile app service). Currently there are apps that allow people to search for friends that are physically close (e.g., Bumble Friends), and perhaps social media will go in this same direction to address the loneliness epidemic and stay current.

Future research can examine whether the quantity of use, types of social media platforms, or the way social media is used causally impacts perceived loneliness. Specifically, understanding if the negative correlations found between social media use and well-being are due to the demographics of individuals who use a lot of social media, the way social media works, or the way users choose to engage with the platform will be important for understanding social media’s role (or lack of role) in the loneliness epidemic.

Integrated customer care

Customer care via digital channels as we know it is going to change substantially in the near future. To date, many brands have used social media platforms as a place for providing customer care, addressing customers’ specific questions, and fixing problems. In the future, social media-based customer care is expected to become even more customized, personalized, and ubiquitous. Customers will be able to engage with firms anywhere and anytime, and solutions to customers’ problems will be more accessible and immediate, perhaps even pre-emptive using predictive approaches (i.e., before a customer even notices an issue or has a question pop into their mind).

Even today, we observe the benefits that companies gain from connecting with customers on social media for service- or care-related purposes. Customer care is implemented in dedicated smartphone apps and via direct messaging on social media platforms. However, it appears that firms want to make it even easier for customers to connect with them whenever and wherever they might need. Requiring a customer to download a brand specific app or to search through various social media platforms to connect with firms through the right branded account on a platform can be a cumbersome process. In those cases, customers might instead churn or engage in negative WOM, instead of connecting with the firm to bring up any troubles they might have.

The near future of customer care on social media appears to be more efficient and far-reaching. In a recent review on the future of customer relationship management, Haenlein ( 2017 ) describes “invisible CRM” as future systems that will make customer engagement simple and accessible for customers. New platforms have emerged to make the connection between customer and firm effortless. Much of this is via instant messaging applications for businesses, which several leading technology companies have recently launched as business-related features in existing platforms (e.g., contact business features in Facebook Messenger and WhatsApp or Apple’s Business Chat).

These technologies allow businesses to directly communicate via social media messaging services with their customers. Amazon, Apple, Facebook, and Google are in the process, or have already released early versions of such platforms (Dequier 2018 ). Customers can message a company, ask them questions, or even order products and services through the messaging system, which is often built around chatbots and virtual assistants. This practice is expected to become more widespread, especially because it puts brands and companies into the social media messaging platforms their customers already use to communicate with others, it provides quicker—even instantaneous—responses, is economically scalable through the use of AI-driven chatbots, and, despite the use of chatbots, can provide a more personalized level of customer service.

Another area that companies will greatly improve upon is data collection and analysis. While it is true that data collection on social media is already pervasive today, it is also heavily scrutinized. However, we believe that companies will adapt to the latest regulation changes (e.g., GDPR in Europe, CCPA in California) and improve on collecting and analyzing anonymized data (Kakatkar and Spann 2018 ). Furthermore, even under these new regulations, personalized data collection is still allowed, but severely limits firm’s abilities to exploit consumers’ data, and requires their consent for data collection.

We believe that in the future, companies will be able recognize early indications of problems within customer chatter, behavior, or even physiological data (e.g., monitoring the sensors in our smart watches) before customers themselves even realize they are experiencing a problem. For example, WeWork, the shared workspace company, collects data on how workers move and act in a workspace, building highly personalized workspaces based on trends in the data. Taking this type of approach to customer care will enable “seamless service,” where companies would be able to identify and address consumer problems when they are still small and scattered, and while only a small number of customers are experiencing problems. Customer healthcare is a pioneer in this area, where using twitter and review sites were shown to predict poor healthcare quality (Greaves et al. 2013 ), listen to patients to analyze trending terms (Baktha et al. 2017 ; Padrez et al. 2016 ), or even predict disease outbreaks (Schmidt 2012 ).

Companies, wanting to better understand and mimic human interactions, will invest a lot of R&D efforts into developing better Natural Language Processing, voice and image recognition, emotional analysis, and speech synthesis tools (Sheth 2017 ). For example, Duplex, Google’s latest AI assistant, can already call services on its own and seamlessly book reservations for their users (Welch 2018 ). In the future, AI systems will act as human ability augmenters, allowing us to accomplish more, in less time, and better results (Guszcza 2018 ).

For marketers, this will reduce the need for call centers and agents, reducing points of friction in service and increasing the convenience for customers (Kaplan and Haenlein 2019 ). However, some raise the question that the increased dependence on automation may result in a loss of compassion and empathy. In a recent study, Force (2018) shows that interacting with brands on social media lowered people’s empathy. In response to such concerns, and to educate and incentivize people to interact with machines in a similar way they do with people, Google programmed their AI assistant to respond in a nicer way if you use a polite, rather than a commanding approach (Kumparak 2018 ). While this might help, more research is needed to understand the effect of an AI rich world on human behavior. As well, future research can examine how consumer generated data can help companies preemptively predict consumer distress. Another interesting path for research would be to better understand the difference in consumer engagement between the various platforms, and the long-term effects of service communications with non-human AI and IoT.

Social media as a political tool

Social media is a platform to share thoughts and opinions. This is especially true in the case of disseminating political sentiments. Famously, President Barack Obama’s victory in the 2008 election was partially attributed to his ability to drive and engage voters on social media (Carr 2008 ). Indeed, Bond et al. ( 2012 ) have shown that with simple interventions, social media platforms can increase targeted audiences’ likelihood of voting. Social media is considered one of the major drivers of the 2010 wave of revolutions in Arab countries, also known as the Arab Spring (Brown et al. 2012 ).

While social media is not new to politics, we believe that social media is transitioning to take a much larger role as a political tool in the intermediate future. First evidence for this could be seen in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, as social media took on a different shape, with many purported attempts to influence voter’s opinions, thoughts, and actions. This is especially true for then-candidate and now-President Donald Trump. His use of Twitter attracted a lot of attention during the campaign and has continued to do so during his term in office. Yet, he is not alone, and many politicians changed the way they work and interact with constituents, with a recent example of Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez that even ran a workshop for fellow congress members on social media (Dwyer 2019 ).

While such platforms allow for a rapid dissemination of ideas and concepts (Bonilla and Rosa 2015 ; Bode 2016 ), there are some, both in academia and industry that have raised ethical concerns about using social media for political purposes. Given that people choose who to follow, this selective behavior is said to potentially create echo chambers, wherein, users are exposed only to ideas by like-minded people, exhibiting increased political homophily (Bakshy et al. 2015 ). People’s preference to group with like-minded people is not new. Social in-groups have been shown to promote social identification and promote in-group members to conform to similar ideas (Castano et al. 2002 ; Harton and Bourgeois 2004 ). Furthermore, it was also shown that group members strongly disassociate and distance themselves from outgroup members (Berger and Heath 2008 ; White and Dahl 2007 ). Thus, it is not surprising to find that customized newsfeeds within social media exacerbate this problem by generating news coverage that is unique to specific users, locking them in their purported echo chambers (Oremus 2016 ).

While social media platforms admit that echo chambers could pose a problem, a solution is not clear (Fiegerman 2018 ). One reason that echo chambers present such a problem, is their proneness to fake news. Fake news are fabricated stories that try to disguise themselves as authentic content, in order to affect other social media users. Fake news was widely used in the 2016 U.S. elections, with accusations that foreign governments, such as Iran and Russia, were using bots (i.e., online automatic algorithms), to spread falsified content attacking Hillary Clinton and supporting President Trump (Kelly et al. 2018 ). Recent research has furthermore shown how the Chinese government strategically uses millions of online comments to distract the Chinese public from discussing sensitive issues and promote nationalism (King et al. 2017 ). In their latest incarnation, fake news uses an advanced AI technique called “Deep Fake” to generate ultra-realistic forged images and videos of political leaders while manipulating what those leaders say (Schwartz 2018 ). Such methods can easily fool even the sharpest viewer. In response, research has begun to explore ways that social media platforms can combat fake news through algorithms that determine the quality of shared content (e.g., Pennycook and Rand 2019 ).

One factor that has helped the rise of fake news is echo chambers. This occurs as the repeated sharing of fake news by group members enhance familiarity and support (Schwarz and Newman 2017 ). Repetition of such articles by bots can only increase that effect. Recent research has shown that in a perceived social setting, such as social media, participants were less likely to fact-check information (Jun et al. 2017 ), and avoided information that didn’t fit well with their intuition (Woolley and Risen 2018 ). Schwarz and Newman ( 2017 ) state that misinformation might be difficult to correct, especially if the correction is not issued immediately and the fake news has already settled into the minds of users. It was also shown that even a single exposure to fake news can create long term effect on users, making their effect larger than previously thought (Pennycook et al. 2019 ).

Notably, some research has found that exposure to opposing views (i.e., removing online echo chambers) may in fact increase (versus decrease) polarization (Bail et al. 2018 ). Accordingly, more work from policy makers, businesses, and academics is needed to understand and potentially combat political extremism. For example, policy makers and social media platforms will continually be challenged to fight “fake news” without censoring free speech. Accordingly, research that weighs the risk of limited freedom of expression versus the harms of spreading fake news would yield both theoretical and practically meaningful insights.

The far future

In this section, we highlight three emerging trends we believe will have a have long-term influence on the future of social media. Note that although we label these trends as being in the “far” future, many of the issues described here are already present or emerging. However, they represent more complex issues that we believe will take longer to address and be of mainstream importance for marketing than the six issues discussed previously under the immediate and near futures.

Increased sensory richness

In its early days, the majority of social media posts (e.g., on Facebook, Twitter) were text. Soon, these platforms allowed for the posting of pictures and then videos, and separate platforms dedicated themselves to focus on these specific forms of media (e.g., Instagram and Pinterest for pictures, Instagram and SnapChat for short videos). These shifts have had demonstrable consequences on social media usage and its consequences as some scholars suggest that image-based posts convey greater social presence than text alone (e.g., Pittman and Reich 2016 ). Importantly however, a plethora of new technologies in the market suggest that the future of social media will be more sensory-rich.

One notable technology that has already started infiltrating social media is augmented reality (AR). Perhaps the most recognizable examples of this are Snapchat’s filters, which use a device’s camera to superimpose real-time visual and/or video overlays on people’s faces (including features such as makeup, dog ears, etc.). The company has even launched filters to specifically be used on users’ cats (Ritschel 2018 ). Other social media players quickly joined the AR bandwagon, including Instagram’s recent adoption of AR filters (Rao 2017 ) and Apple’s Memoji messaging (Tillman 2018 ). This likely represents only the tip of the iceberg, particularly given that Facebook, one of the industry’s largest investors in AR technology, has confirmed it is working on AR glasses (Constine 2018 ). Notably, the company plans to launch a developer platform, so that people can build augmented-reality features that live inside Facebook, Instagram, Messenger and Whatsapp (Wagner 2017 ). These developments are supported by academic research suggesting that AR often provides more authentic (and hence positive) situated experiences (Hilken et al. 2017 ). Accordingly, whether viewed through glasses or through traditional mobile and tablet devices, the future of social media is likely to look much more visually augmented.

While AR allows users to interact within their current environments, virtual reality (VR) immerses the user in other places, and this technology is also likely to increasingly permeate social media interactions. While the Facebook-owned company Oculus VR has mostly been focusing on the areas of immersive gaming and film, the company recently announced the launch of Oculus Rooms where users can spend time with other users in a virtual world (playing games together, watching media together, or just chatting; Wagner 2018 ). Concurrently, Facebook Spaces allows friends to meet online in virtual reality and similarly engage with one another, with the added ability to share content (e.g., photos) from their Facebook profiles (Whigham 2018 ). In both cases, avatars are customized to represent users within the VR-created space. As VR technology is becoming more affordable and mainstream (Colville 2018 ) we believe social media will inevitably play a role in the technology’s increasing usage.

While AR and VR technologies bring visual richness, other developments suggest that the future of social media might also be more audible. A new player to the social media space, HearMeOut, recently introduced a platform that enables users to share and listen to 42-s audio posts (Perry 2018 ). Allowing users to use social media in a hands-free and eyes-free manner not only allows them to safely interact with social media when multitasking (particularly when driving), but voice is also said to add a certain richness and authenticity that is often missing from mere text-based posts (Katai 2018 ). Given that podcasts are more popular than ever before (Bhaskar 2018 ) and voice-based search queries are the fastest-growing mobile search type (Robbio 2018 ), it seems likely that this communication modality will accordingly show up more on social media use going forward.

Finally, there are early indications that social media might literally feel different in the future. As mobile phones are held in one’s hands and wearable technology is strapped onto one’s skin, companies and brands are exploring opportunities to communicate to users through touch. Indeed, haptic feedback (technology that recreates the sense of touch by applying forces, vibrations, or motions to the user; Brave et al. 2001 ) is increasingly being integrated into interfaces and applications, with purposes that go beyond mere call or message notifications. For example, some companies are experimenting with integrating haptics into media content (e.g., in mobile ads for Stoli vodka, users feel their phone shake as a woman shakes a cocktail; Johnson 2015 ), mobile games, and interpersonal chat (e.g., an app called Mumble! translates text messages into haptic outputs; Ozcivelek 2015 ). Given the high levels of investment into haptic technology (it is predicted to be a $20 billion industry by 2022; Magnarelli 2018 ) and the communicative benefits that stem from haptic engagement (Haans and IJsselsteijn 2006 ), we believe it is only a matter of time before this modality is integrated into social media platforms.

Future research might explore how any of the new sensory formats mentioned above might alter the nature of content creation and consumption. Substantively-focused researchers might also investigate how practitioners can use these tools to enhance their offerings and augment their interactions with customers. It is also interesting to consider how such sensory-rich formats can be used to bridge the gap between the online and offline spaces, which is the next theme we explore.

Online/offline integration and complete convergence

A discussion occurring across industry and academia is on how marketers can appropriately integrate online and offline efforts (i.e., an omnichannel approach). Reports from industry sources have shown that consumers respond better to integrated marketing campaigns (e.g., a 73% boost over standard email campaigns; Safko 2010 ). In academia meanwhile, the majority of research considering online promotions and advertisements has typically focused on how consumers respond to these strategies through online only measures (e.g., Manchanda et al. 2006 ), though this has begun to change in recent years with more research examining offline consequences to omnichannel strategies (Lobschat et al. 2017 ; Kumar et al. 2017 ).

Considering the interest in integrated marketing strategies over the last few years, numerous strategies have been utilized to follow online and offline promotions and their impacts on behavior such as the usage of hashtags to bring conversations online, call-to-actions, utilizing matching strategies on “traditional” avenues like television with social media. While there is currently online/offline integration strategies in marketing, we believe the future will go even further in blurring the lines between what is offline and online to not just increase the effectiveness of marketing promotions, but to completely change the way customers and companies interact with one another, and the way social media influences consumer behavior not only online, but offline.

For brands, there are a number of possible trends in omnichannel marketing that are pertinent. As mentioned earlier, a notable technology that has begun infiltrating social media is augmented reality (AR). In addition to what already exists (e.g., Snapchat’s filters, Pokémon Go), the future holds even more possibilities. For example, Ikea has been working to create an AR app that allows users to take photos of a space at home to exactly , down to the millimeter size and lighting in the room, showcase what a piece of furniture would look like in a consumer’s home (Lovejoy 2017 ). Another set of examples of AR comes from beauty company L’Oréal. In 2014 for the flagship L’Oréal Paris brand they released a mobile app called Makeup Genius that allowed consumers to virtually try on makeup on their phones (Stephen and Brooks 2018 ). Since then, they have developed AR apps for hair color and nail polish, as well as integrating AR into mobile ecommerce webpages for their luxury beauty brand Lancôme. AR-based digital services such as these are likely to be at the heart of the next stage of offline/online integration.

AR, and similar technology, will likely move above and beyond being a tool to help consumers make better decisions about their purchases. Conceivably, similar to promotions that currently exist to excitse consumers and create communities, AR will be incorporated into promotions that integrate offline and online actions. For example, contests on social media will advance to the stage where users get to vote on the best use of AR technology in conjunction with a brand’s products (e.g., instead of users submitting pictures of their apartments to show why they should win free furniture, they could use AR to show how they would lay out the furniture if they were to win it from IKEA).

Another way that the future of online/offline integration on social media needs to be discussed is in the sense of a digital self. Drawing on the extended self in the digital age (Belk 2013 ), the way consumers consider online actions as relevant to their offline selves may be changing. For example, Belk ( 2013 ) spoke of how consumers may be re-embodied through avatars they create to represent themselves online, influencing their offline selves and creating a multiplicity of selves (i.e., consumers have more choice when it comes to their self-representation). As research has shown how digital and social media can be used for self-presentation, affiliation, and expression (Back et al. 2010 ; Gosling et al. 2007 ; Toubia and Stephen 2013 ; Wilcox and Stephen 2012 ), what does it mean for the future if consumers can create who they want to be?

In addition, when considering digital selves, what does this mean for how consumers engage with brands and products? Currently, social media practice is one where brands encourage consumer engagement online (Chae et al. 2017 ; Godes and Mayzlin 2009 ), yet the implications for how these types of actions on the part of the brand to integrate online social media actions and real-life behavior play out are unclear. Research has begun to delve into the individual-level consequences of a consumer’s social media actions on marketing relevant outcomes (Grewal et al. 2019 ; John et al. 2017 ; Mochon et al. 2017 ; Zhang et al. 2017 ), however much is still unknown. As well, while there is recent work examining how the device used to create and view content online impacts consumer perceptions and behaviors (e.g., Grewal and Stephen 2019 ), to date research has not examined these questions in the context of social media. Therefore, future research could address how digital selves (both those held offline and those that only exist online), social media actions, and if the way consumers reach and use various platforms (i.e., device type, app vs. webpage, etc.) impact consumer behavior, interpersonal relationships, and brand-related measures (e.g., well-being, loyalty, purchase behaviors).

Social media by non-humans

The buzz surrounding AI has not escaped social media. Indeed, social bots (computer algorithms that automatically produce content and interact with social media users; Ferrara et al. 2016 ) have inhabited social media platforms for the last decade (Lee et al. 2011 ), and have become increasingly pervasive. For example, experts estimate that up to 15% of active Twitter accounts are bots (Varol et al. 2017 ), and that percentage appears to be on the rise (Romano 2018 ). While academics and practitioners are highly concerned with bot detection (Knight 2018 ), in the vast majority of current cases, users do not appear to recognize when they are interacting with bots (as opposed to other human users) on social media (Stocking and Sumida 2018 ). While some of these bots are said to be benign, and even useful (e.g., acting as information aggregators), they have also been shown to disrupt political discourse (as mentioned earlier), steal personal information, and spread misinformation (Ferrara et al. 2016 ).

Of course, social bots are not only a problem for social media users but are also a nagging concern plaguing marketers. Given that companies often assess marketing success on social media through metrics like Likes, Shares, and Clicks, the existence of bots poses a growing threat to accurate marketing metrics and methods for ROI estimation, such as attribution modelling (Bilton 2014 ). Similarly, when these bots act as “fake followers,” it can inflate the worth of influencers’ audiences (Bogost 2018 ). This can also be used nefariously by individuals and firms, as shown in a New York Times Magazine expose that documented the market used by some influencers to purchase such “fake” followers to inflate their social media reach (Confessore et al. 2018 ). As discussed above in relation to influencer marketing, where it has been commonplace for influencers to be paid for posts at rates proportionate to their follower counts, there have been perverse incentives to game the system by having non-human “fake” bot followers. This, however, erodes consumer trust in the social media ecosystem, which is a growing issue and a near-term problem for many firms using social media channels for marketing purposes.

However, there are instances when consumers do know they are interacting with bots, and do not seem to mind. For example, a number of virtual influencers (created with CGI, as mentioned earlier) seem to be garnering sizeable audiences, despite the fact they are clearly non-human (Walker 2018 ). One of the most popular of these virtual influencers, Lil Miquela, has over 1.5 million followers on Instagram despite openly confessing, “I am not a human being... I’m a robot” (Yurieff 2018 ). Future research might try to understand the underlying appeal of these virtual influencers, and the potential boundary conditions of their success.

Another category of social bots gaining increasing attention are therapy bots. These applications (e.g., “Woebot;” Molteni 2017 ) aim to support the mental health of users by proactively checking in on them, “listening” and chatting to users at any time and recommending activities to improve users’ wellbeing (de Jesus 2018 ). Similar bots are being used to “coach” users, and help them quit maladaptive behaviors, like smoking (e.g., QuitGenius; Crook 2018 ). Interestingly, by being explicitly non-human, these agents are perceived to be less judgmental, and might accordingly be easier for users to confide in.

Finally, the Internet of Things revolution has ushered in with it the opportunity for a number of tangible products and interfaces to “communicate” via social media. For example, in what started as a design experiment, “Brad,” a connected toaster, was given the ability to “communicate” with other connected toasters, and to tweet his “feelings” when neglected or under-used (Vanhemert 2014 ). While this experiment was deliberately designed to raise questions about the future of consumer-product relationships (and product-product “relationships”), the proliferation of autonomous tangible devices does suggest a future in which they have a “voice,” even in the absence of humans (Hoffman and Novak 2018 ).

Going forward, we believe the presence of bots on social media will be more normalized, but also more regulated (e.g., a recent law passed in California prevents bots from masquerading as humans; Smith 2018 ). Further, consumers and companies alike will be become increasingly interested in how bots communicate and interact with each other outside of human involvement. This brings up interesting potential research questions for academics and practitioners alike. How will the presence of non-humans change the nature of content creation and conversation in social media? And how should companies best account for the presence of non-humans in their attribution models?

Future research directions and conclusion

This article has presented nine themes pertinent to the future of social media as it relates to (and is perhaps influenced by) marketing. The themes have implications for individuals/consumers, businesses and organizations, and also public policymakers and governments. These themes, which represent our own thinking and a synthesis of views from extant research, industry experts, and popular public discourse, are of course not the full story of what the future of social media will entail. They are, however, a set of important issues that we believe will be worth considering in both academic research and marketing practice.

To stimulate future research on these themes and related topics, we present a summary of suggested research directions in Table ​ Table2. 2 . These are organized around our nine themes and capture many of the suggested research directions mentioned earlier. As a sub-field within the field of marketing, social media is already substantial and the potential for future research—based on identified needs for new knowledge and answers to perplexing questions—suggests that this sub-field will become even more important over time. We encourage researchers to consider the kinds of research directions in Table ​ Table2 2 as examples of issues they could explore further. We also encourage researchers in marketing to treat social media as a place where interesting (and often very new) consumer behaviors exist and can be studied. As we discussed earlier in the paper, social media as a set of platform businesses and technologies is interesting, but it is how people use social media and the associated technologies that is ultimately of interest to marketing academics and practitioners. Thus, we urge scholars to not be overly enticed by the technological “shiny new toys” at the expense of considering the behaviors associated with those technologies and platforms.

Suggested directions for future research

Finally, while we relied heavily (though not exclusively) on North American examples to illustrate the emergent themes, there are likely interesting insights to be drawn by explicitly exploring cross-cultural differences in social media usage. For example, variations in regulatory policies (e.g., GDPR in the European Union) may lead to meaningful differences in how trust and privacy concerns manifest. Further, social media as a political tool might be more influential in regions where the mainstream media is notoriously government controlled and censored (e.g., as was the case in many of the Arab Spring countries). While such cross-cultural variation is outside the scope of this particular paper, we believe it represents an area of future research with great theoretical and practical value.

In reviewing the social media ecosystem and considering where it is heading in the context of consumers and marketing practice, we have concluded that this is an area that is very much still in a state of flux. The future of social media in marketing is exciting, but also uncertain. If nothing else, it is vitally important that we better understand social media since it has become highly culturally relevant, a dominant form of communication and expression, a major media type used by companies for advertising and other forms of communication, and even has geopolitical ramifications. We hope that the ideas discussed here stimulate many new ideas and research, which we ultimately hope to see being mentioned and shared across every type of social media platform.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the special issue editors and reviewers for their comments, and the Oxford Future of Marketing Initiative for supporting this research. The authors contributed equally and are listed in alphabetical order or, if preferred, order of Marvel superhero fandom from highest to lowest and order of Bon Jovi fandom from lowest to highest.

Mark Houston served as accepting editor for this article.

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Gil Appel, Email: ude.csu.llahsram@leppag .

Lauren Grewal, Email: [email protected] .

Rhonda Hadi, Email: [email protected] .

Andrew T. Stephen, Email: [email protected] .

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Connecting with fans in the digital age: an exploratory and comparative analysis of social media management in top football clubs

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• Business and management
• Cultural and media studies

In a globalised society, characterised by increasingly demanding markets and the accelerated growth of the digital approach, sports organisations face the challenge of connecting with fans, generating and maintaining audiences and communicating with stakeholders creatively and efficiently. Social media has become a fundamental tool, with engagement as a critical measurement element. However, despite its popularity and use, many questions about its application, measurement and real potential in the sports sector still need to be answered. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to carry out a descriptive and comparative analysis of the engagement generated through social media posts by elite football clubs in Europe, South America and North America. To this purpose, 19,745 Facebook, Twitter and Instagram posts were analysed, through the design, validation and application of an observation instrument, using content analysis techniques. The findings show evidence of a priority focus on “Marketing” and “Sports” type messages in terms of frequency, with high engagement rates. They were also showing a growing stream of “ESG” type messages, with a low posting frequency but engagement rates similar to “Marketing” and “Sport”. “Institutional” messages remain constant in all football clubs. “Commercial” messages still have growth potential in both regards, frequency and engaging fans, representing an opportunity for digital assets. Also, specific format combinations that generate greater engagement were identified: “text/image” and “text/videos” are the format combinations more used by football clubs on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram; however, resulting in different engagement rates. This study showed evidence of different social media management strategies adopted according to region, obtaining similar engagement rates. This research concludes with theoretical and practical applications that will be of interest to both academics and practitioners to maximise the potential of social media for fan engagement, social initiatives and as a marketing tool.

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Introduction.

In a context of booming technology and high organisational competitiveness (Ratten, 2020 ), digital tools have evolved from an essential add-on to crucial strategic and operational elements in sports organisations (Stegmann et al., 2021 ). Fans increasingly demand a connection with their favourite athletes and teams (Su et al., 2020 ) through digital channels such as social media, podcasts (Rohden et al., 2023 ), Esports (Cuesta-Valiño et al., 2022 ), among others. Today’s digitised world presents therefore, an opportunity for brands, sponsors, sports properties, and other stakeholders to interact in a complex and emotionally charged sector (Su et al., 2022 ) for fans from different age generations (Sheldon et al., 2021 ). Understanding and getting to know fans are at the forefront of every sports organisation’s objective.

Social media plays a fundamental role due to their ability to reach multiple audiences faster and generate a sense of connection with fans through a key measurement element: engagement (Doyle et al., 2022 ). Sports organisations, specifically football clubs, invest time, people and resources in managing social media to achieve their brand positioning and commercial and communication objectives (Anagnostopoulos et al., 2018 ; Maderer et al., 2018 ), with Facebook, Twitter and more recently, Instagram, being the most widely used (Abeza et al., 2019 ; Machado et al., 2020 ). However, the real potential of social media and its optimal use still poses many questions to be answered.

Although there are previous studies that have explored some aspects of social media in a sports context (e.g., Anagnostopoulos et al., 2018 ; Mastromartino and Naraine, 2022 ; Su et al., 2020 ), the potential impact and efficiency of content posted by football clubs on their social media channels remains unclear. For example, several studies point to various factors that contribute to fan engagement on social media depending on elements such as the type of content, the format used (e.g. photo, text or a combination of both) or the social media platform (see Einsle et al., 2023 ; Maderer et al., 2018 ; Su et al., 2020 ). This gap in the literature prompts a call to action from across the domains of sports marketing and sports management. Identifying the elements generated by football clubs on their official social media profiles can help them improve their marketing strategies and better support their fans. Based on this need and opportunity for management improvement, this study addresses the following research question:

RQ . What are the main characteristics of Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram posts from elite football clubs to understand the content type, format and social media platform that generate the highest engagement among social media consumers?

Grounded on the theoretical framework of relationship marketing, the main objective of this study is to carry out a descriptive and comparative analysis of the engagement generated through social media posts on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram by elite football clubs in Europe, South America and North America, using a categorisation approach developed from an existing model in the literature (see Solanellas et al., 2022 ), as well as the identification of key elements of high-impact social media posts. For this purpose, a new instrument was designed, validated and applied to analyse the use of social media as a marketing tool in sports management. By conducting this exploration, this paper contributes to the literature on sports marketing by identifying which social media and which types of content provoke the most interaction among fans. As a result, football team managers can gain a better understanding of how to target and personalise potential commercial and branding actions, thereby reinforcing the loyalty and commitment of fans to football clubs, and opening or consolidating new lines of action aligned with the strategic objectives of sport entities. Furthermore, the findings and conclusions presented in this study can assist sports managers in the decision-making process, as well as in planning, organising, directing, and effectively controlling social media platforms, thus enhancing engagement with fans in a digital environment.

The article is structured as follows. Firstly, the literature review presents the main theoretical and conceptual elements, focusing on social media and their relationship with marketing theory in sports and football. Secondly, the methodological aspects guiding the study’s process are detailed, including sample, instrument, research procedure, and data analysis. Thirdly, the study’s main results are presented. Fourth, the discussion section critically examines the findings in the context of existing literature, offering practical and theoretical implications for both academics and practitioners. Finally, the study concludes with the main conclusions and limitations.

Literature review

Social media and sports, a combination of great potential.

Social media is a collective term for media tools, platforms, and applications allowing consumers to connect, communicate, and collaborate (Williams and Chinn, 2010 ). They encourage interaction between users and the organisation and provide information from customers and the organisation faster than through conventional media (Kümpel et al., 2015 ; Shilbury et al., 2014 ). Furthermore, social media is considered a mass phenomenon due to its ability to transmit information in an agile and interactive way (Vivar, 2009 ), as well as a unique form of communication that transcends geographical and social boundaries through the instantaneous communication of information (Filo et al., 2015 ). Social Media is used in different sectors for marketing activities (Chen, 2023 ), brand equity and loyalty (Malarvizhi et al., 2022 ) to understand consumer´s behaviour, brand positioning, business revenue opportunities and social communication (Ramos et al., 2019 ). However, although the first studies about this phenomenon have been explored in the sports industry field, there is still a need for more evidence about its real potential, essential elements, and efficiency measurement in the sector.

Due to the high graphic, interactive and visual content of social media, their use in the sports industry, a sector of strong emotional influence, has become more relevant and pervasive in the last decade (Hull and Abeza, 2021 ), where the interest of the viewer has become crucial and increasingly demanding (Nisar et al. 2018 ). The differences that make the sports industry unique and particular are, among others: immediate results and changes (Davis and Hilbert, 2013 ) in addition to the fact that every decision is “in the spotlight” of the public (alluding to the complexity of fans, athletes, coaches, media and other stakeholders). Thus, athletes, teams and sports organisations have been using social media as part of their public relations and communication efforts (Filo et al., 2015 ; Pegoraro, 2010 ; Yan et al., 2019 ) to engage with their partners and fans (Zakerian et al., 2022 ), promoting interactions and increasing engagement with the sport product, as well as with the team in general (Abeza et al., 2019 ; Parganas and Anagnostopoulos, 2015 ).

The linking of social media within the integrated marketing communication process has changed communication strategies and consumer outreach, where marketing managers must include these tools when developing and executing their customer-focused promotional strategies (Lee and Kahle, 2016 ; Rehman et al., 2022 ). On the other hand, social media, directly and indirectly, impacts revenue generation and favours negotiation with sponsors due to their notoriety, visibility, and reach (Mastromartino and Naraine, 2022 ; Parganas and Anagnostopoulos, 2015 ). They are therefore considered a key tool for building and enhancing a brand’s reputation (Maderer et al., 2018 ) and an ideal platform to advertise and increase the visibility of a brand or company, as well as to interact with and analyse the actions of their fans and followers (Abeza et al., 2017 ; García-Fernández et al., 2015 ; Herrera-Torres et al., 2017 ).

Social media has also been used in sports education in recent years (Sanz-Labrador et al., 2021 ). Moreover, their application is increasingly common in construction and dissemination related to social responsibility (López-Carril and Anagnostopoulos, 2020 ; Sharpe et al., 2020 ). In this way, they have also become a key tool for interacting with fans, addressing a strengthened social approach, and gaining engagement from athletes, sponsors, and authorities (Einsle et al., 2023 ; Oviedo et al., 2014 ; Su et al., 2020 ). Beyond the digital environment, Cuesta-Valiño et al. ( 2021 ) pointed out the relevance of considering the emerging sustainable management approach to measure sports organisations’ goals. One of the most relevant challenges for this industry is to issue social media posts efficiently, using the proper formatting resources and at the right time, to generate the most significant possible impact and engagement.

Relationship marketing theory applied to social media in sports

The sports industry is a fast-growing and increasingly diverse market worldwide (Kim and Andrew, 2016 ). Football (soccer in North America) is one of the most popular sports worldwide as well as a cultural manifestation, characterised by its high emotional level and economic, political and social relevance (Bucher and Eckl, 2022 ; Petersen-Wagner and Ludvigsen, 2022 ). Only in Spain, the sports sector generates 3.3% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), of which 1.37% is produced through football (PWC, 2020 ).

Globalisation has demanded an adaptation at all levels due to the endless search for immediacy and access to information, where the business of sports is becoming more and more relationship-based and the importance of generating engagement (Einsle et al., 2023 ; Fried and Mumcu, 2017 ; García-Fernández et al., 2017 ) is one of the most relevant variables in generating loyalty in sports organisations (Loranca-Valle et al., 2021 ; Núñez-Barriopedro et al., 2021 ). Sports consumers are seen as “channels” through which sports products can be promoted (O’Shea and Alonso, 2011 ), and sports fans have become both the consumer and the advocates of the product. This is where relationship marketing theory helps us to better understand this phenomenon. As Abeza and Sanderson ( 2022 , p. 287) point out, relationship marketing theory “is based on the idea that a relationship between two parties creates additional value for those involved”. This theory is one of the most widely used to understand the phenomenon of social media in sports (Abeza and Sanderson, 2022 ) as highlighted by numerous authors who have used it in their studies (e.g., Abeza et al., 2017 , 2019 , 2020 ; Su et al., 2020 ; Williams and Chinn, 2010 ).

Merging the roots of relationship marketing theory (Möller and Halinen, 2000 ) and the particular characteristics of the sports sector, and taking into account the perspective of short-term transactions and immediate economic benefits (Abeza et al., 2017 ), social media represents opportunities for better knowledge about fans, more advanced consumer–organisation interaction, efficient fan engagement, efficient use of resources and agile evaluation of the relationship between fans and organisation (Abeza et al., 2019 , 2020 ). In view of this, and in line with Abeza and Sanderson ( 2022 ), social media thus becomes a channel through which to establish, maintain and cultivate long-term relationships beneficial to both parties (in our study, football clubs and fans).

Previous studies have addressed the use of specific social media in the context of sports, such as Facebook (Achen, 2019 ; Meng et al., 2015 ; Pegoraro et al., 2017 ; Waters et al., 2009 ), Twitter (Blaszka et al., 2012 ; Hambrick et al., 2010 ; Lovejoy and Saxton, 2012 ; Winand et al., 2019 ; Witkemper et al., 2012 ) and Instagram (Anagnostopoulos et al., 2018 ; Machado et al., 2020 ; Zakerian et al., 2022 ), because of the relevance in the use of these platforms in the sports sector. From another broader perspective, Solanellas et al. ( 2022 ) propose a practical analysis of multiple social media in sports organisations from a content categorisation point of view.

The results and contributions of the studies mentioned above, reveal the importance of further exploring the social media fan engagement phenomenon as a strategic perspective (Tafesse and Wien, 2018 ) and the added value that social media can generate in sports. In this sense, it is relevant for sports managers to know which techniques, methodologies and perspectives to use. Furthermore, as stated by Abeza and Sanderson ( 2022 ), it is necessary to go deeper into the theories behind its use. Taking these aspects into account, this work presents a new instrument of observation and measurement of social media posts by football organisations, as a basis for understanding and deepening the knowledge about the digital audience and its impact on the different objectives of the organisation. Thus, the study draws on relationship marketing theory to better understand how sports managers can make the most of the possibilities offered by social media to generate added value from the interaction between fans and football clubs. Particularly, the developed instrument focuses on the analysis of the type of content published by football clubs, categorising it into dimensions, as well as the engagement of the different publications according to the type of dimension to which they belong.

With a view to the implementation of the instrument, and to contribute to the literature related to the use of social media as a marketing tool in sports, this study analyses Facebook, Twitter and Instagram posts issued by elite football clubs from Europe, South America and North America, using a practical approach to content categorisation and taking the engagement factor as a key element for comparison.

Methodology

This study adopts an exploratory, descriptive, and comparative research design (Andrew et al., 2011 ) using the observational method and content analysis techniques. Content analysis involves the recounting and comparison of content, followed by the interpretation of the underlying context. It has been widely used in social media communication research, specifically in sports settings (e.g., Anagnostopoulos et al., 2018 ; Wang and Zhou, 2015 ; Winand et al., 2019 ), to interpret textual data through systematic classification, coding, and identifying themes or patterns (Hsieh and Shannon, 2005 ). First, exploratory studies are particularly useful when the phenomenon under investigation is in constant evolution (such as social media as a marketing tool), as well as when there are several factors and variables at play (Andrew et al., 2011 ). In this study, these are linked to the engagement that can be caused by the type of content or format used by elite football clubs on their social media accounts. Second, the descriptive aspect of the research design aims to describe and quantify the engagement levels in social media for the selected football clubs. By Collecting and analysing quantitative data on the interaction metrics, including likes, comments, shares, and follower counts, the study provided a comprehensive overview of the current state of engagement, and other variables, among the clubs, helping to build a foundation for further analysis and comparison. Lastly, the comparative aspect of the research design (Andrew et al., 2011 ) is valuable in this study because it enables a cross-regional analysis of three of the most traditional social media platforms. The study compared the engagement practices, elements, and strategies across three key regions of the football industry worldwide. Understanding potential differences can be useful for sports managers to design more optimised social media marketing strategies.

Considering the study design and observational method applied in this research (Anguera-Argilaga et al., 2011 ), a nonprobable sample design (see Battaglia, 2008 ) was established following several steps to make the following three decisions: (1) selection of football clubs, (2) social media platforms, and (3) period of time studied.

First, a geographical criterion was used to determine the origin of the football clubs under study. This criterion was based on a comprehensive and global perspective, considering factors such as historical significance, popularity, sporting achievements, and the modernisation of football worldwide. Based on these considerations, three regions were selected for analysis: Europe and South America, renowned for their broad global relevance and football tradition (e.g., the winning national teams of the 22 editions of the FIFA World Cup so far are from Europe and South America [Venkat, 2023 ]). Next, North America was chosen for its ascending market growth potential and global efforts to promote football. This is exemplified by upcoming milestones, such as the organisation of the FIFA World Cup 2026 in the United States, Mexico, and Canada, as well as the recent arrival of Lionel Messi into Major League Soccer (see Mizrahi, 2023 ). These three regions are governed by the three most influential regional football bodies of FIFA: Europe (UEFA), South America (CONMEBOL), and North America (CONCACAF). Second, to select the most relevant football clubs in these three regions, we followed some of the selection criteria set in similar studies (e.g., Anagnostopoulos et al., 2018 ; Maderer et al., 2018 ). Therefore, the rankings of four of the most influential football organisations or websites were considered: (1) the International Federation of Football History and Statistics (IFFHS) club ranking, (2) the Football World Rankings website, (3) the FIFA club and league ranking, and (4) the Transfermarkt player ranking website (of great relevance in the player transfer market). As a result of this process, 24 teams were pre-selected (9 from Europe, 9 from South America and 6 from North America) according to the objectives and the study design and the author’s agreement (Andrew et al., 2011 ; Anguera-Argilaga et al., 2011 ; Battaglia, 2008 ; Hernández-Sampieri et al., 2014 ). Finally, a random draw was made resulting in a selection of six teams from Europe, six from South America and four from North America (with a limit of two teams per league). This process resulted in the 16 teams whose use of social media is analysed in this study (see Table 1 ).

Following, social media to be analysed in the study were selected. It was noted in the literature that Facebook had been one of the first social media to be used by football clubs and other sports organisations, either to connect with fans or purely for informational purposes (Achen, 2019 ; Waters et al., 2009 ). Twitter and Instagram are also platforms that have become relevant, not only for marketers in sports but also in other sectors (Anagnostopoulos et al., 2018 ; Wang and Zhou, 2015 ). Although the use of Facebook, Twitter and Instagram as marketing tools for football clubs has been studied (e.g., Machado et al. 2020 ; Maderer et al. 2018 ; Nisar et al., 2018 ), there is a lack of literature comparing their potential engagement across a sample of teams from different geographic regions. Thus, it was deemed appropriate to select these three social media sources for our study.

Finally, the periods over which the publications were to be extracted were determined. Among other authors, Ashley and Tuten ( 2015 ) point out that, in a social media environment, two to four weeks are sufficient for a wide variety of posts to be made in a regular and cyclical context, excluding exceptional milestones or events that could have an extraordinary impact on engagement and that could bias regular reading. Therefore, 45 days for each club and each social media is set as an appropriate observation period.

Once the sample selection criteria had been defined, the links of all publications from the clubs selected in the study on the three social media were extracted through the Fanpage Karma software that allows data to be collected and interpreted (Lozano-Blasco et al., 2021 ). After prior data analysis, the final sample consisted of 19,745 publications, a very similar figure to that used in other related studies (e.g., Maderer et al., 2018 ; Yan et al., 2019 ).

Instrument and research procedure

Based on the review of the techniques and methodologies used to analyse the use of social media as a marketing tool for football clubs in previous studies, we proceeded to design and develop an observation and data collection instrument in a Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet (.xlsx format), taking as a starting point the model of content analysis proposed by Solanellas et al. ( 2022 ). Due to the nature of the study, the .xlsx data collection format was chosen for its flexibility, allowing for manual data collection and the application of the categorisation tool post-by-post. This format has been successfully used as a data collection tool in previous social media content analysis studies in football (e.g., López-Carril and Anagnostopoulos, 2020 ).

To ensure its rigour, the codebook was subsequently submitted for review to nine field experts. The selection of these experts was undertaken via judgmental nonprobability sampling, a method commonly employed in the literature due to the specialised and ever-evolving nature of the subject (Andrew et al., 2011 ). These individuals were chosen based on specific criteria, encompassing their professional roles in specialised, coordinating, managerial, or directorial positions tied to the digital domain. Moreover, their academic background, particularly in marketing, methodology, or digital tools, was considered. To ensure an extensive grasp of the subject matter, the chosen experts were required to have a minimum of five years of experience in the area and to be actively participating in their respective roles. This approach aimed to incorporate diverse viewpoints, offering insights from a spectrum of angles relevant to this research. As a result, the panel of experts was comprised of the following professionals: the Head of Digital from a prominent European professional football league (1), a Marketing Manager and an International Communications Manager from leading professional football clubs (2), Directors of digital marketing and branding agencies (2), professors specialising in marketing and sports management at Spanish universities (2), and the Vice-President of Sales along with the Head of Digital from sports business intelligence consultancies (2).

Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with these chosen experts to delve into pertinent aspects linked to the study. An interview guide was developed, following the methodological aspects indicated in specialised works in this field (see Andrew et al., 2011 ; Anguera-Argilaga et al., 2011 ). Furthermore, the interview guide encompassed critical aspects of social media management and relevant facets of football club management (e.g., post formats, observation timeframes, platforms for capturing and analysing social media posts), drawing upon the elements and variables derived from studies conducted by Parganas and Anagnostopoulos ( 2015 ) as well as Solanellas et al. ( 2022 ). Additionally, these interviews comprised discussions about the conception and execution of the observation tool, which was employed as a supplementary instrument for data collection. Further variables relevant to the research objectives were explored within these interviews.

The qualitative insights garnered from the experts’ conclusive remarks offered valuable suggestions that contributed to refining the study’s development and enhancing the observation tool. This iterative approach ensured the harmonisation of the tool with the research objectives and its effective alignment with the study’s research questions. After incorporating the modifications suggested in the experts’ evaluations, the study’s codebook adhered to the variables and categories illustrated in Table 2 .

The .xlsx instrument sheet was then pilot-tested. Seventy-five publications (25 from Facebook, 25 from Instagram and 25 from Twitter) from three different football clubs were randomly selected, conforming to a total sample of 225 publications. The data were collected in an observation sheet in .xlxs format for analysis purposes. During the analysis process, including the discussion of possible discrepancies in interpreting each publication as belonging to one or another of the dimensions of the study’s codebook, the authors decided that each publication would be classified only in one dimension, depending on the type of content that predominates in each post.

To measure the level of reliability and accuracy of the instrument (Andrew et al., 2011 ), the intra-observer reliability method was applied, incorporating 10–12 minute breaks every 40–45 min of observation. After 15 days, the same publications were re-coded using the same established protocol. The results of the coding provided a Kappa coefficient of 0.949, demonstrating a very high level of agreement and reliability, following the scale of Landis and Koch ( 1977 ).

To measure the reliability and accuracy of the instrument (Andrew et al. 2011 ), the intra-observer reliability method was applied. In the first stage, the data was collected and coded post-by-post by applying the xlsx. sheet, incorporating 10–12 minute breaks every 40–45 min of observation to ensure the quality of the data observed and collected. The same posts were re-coded using the same established protocol in the second stage. To ensure a more accurate application of the codebook and to avoid potential bias, a 15-day impasse was established between the two data collections. The coding results between the two stages provided a Kappa coefficient of 0.949, demonstrating a very high level of agreement and reliability, following the scale of Landis and Koch ( 1977 ).

Finally, based on the interaction data collected with the data collection instrument, the variable of engagement with the publications was calculated by adapting the formulas used by the Fanpage Karma ( 2022 ) and Rival IQ (Feehan, 2023 ) platforms (Fig. 1 ).

Adapted from Fanpage Karma ( 2022 ) and Rival IQ (Feehan, 2023 ) platforms.

Therefore, after the protocol and the .xlsx observation instrument sheet were tested and validated, the final procedure was established as follows: (a) social media posts from Facebook, Twitter and Instagram of the selected football clubs were extracted automatically using the FanPage Karma license and added to the .xlsx observation instrument sheet; (b) according to the Study Codebook (see Table 2 ) the data was collected and registered manually into the .xlsx observation instrument sheet by clicking the posts one by one; c) we proceeded to set up a database coding the variables from the data collected to perform the statistical analyses.

Data analysis

A descriptive analysis of the engagement generated by publications on social media and their content (dimensions and formats) on Facebook, Instagram and Twitter was carried out. To analyse the differences in engagement generated by the posts on each social media according to their content, we used the t-test for independent samples and the one-factor ANOVA. The significance value established is <0.05. A chi-square test and correspondence analysis were applied to identify and visualise points of association between the key variables. Data analysis was performed using the SPSS statistical package, version 27.0.

As shown in Table 3 , of the 19,745 posts observed and analysed, Twitter accounted for 64%, followed by Facebook at 22% and Instagram at 14%. However, from the point of view of engagement, Instagram reflects an average of 1.873, well above the other social media. Facebook follows it with 0.112 and Twitter with 0.045, showing an inverse behaviour to the number of posts made.

Frequency and engagement

In Fig. 2 , we can observe the strategy used by each club in terms of the frequency of posts on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram, as well as the levels of engagement obtained. On Facebook, the football clubs analysed posts at different frequencies. In Europe, we observe that the clubs with the highest frequency of posts are Liverpool FC and Manchester United FC, with n  = 445 and n  = 486, respectively. In contrast, the Spanish clubs (Real Madrid FC and FC Barcelona) have the lowest frequency of posts ( n  = 195 and n  = 118, respectively). On the other hand, beyond this difference in frequency, they have very similar engagement ratios.

Frequency of posts and level of engagement generated on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram by the football clubs selected for this study (organised by regions).

The club with the highest frequency of publications is CR Flamengo from Brazil ( n  = 644); however, SE Palmeiras, the other Brazilian club studied, despite registering fewer publications in the same period ( n  = 289), shows much higher levels of engagement. SE Palmeiras (Brazil), Club Olimpia and Club Cerro Porteño (Paraguay), CF America (Mexico) and Atlanta United FC (USA) show the highest levels of engagement, with similar posting frequencies (between n  = 142 and n  = 241). On Twitter, the highest frequencies of posts were published compared to Facebook and Instagram, with CR Flamengo and Atlanta United FC being the clubs that posted the most ( n  = 1606 and n  = 2096, respectively). However, the levels of engagement identified show similar and homogeneous levels in the period analysed, regardless of the frequency of publications. On the other hand, the highest engagement levels were observed on Instagram, with a lower frequency of publications in all cases. Football clubs SE Palmeiras, CA River Plate, CF America and Atlanta United FC have the highest engagement values (2.5 and 3), with posting frequencies ranging from n  = 91 to n  = 154. European football clubs have very similar engagement ratios (around 1.00), while North American football clubs have different engagement values despite having similar posting frequencies ( n  = 91 and n  = 154).

Content dimensions of publications

As shown in Fig. 3 , we observe the dimensions proposed in this study, comparing the social media analysed and the engagement generated by each category. From this point of view, in terms of frequency, the “Marketing” and “Sport” dimensions are observed as the most used publication approaches by football clubs, followed by the “Institutional” dimension, “Commercial” and, finally, “ESG”. This order of frequency applies to Facebook, Twitter and Instagram.

Categorisation in the posts’ dimensions and their relationship with the engagement generated by Facebook, Twitter and Instagram of the football clubs analysed.

In terms of engagement, the social media Instagram is the one that registers considerably higher values than the rest of the social media analysed, with the “Marketing” dimension generating the highest engagement (2.03). It is followed by the “Institutional” dimension (1.78) and the “Sports” dimension (1.74), closing with the “Commercial” and “ESG” dimensions, with values of 1.54 and 1.41, respectively. Facebook is the following social media that generates the highest engagement.

In the case of Facebook (see Supplementary Table S1 ), the findings show a significance of the engagement means between the “Commercial” and the “Sports” ( p  = 0.000 < 0.05), “Institutional” ( p  = 0.001 < 0.05) and “Marketing” type of the posts in Facebook.

On the other hand, Twitter (see Supplementary Table S2 ) is the one that generates the minor engagement, with very similar values between the different dimensions, despite being the one with the highest frequency of publications (Fig. 3 ). Unlike the previous dimensions, the “Institutional”, “ESG”, and “Commercial” dimensions are those with the highest engagement values (0.07), followed by the “Marketing” and “Sports” dimensions (both with 0.04). However, in this social media platform, the “Institutional” type of content is statistically significant with “Sports” ( p  = 0.000 < 0.05), “Commercial” ( p  = 0.000 < 0.05) and “Marketing” ( p  = 0.000 < 0.05). Also, we can find significant engagement results between the “ESG” and the “Commercial” ( p  = 0.033 < 0.05) dimensions.

On Instagram (see Supplementary Table S3 ), the “Marketing” dimension has the highest engagement value, as does the “Institutional” dimension (both with 0.12). It is followed by the “Sports” dimension (0.11), “ESG” (0.10) and finally, “Commercial” (0.07) (Fig. 3 ). Nevertheless, as difference of Facebook and Twitter, the findings show a strong relevance of “Marketing” dimensions posts (Supplementary Table S3 ), linked significantly with “Sports” ( p  = 0.000 < 0.05), “Commercial” ( p  = 0.000 < 0.05) and “Institutional” ( p  = 0.002 < 0.05).

Types of formats in publications

Nine combinations of the most relevant formats have been identified in the publications analysed (Table 4 ), both in the frequency of use and engagement they generate.

On Facebook, the most frequent formats are “Text/Image” and “Text/Video” ( n  = 2031 and n  = 1265, respectively). However, the format with the highest engagement is “Image” (0.23), followed by “Text/Image” (0.13), “Text/Video” (0.12) and “Text/Link” (0.07). On Twitter, on the other hand, the “Text/Image” format is the most used ( n  = 4412), “Text” ( n  = 2499), “Text/Video” ( n  = 2239) and “Image” ( n  = 1534), with the “Text/Video” and “Text/Image” format combinations (0.07) registering the highest engagement. On Instagram, due to the nature of social media, the most frequent format is “Text/Image” ( n  = 1986). In terms of engagement, the formats “Image” (2.20), “Text/Image” (1.95), “Text/Image/Polls” (1.93) and “Video” (1.84) have the highest values.

The correspondence analysis (Fig. 4 ) shows the degree of association between the variables and the categorisation dimensions proposed in this study in a relative position map. The chi-squared test yielded a result of 1027.65. The “Marketing” dimension shows a closer relationship with the “video” and “image” format resources. The “ESG” and “Institutional” content type shows an association with the “Image” and “Text” formats. The “Commercial” dimension, based on the characteristics of the categorisation, shows a relationship with the “Link” format as ideal points of association, considering the frequency and engagement analysed.

Correspondence analysis (dimensions and formats).

Nowadays, sports organisations and athletes use social media for communication purposes, brand positioning, visibility (Maderer et al., 2018 ; Winand et al., 2019 ; Zakerian et al., 2022 ) and even for potential business (Parganas and Anagnostopoulos, 2015 ), dedicating effort and resources. Previous studies reinforce the need to categorise the message delivered to understand this phenomenon according to the objective (Filo et al., 2015 ) and content analysis for effect (Meng et al., 2015 ). However, its optimal use still leaves many questions. The complexity of the market is evolving towards the need to understand the fan as a premise in a sector characterised by its high emotional charge. In the past, strategies focused on attracting and retaining fans. However, the current trend shows increased relevance in generating engagement (Oviedo et al., 2014 ) to generate links with fans. The sports industry, especially in the digital environment, is in an era where the goal is not just getting new followers and post social media content but interact and engage “to know the users better”.

First, this study provides evidence of relevant frequency-engagement relationships according to the dimensions of the study, depending on the type of social media used (Facebook, Twitter and Instagram). Regarding the dimensions of the content published, the posts related to “Marketing” and “Sport” are the most frequent due to the natural and traditional use of these tools as communicative, brand positioning and informative elements (Lee and Kahle, 2016 ; Rehman et al., 2022 ; Winand et al., 2019 ). This is attributable to the need for clubs to generate emotional content (such as videos or images of past iconic matches or campaigns involving athletes), on the one hand, and to broadcast messages alluding to sporting performance and results. Nevertheless, the findings show different engagement impacts not directly linked to the frequency of the posts but influenced by other elements, such as the social media platform, the dimension of the content and the format. The evidence shows there are specific content dimensions that statistically generate more engagement in each platform.

On Facebook, the most traditional platform football clubs use provides a more balanced frequency-engagement ratio, with a strong engagement with “commercial” content. This platform was one of the social media platforms that started monetising in other industries, characterised for its high brand impact, where the know-how and the platform interphase are more friendly to focus on this type of posts (and in some cases, to launch joint posts with brands). Even with the positive engagement impact of this platform, it is observed that efforts of this nature in the digital sphere are scarce in comparison to the rest, making this a relevant aspect in the spectrum of growth and an opportunity to explore, especially with the new assets that are appearing in the market and the growth of e-commerce.

On Twitter, on the other hand, the dimension that works best for engaging in “Institutional” is linked to “Sports”, “Marketing” and “Commercial” content, but not with “ESG”. However, the “ESG” linked with “Commercial” dimensions statically gets significantly more impact on this platform. The “ESG” dimension is emerging as this platform is used for promoting socio-political activities and promoting more altruistic purposes as previous authors as López-Carril and Anagnostopoulos ( 2020 ), and Sharpe et al. ( 2020 ) noted. This strategy shows a possible intention to use social media not only for marketing (communication) or sporting purposes but also as an element with socio-political aspects. The nature of Twitter as a microblogging site with the highest number of posts with the lower means of engagement, is more attractive for the audience looking for quick and summarised information because of its ability to increase the visibility and awareness of fans (Abeza et al., 2017 ). Sports managers can focus on this type of message for a potential higher engagement on Twitter.

In contrast, on Instagram, the focus is on “Marketing” content. This platform shows the lowest number of post frequency, with a high engagement means, attributable to the platform’s audio–visual formats and more interactive content, ratifying its growing popularity among users. As a fast-growing platform, there is a major link with “Sports”, “Institutional” and “Commercial” dimensions, which makes it an ideal platform for emotional content, easy to connect with brands, athletes, and sports properties, counting with a larger and more varied audience looking mainly, as the evidence suggests, for entertainment and club’s closeness perception. Therefore, like Anagnostopoulos et al. ( 2018 ), we recommend sports managers use Instagram for marketing purposes, considering the context as a relevant factor.

Finally, this study reveals the post format’s relevance as another key element. In this sense, on Facebook, the highest engagement values are generated by “Image” and “Text/Image” formats, as on Instagram and Twitter; however, in each social media platform, the frequencies generated by these records are different. In any case, the power of the image as valuable content in marketing stands out, as it has also been highlighted in previous studies (e.g., Anagnostopoulos et al., 2018 ; Doyle et al., 2022 ; Machado et al., 2020 ). Nevertheless, the results obtained regarding the engagement triggered by video format posts on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram are not as conclusive, as other studies have pointed out (e.g., Su et al., 2020 ). Probably because these social media are not focused on that format as other social media such as TikTok or YouTube may be. Regardless, based on the results obtained, it is necessary for sports managers and academics to continue to explore and make the appropriate combinations of the dimensions of content type categorised in this study, the publication format, as well as the social media used to channel them.

Theoretical implications

Built upon the framework of relationship marketing, this study brings theoretical value to the realms of sports marketing, sports management, and fan engagement, spanning across four distinct lines of action.

Firstly, the research introduces a novel theoretical approach to social media strategies by employing a 5-dimensional content categorisation system aligned with the strategic pillars of football organisations. Previous studies have predominantly approached the role of social media in sports reactively, primarily focusing on communication and branding aspects. In contrast, this study contributes to the literature by adopting a strategic perspective towards social media, establishing a linkage between the study dimensions and football club strategies. This foundation paves the way for future research to delve deeper into each proposed dimension, potentially identifying sub-groups and exploring them in greater detail. The proposed dimensions serve to systematically organise the primary facets of football organisations for digital context analysis, a realm of increasing importance within the sports industry. As such, this work marks a pioneering step towards a novel approach in this area of study.

Secondly, this study establishes a fresh frequency-engagement approach for social network management, dispelling the notion that post frequency directly correlates with generated engagement. In doing so, this work highlights additional pivotal factors beyond post frequency that influence engagement among users of football-related social media. This perspective is aligned with the ethos of Web 2.0, underscoring the significance of engaging and connecting with fans.

Thirdly, from a theoretical perspective, this study introduces an innovative analytical proposition focusing on prominent international football clubs. This innovation is realised through the calculation and translation of engagement ratios, facilitating cross-entity comparisons independent of geographical location and follower count. The instrument developed and applied in this study acts as a tool to identify valuable digital practices within the industry.

Finally, this study stands out by conducting simultaneous analyses of posts across three prominent social media platforms (Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram), adopting a distinctive multi-platform approach that is seldom observed in comparable studies which often focus on a single social media platform. Gaining insights into the effects of cross-platform and cross-format postings can empower sports managers to make strategic decisions with a comprehensive perspective.

Practical implications

This study introduces a novel practical tool designed for the computation of fan engagement across the Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram accounts of football clubs globally. Consequently, sports managers can employ this instrument to gain a more realistic comprehension of the performance of social media accounts belonging to clubs. Furthermore, the developed tool facilitates the assessment of fan engagement in relation to the content type being published. This capability can aid sports managers in fortifying the bond between clubs and their followers by generating heightened value through strategic social media initiatives.

It is important to note that sports managers should consider both internal factors (club tradition, organisational culture) and external factors (competition, fan behaviour, sports results) within the context of clubs. This consideration is essential for developing and planning optimal digital strategies and for generating the best possible engagement with the audience. This research furnishes empirical evidence for understanding, in a practical and actionable manner, the pivotal components of a social media post. This understanding permits the visualisation of optimal combinations of these elements, thereby increasing the likelihood of sports managers guiding the club toward success and fostering substantial user engagement. Therefore, football team managers can apply the findings of this study to plan, monitor, and evaluate the club’s social media content for increased engagement and “closeness” with digital fans. They can combine various formats based on individual post requirements to achieve the desired results. Additionally, football team managers can analyse club identity and overall strategies more practically and coherently, facilitating the planning and execution of more effective commercial, brand positioning, institutional, and other relevant digital goals, with engagement serving as a key metric.

Conclusions

Social media plays a key role in today’s sports management, especially in football clubs, due to its global reach and ability to interact and connect with fans in an industry of great popularity, emotional charge, and economic, political and social impact. This exploratory research grounded in relationship marketing theory provided a comparison of the engagement generated by elite football clubs under a unique categorisation proposal, derived and adapted from existing literature, which addresses dimensions linked to strategic areas of football organisations and takes into consideration key elements such as frequency and format combinations used to analyse the efficiency of posts on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram.

Based on the results obtained, three lines of action stand out. First, concerning the type of content of the post, the “Marketing” and “Sports” dimensions are the preferred categories for football clubs in terms of post frequency. Regarding the engagement rates, on Facebook, the “Commercial” dimension shows an opportunity for growth and development due to the good engagement impact and due to the technological boom and the emergence of new digital assets. On Twitter, the emerging “ESG” linked to “Commercial” perspective and the “Institutional” dimension gets a significant impact on Twitter. On Instagram, the “Marketing” dimension linked to “Sports”, “Institutional” and “Commercial”, makes this platform ideal for emotional and marketing purposes. Second, concerning social media sources, this study provides evidence that Instagram is the social media that generates the most engagement using the lowest frequency of posts, followed by Facebook and Twitter. There is no direct evidence that links the post’s frequency with the engagement generated. Finally, concerning the type of format of the post, the combination of formats that generates the most engagement in all cases is “Image”, “Text/Image”, and “Text/Video”.

In short, this research stimulates a practical reflection for professionals and academics on the exploration, analysis, and evaluation of the management of social media in football clubs, using the observation method and content analysis techniques, applying elements of reliability and scientific rigour. The results obtained in this study offer practical and managerial implications in sports management, fan engagement, digital marketing, and social media, among others, through a proposal for categorisation and unique variables, taking engagement and its influence within the context of analysis as the axis.

The above conclusions should be taken into consideration viewing a series of limitations of the study. Firstly, the sample is limited to one sport (football) and not a large number of football clubs from different regions of the world. Secondly, despite the high number of posts analysed, these are located over a short period of time, and it may be relevant to analyse the engagement of posts at different times of the season, as these can influence the type of content and the engagement of fans with the posts. Thirdly, the study is limited to analysing engagement on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram, leaving aside the analysis of the possibilities that other booming social media, such as TikTok or Twitch, are having in the field of marketing. Nevertheless, these limitations can be a starting point for future research lines including, among others: (a) to assess the application and feasibility of the technique for measuring social media engagement included in this work in other football organisations (e.g. leagues) or social media platforms (e.g., TikTok, Twitch); (b) to incorporate new variables of study (e.g., size of the social mass of sports clubs, financial budget, trophies won); (c) to conduct the study considering different phases of the sports season (e.g.; preseason, season, playoffs; postseason); (d) to analyse fan engagement relation of geographical regions to understand the digital user’s behaviours; (e) to conduct the study adding engagement prediction models in social media; and (f) to incorporate this model on an AI language to suggest and predict digital user engagement in a simulated context.

Data availability

The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the experts who contributed their excellent technical knowledge and valuable inputs to the development of this work and the Fanpage Karma platform for providing the software licence to support this research. Edgar Romero-Jara would like to acknowledge the funding support of the pre-doctoral scholarship “National Academic Excellence Scholarship Programme Carlos Antonio López (BECAL)”, granted by the Government of Paraguay. Samuel López-Carril would like to acknowledge the funding support of the postdoctoral contract “Juan de la Cierva-formación 2021” (FJC2021-0477779-I), granted by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation and by the European Union through the NextGenerationEU Funds (Plan de Recuperación, Transformación y Resilencia).

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ER-J (corresponding author) and FS: conception and design of the work. ER-J and JM: analysis and methodology. ER-J and SL-C: literature review, interpretation of data, drafting of the work. FS: supervised this work. All authors made substantial contributions, discussed the results, revised critically for important intellectual content, and approved the final version of the work.

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Romero-Jara, E., Solanellas, F., Muñoz, J. et al. Connecting with fans in the digital age: an exploratory and comparative analysis of social media management in top football clubs. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10 , 858 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02357-8

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Received : 18 April 2023

Accepted : 06 November 2023

Published : 21 November 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02357-8

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