essay about earthquake introduction

Earthquake Essay for Students and Children

500+ Words Essay on Earthquake

Simply speaking, Earthquake means the shaking of the Earth’s surface. It is a sudden trembling of the surface of the Earth. Earthquakes certainly are a terrible natural disaster. Furthermore, Earthquakes can cause huge damage to life and property. Some Earthquakes are weak in nature and probably go unnoticed. In contrast, some Earthquakes are major and violent. The major Earthquakes are almost always devastating in nature. Most noteworthy, the occurrence of an Earthquake is quite unpredictable. This is what makes them so dangerous.

Types of Earthquake

Tectonic Earthquake: The Earth’s crust comprises of the slab of rocks of uneven shapes. These slab of rocks are tectonic plates. Furthermore, there is energy stored here. This energy causes tectonic plates to push away from each other or towards each other. As time passes, the energy and movement build up pressure between two plates.

Therefore, this enormous pressure causes the fault line to form. Also, the center point of this disturbance is the focus of the Earthquake. Consequently, waves of energy travel from focus to the surface. This results in shaking of the surface.

Volcanic Earthquake: This Earthquake is related to volcanic activity. Above all, the magnitude of such Earthquakes is weak. These Earthquakes are of two types. The first type is Volcano-tectonic earthquake. Here tremors occur due to injection or withdrawal of Magma. In contrast, the second type is Long-period earthquake. Here Earthquake occurs due to the pressure changes among the Earth’s layers.

Collapse Earthquake: These Earthquakes occur in the caverns and mines. Furthermore, these Earthquakes are of weak magnitude. Undergrounds blasts are probably the cause of collapsing of mines. Above all, this collapsing of mines causes seismic waves. Consequently, these seismic waves cause an Earthquake.

Explosive Earthquake: These Earthquakes almost always occur due to the testing of nuclear weapons. When a nuclear weapon detonates, a big blast occurs. This results in the release of a huge amount of energy. This probably results in Earthquakes.

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Effects of Earthquakes

First of all, the shaking of the ground is the most notable effect of the Earthquake. Furthermore, ground rupture also occurs along with shaking. This results in severe damage to infrastructure facilities. The severity of the Earthquake depends upon the magnitude and distance from the epicenter. Also, the local geographical conditions play a role in determining the severity. Ground rupture refers to the visible breaking of the Earth’s surface.

Another significant effect of Earthquake is landslides. Landslides occur due to slope instability. This slope instability happens because of Earthquake.

Earthquakes can cause soil liquefaction. This happens when water-saturated granular material loses its strength. Therefore, it transforms from solid to a liquid. Consequently, rigid structures sink into the liquefied deposits.

Earthquakes can result in fires. This happens because Earthquake damages the electric power and gas lines. Above all, it becomes extremely difficult to stop a fire once it begins.

Earthquakes can also create the infamous Tsunamis. Tsunamis are long-wavelength sea waves. These sea waves are caused by the sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water. This is because of an Earthquake in the ocean. Above all, Tsunamis can travel at a speed of 600-800 kilometers per hour. These tsunamis can cause massive destruction when they hit the sea coast.

In conclusion, an Earthquake is a great and terrifying phenomenon of Earth. It shows the frailty of humans against nature. It is a tremendous occurrence that certainly shocks everyone. Above all, Earthquake lasts only for a few seconds but can cause unimaginable damage.

FAQs on Earthquake

Q1 Why does an explosive Earthquake occurs?

A1 An explosive Earthquake occurs due to the testing of nuclear weapons.

Q2 Why do landslides occur because of Earthquake?

A2 Landslides happen due to slope instability. Most noteworthy, this slope instability is caused by an Earthquake.

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Over the centuries, earthquakes have been responsible for millions of deaths and an incalculable amount of damage to property. Depending on their intensity, earthquakes (specifically, the degree to which they cause the ground’s surface to shake) can topple buildings and bridges , rupture gas pipelines and other infrastructure, and trigger landslides , tsunamis , and volcanoes .  These phenomena are primarily responsible for deaths and injuries. Very great earthquakes occur on average about once per year.

Earthquake waves, more commonly known as seismic waves , are vibrations generated by an earthquake and propagated within Earth or along its surface. There are four principal types of elastic waves: two, primary and secondary waves, travel within Earth, whereas the other two, Rayleigh and Love waves, called surface waves, travel along its surface. In addition, seismic waves can be produced artificially by explosions.

Magnitude is a measure of the amplitude (height) of the seismic waves an earthquake’s source produces as recorded by seismographs . Seismologist Charles F. Richter created an earthquake magnitude scale using the logarithm of the largest seismic wave’s amplitude to base 10. Richter’s scale was originally for measuring the magnitude of earthquakes from magnitudes 3 to 7, limiting its usefulness. Today the moment magnitude scale, a closer measure of an earthquake’s total energy release, is preferred.

Earthquakes can occur anywhere, but they occur mainly along fault lines (planar or curved fractures in the rocks of Earth’s crust ), where compressional or tensional forces move rocks on opposite sides of a fracture. Faults extend from a few centimetres to many hundreds of kilometres. In addition, most of the world’s earthquakes occur within the Ring of Fire , a long horseshoe-shaped belt of earthquake epicentres , volcanoes , and tectonic plate boundaries fringing the Pacific basin .

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earthquake , any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves through Earth ’s rocks. Seismic waves are produced when some form of energy stored in Earth’s crust is suddenly released, usually when masses of rock straining against one another suddenly fracture and “slip.” Earthquakes occur most often along geologic faults , narrow zones where rock masses move in relation to one another. The major fault lines of the world are located at the fringes of the huge tectonic plates that make up Earth’s crust. ( See the table of major earthquakes.)

Little was understood about earthquakes until the emergence of seismology at the beginning of the 20th century. Seismology , which involves the scientific study of all aspects of earthquakes, has yielded answers to such long-standing questions as why and how earthquakes occur.

About 50,000 earthquakes large enough to be noticed without the aid of instruments occur annually over the entire Earth. Of these, approximately 100 are of sufficient size to produce substantial damage if their centres are near areas of habitation. Very great earthquakes occur on average about once per year. Over the centuries they have been responsible for millions of deaths and an incalculable amount of damage to property.

The nature of earthquakes

Causes of earthquakes.

Earth’s major earthquakes occur mainly in belts coinciding with the margins of tectonic plates. This has long been apparent from early catalogs of felt earthquakes and is even more readily discernible in modern seismicity maps, which show instrumentally determined epicentres. The most important earthquake belt is the Circum-Pacific Belt , which affects many populated coastal regions around the Pacific Ocean —for example, those of New Zealand , New Guinea , Japan , the Aleutian Islands , Alaska , and the western coasts of North and South America . It is estimated that 80 percent of the energy presently released in earthquakes comes from those whose epicentres are in this belt. The seismic activity is by no means uniform throughout the belt, and there are a number of branches at various points. Because at many places the Circum-Pacific Belt is associated with volcanic activity , it has been popularly dubbed the “Pacific Ring of Fire .”

A second belt, known as the Alpide Belt , passes through the Mediterranean region eastward through Asia and joins the Circum-Pacific Belt in the East Indies . The energy released in earthquakes from this belt is about 15 percent of the world total. There also are striking connected belts of seismic activity, mainly along oceanic ridges —including those in the Arctic Ocean , the Atlantic Ocean , and the western Indian Ocean —and along the rift valleys of East Africa . This global seismicity distribution is best understood in terms of its plate tectonic setting .

Natural forces

Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of energy within some limited region of the rocks of the Earth . The energy can be released by elastic strain , gravity, chemical reactions, or even the motion of massive bodies. Of all these the release of elastic strain is the most important cause, because this form of energy is the only kind that can be stored in sufficient quantity in the Earth to produce major disturbances. Earthquakes associated with this type of energy release are called tectonic earthquakes.

Essay on Earthquake

Introduction: The Earth Moves

Earthquakes-the very word conjures images of buildings crumbling, streets splitting open, and the ground itself turning into a churning ocean. While powerful earthquakes can be terrifying and destructive, understanding these natural phenomena is the first step toward staying safe. This essay on earthquakes will equip you with the knowledge you need to navigate the pre-, during-, and post-earthquake landscape.

We’ll delve into the fascinating – albeit a little nerve-wracking – science behind earthquakes, decode the cryptic language of tremors, and explore practical ways to prepare your home and family. By the end, you’ll be ready to face the Earth’s occasional wobbles with a cool head and a well-stocked emergency kit.

So, buckle up, geology enthusiasts and earthquake newbies alike! It’s time to get schooled on the science of the shaking ground.

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The Lowdown on Earthquakes: A Tectonic Tango

Have you ever wondered why the Earth takes a little shimmy now and then? It all boils down to a fiery temper tantrum deep below the surface. The Earth’s crust is fractured into giant slabs called tectonic plates, constantly jostling for position like tectonic bumper cars. When these plates grind against each other, snag, or slam into one another, the sudden release of energy sends shockwaves rippling through the Earth-that’s your basic earthquake recipe.

Think of it like a giant trampoline. When you jump on one side, the other side bounces up, right? Earthquakes are kind of like that, except instead of a bouncy mat, you’ve got a whole planet in play. The epicenter, the spot where the plates first break free, is like the spot where you land on the trampoline. From there, the waves radiate outwards, causing the ground to shake with varying intensities depending on the strength of the earthquake and your distance from the epicenter.

Causes of Earthquakes

• Tectonic Plate Movements : Large pieces called tectonic plates divide the Earth’s surface. When these plates move against each other, they can get stuck and build up pressure. Eventually, this pressure is released, causing the ground to shake, which we feel is an earthquake.
• Faults and Fault Lines : Imagine the Earth’s crust as a giant puzzle of pieces. Sometimes, these pieces don’t fit perfectly together, and they can move past each other along lines called faults. An earthquake occurs when the rocks along a fault suddenly slip and move.
• Volcanic Activity : Sometimes, earthquakes can happen because of volcanic eruptions. When magma (hot molten rock) moves beneath the Earth’s surface, it can push against the surrounding rocks and cause them to break, leading to an earthquake.
• Human Activities : Human operations, such as mining or drilling for gas and oil, can cause earthquakes. When we dig deep into the Earth or inject fluids, we can change the pressure on the rocks and trigger earthquakes in areas that normally wouldn’t have them.
• Plate Boundaries : Most earthquakes happen along the edges of tectonic plates, where they meet. These places are called plate boundaries. Depending on how the plates are moving, earthquakes can occur at different plate boundaries, such as when plates collide, move apart, or slide past each other.

Types of Earthquake

Several types of earthquakes can be classified based on various factors, such as their underlying causes, the nature of their seismic waves, and their geographical distribution. Here are the primary types:

1. Tectonic Earthquakes : Tectonic Earthquakes are the most common and powerful type of earthquake. They occur when tectonic plates, the large rock slabs that make up Earth’s crust, move against each other. The movement can cause the plates to stick, then suddenly jerk free, releasing tremendous energy that travels through the Earth in waves. Tectonic earthquakes are further categorized based on the type of plate boundary involved, including:

• Strike-Slip Earthquakes : Occur at transform boundaries where plates slide past each other horizontally.
• Thrust (or Reverse) Earthquakes At convergent boundaries, one plate forces itself beneath another.
• Regular Fault Earthquakes : Occur at divergent boundaries where plates move away from each other, causing the crust to stretch and form faults.

2. Volcanic Earthquakes: These are smaller earthquakes that occur near volcanoes. They are caused by the movement of magma (molten rock) beneath the Earth’s surface. The movement of magma can crack the rock around the volcano, causing tremors. Volcanic earthquakes are usually much weaker than tectonic earthquakes.

• Collapse Earthquakes: Collapse Earthquakes are the weakest type of earthquake. They occur when the roofs of caves or mines collapse. Collapse earthquakes are usually very small and localized and rarely cause any damage.
• Explosion Earthquakes: These are earthquakes caused by human activity, such as bomb or mining explosions. They are similar to collapse earthquakes in that they are usually very small and localized.

Effects of Earthquake

The effects of an earthquake can be wide-ranging and impactful, affecting both the natural environment and human societies. Here are some of the key effects:

• Ground Shaking : Ground shaking is an earthquake’s most immediate and noticeable effect. This shaking can vary in intensity depending on the earthquake’s magnitude, the hypocenter’s depth (the point within the Earth where the earthquake originates), and the distance from the epicenter (the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the hypocenter). Severe shaking can cause buildings and structures to sway, crack, or collapse.
• Surface Rupture : In some cases, particularly in large earthquakes, the movement of tectonic plates can cause the Earth’s surface to rupture along fault lines. This can result in visible cracks or ground displacement , damaging roads, pipelines, and other infrastructure.
• Tsunamis : Earthquakes that occur underwater or near the ocean floor have the potential to generate tsunamis, which are large, destructive ocean waves. These waves can travel long distances across the ocean and cause widespread flooding and coastal erosion when they reach land.
• Landslides and Avalanches : The shaking and ground displacement caused by earthquakes can trigger landslides and avalanches, particularly in mountainous or hilly areas. These mass movements of rock, soil, and debris can bury homes, roads, and vegetation, posing additional hazards to human life and property.
• Liquefaction : In areas with loose, water-saturated soils, an earthquake’s intense shaking can cause the ground to behave like a liquid, a process known as liquefaction. This can result in the sinking or tilting of buildings, infrastructure, and other structures built on top of the affected soil.
• Infrastructure Damage : Earthquakes can cause extensive damage to buildings, bridges, roads, and other infrastructure, disrupting transportation networks, communication systems, and essential services such as water and power supply.
• Loss of Life and Injuries : The combined effects of ground shaking, structural collapse, and secondary hazards such as tsunamis and landslides can result in significant loss of life and injuries among affected populations.
• Psychological Impact : Earthquakes can have long-lasting psychological effects on individuals and communities, including anxiety, stress, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The fear of aftershocks and the uncertainty surrounding recovery efforts can exacerbate these psychological impacts.
• Economic Consequences : Earthquakes can have profound economic consequences for affected regions, including property destruction, loss of life, and disruption of economic activities. These consequences include loss of income, decreased productivity, and increased financial strain on governments and relief agencies.

Mitigation and Preparedness

Mitigation and preparedness are crucial aspects of minimizing the impacts of earthquakes on human populations and infrastructure. Here are some key strategies and measures:

• Building Codes and Seismic Retrofitting : Strictly implementing and enforcing building codes while considering seismic hazards can ensure that structures are designed appropriately and constructed to withstand earthquake forces. Additionally, retrofitting older buildings and infrastructure to improve their earthquake resilience can help reduce the risk of collapse and casualties.
• Land Use Planning and Zoning : Proper land use planning and zoning can help mitigate the risk of earthquake-related hazards by restricting development in high-risk areas, such as floodplains, landslide-prone areas, and areas near fault lines. This can help minimize exposure to seismic hazards and reduce potential losses.
• Early Warning Systems : Developing and implementing early warning systems that detect seismic activity and provide warning before strong shaking arrives can help individuals and communities take protective actions, such as seeking shelter and shutting down critical infrastructure systems.
• Public Education and Awareness : Educating the public about earthquake risks, preparedness measures, and response procedures can help empower individuals and communities to take appropriate actions before, during, and after an earthquake. It includes conducting regular drills and exercises to practice emergency response plans.
• Infrastructure Resilience : Enhancing the resilience of critical infrastructure systems, such as transportation networks, utilities, and communication systems, can help minimize disruption and facilitate timely recovery efforts following an earthquake. It may involve reinforcing infrastructure components, diversifying supply chains, and incorporating redundancy into system designs.
• Community Preparedness and Resilience : Building community resilience through grassroots initiatives, community-based organizations, and partnerships between government agencies, non-profit organizations, and local stakeholders can help strengthen social cohesion, foster collective action, and enhance communities’ ability to withstand and recover from earthquakes.
• Emergency Response and Recovery Planning : Developing comprehensive recovery plans that outline various stakeholders’ roles, responsibilities, and procedures can help ensure a coordinated and effective response to earthquakes. These plans include pre-positioning emergency supplies, establishing evacuation routes, and coordinating search and rescue operations.
• International Cooperation and Collaboration : Promoting international cooperation and collaboration on earthquake research, monitoring, and preparedness can help improve the understanding of seismic hazards, enhance early warning capabilities, and facilitate the sharing of best practices and lessons learned across borders.

Staying Safe During an Earthquake

Staying safe during an earthquake requires quick thinking and decisive action. Here are some key steps to follow:

• Drop, Cover, and Hold On : When you feel the ground shaking, immediately drop to your hands and knees to prevent being knocked over. To shield yourself from falling objects, hide under a desk or other substantial piece of furniture. Hold on to the furniture with one hand and cover your head and neck with your other arm.
• Stay Indoors : If you’re inside a building, stay there during the earthquake. Move away from windows, glass doors, and exterior walls to avoid injury from broken glass or falling debris. Do not use elevators during an earthquake, as they may become stuck or malfunction.
• If You’re Outside : If you’re outdoors when an earthquake occurs, move to an open area away from buildings, trees, streetlights, and utility wires. Drop to the ground and cover your head and neck until the shaking stops.
• Stay Calm and Put: Stay calm during the earthquake and stay where you are until the shaking stops. Moving around during an earthquake can increase your risk of injury. Stay there and use a pillow to support your head and neck in bed.
• Be Prepared for Aftershocks : Smaller earthquakes, known as aftershocks, can happen hours or days after a bigger one. Take the same safety precautions as you did during the initial earthquake.
• Check for Gas Leaks and Fire Hazards : After the shaking stops, check for gas leaks, damaged electrical wires, and other fire hazards. If you smell gas or believe there might be a leak, immediately shut the gas supply at the main valve, then leave the area. Use a flashlight (not matches or candles) to inspect for damage, and Do not use electrical appliances until someone inspects them.
• Listen for Emergency Information : Listen to your local radio or television channels for updates and emergency information after the earthquake. Observe the guidance provided by emergency personnel and be ready to flee if needed.
• Assist Others : Check on family members, neighbors, and coworkers to ensure their safety and offer assistance. Be mindful of individuals with disabilities or special needs who may require additional assistance during an emergency.

After the Earthquake

Following the earthquake, you should do a few things to ensure you’re safe and okay, help others, and start healing. This is what you should do:

• Check for Injuries : Immediately after the shaking stops, check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first aid when necessary, and if there are any severe injuries, get medical help. Be mindful of broken glass, sharp objects, and unstable structures.
• Assess Damage : Survey your surroundings for damage to buildings, infrastructure, and utilities. In addition to looking for possible dangers like gas leaks, downed electrical lines, and falling debris, Verify that there are no structural issues, such as foundation, wall, or ceiling cracks.
• Evacuate if Necessary : If your home or building is severely damaged or emergency officials advise evacuation, leave the area immediately. Follow designated evacuation routes and assembly points, and bring essential items such as medications, important documents, and emergency supplies.
• Listen for Updates : Stay connected to local radio, television, or official social media channels for updates and instructions from emergency officials. Follow their guidance regarding evacuation orders, shelter locations, and safety precautions.
• Turn Off Utilities : If you suspect a gas leak or damage to electrical, water, or sewer lines, turn off the respective utilities at the main shut-off valves or switches. Avoid using open flames, electrical appliances, or running water until utilities have been inspected and deemed safe.
• Check on Neighbors and Loved Ones : Contact neighbors, family members, and friends to check their safety and offer assistance. Be prepared to provide aid, support, and comfort to those injured, displaced, or experiencing distress.
• Document Damage : Take photographs or videos of any damage to your property or belongings for insurance purposes. Keep records of repair costs and receipts, and communicate with insurance companies to help with the claims procedure.
• Secure Property : Secure or remove any hazardous items that could pose a risk of injury or further damage, such as broken glass, unstable furniture, or fallen objects. Cover broken windows and doors with plastic sheeting or boards to stop more exposure to the weather.
• Follow Recovery Procedures : Follow local guidelines and procedures for debris removal, building inspections, and recovery efforts. Cooperate with emergency responders, government agencies, and community organizations to facilitate recovery and rebuild affected areas.
• Take Care of Yourself : Practice self-care and prioritize your physical and emotional well-being after the earthquake. Get adequate rest, stay hydrated, and, if necessary, ask for help from family members or mental health specialists.

Notable Earthquake Case Studies

1. The Great San Francisco Earthquake (1906)

• Magnitude: Estimated to be around 7.9
• Location: San Francisco, California, USA
• Date: April 18, 1906
• Impact: The earthquake and subsequent fires devastated San Francisco and nearby areas. Buildings collapsed, water mains broke, and fires raged for days, causing widespread destruction and loss of life. The exact death toll is uncertain but is estimated to be around 3,000 people.

2. The Great Kanto Earthquake (1923)

• Magnitude: 7.9
• Location: Kanto region, Japan
• Date: September 1, 1923
• Impact: The earthquake struck the Tokyo-Yokohama metropolitan area, causing extensive damage and loss of life. The violent shaking, fires, and tsunami resulted in approximately 140,000 deaths. The disaster prompted significant changes in Japan’s earthquake preparedness and urban planning.

3. The 1964 Alaska Earthquake (Good Friday Earthquake)

• Magnitude: 9.2
• Location: South-central Alaska, USA
• Date: March 27, 1964
• Impact: The second-largest earthquake ever recorded caused widespread damage across Alaska. It triggered landslides, liquefaction, and tsunamis, with waves reaching over 100 feet. Although the death toll was relatively low (approximately 131 people), the economic impact was significant.

4. The 2010 Haiti Earthquake

• Magnitude: 7.0
• Location: Haiti, Caribbean
• Date: January 12, 2010
• Impact: The earthquake struck near the capital city of Port-au-Prince, causing catastrophic damage and loss of life. Poorly constructed buildings and infrastructure exacerbated the impact, leading to an estimated 230,000 deaths and widespread displacement. The earthquake highlighted the vulnerabilities of Haiti’s infrastructure and spurred international aid and recovery efforts.

5. The 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami (Japan)

• Magnitude: 9.0
• Location: Tohoku region, Japan
• Date: March 11, 2011
• Impact: One of the strongest earthquakes ever recorded caused a gigantic tsunami that destroyed the coastline regions of Northeastern Japan. The tsunami waves inundated towns and villages, causing widespread destruction and the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. The combined disasters resulted in over 15,000 deaths and a prolonged recovery process for affected communities.

These case studies illustrate earthquakes’ diverse impacts and underscore the importance of earthquake preparedness, mitigation, and recovery efforts.

Earthquakes are powerful geological phenomena that significantly impact natural landscapes and human societies. By understanding their causes, effects, and mitigation strategies, we can better prepare ourselves for these inevitable events. By implementing proactive measures, fostering international collaboration, and raising awareness, we can minimize the loss of life and property and build more resilient communities in the face of seismic hazards.

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Essay on earthquakes: top 5 essays on earthquakes | geography.

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Here is a compilation of essays on ‘Earthquakes’ for class 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Earthquakes’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Earthquakes

Essay Contents:

• Essay on the World Distribution of Earthquakes

Essay # 1. Introduction to Earthquake:

An earthquake is a major demonstration of the power of the tectonic forces caused by endogenetic thermal conditions of the interior of the earth. ‘An earthquake is a motion of the ground surface, ranging from a faint tremor to a wild motion capable of shaking buildings apart and causing gaping fissures to open in the ground.

The earthquake is a form of energy of wave motion transmitted through the surface layer of the earth in widening circles from a point of sudden energy release, the focus’. ‘An earthquake is a vibration or oscillation of the surface of the earth caused by a transient distur­bance of the elastic or gravitational equilibrium of the rocks at or beneath the earth the surface.’

The magnitude or intensity of energy released by an earthquake is measured by the Richter Scale devised by Charles F. Richter in 1935. The number indicating magnitude or intensity (M) on Richter scale ranges between 0 and 9 but in fact the scale has no upper limit of number because it is a logarithmic scale.

It is estimated that the total annual energy released by all earthquakes is about 10 25 ergs, most of this is from a small number of earthquakes of magnitude over 7. The 1934 Bihar earthquake measuring 8.4 and Good Friday Earthquake of March 27, 1964 in Alaska (USA) meas­uring 8.4 to 8.6 on Richter scale are among the greatest earthquakes of the world ever recorded.

The place of the origin of an earthquake is called focus which is always hidden inside the earth but its depth varies from place to place. The deepest earth­quake may have its focus at a depth of even 700 km below the ground surface but some of the major Himalayan earthquakes, such as the Bihar-Nepal earth­quake of August 21, 1988, have their focus around 20- 30 km deep.

The place on the ground surface, which is perpendicular to the buried ‘focus’ or ‘hypocentre’, recording the seismic waves for the first time is called epicentre. The waves generated by an earthquake are called ‘seismic waves’ which are recorded by an in­strument called seismograph or seismometer at the epicentre. The science, that deals with the seismic waves, is called seismology.

Essay # 2. Causes of Earthquakes :

Earthquakes are caused mainly due to disequi­librium in any part of the crust of the earth. A number of causes have been assigned to cause disequilibrium or isostatic imbalance in the earth’s crust such as volcanic eruptions, faulting and folding, up-warping and down-warping, gaseous expansion and contraction inside the earth, hydrostatic pressure of man-made water bodies like reservoirs and lakes, and plate move­ments.

If we look at the world distribution of earth­quakes (fig. 10.2) it appears that the earthquake belts are closely associated with the weaker zones and isostatically disturbed areas of the globe. It was gener­ally believed that isostatically balanced and old and stable rigid masses were free from seismic events but the devastating earthquake of Koyna on 11 December, 1967, in Satara district of Maharashtra, Latur-Kilari earthquake of Sept. 30, 1993 of Maharashtra, dis­ proved this old connotation and made us believe that no part of the earth is immune from seismic events. A host of possible causes have been suggested to cause disequilibrium in the earth’s crust which trigger earth tremors of various sorts.

i. Vulcanicity:

Volcanic activity is considered to be one of the major causes of earthquakes. In fact, vulcanicity and seismic events are so intimately related to each other that they become cause and effect for each other. In other words, each volcanic eruption is followed by earthquakes and many of the severe earthquakes cause volcanic eruptions.

In fact, earth tremors are major precursor events of possible volcanic eruption in im­mediate future in any region. The explosive violent gases during the process of vulcanicity try to escape upward and hence they push the crustal surface from below with great force and thus is caused severe earth tremor of high magnitude.

Whenever these gases be­come successful in breaking the weak crustal surface they appear on the earth’s surface with violent explo­sion and great force causing devastating volcanic erup­tion which causes sudden disequilibrium in the crustal surface to invite severe earth tremors. It may be pointed out that the magnitude of such earthquakes depends upon the intensity of volcanic eruptions.

The violent eruption of Krakatoa volcano (between Java and Sumatra) caused such a severe earthquake the impact of which was experienced as far away as Cape Horn (some 12,800 km away). The devastating earth­quake generated 30 to 40 m high tsunamis waves which killed 36,000 people in the coastal areas of Java and Sumatra.

ii. Faulting and Elastic Rebound Theory :

The horizontal and vertical movements caused by endogenetic forces result in the formation of faults and folds which in turn cause isostatic disequilibrium in the crustal rocks which ultimately causes earth­quakes of varying magnitudes depending on the nature and magnitude of dislocation of rock blocks caused by faulting and folding. In fact, sudden dislocation of rock blocks caused by both tensile and compressive forces triggers immediate earth tremors due to sudden maladjustment of rock blocks.

The 1950-earthquake of Assam was believed to have been caused due to dis­equilibrium in crustal rocks introduced by crustal frac­ture. The 1934-earthquake of Bihar was also consid­ered to have been triggered by faulting activity under­neath. Underground active fault zone was suggested as one of the possible causes of Koyna earthquake (Maharashtra) of December 11, 1967.

The occurrence of severe devastating earth­quake of San Francisco (USA) in 1906 led H.F. Reid, one of the official investigators of the San Fransisco earthquake disaster, to advance his famous and much appreciated elastic rebound theory to explain the mode and causes of earthquakes mainly caused by fractures and faults in the earth’s crust and upper mantle.

Ac­cording to Reid the underground rocks are elastic like rubber and expand when stretched and pulled. The stretching and pulling of crustal rocks due to tensile forces is slow process. The rocks continue to be stretched so long as the tensile forces do not exceed the elasticity of the rocks but as the tensile forces exceed the rocks elasticity, they are broken and the broken rock blocks try immediately to occupy their previous positions so that they may adjust themselves. All these processes occur so rapidly that the equilibrium of the concerned crustal surface is suddenly disturbed and hence earth tremors are caused.

Reid’s elastic rebound theory very well ex­plains the occurrences of seismic events in Californian valley which is very much frequented by faulting activity. The famous earthquake of 1872 of California was caused due to creation of a massive fault in the Oven Valley. Similarly, the Californian earthquake of April 18, 1906, was caused due to the formation of 640 km long San Andreas Fault. The 1923 earthquake of Sagami Bay of Japan was also believed to have been triggered by big fault.

N. Krishna Brahman and Janardhan G. Niyogi, the two scientists of the National Geophysical Re­search Institute, have opined that the seismic events near Bhatsa Dam and Koyna Dam are very much active due to active faulting beneath the Deccan Traps. They have claimed to have identified two active rift faults in Maharashtra beneath the Deccan Traps viz. Kurduvadi rift and Koyna rift.

According to them Koyna rift begins from Kaladgi in Karnataka and runs for a distance of 540 km through Koyna and terminates 40 km west of Nasik. The 390 km long Kurduvadi rift begins from 40 km south-west of Solapur and after running through Kurduvadi it merges with the Koyna rift to the north of Pune. According to them Bhatsa Dam is located at the junction of Tawi and Koyna faults.

They are of the opinion that gradual increase in the seismic events in Bhatsa Dam area since 1983 is because of active faulting beneath the basaltic crust. The 1950 Assam earthquake, 1934 Bihar earthquake and 2001 Bhuj earthquake (Gujarat) of India were caused mainly by faulting.

iii. Hydrostatic Pressure and Anthropogenic Causes :

Though the earthquakes are natural phenomena and are caused by the endogenetic forces coming from within the earth but certain human activities such as pumping of groundwater and oil, deep underground mining, blasting of rocks by dynamites for construc­tional purposes (e.g., for the construction of dams and reservoirs, roads etc.), nuclear explosion, storage of huge volume of water in big reservoirs etc. also cause earth tremors of serious consequences.

The introduc­tion of additional artificial superincumbent load through the construction of large dams and impounding of enormous volume of water in big reservoirs behind the dams cause disequilibrium of already isostatically ad­justed rocks below the reservoirs or further augment the already fragile structures due to faults and fractures underneath.

Many major seismic events have been cor­related with dams and reservoirs all over the world such as earthquake of 1931 in Greece due to Marathon Dam constructed in 1929; initiation of earth tremors since 1936 around Hoover Dam (USA) due to creation of Mead Lake in 1935; Koyna earthquake of 1967 (in Satara district of Maharashtra) due to Koyna reservoir constructed in 1962; other examples of earthquakes caused by dams and reservoirs are of Monteynard and Grandvale in France, Mangla in Pakistan, Kariba in Zambia, Manic in Canada, Hendrick Verwoerd in South Africa, Nourek in earst-while USSR, Kurobe in Japan etc.

It may be pointed out that the intensity of earthquake has been positively correlated with the levels of water in the reservoirs. The earthquakes caused by hydrostatic pressure of reservoirs are called ‘reservoir-induced earthquakes’.

iv. Plate Tectonic Theory :

Recently, plate tectonic theory has been ac­cepted as the most plausible explanation of the causes of earthquakes. As per theory of the plate tectonics the crust or the earth is composed of solid and moving plates having either continental crust or oceanic crust or even both continental-oceanic crust.

The earth’s crust consists of 6 major plates (Eurasian plate, Ameri­can plate, African plate, Indian plate, Pacific plate and Antarctic plate) and 20 minor plates. These plates are constantly moving in relation to each Other due to thermal convective currents originating deep within the earth.

Thus, all the tectonic events take place along the boundaries of these moving plates. From the stand point of movement and tectonic events and creation and destruction of geomaterials the plate boundaries are divided into:

(i) Constructive plate boundaries,

(ii) Destructive plate boundaries, and

(iii) Conservative plate boundaries.

Constructive plate boundaries repre­sent the trailing ends of divergent plates which move in opposite directions from the mid-oceanic ridges, de­structive plate boundaries are those where two conver­gent plates collide against each other and the heavier plate boundary is sub-ducted below the relatively lighter plate boundary and conservative plate boundaries are those where two plates slip past each other without any collision.

Major tectonic events associated with these plate boundaries are ruptures and faults along the constructive plate boundaries, faulting and folding along the destructive plate boundaries and transform faults along the conservative plate boundaries. All sorts of disequilibrium are caused due to different types of plate motions and consequently earthquakes of varying magnitudes are caused.

Normally, moderate earthquakes are caused along the constructive plate boundaries because the rate of rupture of the crust and consequent movement of plates away from the mid-oceanic ridges is rather slow and the rate of upwelling of lavas due to fissure flow is also slow. Consequently, shallow focus earthquakes are caused along the constructive plate boundaries or say along the mid-oceanic ridges.

The depth of ‘focus’ of earthquakes associated with the constructive plate boundaries ranges between 25 km to 35 km but a few earthquakes have also been found to have occurred at the depth of 60 km. It is, thus, obvious that the earth­quakes occurring along the mid-Atlantic Ridge, mid- Indian Oceanic Ridge and East Pacific Rise are caused because of movement of plates in opposite directions (divergence) and consequent formation of faults and ruptures and upwelling of magma or fissure flow of basaltic lavas (fig. 10.1).

Earthquakes of high magni­tude and deep focus are caused along the convergent or destructive plate boundaries because of collision of two convergent plates and consequent subduction of one plate boundary along the Benioff zone. Here mountain building, faulting and violent volcanic erup­tions (central explosive type of eruptions) cause severe and disastrous earthquakes having the focus at the depth up to 700 km.

This process, convergence of plates and related plate collision, explains the maxi­mum occurrence of earthquakes of varying magnitudes along the Fire Ring of the Pacific or the Circum-Pacific Belt (along the western and eastern margins of the Pacific Ocean or say along the western coastal margins of North and South Americas and thus the Rockies to Andes Mountain Belt and along the eastern coastal margins of Asia and island arcs and festoons parallel to the Asiatic coast).

The earthquakes of the Mid-Conti- nental Belt along the Alpine-Himalayan chains are caused due to collision of Eurasian plates and African and Indian plates. The earthquakes of the western marginal areas of North and South Americas are caused because of subduction of Pacific plate beneath the American plate and the resultant tectonic forces whereas the earthquakes of the eastern margins of Asia are originated because of the subduction of Pacific plate under Asiatic plate.

Similarly, the subduction of Afri­can plate below European plate and the subduction of Indian plate under Asiastic plate cause earthquakes of the mid-continental belt. The severe earthquake of Bhuj of Jan. 26, 2001 (Gujarat, India) was caused due to reactivated subsurface faults due to subduction of Indian plate below Asiatic plate.

Creation of transform faults along the conserva­tive plate boundaries explains the occurrence of severe earthquakes of California (USA). Here one part of California moves north-eastward while the other part moves south-westward along the fault plane and thus is formed transform fault which causes earthquakes.

Essay # 3. Classification of Earthquakes :

It has become apparent after the discussion of the causes of seismic events that there is wide range of variation in the nature and magnitude of earthquakes. Each earthquake differs from the other and thus it becomes difficult to classify all the earthquakes into certain categories.

Inspite of these limitations earth­quakes are classified on the basis of common charac­teristics as given below.

i. Classification on the basis of Causative Factors :

(A) Natural earthquakes are those which are caused by natural processes i.e., due to endogenetic forces.

These are further divided into four subcategories:

(i) Volcanic earthquakes are caused due to vol­canic eruptions of explosive and fissure types. Gener­ally, volcanic earthquakes are confined to volcanic areas. The intensity and magnitude of such earth­quakes depend on the intensity and magnitude of volcanic eruptions. Examples, severe earthquakes caused by violent explosions of Krakatao volcano in 1883 and Etna volcano in 1968.

(ii) Tectonic earthquakes are caused due to dis­location of rock blocks during faulting activity. Such earthquakes are very severe and disastrous. Examples, 1872 earthquake and 1906 earthquake of California (USA), 1923 earthquake of Sagami Bay (Japan), 2001 earthquake of Gujarat etc.

(iii) Isostatic earthquakes are triggered due to sudden disturbance in the isostatic balance at regional scale due to imbalance in the geological processes. Generally, the earthquakes of active zones of mountain building are included in this cat­egory.

(iv) Plutonic earthquakes are infact deep-focus earthquakes which occur at greater depths. The centres (foci) of these earthquakes are generally located within the depths ranging from 240 km to 670 km.

(B) Artificial or man-induced earthquakes or anthropogenic earthquakes are caused by human ac­tivities such as pumping of water and mineral oil from underground aquifers and oil reserves respectively, deep underground mining, blasting of rocks by dyna­mites for constructional purposes (e.g., for the con­struction of dams and reservoirs, roads etc.), nuclear explosion, storage of huge volume of water in big reservoirs etc.

Examples, 1931 earthquake of Greece due to Marathon Dam, 1936 earthquake of Hoover Dam (USA) due to Lake Mead, Koyna earthquake (Maharashtra, India) of 1967 due to Koyna reservoir etc.

ii. Classification on the basis of Focus :

Guttenberg has divided the world seismic cen­tres on the basis of the depths of their foci into 3 types viz.:

(i) Moderate earthquakes—foci are located at the depths from the ground surface (0 km) to 50 km,

(ii) Intermediate earthquakes-seismic foci at the depths between 50 km and 250 km and

(iii) Deep focus earthquakes-seismic foci at the depths between 250 km and 700 km. Moderate and intermediate earthquakes are also called as shallow focus and intermediate focus earthquakes respectively.

iii. Classification on the basis of Human Casualties:

Earthquakes are grouped into 3 categories on the basis of their hazardous impacts in terms of human casualties:

(i) Moderately hazardous earthquakes- When human deaths caused by severe seismic tremors are below 50,000 mark. Examples, Kamakura earth­quake of Japan of 1293 A.D. (22,000 deaths), Tabas earthquake of Iran of 1978 A.D. (25,000 deaths), Armenian earthquake of erstwhile USSR of 1988 (26,000 deaths), Lisbon earthquake of Portugal in 1531 A.D. (30,000 deaths), Chile earthquake of 1939 A.D. (40,000 deaths), Quito earthquake of Ecudador in 1797 A.D. (41,000 deaths), Calabria earthquakes of Italy in 1783 A.D. (50,000 deaths), North Iranian earthquake of 1990 A.D. (50,000 deaths) etc.

(ii) Highly hazardous earthquakes causing human deaths ranging between 51,000 and 1,00,000 occurred in 1268 (in Silicia, Asia Minor, death toll, 60,000), in 1667 (in Shemaka, Caucasia, death toll 60,000), in 1693 (Catania, Italy, 93,000 deaths), in 1693 (Naples, Italy, 93,000 deaths), in 1932 (Kansu, China, human deaths, 70,000), in 1935 (Quetta, Baluchistan, death toll, 60,000), in 1970 (Chimbote, Peru, 67,000 deaths), in 2001 (Bhuj, Gujarat, 50,000-1,00,000 death) etc.

(iii) Most hazardous earthquakes causing human casualitis above 1,00,000 mark occurred in the year 1290 (in Chihli, China, 1,00,000 deaths), in 1556 (in Shen-Shu, China, 8,30,000 deaths), in 1737 (Kolkata, India, 3,00,000 deaths), in 1908 (in Messina, Italy, 1,60,000 deaths), in 1920 (in Kansu, China 1,80,000 deaths), in 1923 (in Tokyo, Japan, 1,63,000 deaths), in 1967 (in Tang-Shan, China 7,50,000) deaths etc.

Essay # 4. Hazardous Effects of Earthquakes:

It may be pointed out that the intensity of earth­quakes and their hazardous impacts are determined not on the basis of the magnitude of seismic intensity as determined by Richter scale but are decided on the basis of quantum of damages done by a specific earth­quake to human lives and property.

An earthquake becomes hazard and desaster only when it strikes the populated area. The direct and indirect disastrous ef­fects of earthquakes include deformation of ground surfaces, damage and destruction of human structures such as buildings, rails, roads, bridges, dams, factories, destruction of towns and cities, loss of human and animal lives and property, violent devastating fires, landslides, floods, disturbances in groundwater condi­tions etc.

i. Slope Instability and Failures and Landslides:

The shocks produced by earthquakes particularly in those hilly and mountainous areas which are composed of weaker lithologies and are tectonically sensitive and weak cause slope instability and slope failure and ultimately cause landslides and debris falls which damage settlements and transport systems on the lower slope segments.

The shocks generated by Peruvian earthquake of May, 1970 triggered off the collapse of ice caps seated on the peak of high mountain called Huascaran of 6654 m height near the town of Yungay in Peru.

The huge masses of falling ice dislodged thousands of tonnes of rock mass from the said moun­tain and thus was generated a gigantic debris flow down the slope of Huascaran mountain travelling at the speed of 320 km per hour. The enormous mass of debris flow covered a distance of 15 km within few minutes and buried many buildings and human struc­tures of Yungay town and killed about 25,000 people.

ii. Damage to Human Structures:

Earthquakes inflict great damage to human structures such as build­ings, roads, rails, factories, dams, bridges, and thus cause heavy loss of human property. It may be pointed out that in the ground surface composed of unconsolidated geomaterials, such as alluvium, colluvium, artificially infilled and levelled depres­sions, swamp deposits reclaimed through the dumping of coarse sands and city garbages the vibrations of earthquakes last longer and the amplitudes of seismic waves are greater than in the structures of consolidated materials, and bedrocks. Thus, the earthquakes cause more damages in the areas of unconsolidated ground than their counterparts in the regions of solid structures and bedrocks.

Two major earthquakes of Bihar-Nepal border in 1934 and 1988 can explain the impact of earthquake disasters on human structures and human lives. The damage caused by the Bihar earthquake of 15 January, 1934, measuring 8.4 on Richter scale, include 10,700 human deaths, landslides and slumping in an area of 250 km length and 60 km width, ruptures and faults in the ground surface etc. which caused irreparable dam­age to human structures.

The Darbhanga (Bihar) earth­quake of 21 August, 1988 measuring only 6.5 magni­tude on Richter scale (1000 times smaller than the great earthquake of 1934 in intensity) damaged 25,000 houses due to unconsolidated Gangetic alluvium which in fact acted as a seismic amplifier. The disastrous earthquake of Mexico city of 1985 (September) caused total collapse of 400 buildings, damage to 6,000 build­ings and moderate damage to 50,000 buildings.

Be­sides, the infrastructures of the city were seriously damaged, for example, water pipes were broken, tel­ecommunication lines and systems were severely dam­aged, power and water supplies were disrupted, inner vehicular transport was halted etc.

The severe earth­quake of 9 February, 1971 in the San Fernando valley, located to the north-west of Los Angeles (USA) caused total collapse of Olive New Hospital in Sylmar. This damage shocked everybody because this building was constructed in conformity with the earthquake resist­ance standards. Uttar Kashi (Uttaranchal) earthquake of 1991 and Latur-Kilari quake (Maharashtra) of 1993 (India) flattened many buildings.

iii. Damages to the Towns and Cities:

Earthquakes have their worst effects on towns and cities because of highest density of buildings and large agglomerations of human populations. The earth tremors of higher magnitudes shake the ground to such an extent that large buildings collapse and men and women are hurried under large debris and rubbles of collapsed structural materials of buildings, ground water pipes are bent and damaged and thus water supply is totally disrupted, electric poles are uprooted and electric and telephone wires and cables are heavily damaged caus­ing total disruption of electric supply, obstruction and destruction of sewer systems causes epidemics, road blocks throw the transport systems out of gear etc.

Kolkata city was severely damaged due to se­vere earthquake of 11 October, 1737 as thousands of buildings were severely damaged and 3,00,000 people were killed. The sad tale of the destruction of Mexico city due to the earthquake of 1985 has already been described. Recent Bhuj earthquake of Gujarat (Jan. 26, 2001) flattered towns of Anjar and Bhuj destroying more than 90 percent buildings.

iv. Loss of Human Lives and Property:

It may be pointed out that it is not the intensity (magnitude of Richter scale) of earthquake alone which matters more as regards the human casualities but it is the density of human population and houses which matter more in terms of human deaths and loss of property.

For exam­ple, the Kangra earthquake of India in 1905 recorded 8.6 magnitude on Richter scale but it could cause deaths of only 20,000 people whereas 1976 Tang-Shan earthquake of China measuring 7.8 to 8.1 on Richter scale killed 7,50,000 people.

More than 40,000 people lost their lives in the devastating earthquake of Turkey (August 17,1999) which recorded 7.4 on Richter scale. The loss of human lives caused by earthquakes has been enumerated in the preceding section on the clas­sification of earthquakes based on human casualities (see also tables 10.1, 10.2, 10.3).

The strong vibrations caused by se­vere earthquakes strongly shake the buildings and thus strong oscillations cause severe fires in houses, mines and factories because of overturning of cooking gas cylinders, contact of live electric wires, churning of blast furnaces, displacement of other electric and fire- related appliances. For example, the house wives were cooking their lunches in the kitchens when disastrous killer earthquake struck in the vicinity of Tokyo and Sagami Bay in 1923.

Consequently, severe fire broke out which claimed the lives of 38,000 people out of total fatalities of 1,63,000 caused by the earthquake through various processes. This earthquake resulted into total loss of property worth 2,500 million US dollars. The severe earthquake of San Fransisco (USA), which occurred on April 18, 1906, caused widespread fires in several parts of the city.

No water could be made available immediately to extinguish the fire because water pipes were also broken and displaced by the earthquake. Two biggest oil refineries of Turkey were completely devastated due to fire caused by the killer earthquake of August 17, 1999 (7.4).

vi. Deformation of Ground Surface:

Severe earth tremors and resultant vibrations caused by severe earth­quakes result in the deformation of ground surface because of rise and subsidence of ground surface and faulting activity. For example, the Alaska (USA) earth­quake of 1964 caused displacement of ground surface upto 10-15 metres.

The 1897-Assam earthquake caused a large fault measuring 10.6 m (35 feet) wide and 19.3 km (12 miles) long. Several faults were created in the mouth areas of the Mississippi river because of the earthquakes of 1811, 1812 and 1813 in the Mississippi valley. The alluvial-filled areas of the flood plains of the Mississippi were fractured at many places which forced ground surface at few places to collapse. This process resulted in the formation of lakes and marshes.

The ground surface was greatly deformed in the delta area of the Indus River (in Pakistan) due to the earthquake of 1819 as an area of 4,500 square kilome­tres was submerged beneath sea water and this land area disappeared for ever. It may be pointed out that subsidence in one area is followed by emergence of the land in other area.

This also happened in the Indus delta area as a large area measuring 80 km in length and 26 km in width was raised by 3 m from the surrounding area. Similarly, the coastal land of Chile was raised from 6m to 13 m because of the earthquake of 1835. The seafloor of Sagami Bay of Japan was subsided from 305 m to 457 m because of the earthquake of 1923.

vii. Flash Floods:

Strong seismic events result in the damages of dams and cause severe flash floods. Severe floods are also caused because of blocking of water flow of rivers due to rock blocks and debris produced by severe tremors on the hill slopes facing the river valleys. Sometimes, the blockade of the rivers is so immense that even the main course of the river is changed.

The 1950 earthquake of Assam produced barrier in the Dihang river, the tributary of the Brahmaputra River, due to accumulation of huge debris caused by landslides triggered by earth tremors and thus caused severe flash floods in the upstream sec­tions. Similarly, the dam on Subansiri River broke in and resultant flash flood submerged an area of 770 square kilometres.

viii. Tsunamis:

The seismic waves, caused by the earthquakes travelling through sea water, generate high sea waves and cause great loss of life and prop­erty. Since the Pacific Ocean is girdled by the ring of earthquakes and volcanoes tsunamis are more com­mon in the Pacific with a minimum frequency of 2 tsunamis per year. The Kutch earthquake of June 16, 1819 generated strong tsunamis which submerged the coastal areas and inflicted great damage to ships and country-made boats of the fishermen.

The land area measuring 24 km in length was raised upward because of tectonic movement triggered by the said earthquake which provided shelter to the stranded and marooned people. This is why the people called this raised land as Allah’s Bund (bund created by the God). The great tsunamis caused by the Lisbon earthquake of the year 1755 (in Portugal) generated about 12 m high sea waves which damaged most parts of Lisbon city and killed 30,000 to 60,000 people.

The impact of this earthquake was so enormous that the waters of inland lakes like Looh Lomond and Looh Ness continued to oscillate for several hours. The strong tsunamis triggered by Lisbon earthquake also caused 3.5 m to 4.5 m high waves as far away as the West Indies. The earthquake caused by violent volcanic eruption of Karakatoa in 1883 caused enormous tsunamis which generated 36.5 m high sea waves which ravaged the coastal areas of Java and Sumatra and killed 36,000 people.

Tsunami: Historical Perspective:

The waves generated in the oceans triggered by high magnitude earthquakes in the ocean floors (ex­ceeding 7.5 on Richter scale), or by violent central volcanic eruptions, or by massive landslides of the coastal lands or of submerged continental shelves and slopes or in deep oceanic trenches, are called tsunami, which is a Japa­nese word meaning thereby harbour waves.

The tsu­namis are long waves (with longer wavelengths of 100 km or more) which travel at the speed of hundreds of kilometers per hour but are of shallow in depth in deeper oceans and seas. As these waves approach coastal land, the depth of oceanic water decreases but the height of tsunamis increases enormously and when they strike the coast, they cause havoc in the coastal areas.

The best example of tsunami induced by violent volcanic eruption is from Krakatao eruption which occurred in 1883. Severe earthquake caused by Krakatao eruption generated furious tsunami waves ranging in 30 to 40 meters in height (average being 120 feet or 36.5 m). These waves were so violent that they ravaged the coasts of Java and Sumatra and killed 36,000 people.

Since the Pacific Ocean is girdled by conver­gent plate boundaries and the ring of earthquakes and volcanoes, tsunamis are more common in the Pacific with a minimum frequency of 2 tsunamis per year. The great tsunamis caused by the Lisbon earthquake (Por­tugal) of the year 1755 generated about 12 m high sea waves which damaged most parts of Lisbon city and killed 30,000 to 60,000 people.

The Kutch earthquake of June 16, 1819 generated strong tsunamis which submerged the coastal areas. The land area measuring 24 km in length was raised upward because of tectonic movements. The raised land was called as Allah’s Bund (bund created by the God).

The following are the significant tsunamis in the second half of the 20th century and 21st century:

(1) Aleutian tsunami:

April 1,1946, gener­ated by Aleutian earthquake of the magnitude of 7.8 on Richter scale, the resultant tsunami with a height of 35 m killed many people in Alaskan and Hawaiian coastal areas.

(2) Kamchatka tsunami:

Nov. 4,1952, earth­quake of the magnitude of 8.2, generated Pacific-wide tsunami with a wave height of 15 m.

(3) Aleutian tsunami:

March 9, 1957, earth­quake of the magnitude of 8.3 on Richter scale, gener­ated a Pacific-wide tsunami of 16 m height and ad­versely affected Hawaii islands.

(4) Chilean tsunami:

May 22, 1960, a strong earthquake of the magnitude of 8.6 on Richter scale, generated Pacific-wide tsunamis and claimed 2,300 human lives in Chile.

(5) Alaskan tsunami:

March 28,1964, a strong earthquake of the magnitude of 8.4 on Richter scale, generated 15 m high tsunami and killed more than 120 people in Alaska.

(6) Papua New Guirea tsunami:

July 17, 1998, a moderate intensity (7.00n Richter scale) sub­marine earthquake followed by massive submarine landslides generated 30m high tsunami killing thou­sands of people living along the lagoon.

(7) Sumatra tsunami:

December 26, 2004, a powerful earthquake of the magnitude of 9 on Richter scale, off the coast of Sumatra with its epicenter at Simeulue in the Indian Ocean occurred at 00:58:53 (GMT), 7:58:53 (Indonesian Local Time) or 6.28 a.m. (Indian Standard Time, 1ST) and generated a powerful tsunami with a wavelength of 160 km and initial speed of 960 km/hr. The deep oceanic earthquake was caused due to sudden subduction of Indian plate below Burma plate upto 20 meters in a boundary line of 1000 km or even more (2000 km upto southern China).

This tec­tonic movement caused 10 m rise in the oceanic bed which suddenly displaced immense volune of water causing killer tsunami. This earthquake was largest (highest on Richter scale) since 1950 and the 4th largest since 1900 A.D. The Andaman and Nicobar group of islands were only 128 km (80 miles) away from the epicenter (Simeulue) and the east coasts of India were about 1920 km (1200 miles) away from the epicenter.

The furious tsunami with a height of about 10 m adversely affected 12 countries bordering the Indian Ocean; worst affected areas included Tamil Nadu coast and Andman-Nicobar Islands of India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Thailand. The strong tsunami took about 3 hours to strike Tamil Nadu coast. The killer tsunami claimed more than200,000 human lives in the affected countries wherein Indonesia, Sri Lanka and India stood 1st, 2nd and 3rd in the number of human casualties.

Japan Tsunami, 2011 :

Date : March, 11, 2011; time : Japan time = 2.46 A. M., 1ST = 6.15 A. M.; undersea earth quake of 8.9 magnitude; epicenter 130 km off the coast of Sendai City near Lameng Village and 380 km north-east of Tokyo, at the depth of 10 km on sea bed; tsunami wave height 10m; more than 10,000 people killed; many cities like Miyako, Miyagi, Kesennuma were flattened; Sendai airport was inundated with heaps of cars, trucks, buses and mud deposits; aircrafts including fighter planes standing on airport were washed out by gushing tsunami waves; rotation speed of the earth increased by 16 microseconds; day length decreased by 1.6 microseconds; Honshu island was displaced by 2.4 m due to monstrous quake; earth rotational axis was displaced by 10 centimeters; 2100 km stretch of eastern coastlines having several villages, cities and towns were battered by killer tsunami; nuclear power plants in Fukushima severely damaged resulting into leakage of killer radiactive radiation; more than 5 lakh people in the radius of 20 km from Fukushima power plants were evacuated and shifted to safer places.

Essay # 5. World Distribution of Earthquakes :

If we look at the world distribution map of earthquakes (fig. 10.2) it appears that the seismic centres are closely related to certain zones of the globe. Earthquakes are, in fact, associated with the weaker and isostatically disturbed areas of the globe.

Most of the world earthquakes occur in:

(i) The zones of young folded mountains,

(ii) The zones of faulting and fracturing,

(iii) The zones representing the junction of continental and oceanic margins,

(iv) The zones of active volcanoes, and

(v) Along different plate bounda­ries.

The world map of the distribution of earth­quakes prepared by the seismologists on the basis of computer analysis and simulation of 30,000 earth­quakes that occurred between 1961 and 1967 very much coincides with the traditional map of world distribution of earthquakes (fig. 10.2) e.g.,

(1) Circum- Pacific Belt surrounding the Pacific Ocean,

(2) Mid- Continental Belt representing epicentres located along the Alpine-Himalayan Chains of Eurasia and northern Africa and epicentres of East African Fault Zones, and

(3) Mid-Atlantic Belt representing the earthquakes located along the mid-Atlantic Ridge and its offshoots. ‘The high-quality seismicity maps showed that narrow belts of epicentres coincide almost exactly with the crest of mid-Atlantic (Ridge).

The east Pacific, and the other oceanic ridges, where plates separate. Earthquake epicenters are also aligned along the transform faults, where plates slide past each other. But the earthquakes that occur at depths greater than about 100 km typically occur near margins where plates collide. It is a basic tenet of the theory of plate tectonics that these deep earthquakes actually define the positions of sub-ducted plates which are plunging back into the mantle beneath an overriding plate.

(1) Circum-Pacific Belt includes the epicentres of the coastal margins of North and South Americas and East Asia representing the eastern and western margins of the Pacific Ocean respectively. This belt accounts for about 65 per cent of the total earthquakes of the world.

This belt presents 4 ideal conditions for the occurrences of earthquakes viz.:

(i) Junction of continental and oceanic margins,

(ii) Zone of young folded mountains,

(iii) Zone of active volcanoes, and

(iv) Subduction zone of destructive or convergent plate boundaries.

The western marginal zones of North and South Americas are represented by Rockies and Andes folded mountain chains respectively. These zones are isostatically very sensitive zones because they are also the zones of convergent plate boundaries where the Pacific Oceanic plate is being continuously subducted below the American plates. Besides, these zones are also the areas of strong volcanic activity.

The earth­quakes associated with the eastern coastal margins of Asia and the island arcs and festoons (Kamchatka, Sakhalin, Japan, Philippines) are caused due to the collision of the Pacific and Asiatic plates and conse­quent vulcanicity. Japan records about 1500 seismic shocks every year.

The recent earthquake of Mexico city in 1985 reveals the impact of collision of convergent (destruc­tive) plate boundaries on the occurrences of earth­quakes. The damage done by the devastating earth­quake included death of 5,000 people, disappearance of 2,000 persons, injuries to 40,000 people, destruc­tion of 4000 buildings, damages to 6,000 buildings, lesser damage to 50,000 buildings etc.

(2) Mid-continental belt is also known as Medi­terranean Belt or Alpine-Himalayan Belt which repre­sents the collision or subduction zones of continental plates. About 21 per cent of the total seismic events of the world are recorded in this belt.

This belt includes the epicentres of the Alpine mountains and their off­shoots in Europe, Mediterranean Sea, northern Africa, eastern Africa and the Himalayan mountains and Bur­mese hills. This belt represents the weaker zones of folded mountains where isostatic and fault-induced earthquakes are caused due to subduction of African and Indian plates below Eurasian plate.

The Indian seismic foci are grouped into 3 zones viz.:

(i) Himalayan region,

(ii) Plain region, and

(iii) Plateau region.

The Himalayan region is a zone of maximum intensity in terms of the magnitude of seis­mic tremors because this zone is located in the subduc­tion zones of the Asiatic and Indian plates where the process of mountain building is still in progress. Uttar Kashi earthquake of October 20, 1991 and Chamoli earthquake of 29 March, 1999 (all in Uttaranchal of India) are latest examples. The plain seismic region is a zone of comparatively moderate intensity.

Even the earthquakes of Assam are also included in this zone. The significant earthquakes recorded in the past in this region are 1934 earthquakes of Bihar, Assam earth­quake of 1950, Kolkata earthquake of 1737 and Darbhanga earthquake (Bihar) of 1988. The peninsular Indian region is considered to be a zone of minimum intensity.

The Indian earthquakes along the Himalayas and foothill zones may be explained in terms of plate tectonics. The Asiatic plate is moving southward whereas the Indian plate is moving northward and hence the northern margin of the Indian plate is being subducted below the Asiatic plate.

The collision of Asiatic and Indian plates and resultant subduction of Indian plate and consequent folding and faulting and gradual rise of the Himalayas at the rate of 50 mm per year cause earthquakes of northern India, Tibet and Nepal.

Ac­cording to J.G. Negi, P.K. Agrawal and O.P. Pandey (as reported in Hindu, September 8, 1988) the Indian subcontinent has deformed at places due to the Indian Ocean floor spreading process. India folds at places and when the energy reaches the elastic limit the rocks break up and trigger strike-slip and thrust fault earth­quakes. The Himalayan fault zone is not actually one fault but a broad system of interactive faults. It consists of a complex grid of faults extending all along this colliding zone.

The earthquake belt extends through Sulaiman and Kirthar shear zones in the west, the Himalayas in the north and Burmese arc in the east. These tectonic events caused by plate movements cause earthquakes in the northern and north-eastern parts of India. Even the earthquakes of Peninsular India have been related to the active faults below deccan traps.

On the basis of magnitude of damage risk India is divided into five damage risk zones:

1. Zone I of least damage risk includes the places of some parts of Punjab and Haryana, plain areas of Uttar Pradesh, portions of plains of Bihar and west Bengal, delta area of the Godavari, coastal plain areas of Maharashtra and Kerala, desert areas of Rajasthan and most areas of Gujarat except Kutch area.

2. Zone II of low damage risk includes southern Punjab and Haryana, southern parts of plains of Uttar Pradesh, eastern Rajasthan, coastal districts of Orissa, Tamil Nadu etc.

3. Zone III of moderate damage risk represents the areas of southern and south-eastern Rajasthan, most of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka, southern Bihar(Jharkhand), northern and north-western Orissa etc.

4. Zone IV of high damage risk covers Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, northern Punjab and Haryana, Delhi, eastern Uttar Pradesh, ‘tarai’ and ‘bhabar’ regions and Himalayan regions of Uttaranchal and Bihar and Sikkim areas.

5. Zone V of very high damage risk includes parts of Jammu and Kashmir, some parts of Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, western north Bihar (including Munger-Darbhanga), entire north eastern India and Kutch areas of Gujarat.

Though the plains of west Bengal comes under the zone of least damage risk but the devastating severe earthquake of Kolkata of 11 October, 1737, killing 300,000 people, puts a question mark against this concept. The zone of very high damage risk of Kutch region of Gujarat registered most devastating killer earthquake on Jan. 26, 2001 in its seismic history of past 182 years killing 50,000 to 100,000 people. The epicenter was located near Bhuj town.

Bhuj Earthquake (2001):

While the people of India were busy in celebrat­ing the first republic day on Jan. 26, 2001 of the new century in different parts of the country and the pro­gramme of display of might of armed forces of the country was in progress in New Delhi, the nature demonstrated its might by rocking Kutch region of Gujarat when a severe earthquake struck at 8.45 A.M. and shook the region for almost a minute.

Within no time the villages and towns were flattened, high rise buildings collapsed, many villages and towns became heaps of debris, communication and power lines were completely disrupted, transport system was thrown out of gear and settlements became ruins. This was the second most devastating quake in the earthquake his­tory of India after 1737 killer earthquake of Kolkata (300,000 people dead). The epicentre of this earth­quake was located near Bhuj town (population, 150,000).

A moderate quake measuring 4.2 on Richter scale was registered on 24 December, 2000. The epicentre of this precursor quake was located only 22 km away from Bhuj town but no attention was paid to this precursor seismic event either by experts or by govt., agencies. The Bhuj quake of Jan. 26, 2001 was measured 6.9 on Richter scale by the Indian Meteorological Depart­ment (IMD) while the quake was measured 7.9 which was subsequently upgraded to 8.1 by the U.S.A. France and China.

National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) of India and Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) also confirmed the American measurement (8.1). According to Indian Meteorological Department the main reason for the difference in the magnitude of the quake was the application of different methodolo­gies for the measurement of seismic magnitude by different countries and organizations.

It may be pointed out that the IMD uses body wave for the measurement of seismic magnitude while the USA uses shock waves for this purpose. This severe devastating earthquake killed 50,000 to 100,000 people and adversely affected 5,000,000 people. Bhachau and Anjar towns were totally flattened, 90, 60 and 50 per cent houses collapsed in Bhuj, Rajkot and Ahmedabad respec­tively.

If we look at the past seismic history of Gujarat, it appears that a severe earthquake occurs every 30 years e.g., Bhawnagar earthquake, 1872; Kutch earth­quake, 1903; Dwarka earthquake, 1940; Broach earth­quake, 1970 and Bhuj earthquake, 2001. Between 1845 and 1956 sixty six moderate earthquakes were registered in Kutch area but no one was killed, five severe and one very severe earthquakes rocked the area.

In fact, the sequence of destruction of Kutch began with the severe earthquake of June 19, 1819 (7.1 on Richter scale) when 2000 people were killed, Bhuj town was destroyed, famous mosquake of Ahmedabad was damaged, a 100 km long ridge known as Allah Bund was created (most of which is now in Sind of Pakistan, only 15 km ridge is in India) was formed etc.

The main reasons for the recent Bhuj earth­quake of2001 are: sea floor spreading of Indian Ocean at the rate of 5 cm per year, gradual northward move­ment of Indian plate and reactivated faults below the surface. Two major connecting faults have been lo­cated in Kutch region. A 200 km long and 100 km wide fault runs east-west between Bhuj and Ahmedabad.

The second fault measuring 500 km in length and 100 km in width runs in north-south direction through Ahmedabad, Mehsana and Baroda and is known as Combay Graben. These subterranean faults intersect each other near Viramgam, Santhalpur and Radhanpur towns and become the pivot of seismic events when­ever these are activated due to plate movement.

(3) Mid-Atlantic Ridge Belt includes the epicen­tres located along the mid-Atlantic Ridge and several islands nearer the ridge. This belt records moderate and shallow focus earthquakes which are essentially caused due to the creation of transform faults and fractures because of splitting of plates and their move­ment in opposite directions. Thus, the spreading of sea floor and fissure type of volcanic eruption cause earth­quakes of moderate intensity.

It may be pointed out that the earthquakes that occur along the plate margins (boundaries) are well explained on the basis of plate tectonic theory but the earthquakes originating within the plates are difficult to be explained on the basis of this revolutionary theory.

For example, the earthquakes of New Madrid, Charleston, Boston, Tang-Shan, Koyna etc. are a few examples of intraplate earth­quakes. Similarly, ‘the seismicity of the Indian Shield as revealed from Kutch (1819), Koyna (1967), Bhadrachalam (1969) and Broach (1970) cannot be explained easily by plate tectonics since they occurred away from plate boundary’.

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Essay on Earthquake | Types, Causes & Effects

The earthquake is one of the worst experiences that can shake the earth up and down, leaving death and destruction all around. Read complete essay on earth definition, types, causes & effects, prevention, etc with examples

Table of Contents

Essay on Earthquake, Types, Causes & Effects

An earthquake is a natural calamity caused by the movement of tectonic plates present under the surface of the earth. The movement of tectonic plates causes damage and destruction, earthquake is often named a destructive phase of nature. The magnitude of the earthquakes is measured on the Richter scale.

This is one of the most damaging natural calamities which is hardly detected by seismologists, the branch of science called seismology is purely dedicated to the study of earthquakes, many advancements have been made to determine the sudden occurrence of this natural calamity.

However hard scientists try but they have greatly failed to determine the exact time and date of this natural calamity. The forecasting and prediction regarding this natural calamity hardly benefit humans. Scientists have stated that all volcanic regions are more prone to earthquakes as compared to other religions, volcanoes cause frequent earthquakes.

The movement of magma and volcanic eruptions shake earth which brings movement in tectonic plates and earthquake occurs. Volcanic earthquakes cause more destruction. Japan is the most prone country to earthquakes, it is highly affected by this natural calamity.

Causes of Earthquake

The main causes of earthquakes are volcanic eruptions, geographical faults, and human activities. Human activities like nuclear bombing and mining are major causes of earthquakes. The displacement of plates from their original position cause earthquakes. The breaking of the rocks underneath the surface of the earth cause earthquakes.

Effects of Earthquakes

Earthquakes cause loss of lives, destroy buildings and plazas, violent earthquakes cause mass destruction. Since time immemorial our planet earth has been hit by several small and violent earthquakes which not only damaged properties, buildings, and houses but also many innocent lives were lost.

Earthquake in a sea bed causes tsunami which causes huge loss of lives. The ground rupture due to earthquakes is harmful to dams, bridges, and nuclear power stations. When it is measured higher on the Richter scale it causes fires in forests, rubbing of trees produces fire which is very damaging.

Earthquake is natural, sometimes it causes no damage, it proves very little devastating when it is mild and at a small scale. Even if it is small, the slightest tremors spread panic and fear among people.

Precautions/Prevention

• Evacuate houses, homes, offices schools, buildings and run to open areas when it occurs or is warned.
• Don’t stand near to any collapsing building or any falling object.
• If don’t find time or place to run hide under any table or bed.
• Carry all necessary like food, water, medicines, documents, credit cards, debit cards, or cash in a bag in case of emergency.

Earthquake is one of the greatest natural calamities of the world, it has caused the loss of thousands of lives and has made humans suffer a lot.

Annually many earthquakes occur throughout the world which is potentially very dangerous. None can stop this calamity to occur but we can only wisely act to save our lives and loss of property.

Hello! Welcome to my Blog StudyParagraphs.co. My name is Angelina. I am a college professor. I love reading writing for kids students. This blog is full with valuable knowledge for all class students. Thank you for reading my articles.

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Essay on Earthquake

Students are often asked to write an essay on Earthquake in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Earthquake

What is an earthquake.

An earthquake is a sudden shaking of the Earth’s surface. It happens when the Earth’s tectonic plates move and clash with each other. This movement releases energy, causing the ground to shake.

Causes of Earthquakes

Earthquakes mainly occur due to the movement of tectonic plates. Sometimes, they can also be caused by volcanic eruptions or landslides.

Effects of Earthquakes

Earthquakes can cause buildings to collapse, landslides, and tsunamis. They can lead to loss of life and property.

Preventing Earthquake Damage

We can’t prevent earthquakes, but we can reduce their impact by building earthquake-resistant structures and planning for emergencies.

250 Words Essay on Earthquake

Introduction.

Earthquakes, a natural phenomenon, are the shaking, rolling, or sudden shock of the earth’s surface. They are among the most powerful and terrifying events on earth.

Earthquakes are primarily caused by the movement of tectonic plates beneath the Earth’s surface. When these plates move past each other, they sometimes get stuck at their edges due to friction. When the stress on the edge overcomes the friction, there is an earthquake that releases energy in waves that travel through the earth’s crust and cause the shaking that we feel.

Impacts of Earthquakes

The impact of earthquakes can be devastating, leading to loss of life and massive damage to infrastructure. They can trigger landslides and tsunamis, further escalating the destruction. The 2011 earthquake off the Pacific coast of Tohoku, Japan, which triggered a destructive tsunami, is a stark reminder of their potential devastation.

Earthquake Preparedness

Knowledge and preparedness are key to minimizing the effects of earthquakes. Seismology, the study of earthquakes, has enabled us to understand their behavior and, to a certain extent, predict their occurrence. Building codes and emergency response strategies can also be developed to mitigate their impacts.

While we cannot prevent earthquakes, understanding their causes and effects can help us to prepare and mitigate their impacts. As we advance in technology and knowledge, we hope to improve our ability to predict and respond to these powerful natural phenomena.

500 Words Essay on Earthquake

The science behind earthquakes.

The Earth’s lithosphere is divided into several large and small tectonic plates. These plates are continually moving, albeit very slowly, due to the convection currents in the underlying asthenosphere. When these plates interact at their boundaries, they may either move apart (divergent boundary), move towards each other (convergent boundary), or slide past each other (transform boundary). The majority of earthquakes occur along these plate boundaries.

The energy that causes an earthquake is stored in rocks as elastic strain energy. When the stress on the rock exceeds its strength, it breaks, releasing this stored energy as seismic waves. These waves travel through the Earth, causing the ground to shake.

Measuring Earthquakes

The immediate effect of an earthquake is ground shaking, which can cause buildings to collapse, landslides, and even tsunamis if the earthquake occurs under the ocean. These can result in significant loss of life and property.

In the long term, earthquakes can change the Earth’s surface, causing changes in the landscape, altering river courses, and creating new landforms. They can also have significant socio-economic impacts, disrupting communities, economies, and infrastructure.

Earthquake Preparedness and Mitigation

Mitigation measures include land-use planning, adopting earthquake-resistant construction practices, and improving early warning systems. Moreover, understanding the science of earthquakes is key to predicting them, which can help in minimizing their impacts.

Earthquakes are a powerful reminder of the dynamic nature of our planet. Despite their destructive potential, they play a crucial role in shaping the Earth’s landscape. Understanding the science behind earthquakes and implementing effective preparedness and mitigation strategies can significantly reduce their devastating impacts. As we advance in technology and knowledge, we continue to find ways to coexist with this inevitable natural phenomenon.

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Earthquake Essay | Essay on Earthquake for Students and Children in English

February 13, 2024 by Prasanna

Earthquake Essay: Earthquake Essay is an important topic for students to learn about. It educates the students about what an earthquake is and its repercussions. From a geological perspective, earthquakes (Magnitude 2 and smaller) occur several hundred times a day worldwide. These earthquakes occur in very remote places and its aftereffects are nearly imperceptible. Earthquakes that are larger and more destructive (Magnitude 8 and bigger) occur with lesser frequency; typically once or twice per year.

Usually, some places are more prone to earthquakes than others. These places are often located on the intersection between tectonic plates – gigantic plates that glide over the earth’s mantle. When two of these plates grind against each other, earthquakes occur. Depending on the location of the earthquake, it can cause a lot of damage, either through tsunamis, landslides, avalanches, mudslides, or ground displacement. These can cause serious damages to life and property; it can even cripple an entire economy if the magnitude is high enough. Read on to explore more about earthquakes.

You can read more  Essay Writing  about articles, events, people, sports, technology many more.

Most of us are familiar with the concept of earthquakes and the dangers they pose to us. However, not everyone knows the exact definition nor its probable causes.

What is an Earthquake?

An Earthquake is defined as a phenomenon where tectonic plates slip past one another, creating seismic waves that travel through the earth’s rocks. Depending on the intensity of the earthquakes, the effects can vary from minor structural damages to buildings to complete collapse, resulting in loss of life and property. Sometimes, when an earthquake originates from the middle of the ocean, it can cause extremely large and destructive waves called tsunamis. However, an earthquake does not directly pose danger to a person; in other words, people cannot be shaken to death by an earthquake.

Understanding the Cause of Earthquakes

Now that we know what is an earthquake, we shall explore how it is caused. The earth is made up of four layers – the inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust. The mantle and the crust essentially behave as a very thin layer of shell on our planet’s surface. However, this shell is not composed of one single piece; there are several pieces that exist under the earth, each slowly sliding past one another. These pieces are called the tectonic plates. There are in fact seven tectonic plates that are found under the earth’s crust:

• African plate
• Antarctic plate
• Eurasian plate
• Indo-Australian plate
• North American plate
• Pacific plate
• South American plate

Moreover, these plates are never static, they always keep moving. Over the earth’s history, tectonic plates have merged with other plates to form even larger plates. Other tectonic plates have drifted into smaller plates and some have been even pushed under other plates (subduction). This is one of the biggest reasons why we had supercontinents in the past, and their eventual breakup into the seven continents that we know today.

When two or more tectonic plates meet, the area usually becomes a hotspot for earthquakes. The actual event is caused when these plates start slipping past one another, creating energy in the form of seismic waves. Depending on the location and magnitude, these seismic waves have the potential to absolutely decimate buildings and natural ecosystems. The area where these earthquakes are known to occur is called the geologic faults.

Where do Earthquakes Occur?

Earthquakes can occur anywhere on earth, however, it occurs in more frequency where two tectonic plates meet, especially along the fault lines. The length of fault lines varies between a few meters to hundreds of kilometres. Most of the world’s earthquakes occur in a place called the Ring of Fire, in the Pacific Ocean. The Belt traces boundaries between many tectonic plates, as a result, there is a lot of movement. This consequently makes it geologically active and is considered a very “violent” place from a seismological perspective. Moreover, there are many underwater active volcanoes that line these boundaries, hence the name: Ring of Fire.

How is Earthquake Measured

Earthquakes are measured using a unit called Magnitude. The instrument that measures these units is called seismographs. However, scientists often prefer to use the Moment Magnitude Scale over the magnitude scale is often

Effects of Earthquakes

As stated before, earthquakes do not directly cause harm to humans. However, earthquakes can cause substantial damages to property. One of the most prominent dangers is ground displacement. Any buildings along the fault can collapse, thereby causing injury or death to humans. The effect of ground shaking as a result of seismic waves can also impact the structural integrity of buildings. Roads and bridges may not be traversable due to the damage caused.

Earthquakes also cause an event called liquefaction. This occurs when sand or soil becomes very soft when it gets mixed with groundwater. When liquefaction occurs under a building, it can cause it to tip over, sink several feet, thereby rendering the building a hazard.

Earthquakes can also cause flooding. When earthquakes rupture damns or embankments along a river, water would then flood the area, damaging property and drowning people. When earthquakes occur under the ocean, huge waves called Tsunamis can occur. These waves are extremely destructive and can destroy anything in its wake. Interestingly, when earthquakes occur near lakes, they can cause an event similar to a tsunami, but smaller in scale – it is called Seiches. They are usually only a few feet high, but they are powerful enough to flood property and cause damage.

Can we Predict Earthquakes?

Earthquakes can never be predicted with current technology. However, we can calculate the probability of an earthquake occurring in specific areas (geologically active areas).

FAQ’s on Essay on Earthquakes

Question 1. What causes an earthquake essay?

Answer: Earthquakes are caused when two or more tectonic plates meet.

Question 2. What is an earthquake?

Answer: An earthquake can be defined as the “shaking” of the earth’s surface as a result of a sudden release of energy from the lithosphere.

Question 3. What are the effects of an earthquake?

Answer: Earthquakes cause the ground to shake. More intense earthquakes can cause liquefaction, flooding, landslides and even tsunamis.

Question 4. Why are earthquakes dangerous?

Answer: Earthquakes do not directly affect humans, however, being in the wrong place can be dangerous – such as a building during an earthquake or on a beach when a tsunami occurs.

Question 5. Can earthquakes be predicted?

Answer: No, earthquakes cannot be predicted.

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Essay on Earthquake

Essay generator.

An earthquake is a natural phenomenon that manifests the dynamic nature of our planet. It is a seismic event characterized by the shaking of the ground caused by the sudden release of energy in the Earth’s lithosphere. This energy creates seismic waves that propagate through the Earth’s surface, leading to the ground shaking that we perceive as an earthquake. This essay delves into the causes of earthquakes, their effects, and the measures that can be taken to mitigate their impact, aiming to provide a comprehensive overview suitable for students participating in an essay writing competition.

The Causes of Earthquakes

The primary cause of earthquakes is the tectonic movements in the Earth’s crust. The Earth’s lithosphere is divided into several tectonic plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath. These plates are constantly moving, albeit very slowly, due to the convective currents in the mantle. Earthquakes occur when the stress accumulated along the edges of these tectonic plates is released suddenly. This stress can build up due to several factors:

• Plate Tectonics: Most earthquakes are triggered by the movement of tectonic plates, either by sliding past one another, colliding, or moving apart.
• Volcanic Activity: Volcanic earthquakes are a result of the movement of magma within the Earth, leading to tremors.
• Human Activities: Human activities such as mining, reservoir-induced seismicity due to the filling of large reservoirs behind dams, and even the extraction or injection of fluids into the Earth can trigger earthquakes.

Measuring Earthquakes

Earthquakes are measured using two main scales: the Richter Scale and the Mercalli Intensity Scale. The Richter Scale quantifies the energy released by an earthquake, using a logarithmic scale where each whole number increase corresponds to a tenfold increase in measured amplitude and roughly 31.6 times more energy release. The Mercalli Intensity Scale, on the other hand, measures the effects of an earthquake at different locations, taking into account the human experiences and structural damages.

Effects of Earthquakes

The impact of an earthquake can range from negligible to catastrophic, depending on its magnitude, depth, and the area’s vulnerability. Some of the significant effects include:

• Ground Shaking: The most immediate and noticeable effect of an earthquake is the shaking of the ground. This shaking can range from mild to violent, causing buildings, bridges, and infrastructure to sway or vibrate. Severe ground shaking can lead to structural damage and collapse.
• Surface Rupture: In some earthquakes, the Earth’s surface can rupture along the fault line where the earthquake occurred. This can result in visible cracks and displacements of the ground, damaging roads, pipelines, and buildings.
• Building and Infrastructure Damage: Earthquakes can cause extensive damage to buildings, homes, and infrastructure, particularly in areas with poor construction standards or older structures that are not earthquake-resistant. Collapsed buildings can lead to casualties and destruction.
• Landslides: The shaking of the ground during an earthquake can trigger landslides on steep slopes, burying homes, roads, and people under debris. Landslides can be especially dangerous in hilly or mountainous regions.
• Tsunamis: Underwater earthquakes, particularly those occurring along tectonic plate boundaries, can generate tsunamis. These large ocean waves can inundate coastal areas, causing widespread destruction and loss of life.
• Aftershocks: Following the main earthquake, there are often aftershocks, which are smaller seismic events that continue to shake the affected region. Aftershocks can hamper rescue and recovery efforts and further damage weakened structures.
• Fires: Earthquakes can rupture gas lines and damage electrical systems, leading to fires. The destruction of fire-fighting infrastructure and limited access to water can make it challenging to control these fires.
• Soil Liquefaction: In certain soil types, the intense shaking from an earthquake can cause the ground to temporarily lose its strength and behave like a liquid. This phenomenon, known as soil liquefaction, can result in the sinking or tilting of structures.
• Infrastructure Disruption: Earthquakes can disrupt essential infrastructure, such as transportation networks, water supply systems, and communication lines. This can hinder emergency response efforts and recovery operations.
• Psychological Impact: Earthquakes can have a profound psychological impact on individuals and communities. The fear and trauma associated with the event, as well as the loss of homes and loved ones, can lead to long-term emotional and mental health challenges.
• Economic Consequences: The economic impact of earthquakes can be significant, affecting local industries, businesses, and employment. Rebuilding and recovery efforts often require substantial financial resources.
• Environmental Effects: Earthquakes can have environmental consequences, such as the release of toxins from damaged industrial facilities, contamination of water sources, and disruptions to ecosystems.
• Human Casualties: Earthquakes can result in injuries and loss of life, depending on factors like the population density of the affected area, the quality of building construction, and the preparedness of the community.
• Displacement of Communities: In the aftermath of a severe earthquake, many people may be displaced from their homes, leading to temporary shelters and overcrowded living conditions.
• Long-Term Recovery: Recovery and reconstruction efforts following a significant earthquake can take years or even decades. Communities must rebuild infrastructure, homes, and businesses while addressing the physical and emotional scars left by the event.

Mitigation and Preparedness

While earthquakes cannot be prevented, the risk they pose can be significantly reduced through effective mitigation and preparedness measures:

• Building Codes: Implementing and enforcing strict building codes that require structures to withstand seismic forces can greatly reduce the damage and casualties during an earthquake.
• Early Warning Systems: Advances in seismology have led to the development of early warning systems that can provide precious seconds or even minutes of warning before the seismic waves reach populated areas.
• Public Education and Preparedness: Educating the public about what to do before, during, and after an earthquake can save lives and reduce injuries. This includes conducting regular earthquake drills, preparing emergency kits, and developing evacuation plans.
• Research and Monitoring: Continuous research and monitoring of seismic activity can help in understanding earthquake mechanisms and potentially in predicting significant seismic events in the future.

In conclusion, Earthquakes are a powerful reminder of the dynamic nature of our planet. They bring to light the forces that continuously shape the Earth’s surface, often with profound impacts on human societies. Understanding the causes and effects of earthquakes is crucial for developing effective strategies to mitigate their impact. Through advancements in science and technology, along with effective public policy and community preparedness, we can reduce the risk posed by earthquakes and enhance our resilience to these inevitable natural events. As we continue to learn from each seismic event, it becomes increasingly possible to safeguard our communities, minimize loss, and navigate the challenges posed by these tremors of our planet

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Earthquake Cause and Effect Essay Sample

Earthquakes are one of the worst and deadliest natural disasters that can occur. They are due to different factors and leave behind after-effects in their wake. An earthquake is the sudden release of strain energy in the crust of the planet’s surface, which will result in shaking that resonates outwards from the source. Simply, it is the sudden shaking of the Earth’s surface and can also be called a quake, tremor, or tremblor.

Earthquakes come in different sizes, as some are weak and cannot be felt, while others are violent and can destroy cities. The frequency, size, and type of quakes experienced are called seismicity. Earthquakes can be a result of volcanic action too. Furthermore, they have various effects that disturb lives and property.

The Valdivia Earthquake, also known as the Great Chilean, is the most powerful earthquake ever recorded. It occurred on the 22 nd of May, 1960, with studies placing it between 9.4 and 9.6 on the moment magnitude scale. The main cause of the quake was tension released by the Nazca plate under the South American plate. The earthquake lasted for about 10 minutes and resulted in tsunamis that affected Hawaii, southern Chile, eastern New Zealand, the Aleutian Islands, Japan, southeast Australia, and the Philippines.

Earthquakes are one of the most destructive and fascinating natural disasters that can cause a huge amount of destruction, injuries, and even death, but what makes them so dangerous? In this earthquake cause and effect essay sample, we will attempt to answer this question and explore why earthquakes occur and what effects they can have on society and the environment. Earthquakes are caused by sudden movement of the earth’s crust resulting from a release of energy from the Earth’s interior, and can be triggered by many different things including human activities such as mining and construction. Understanding the processes behind earthquakes can help individuals and organizations make better plans for future mitigation and adaptation if an earthquake were to occur. Additionally, students can buy a coursework to learn how to plan for an earthquake and develop better understanding of how to prepare for and cope with natural disasters.

Causes of Earthquakes

The main cause of the quakes is the sudden release of stress from the faults in the Earth’s crust. In this guide on how to do a cause and effect essay , we will cover the causes of an earthquake. As the continuous motion of layers transpires, it causes a gradual build-up of pressure on both sides of a fault. This happens because of plate boundaries that are moving. Once the stress is too significant, it is released in a shaky movement. So, how are earthquakes caused? Here are the factors causing quakes.

Tectonic Movements of the Earth

One of the leading causes of an earthquake is movement from the tectonics. This is a shift of the planes making up the crust. Our planet consists of about a dozen major plates and several minor ones and is constantly changing.

The tectonic plates frequently move slowly, but sometimes, they get stuck because of friction. When the stress on the crust becomes more significant than the friction, an earthquake happens to release energy. This brings about a shaky feeling in steps through the planet’s crust. Little movement from the tectonic caused big things such as the happenings in the Ring of Fire.

Seismicity Ripples

Seismic waves are one of the causes of earthquakes. These are elastic ripples generated by an impulse, like an earthquake. The energy from the fault in the crust of the planet will radiate outward in different directions through seismicity. Think of it as ripples on a pond. As the ripples move through the surface, they shake the floor and anything on it. These can be in the form of ripples, which is when an earthquake happens more than once. North Carolina earthquake events occur because of seismicity, although they don’t have significant damage.

Compressions in the Crust of the Earth

Compression in the crust happens when plate tectonics are pushed together. The crust will become shorter and thicker, and depending on how it reacts to the force, it can lead to an earthquake. Due to compression, many quakes that occur in Australia are caused by these shifts along faults. Also, the main cause of the Northridge earthquake 1994 was the compressions on the planet’s surface.

Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanic eruptions are one of the less likely causes of an earthquake, depending on the volcano that erupts. The earthquake will be triggered when an explosion of an explosive volcano. These ripples have a wider effect than volcanic eruptions when they trigger an earthquake. In the case of volcanic eruptions, around 20 miles of the region around the volcano will be affected when it erupts. The largest volcanic tremor took place under Mount St. Helens in 1981 , with an intensity of 5.5.

Disturbances on the Surface

In general, an earthquake can be caused by disturbances on the surface. Technology advancement is one of the popular cause/effect essay topics , which is to some extent responsible for catastrophes like an earthquake. Humanity builds skyscrapers, constructs dams, and gets water from underground. Dams and reservoirs are known to trigger earthquakes, especially when a dam structure fails.

For instance, the 2008 happening in Sichuan , China, which killed about 70,000 persons, was triggered by the nearby Zipping Dam construction. Another disturbance is groundwater extraction, as this can destabilize an existing fault. Hydraulic fracking is a method of extracting natural resources. It works when shale formations underneath are injected with a mixture of chemicals and water at high pressure. Fracking has had such an impact on the environment causing earthquakes.

Big buildings and skyscrapers can also add significant pressure on the Earth’s surface and crack rudimentary rocks.

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Effects of Earthquakes

When an earthquake happens, it leaves behind five primary outcomes and fires, a significant secondary impact of quakes. The effects of earthquakes on the Earth are often devastating, with people getting killed and injured, buildings getting destroyed, and the emotional and mental health of those affected. That’s why the investigation of this topic is so crucial in minimizing the adverse outcomes.

If you need an essay discussing this or any similar topic, our custom essay writing services can help you get the job done quickly and professionally. Now, let’s get to the main repercussions of quakes.

Ground Shaking

One of the most negative effects of earthquakes is surface shaking. During this time, buildings can be damaged, humans and animals will not be able to stand up or move around, and objects can be tossed around regardless of how big they are. Lives are taken in earthquakes but not directly by the shaking. Instead, it is caused by shaking, like buildings collapsing or getting hit by large objects.

The shaking of unstable slopes and direct blowout during an earthquake can lead to a landslide. Landslides are harmful effects of earthquakes and can damage buildings, tumbling hilltop homes, and block roads and transport lines. When a landslide happens, parts of the planet slide down and block an area. It can affect transportation after the earthquake, causing increased expenditure and leading to injuries and death for people there.

Surface Rupture

Another effect of quakes is surface breaking, which happens when the earthquake breaks the surface. As the earthquake occurs along a fault-line, it breaks through the Earth’s surface and can damage roads, pipelines, railway lines, tunnels, and airport runways. They will be damaged in the aftermath of an earthquake. An example of surface damage during an earthquake was the 1906 quake in California. The main cause of the quake was a slip of the San Andreas fault. The San Andreas fault is a major fracture of the planet’s crust.

Although this is a less common effect, an earthquake causes a tsunami. Tsunamis are water or tidal shakes that cause grave danger to places around the world, especially those in the Pacific Northwest region. An earthquake can cause the seafloor to move vertically apart from the normal floor. This will shake up the ocean and come in a series of floods to the beach. Tsunamis can move more than 700 kilometers per hour, causing flooding. It can damage properties and lead to death and injury too. Places close to the ocean are often subjected to tsunamis during an earthquake.

Liquefaction

Liquefaction is one of the outcomes of an earthquake that happens on the unconsolidated surface. When sediment grains are made to float in groundwater, the soil will lose all its solidity, and this is liquefaction. Tremors and earthquakes can cause mud and sand to spray over a couple of meters, posing a danger to buildings, train lines, gas lines, roads, and airport runways. Buildings can tip over and sink because of the liquefied soils, as occurred in the 1964 Niigata earthquake in Japan. Even septic tanks and gas tanks can float to the surface. Liquefaction after earthquakes leads to damages worth millions of dollars.

Earthquakes can have devastating consequences, so learning more about their causes and effects can be extremely beneficial. Recently, scientists have made tremendous progress in understanding the mechanisms behind earthquakes. To develop a deeper understanding of earthquakes, students may be required to write a coursework for me exploring the causes and effects of them. For example, they can focus on exploring tectonic plates and how they move and affect the ground, as well as the effect of natural conditions like weather and climate on their development. Additionally, the effects of an earthquake, such as structural damage and the resulting landslides, tsunamis and fires, can be further investigated in other science studies.

This essay has highlighted the cause and effect of earthquakes.  Earthquakes are severe natural disasters caused by shifts in the crust of the Earth. Compressions on the planet’s surface, human disturbances like skyscrapers and dams, and tectonics moving can cause earthquakes.  When they occur, consequences like landslides, ruptures, tsunamis, and more will follow. Some of the top countries prone to quakes are China, Indonesia, Turkey, Peru, Iran, Turkey, the United States, Japan, and Italy. China has gone through 157 earthquakes between 1900 and 2016. People living in these areas have precautions taken to protect themselves from injury during an earthquake.

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How to Write an Essay About Earthquakes

Diana v. faustmann.

Earthquakes cover as much ground in essay writing as they do in the real world. You can relate a personal earthquake experience, describe the steps to become a seismologist, narrate the earthquake history of a certain location or compare earthquakes to other natural disasters. Then you can choose to describe your topic, narrate a specific incident, analyze earthquake effects or argue for a better earthquake coping mechanism. These rich options challenge you to narrow your focus and define your purpose upfront. Then use sound research and a simple essay format to convey your informed message about earthquakes clearly and concisely.

Narrow your focus. Choose an area about earthquakes that fascinates or intrigues you and then restrict your focus further within it. For example, go from earthquakes in general to the Haiti earthquake of 2010, and from its effect on the Haitian people to orphans specifically.

Decide on your angle. Perform cursory research on your selected topic and then decide whether you want to narrate, explain, analyze, argue or persuade your readers to take action.

Establish your thesis and identify several sub-topics that exemplify or otherwise support your thesis. Develop a thesis statement that contains both elements. For example, “Seismology is a sound career to consider. You work outdoors most of the time, study the causes and effects of earthquakes in depth, and help to discover ways to limit their damage.”

Outline your introduction, body and conclusion. Focus your research on the data that you need to amplify your sub-topics. For instance, for the sub-topic, “The Richter scale is an inadequate earthquake measurement tool,” in your outline, add three bullets corresponding to case studies that illustrate that claim.

Write your introductory paragraph to compel further reading. First, provide a lead-in that gives earthquakes an interesting or original slant. Then narrow your focus and end with a statement of your thesis. For example, “My family barely escaped calamity in last summer's earthquake. Many of our neighbors were not so lucky; they lost homes and lives. Clearly, our homes still don’t adequately protect us from shifts in the seismic plates beneath us. We need to better earthquake-proof our area with a building code that is stronger in three major areas: (a), (b) and (c).”

Assign one or two paragraphs to address each sub-topic. Begin each paragraph with a topic sentence followed by supporting facts or examples. For example, state that “Governments should discourage new developments over known earthquake faults.” Follow this topic sentence with a description of three communities that earthquakes virtually demolished.

End your essay clearly and confidently. Begin your conclusion with “in summary” or “in brief,” then restate your thesis and sub-topics. Engage your readers with one final, memorable or compelling statement or anecdote. For example, “Compassion can be as earth-shaking as an earthquake, but with the opposite effect. Investigate how you can help to rebuild the lives of Haitian earthquake orphans today.”

• Sometimes your research leads you to a different conclusion than your thesis originally set out to prove. Adjust your thesis statement accordingly.
• Keep your sentences short and coherent. As much as possible, use active verbs throughout.
• Use transitional expressions between sentences and paragraphs; words such as “moreover,” “consequently” and “finally,” help your readers follow your train of thought and move smoothly from one thought to the next.
• Review your essay for spelling and grammar errors and any weaknesses in its flow. If possible, recruit a friend to help you proofread your essay before you submit it.
• 1 Purdue Online Writing Lab: Essay Writing

About the Author

Since 1988, Diana Faustmann has been writing on technology, business and culture. Her articles have appeared in various print publications, corporate websites and authoritative online sites. Faustmann holds a Bachelor of Arts in psychology from the University of the Philippines.

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143 Earthquake Essay Topics & Examples

Need a catchy title for an earthquake essay? Earthquakes can take place almost everywhere. That is why this problem is so exciting to focus on.

🏆 Best Earthquake Topic Ideas & Essay Examples

🎓 good essay topics on earthquake, 📌 catchy titles for earthquake essay, 👍 research titles about earthquake, ❓ essay questions about earthquake.

In your earthquake essay, you might want to compare and contrast various types of this natural disaster. Another option is to talk about your personal experience or discuss the causes and effects of earthquakes. In a more serious assignment like a thesis or a term paper, you can concentrate on earthquake engineering or disaster management issues. In this article, we’ve gathered best research titles about earthquake and added top earthquake essay examples for more inspiration!

• Crisis Management: Nissan Company and the 2011 Earthquake Expand on the points made in the case to identify the potential costs and benefits of these actions. The sharing of information was quite beneficial to Nissan in its response to the disaster.
• Public Awareness of Earthquake This will mean that the basement that is involved in thickening and shortening is mechanically required to produce the shape of zagros belt.
• Natural Disasters: Tornadoes, Earthquakes, and Hurricanes Hence the loss may depend on the population of the area affected and also the capacity of the population to support or resist the disaster.
• Natural Disasters: Earthquakes, Floods and Volcanic Eruption This is due to the relationship between an eruption and the geology of the area. It was observed that the mountain swelled and increased in size due to the upward force of magma.
• Mitigation of Earthquake Hazards The geologists should also inform the architects on the areas where earthquakes are likely to occur and how strong they will be able.
• The Japan Earthquake and Tsunami of 2011 Documentary The documentary reflects the events leading to the natural disasters and their aftermath, including an investigation into the reasons for the failure of the precautionary measures in place during the 2011 earthquake in Japan.
• Theory of Disaster: Earthquakes and Floods as Examples of Disasters The second category is that of those people who put their focus on the effects of the social vulnerability or the disasters to the society or to the people who are likely to be the […]
• Analysis of Damage to Apartment Buildings in the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake In turn, it is a prerequisite for the cataclysms in nature, such as earthquakes and the effect of liquefaction which was particular to the Marina district in the disaster of 1989.
• Earthquakes Impact on Human Resource in Organizations The researcher seeks to determine the magnitude of this effect and its general effect on the society in general and the firms affected in specific.
• Natural Disasters: Earthquakes, Volcanoes, and Tsunamis In addition, the paper will outline some of the similarities and differences between tsunamis and floods. Similarities between tsunamis and floods: Both tsunamis and floods are natural disasters that cause destruction of properties and human […]
• Earthquake Risk Reduction: Challenges and Strategies The victims of the earthquake in Haiti were hundreds of people, while the number of wounded and homeless was in the thousands. As for the latter, the worst scenario of the earthquake is created and […]
• School Preparedness Plan for Tornado, Earthquakes, Fire Emergency In case of an earthquake emergency, the school should be prepared to keep the students safe. In case of a tornado emergency the school should be prepared to keep the students safe.
• Natural Disasters: Tsunami, Hurricanes and Earthquake The response time upon the prediction of a tsunami is minimal owing to the rapid fall and rise of the sea level.
• Earthquakes in Chile and Haiti Moreover, the quake in Haiti raptured at the epicenter of the city with a high population density compared to Chile. Therefore despite a lower magnitude earthquake than Chile, Haiti suffered more damage due to the […]
• Disaster Preparedness and Nursing: A Scenario of an Earthquake In a scenario of an earthquake, nursing staff must be aware of the stages of disaster management and disaster preparedness in particular.
• The Sumatra Earthquake of 26 December 2004: Indonesia Tsunami As such, the earthquake resulted in the development of a large tsunami off the Sumatran Coast that led to destruction of large cities in Indonesia.
• Earthquakes: Causes and Consequences The first of these are body waves, which travel directly through rock and cause the vertical and horizontal displacement of the surface.
• Hypothetical New York Earthquake Case Therefore, the following faults would be included in the report as potential causes of the earthquake: the 125th Street fault is the largest of all.
• Wenchuan Earthquake: Impact on China’s Economy The earthquake made a moderate impact on the country’s economy, yet affected several industries located in the devastated areas.
• Dangerous and Natural Energy: Earthquakes The distribution of earthquakes in the world varies according to the region. Click on one of the earthquakes on the map and make a note of its magnitude and region.
• Earthquakes in New Madrid and Fulton City, Missouri The accumulation of this stress is a clear indication of the slow but constant movement of the earth’s outermost rocky layers.
• Earthquakes: Definition, Prevalence of Occurrence, Damage, and Possibility of Prediction An earthquake is a dangerous tremor that is caused by sudden release of energy in the crust of the earth leading to seismic waves that cause movements of the ground thus causing deaths and damages.
• The Great San Francisco Earthquake The length however depends on the size of the wave since the larger the wave the larger the area affected and consequently the longer the period of time taken.
• Earthquakes and Their Devastating Consequences The break in the ground surface is the most common cause of horrific consequences, and people often cannot get out of the epicenter of the incident.
• Natural vs. Moral Evil: Earthquakes vs. Murder This problem demonstrates that such justifications for the problem of evil, such as the fact that suffering exists to improve the moral qualities of a person and thus serve the greater good, are unconvincing.
• Earthquake in South Africa: Reconstruction Process Therefore, it is vital for the government of South Africa to address the issues caused by the earthquake and reconstruct the region, focusing on several public interventions to stimulate the region’s growth in the shortest […]
• Earthquake in Haiti 2010: Nursing Interventions During natural disasters, such as the catastrophic earthquake in Haiti in 2010, nursing interventions aim to reduce the level of injury and provide the conditions for the fast recovery of its victims.
• Review of Earthquake Emergency Response The second resource is the supply of food and water that can help survivors wait for the rescue team for three days.
• California Earthquakes of the 20th Century Ultimately, the current essay examines the most devastating earthquakes in California in the 20th century and proposes a hypothesis of when the next large earthquake might strike.
• Human Activity and Growing Number of Earthquakes The pieces that support the opposing view claim that the data about their number may be distorted due to the lack of difference in the development mechanism of natural and artificial earthquakes.
• Researching the Earthquake Due to human activity, artificial earthquakes occur, and their number increases every year following the strengthening of destructive human impact on the planet.
• Earthquake Disasters: Medical Response and Healthcare Challenges Therefore, an earthquake disaster infers abrupt and immense shaking of the ground for a duration and magnitude that can infringe the day-to-day activities. The last role of healthcare personnel in triage and intervention is to […]
• Haiti Earthquake of 2010 Overview The purpose of this paper is to review the location and physical cause of the event, its human impact from it, and some of the interesting facts related to the disaster.
• Earthquake Prevention From Healthcare Perspective In terms of primary prevention of such a disaster, it is necessary to establish a public body or organization responsible for the creation of an extensive network of food, water, and first-aid kits to last […]
• Recent Earthquakes and Safety Measures in California and Nevada The earthquake that is the largest by magnitude is in California. It is possible to minimize the damage by an earthquake.
• Role of the Nurses in the Site of the Haiti Earthquake The primary aim of the tertiary intervention conducted by the health practitioners was to reduce the effect of the diseases and injuries that occurred because of the Haiti earthquake.
• A Geological Disaster: Nisqually Earthquake in Washington State Geology refers to the study of the processes that lead to the formation of rocks and the processes that contribute to the shape of the earth.
• The Huaxian Earthquake: China’s Deadliest Disaster The main reason for the terrible earthquakes consequences was in the absence of a plan for the emergency case. After visiting China later in 1556, he wrote that the given disaster was likely to be […]
• Understanding Plate Tectonics and Earthquakes: Movements, Causes, and Measurement Therefore, the distance of the fracture will determine the intensity of the vibrations caused by the earthquake and the duration of the effect, that is, shaking the ground.
• Review of Public Meeting Regarded Earthquakes This focused meeting held in Port Au-Prince was to formulate the best strategies to help the people of Haiti anticipate, adapt and also recover from the impacts of earthquakes.
• Rebuilding Haiti: Post-Earthquake Recovery No doubt the tremors have taken a massive toll on the lives and resources of Haiti, but it was not only the tremors that caused the damage to such a massive extent.
• Earthquake Impacts: A Case Study of the 2010 Haiti Earthquake The short-term effects of the earthquake include food shortage, lack of clean water; breakdown of communication, lack of sufficient medical care, closure of ports and main roads, increased mortally, injuries, fires, the spread of communicable […]
• Volcanoes: Volcanic Chains and Earthquakes The “Ring of Fire” is marked by the volcanic chains of Japan, Kamchatka, South Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, the Cascade Range of the United States and Canada, Central America, the Andes, New Zealand, Tonga, […]
• Emergency Response to Haiti Earthquake The response to the earthquake and calamities that followed was a clear demonstration that the country was ill-prepared to deal with such a disaster.
• 1906 San Francisco Earthquake: Eyewitness Story The moon crept in and out of the room, like a late evening silhouette, but its lazy rays did little to signal us what we would expect for the rest of the day.
• Earthquake Emergency Management and Health Services Fundamental principles of healthcare incident management involve the protection of people’s lives, the stabilization of the disaster spot, and the preservation of property.
• Fracking: Increased Seismic Activities in Kansas According to the report of the State Corporation Commission of the State of Kansas, the work of local drilling companies has considerably increased the number of seismic activities in the state.
• Earthquake as a Unique Type of Natural Disaster Earthquakes are believed to be one of the most dangerous natural disasters, and they can have a lot of negative effects on both the community and the environment.
• US Charities in Haiti After the 2010 Earthquake This paper aims to explore the overall implications of the earthquake and the response to it, as well as to provide an examination of the actions of three U.S.-based NGOs, which contributed to the restoration […]
• Christchurch Earthquakes’ Impact on New Zealand Businesses Similarly, the occurrence of the incident led to the loss of lives that had the potential of promoting most businesses into great heights.
• Understanding Earthquake Statistics: Frequency, Magnitude, and Data Sources Tectonic earthquakes are prompted as a consequent of movement of the earth’s crust because of the strain. The USGS National Earthquake Information Center reports an increase in the number of detection and location of earthquakes […]
• Geology Issues: Earthquakes The direction of the plates’ movements and the sizes of the faults are different as well as the sizes of tectonic plates.
• 2008 and 2013 Sichuan Earthquakes in China This was the worst and the most devastating earthquake since “the Tangshan earthquake of 1976 in China”. In addition, impacts differ based on the number of fatalities and damages to property.
• Mitigation for Earthquake and Eruption Since the energy is mainly derived from the sustained stress and deformation of the underlying rocks, the precursor signals of earthquakes especially in seismic zones are majorly based on the careful study of the earth’s […]
• Tōhoku Earthquake of 2011 The rate at which the pacific plate undergoes displacement is at eight to nine centimeter per annum, hence the plate subduction of the plate led to a discharge of large amounts of energy leading to […]
• Earthquakes as a Cause of the Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Although earthquake is a major cause of the post traumatic stress disorder, there are other factors that determine the development of the same.
• Plate Tectonics, Volcanism, Earthquakes and Rings of Fire Plate tectonics has led to the separation of the sea floor over the years and the earth is composed of seven tectonic plates according to the available geological information.
• The 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake The earthquake was accompanied by a great tsunami given the high magnitude of the earthquake that reached 9. The third disaster was the meltdown of a number of nuclear plants following the tsunami.
• The 1979 Tangshan Earthquake The Tangshan Earthquake happened in 1976 is considered to be one of the large-scale earthquakes of the past century. The 1975 Haicheng Earthquake was the first marker of gradual and continuous intensification of tectonic activity […]
• The Parkfield Earthquake Prediction Experiment The seismic activity and the relatively regular sequence of the earthquakes in the area of San Paul Fault generated the interest of the geologists in exploring the processes in the rupture.
• Losing the Ground: Where Do Most Earthquakes Take Place? Since, according to the above-mentioned information, natural earthquakes are most common in the places where the edges of tectonic plates meet, it is reasonable to suggest that earthquakes are most common in the countries that […]
• The Impacts of Japan’s Earthquake, Tsunami on the World Economy The future prospects in regard to the tsunami and the world economy will be presented and application of the lessons learnt during the catastrophe in future” tsunami occurrence” management.
• Geology Issue – Nature of Earthquakes Such an earthquake is caused by a combination of tectonic plate movement and movement of magma in the earth’s crust. Continental drift is the motion of the Earth’s tectonic plates relative to each other.
• The Impact of the California Earthquake on Real Estate Firms’ Stock Value
• Technology Is The Best Way To Reduce The Impact of An Earthquake
• Study on Earthquake-Prone Buildings Policy in New Zealand
• The Devastating Effects of the Tohuku Earthquake of 2011 in Japan
• The Disasters in Japan in 2011: The Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami
• Why Was the Haiti Earthquake So Deadly
• Taking a Closer Look at Haiti After the Earthquake
• The Aftermath of The Earthquake of Nepal
• The Effects of the Fourth-Largest Earthquake in Japan in Problems Persist at Fukushima, an Article by Laurie Garret
• The Greatest Loss of The United Francisco Earthquake of 1906
• The Impact of Hurricanes, Earthquakes, and Volcanoes on Named Caribbean Territories
• The Destruction Caused by the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake
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• The Great San Francisco Earthquake and Firestorm
• Scientific and Philosophic Explanation of The 1755 Lisbon Earthquake
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• Voltaire and Rousseau: A Byproduct of The Lisbon Earthquake
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• Estimating the Direct Economic Damage of the Earthquake in Haiti
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• Valuing the Risk of Imperfect Information: Christchurch Earthquake
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• The Devastating Earthquake of The United States
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• The Crisis of the Fukushima Nuclear Plant After an Earthquake
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• The History and Effects of the Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami in 2004
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• What Are the Five Leading Causes of the Earthquake?
• Where Is the Safest Place to Be in an Earthquake?
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IvyPanda . (2024) '143 Earthquake Essay Topics & Examples'. 26 February.

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The surface of the Earth is made up of tectonic plates that lie beneath both the land and oceans of our planet. The movements of these plates can build mountains or cause volcanoes to erupt. The clash of these plates can also cause violent earthquakes, where Earth’s surface shakes. Earthquakes are more common in some parts of the world than others, because some places, like California, sit on top of the meeting point, or fault, of two plates. When those plates scrape against each other and cause an earthquake, the results can be deadly and devastating.

Learn more about earthquakes with this curated collection of classroom resources.

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• Earthquake Essay

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Earthquakes are some of the most devastating natural disasters. Millions of dollars worth of property are damaged and a hundred die every time a big magnitude of eater quake strikes.  It is in this regard that everyone must read and know about earthquakes and be prepared to mitigate the damage. Furthermore, the topic of earthquakes is quite often asked in exams. Preparing for this topic will enable them to have an edge and score more marks in the English paper.

To serve the above-mentioned purpose, Vedantu has come up with the Earthquake essay. This essay is prepared by the experts who know what exactly is required to know and weeding out points that are not important. The essay is very precise and would surely allow students to successfully claim marks in the essay question and even stay prepared when an earthquake actually strikes.

What is an Earthquake?

When the earth’s surface shakes, the phenomenon is referred to as an earthquake. Precisely, the sudden trembling of the earth’s surface is the cause of an earthquake. Earthquakes are regarded as one of the deadliest natural disasters. Huge damage and loss of property are caused by earthquakes. There are various types of earthquakes. Some of them are severe in nature. The most dangerous thing about an earthquake is that it is quite unpredictable. It can cause several damages without any previous indication. The intensity of an earthquake is measured by the Richter’s scale. Generally, earthquakes occur due to the movement of tectonic plates under the earth’s surface.

Types of Earthquake

There are four kinds of earthquakes namely 

Tectonic Earthquake,

Volcanic Earthquake, 

Collapse Earthquake and 

Explosive Earthquake.

Tectonic Earthquake 

It is caused due to the movement of the slab of rocks of uneven shapes that lie underneath the earth’s crust. Apart from that, energy is stored in the earth’s crust. Tectonic plates are pushed away from each other or towards each other due to the energy. A pressure is formed because of the energy and movement as time passes. A fault line is formed due to severe pressure. The center point of this dispersion is the epicenter of the earthquake. Subsequently, traveling of the waves of energy from focus to the surface causes the tremor.

Volcanic Earthquake

The earthquake caused by volcanic activity is called a volcanic earthquake. These kinds of earthquakes are of weaker magnitudes. Volcanic earthquakes are categorized into two types. In the first type, which is called volcano-tectonic, shaking happens due to input or withdrawal of Magma. In the second type, which is termed as Long-period earthquake, tremors occur due to changing of pressure among the earth’s layers.

Collapse Earthquake

Collapse Earthquake is the third type of earthquake that occurs in the caverns and mines. This is another example of a weak magnitude earthquake. Mines collapsed due to underground blasts. Consequently, seismic waves are formed due to this collapsing. Earthquakes occur because of these seismic waves.

Explosive Earthquake

The fourth type of earthquake is called an explosive earthquake. This is caused due to the testing of nuclear weapons.

Effects of Earthquake

The effects of earthquakes are very severe and deadly. 

It can cause irreparable damage to property and loss of human lives. The lethality of an earthquake depends on its distance from the epicentre. 

Damage to establishments is the direct impact of an earthquake. In the hilly areas, several landslides are caused due to earthquakes.  

Another major impact of an earthquake is soil liquefaction. Losing the strength of water-saturated granular material is the cause behind this. The rigidity of soil is totally lost due to this.

Since the earthquake affects the electric power and gas lines, it can cause a fire to break out. 

Deadly Tsunamis are caused due to earthquakes. Gigantic sea waves are caused by the sudden or abnormal movement of huge volumes of water. This is called an earthquake in the ocean. When tsunamis hit the sea coasts, they cause a massive loss of lives and properties. 

Earthquake is termed as one of the most huge and lethal natural disasters in the world. It proves the fact that human beings are just nothing in front of nature. The sudden occurrence of earthquakes shocks everyone. Scientists are working rigorously to prevent the damage of earthquakes, but nothing fruitful has been achieved yet.

Examples of Devastating Earthquake

The city of Kobe in Japan witnessed a devastating earthquake on January  17, 1995, killing more than 6,000 and making more than 45,000 people homeless.  The magnitude of the quake was 6.9 at the moment which caused damage of around 100 million dollars.  The governor of Kobe spent years on reconstruction and made efforts to bring back fifty thousand people who had left home.  Japan geologically is a highly active country. It lies upon four major tectonic plates namely, Eurasian, Philippine, Pacific, and North American which frequently meet and interact.

The second incident is in Nepal where an earthquake struck on April 25, 2015. About 9000 people were killed and almost 600,000 structures were destroyed.  The magnitude of the quake was 7.9 and the repels were felt by neighbouring countries like Bangladesh, China and India.  The disaster caused severe damage of millions of dollars. All the countries across the world including India garnered to help Nepal by sending monetary aid, medical supplies, transport helicopters and others.

FAQs on Earthquake Essay

1. How to download the Earthquake Essay?

The Earthquake essay is available on Vedantu's website in PDF format. The PDF could be downloaded on any device, be it android, apple or windows.    One just has to log on to www.vedantu.com and download the document. The document is totally free of cost and a student does not need to pay any prior registration fee.  

2. How to protect oneself during an earthquake?

Earthquakes could be very disastrous and can cause a lot of collateral damage.  During an earthquake you can look for the corners to hide. Another safe place to hide is under the table or under the bed. If one is sitting in a multistory building, avoid taking a lift and only use the stairs. In this kind of situation, one should never panic and stay calm.  Let the earthquake pass until then keep hiding in the safe spot. Once over, come out to evaluate the situation and take appropriate actions.

3. How to mitigate the effects of an earthquake?

Prevention is better than cure. It is always a better idea to take necessary actions before an earthquake has struck. In the first place, send a copy of all your documents to someone reliable. In case of an earthquake that destroys your important documents, there would always remain a facility to retrieve them.  Research and know if your city is in a seismic zone.  One should also take note of earthquakes during the construction of a house and lay emphasis on a seismic-proof house.

4. How can one teach people about the effects of an earthquake?

There are many ways one can raise awareness about the effects of earthquakes.  There is Youtube and Instagram which could be used to disseminate all the knowledge about the earthquake and its impact on humans. You can also go to schools and colleges to conduct a seminar whereby the students could be told about the mitigation and steps to take when an earthquake strikes.  However before that, one must thoroughly research the topic. For this, visit www.vedntu.com and download the earthquake essay for free.

5. Who has written the Earthquake essay?

The earthquake essay provided by Vedantu is prepared by expert teachers who invest a good amount of time and effort to come up with an essay that is highly useful for the students in their personal lives as well as for their academic performance. The students can use this essay to maximize their abilities to cope with the questions on earthquakes and the earthquake itself. The essay is totally reliable and one mustn’t doubt its credibility at all.

Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Earthquake — The natural disaster: Earthquake

The Natural Disaster: Earthquake

• Categories: Earthquake Natural Disasters

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Published: Dec 5, 2018

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National Earthquake Resilience: Research, Implementation, and Outreach (2011)

Chapter: 1 introduction.

1 Introduction

When a strong earthquake hits an urban area, structures collapse, people are injured or killed, infrastructure is disrupted, and business interruption begins. The immediate impacts caused by an earthquake can be devastating to a community, challenging it to launch rescue efforts, restore essential services, and initiate the process of recovery. The ability of a community to recover from such a disaster reflects its resilience, and it is the many factors that contribute to earthquake resilience that are the focus of this report. Specifically, we provide a roadmap for building community resilience within the context of the Strategic Plan of the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), a program first authorized by Congress in 1977 to coordinate the efforts of four federal agencies—National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), National Science Foundation (NSF), and U.S. Geological Survey (USGS).

The three most recent earthquake disasters in the United States all occurred in California—in 1994 near Los Angeles at Northridge, in 1989 near San Francisco centered on Loma Prieta, and in 1971 near Los Angeles at San Fernando. In each earthquake, large buildings and major highways were heavily damaged or collapsed and the economic activity in the afflicted area was severely disrupted. Remarkably, despite the severity of damage, deaths numbered fewer than a hundred for each event. Moreover, in a matter of days or weeks, these communities had restored many essential services or worked around major problems, completed rescue efforts, and economic activity—although impaired—had begun to recover. It could be argued that these communities were, in fact, quite resilient. But

it should be emphasized that each of these earthquakes was only moderate to strong in size, less than magnitude-7, and that the impacted areas were limited in size. How well would these communities cope with a magnitude-8 earthquake? What lessons can be drawn from the resilience demonstrated for a moderate earthquake in preparing for a great one?

Perhaps experience in dealing with hurricane disasters would be instructive in this regard. In a typical year, a few destructive hurricanes make landfall in the United States. Most of them cause moderate structural damage, some flooding, limited disruption of services—usually loss of power—and within a few days, activity returns to near normal. However, when Hurricane Katrina struck the New Orleans region in 2005 and caused massive flooding and long-term evacuation of much of the population, the response capabilities were stretched beyond their limits. Few observers would argue that New Orleans, at least in the short term, was a resilient community in the face of that event.

Would an earthquake on the scale of the 1906 event in northern California or the 1857 event in southern California lead to a similar catastrophe? It is likely that an earthquake on the scale of these events in California would indeed lead to a catastrophe similar to hurricane Katrina, but of a significantly different nature. Flooding, of course, would not be the main hazard, but substantial casualties, collapse of structures, fires, and economic disruption could be of great consequence. Similarly, what would happen if there were to be a repeat of the New Madrid earthquakes of 1811-1812, in view of the vulnerability of the many bridges and chemical facilities in the region and the substantial barge traffic on the Mississippi River? Or, consider the impact if an earthquake like the 1886 Charleston tremor struck in other areas in the central or eastern United States, where earthquake-prone, unreinforced masonry structures abound and earthquake preparedness is not a prime concern? The resilience of communities and regions, and the steps—or roadmap—that could be taken to ensure that areas at risk become earthquake resilient, are the subject of this report.

EARTHQUAKE RISK AND HAZARD

Earthquakes proceed as cascades, in which the primary effects of faulting and ground shaking induce secondary effects such as landslides, liquefaction, and tsunami, which in turn set off destructive processes within the built environment such as fires and dam failures (NRC, 2003). The socioeconomic effects of large earthquakes can reverberate for decades.

The seismic hazard for a specified site is a probabilistic forecast of how intense the earthquake effects will be at that site. In contrast, seismic risk is a probabilistic forecast of the damage to society that will be caused by earthquakes, usually measured in terms of casualties and economic losses in a

specified area integrated over the post-earthquake period. Risk depends on the hazard, but it is compounded by a community’s exposure —its population and the extent and density of its built environment—as well as the fragility of its built environment, population, and socioeconomic systems to seismic hazards. Exposure and fragility contribute to vulnerability . Risk is lowered by resiliency , the measure of how efficiently and how quickly a community can recover from earthquake damage.

Risk analysis seeks to quantify the risk equation in a framework that allows the impact of political policies and economic investments to be evaluated, to inform the decision-making processes that contribute to risk reduction. Risk quantification is a difficult problem, because it requires detailed knowledge of the natural and the built environments, as well as an understanding of both earthquake and human behaviors. Moreover, national risk is a dynamic concept because of the exponential rise in the urban exposure to seismic hazards (EERI, 2003b)—calculating risk involves predictions of highly uncertain demographic trends.

Estimating Losses from Earthquakes

The synoptic earthquake risk studies needed for policy formulation are the responsibility of NEHRP. These studies can take the form of deterministic or scenario studies where the effects of a single earthquake are modeled, or probabilistic studies that weight the effects from a number of different earthquake scenarios by the annual likelihood of their occurrence. The consequences are measured in terms of dollars of damage, fatalities, injuries, tons of debris generated, ecological damage, etc. The exposure period may be defined as the design lifetime of a building or some other period of interest (e.g., 50 years). Typically, seismic risk estimates are presented in terms of an exceedance probability (EP) curve (Kunreuther et al., 2004), which shows the probability that specific parameters will equal or exceed specified values ( Figure 1.1 ). On this figure, a loss estimate calculated for a specific scenario earthquake is represented by a horizontal slice through the EP curve, while estimates of annualized losses from earthquakes are portrayed by the area under the EP curve.

The 2008 Great California ShakeOut exercise in southern California is an example of a scenario study that describes what would happen during and after a magnitude-7.8 earthquake on the southernmost 300 km of the San Andreas Fault ( Figure 1.2 ), a plausible event on the fault that is most likely to produce a major earthquake. Analysis of the 2008 ShakeOut scenario, which involved more than 5,000 emergency responders and the participation of more than 5.5 million citizens, indicated that the scenario earthquake would have resulted in an estimated 1,800 fatalities, $113 billion in damages to buildings and lifelines, and nearly $70 billion in busi-

FIGURE 1.1 Sample mean EP curve, showing that for a specified event the probability of insured losses exceeding L i is given by p i . SOURCE: Kunreuther et al. (2004).

ness interruption (Jones et al., 2008; Rose et al., in press). The broad areal extent and long duration of water service outages was the main contributor to business interruption losses. Moreover, the scenario is essentially a compound event like Hurricane Katrina, with the projected urban fires caused by gas main breaks and other types of induced accidents projected to cause $40 billion of the property damage and more than $22 billion of the business interruption. Devastating fires occurred in the wake of the 1906 San Francisco, 1923 Tokyo, and 1995 Kobe earthquakes.

Loss estimates have been published for a range of earthquake scenarios based on historic events—e.g., the 1906 San Francisco earthquake (Kircher et al., 2006); the 1811/1812 New Madrid earthquakes (Elnashai et al., 2009); and the magnitude-9 Cascadia subduction earthquake of 1700 (CREW, 2005)—or inferred from geologic data that show the magnitudes and locations of prehistoric fault ruptures (e.g., the Puente Hills blind thrust that runs beneath central Los Angeles; Field et al., 2005). In all cases, the results from such estimates are staggering, with economic losses that run into the hundreds of billions of dollars.

FEMA’s latest estimate of Annualized Earthquake Loss (AEL) for the nation (FEMA, 2008) is an example of a probabilistic study—an estimate of national earthquake risk that used HAZUS-MH software ( Box 1.1 ) together with input from Census 2000 data and the 2002 USGS National Seismic Hazard Map. The current AEL estimate of $5.3 billion (2005$)

FIGURE 1.2 A “ShakeMap” representing the shaking produced by the scenario earthquake on which the Great California ShakeOut was based. The colors represent the Modified Mercalli Intensity, with warmer colors representing areas of greater damage. SOURCE: USGS. Available at earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/shakemap/sc/shake/ShakeOut2_full_se/ .

reflects building-related direct economic losses including damage to buildings and their contents, commercial inventories, as well as damaged building-related income losses (e.g., wage losses, relocation costs, rental income losses, etc.), but does not include indirect economic losses or losses to lifeline systems. For comparison, the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) (2003b) extrapolated the FEMA (2001) estimate of AEL ($4.4 billion) for residential and commercial building-related direct economic losses by a factor of 2.5 to include indirect economic losses, the social costs of death and injury, as well as direct and indirect losses to the

BOX 1.1 HAZUS ® —Risk Metrics for NEHRP

The ability to monitor and compare seismic risk across states and regions is critical to the management of NEHRP. At the state and local level, an understanding of seismic risk is important for planning and for evaluating costs and benefits associated with building codes, as well as a variety of other prevention measures. HAZUS is Geographic Information System (GIS) software for earthquake loss estimation that was developed by FEMA in cooperation with the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS). HAZUS-MH (Hazards U.S.-Multi-Hazard) was released in 2003 to include wind and flood hazards in addition to the earthquake hazards that were the subject of the 1997 and 1999 HAZUS releases. Successive HAZUS maintenance releases (MR) have been made available by FEMA since the initial HAZUS-MH MR-1 release; the latest version, HAZUS-MH MR-5, was released in December 2010.

Annualized Earthquake Loss (AEL) is the estimated long-term average of earthquake losses in any given year for a specific location. Studies by FEMA based on the 1990 and 2000 censuses provide two “snapshots” of seismic risk in the United States (FEMA, 2001, 2008). These studies, together with an earlier analysis of the 1970 census by Petak and Atkisson (1982), show that the estimated national AEL increased from $781 million (1970$) to $4.7 billion (2000$)—or by about 40 percent—over four decades ( Figure 1.3 ). All three studies used building-related direct economic losses and included structural and nonstructural replacement costs, contents damage, business inventory losses, and direct business interruption losses.

industrial, manufacturing, transportation, and utility sectors to arrive at an annual average financial loss in excess of $10 billion.

Although the need to address earthquake risk is now accepted in many communities, the ability to identify and act on specific hazard and risk issues can be improved by reducing the uncertainties in the risk equation. Large ranges in loss estimates generally stem from two types of uncertainty—the natural variability assigned to earthquake processes ( aleatory uncertainty ), as well as a lack of knowledge of the true hazards and risks involved ( epistemic uncertainty ). Uncertainties are associated with the methodologies, the assumptions, and databases used to estimate the ground motions and building inventories, the modeling of building responses, and the correlation of expected economic and social losses to the estimated physical damages.

FIGURE 1.3 Growth of seismic risk in the United States. Annualized Earthquake Loss (AEL) estimates are shown for the census year on which the estimate is based, in census year dollars. Estimate for 1970 census from Petak and Atkinson (1982); HAZUS-99 estimate for 1990 census from FEMA (2001); and HAZUS-MH estimate for 2000 census from FEMA (2008). Consumer Price Index (CPI) dollar adjustments based on CPI inflation calculator (see data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl ).

Comparison of published risk estimates reveals the sensitivity of such estimates to varying inputs, such as soil types and ground motion attenuation models, or building stock inventories and damage calculations. The basic earth science and geotechnical research and data that the NEHRP agencies provide to communities help to reduce these types of epistemic uncertainty, whereas an understanding of the intrinsic aleatory uncertainty is achieved through scientific research into the processes that cause earthquakes. Accurate loss estimation models increase public confidence in making seismic risk management decisions. Until the uncertainties surrounding the EP curve in Figure 1.1 are reduced, there will be either unnecessary or insufficient emergency response planning and mitigation because the experts in these areas will be unable to inform decision-makers of the probabilities and potential outcomes with an appropriate degree of

confidence (NRC, 2006a). Information about new and rehabilitated buildings and infrastructure, coupled with improved seismic hazard maps, can allow policy-makers to track incremental reductions in risk and improvements in safety through earthquake mitigation programs (NRC, 2006b).

NEHRP ACCOMPLISHMENTS—THE PAST 30 YEARS

In its 30 years of existence, NEHRP has provided a focused, coordinated effort toward developing a knowledge base for addressing the earthquake threat. The following summary of specific accomplishments from the earth sciences and engineering fields are based on the 2008 NEHRP Strategic Plan (NIST, 2008):

• Improved understanding of earthquake processes. Basic research and earthquake monitoring have significantly advanced the understanding of the geologic processes that cause earthquakes, the characteristics of earthquake faults, the nature of seismicity, and the propagation of seismic waves. This understanding has been incorporated into seismic hazard assessments, earthquake potential assessments, building codes and design criteria, rapid assessments of earthquake impacts, and scenarios for risk mitigation and response planning.

• Improved earthquake hazard assessment. Improvements in the National Seismic Hazard Maps have been developed through a scientifically defensible and repeatable process that involves peer input and review at regional and national levels by expert and user communities. Once based on six broad zones, they now are based on a grid of seismic hazard assessments at some 150,000 sites throughout the country. The new maps, first developed in 1996, are periodically updated and form the basis for the Design Ground Motion Maps used in the NEHRP Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings and Other Structures, the foundation for the seismic elements of model building codes.

• Improved earthquake risk assessment. Development of earthquake hazard- and risk-assessment techniques for use throughout the United States has improved awareness of earthquake impacts on communities. NEHRP funds have supported the development and continued refinement of HAZUS-MH. The successful NEHRP-supported integration of earthquake risk-assessment and loss-estimation methodologies with earthquake hazard assessments and notifications has provided significant benefits for both emergency response and community planning. Moreover, major advances in risk assessment and hazard loss estimation beyond what could be included in a software package for general users were developed by the three NSF-supported earthquake engineering centers.

• Improved earthquake safety in design and construction. Earthquake safety in new buildings has been greatly improved through the adoption, in whole or in part, of earthquake-resistant national model building codes by state and local governments in all 50 states. Development of advanced earthquake engineering technologies for use in design and construction has greatly improved the cost-effectiveness of earthquake-resistant design and construction while giving options with predicted decision consequences. These techniques include new methods for reducing the seismic risk associated with nonstructural components, base isolation methods for dissipating seismic energy in buildings, and performance-based design approaches.

• Improved earthquake safety for existing buildings. NEHRP-led research, development of engineering guidelines, and implementation activities associated with existing buildings have led to the first generation of consensus-based national standards for evaluating and rehabilitating existing buildings. This work provided the basis for two American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) standards documents: ASCE 31 (Seismic Evaluation of Existing Buildings) and ASCE 41 (Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings).

• Development of partnerships for public awareness and earthquake mitigation. NEHRP has developed and sustained partnerships with state and local governments, professional groups, and multi-state earthquake consortia to improve public awareness of the earthquake threat and support the development of sound earthquake mitigation policies.

• Improved development and dissemination of earthquake information. There is now a greatly increased body of earthquake-related information available to public- and private-sector officials and the general public. This comes through effective documentation, earthquake response exercises, learning-from-earthquake activities, publications on earthquake safety, training, education, and information on general earthquake phenomena and means to reduce their impact. Millions of earthquake preparedness handbooks have been delivered to at-risk populations, and many of these handbooks have been translated from English into languages most easily understood by large sectors of the population. NEHRP now maintains a website 1 that provides information on the program and communicates regularly with the earthquake professional community through the monthly electronic newsletter, Seismic Waves.

• Improved notification of earthquakes. The USGS National Earthquake Information Center and regional networks, all elements of the Advanced National Seismic System (ANSS), now provide earthquake

_________________

1 See www.nehrp.gov .

alerts describing a magnitude and location within a few minutes after an earthquake. The USGS PAGER system 2 provides estimates of the number of people and the names of cities exposed to shaking, with corresponding levels of impact shown by the Modified Mercalli Intensity scale and estimates of the number of fatalities and economic loss, following significant earthquakes worldwide ( Figure 1.4 ). When coupled with graphic ShakeMaps 3 showing the distribution and severity of ground shaking (e.g., Chapter 3 , Figure 3.2 ), this information is essential for effective emergency response, infrastructure management, and recovery planning.

• Expanded training and education of earthquake professionals. Thousands of graduates of U.S. colleges and universities have benefited from their involvement and experiences with NEHRP-supported research projects and training activities. Those graduates now form the nucleus of America’s earthquake professional community.

• Development of advanced data collection and research facilities. NEHRP took the lead in developing ANSS and the George E. Brown, Jr. Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation (NEES). Through these initiatives, NEES now forms a national infrastructure for testing geotechnical, structural, and nonstructural systems, and once completed, ANSS will provide a comprehensive, nationwide system for monitoring seismicity and collecting data on earthquake shaking on the ground and in structures. NEHRP also has participated in the development of the Global Seismographic Network to provide data on seismic events worldwide.

As well as this list of important accomplishments cited in the 2008 NEHRP Strategic Plan, the following range of NEHRP accomplishments in the social science arena were described in NRC (2006a):

• Development of a comparative research framework. Largely supported by NEHRP, over the past three decades social scientists increasingly have placed the study of earthquakes within a comparative framework that includes other natural, technological, and willful events. This evolving framework calls for the integration of hazards and disaster research within the social sciences and among social science, natural science, and engineering disciplines.

• Documentation of community and regional vulnerability to earthquakes and other natural hazards. Under NEHRP sponsorship, social science knowledge has expanded greatly in terms of data on community and regional exposure and vulnerability to earthquakes and other natural hazards, such that the foundation has been established for devel-

2 See earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/pager/ .

3 See earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/shakemap/ .

FIGURE 1.4 Sample PAGER output for the strong and damaging February 2011 earthquake in Christchurch, New Zealand. SOURCE: USGS. Available at earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/pager/events/us/b0001igm/index.html .

oping more precise loss estimation models and related decision support tools (e.g., HAZUS). The vulnerabilities are increasingly documented through state-of-the-art geospatial and temporal methods (e.g., GIS, remote sensing, and visual overlays of hazardous areas with demographic information), and the resulting data are equally relevant to pre-, trans-, and post-disaster social science investigations.

• Household and business-sector adoption of self-protective measures. A solid knowledge base has been developed under NEHRP at the household level on vulnerability assessment, risk communication, warning response (e.g., evacuation), and the adoption of other forms of protective action (e.g., emergency food and water supplies, fire extinguishers, procedures and tools to cut off utilities, hazard insurance). Adoption of these and other self-protective measures has been modeled systematically, highlighting the importance of disaster experience and perceptions of personal risk (i.e., beliefs about household vulnerability to and consequences of specific events) and, to a lesser extent, demographic variables (e.g., income, education, home ownership) and social influences (e.g., communications patterns and observations of what other people are doing). Although research on adoption of self-protective measures of businesses is much more limited, recent experience of disaster-related business or lifeline interruptions has been shown to be correlated with greater preparedness activities, at least in the short run. Such preparedness activities are more likely to occur in larger as opposed to smaller commercial enterprises.

• Public-sector adoption of disaster mitigation measures. Most NEHRP-sponsored social science research has focused on the politics of hazard mitigation as they relate to intergovernmental issues in land-use regulations. The highly politicized nature of these regulations has been well documented, particularly when multiple layers of government are involved. Governmental conflicts regarding responsibility for the land-use practices of households and businesses are compounded by the involvement of other stakeholders (e.g., bankers, developers, industry associations, professional associations, other community activists, and emergency management practitioners). The results are complex social networks of power relationships that constrain the adoption of hazard mitigation policies and practices at local and regional levels.

• Hazard insurance issues. NEHRP-sponsored social research has documented many difficulties in developing and maintaining an actuarially sound insurance program for earthquakes and floods—those who are most likely to purchase earthquake and flood insurance are, in fact, those who are most likely to file claims. This problem makes it virtually impossible to sustain an insurance market in the private sector for these hazards. Economists and psychologists have documented in laboratory studies

a number of logical deficiencies in the way people process information related to risks as it relates to insurance decision-making. Market failure in earthquake and flood insurance remains an important social science research and public policy issue.

• Public-sector adoption of disaster emergency and recovery preparedness measures. NEHRP-sponsored social science studies of emergency preparedness have addressed the extent of local support for disaster preparedness, management strategies for improving the effectiveness of community preparedness, the increasing use of computer and communications technologies in disaster planning and training, the structure of community preparedness networks, and the effects of disaster preparedness on both pre-determined (e.g., improved warning response and evacuation behavior) and improvised (e.g., effective ad hoc uses of personnel and resources) responses during actual events. Thus far there has been little social science research on the disaster recovery aspect of preparedness.

• Social impacts of disasters. A solid body of social science research supported by NEHRP has documented the destructive impacts of disasters on residential dwellings and the processes people go through in housing recovery (emergency shelter, temporary sheltering, temporary housing, and permanent housing), as well as analogous impacts on businesses. Documented specifically are the problems faced by low-income households, which tend to be headed disproportionately by females and racial or ethnic minorities. Notably, there has been little social science research under NEHRP on the impacts of disasters on other aspects of the built environment. There is a substantial research literature on the psychological, social, and economic and (to a lesser extent) political impacts of disaster, which suggests that these impacts, while not random within impacted populations, are generally modest and transitory.

• Post-disaster responses by the public and private sectors. Research before and since the establishment of NEHRP in 1977 has contradicted misconceptions that during disasters, panic will be widespread, that large percentages of those who are expected to respond will simply abandon disaster relief roles, that local institutions will break down, that crime and other forms of anti-social behavior will be rampant, and that the mental impairment of victims and first responders will be a major problem. Existing and ongoing research is documenting and modeling the mix of expected and improvised responses by emergency management personnel, the public and private organizations of which they are members, and the multi-organizational networks within which these individual and organizational responses are nested. As a result of this research, a range of decision support tools is now being developed for emergency management practitioners.

• Post-disaster reconstruction and recovery by the public and private sectors. Prior to NEHRP relatively little was known about disas-

ter recovery processes and outcomes at different levels of analysis (e.g., households, neighborhoods, firms, communities, and regions). NEHRP-funded projects have helped to refine general conceptions of disaster recovery, made important contributions in understanding the recovery of households and communities (primarily) and businesses (more recently), and contributed to the development of statistically based community and regional models of post-disaster losses and recovery processes.

• Research on resilience has been a major theme of the NSF-supported earthquake research centers. The Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research (MCEER) sponsored research providing operational definitions of resilience, measuring its cost and effectiveness, and designing policies to implement it at the level of the individual household, business, government, and nongovernment institution. The Mid-American Earthquake Center (MAE) sponsored research on the promotion of earthquake-resilient regions.

ROADMAP CONTEXT—THE EERI REPORT AND NEHRP STRATEGIC PLAN

The 2008 NEHRP Strategic Plan calls for an accelerated effort to develop community resilience. The plan defines a vision of “a nation that is earthquake resilient in public safety, economic strength, and national security,” and articulates the NEHRP mission “to develop, disseminate, and promote knowledge, tools, and practices for earthquake risk reduction—through coordinated, multidisciplinary, interagency partnerships among NEHRP agencies and their stakeholders—that improve the Nation’s earthquake resilience in public safety, economic, strength, and national security.” The plan identifies three goals with fourteen objectives (listed below), plus nine strategic priorities (presented in Appendix A ).

Goal A: Improve understanding of earthquake processes and impacts.

Objective 1: Advance understanding of earthquake phenomena and generation processes.

Objective 2: Advance understanding of earthquake effects on the built environment.

Objective 3: Advance understanding of the social, behavioral, and economic factors linked to implementing risk reduction and mitigation strategies in the public and private sectors.

Objective 4: Improve post-earthquake information acquisition and management.

Goal B: Develop cost-effective measures to reduce earthquake impacts on individuals, the built environment, and society-at-large.

Objective 5: Assess earthquake hazards for research and practical application.

Objective 6: Develop advanced loss estimation and risk assessment tools.

Objective 7: Develop tools that improve the seismic performance of buildings and other structures.

Objective 8: Develop tools that improve the seismic performance of critical infrastructure.

Goal C: Improve the earthquake resilience of communities nationwide.

Objective 9: Improve the accuracy, timeliness, and content of earthquake information products.

Objective 10: Develop comprehensive earthquake risk scenarios and risk assessments.

Objective 11: Support development of seismic standards and building codes and advocate their adoption and enforcement.

Objective 12: Promote the implementation of earthquake-resilient measures in professional practice and in private and public policies.

Objective 13: Increase public awareness of earthquake hazards and risks.

Objective 14: Develop the nation’s human resource base in earthquake safety fields.

Although the Strategic Plan does not specify the activities that would be required to reach its goals, in the initial briefing to the committee NIST, the NEHRP lead agency, described the 2003 report by the EERI, Securing Society Against Catastrophic Earthquake Losses, as at least a starting point. The EERI report lists specific activities—and estimates costs—for a range of research programs (presented in Appendix B ) that are in broad accord with the goals laid out in the 2008 NEHRP Strategic Plan. The committee was asked to review, update, and validate the programs and cost estimates laid out in the EERI report.

COMMITTEE CHARGE AND SCOPE OF THIS STUDY

The National Institute of Standards and Technology—the lead NEHRP agency—commissioned the National Research Council (NRC) to undertake a study to assess the activities, and their costs, that would be required for the nation to achieve earthquake resilience in 20 years ( Box 1.2 ). The charge

BOX 1.2 Statement of Task

A National Research Council committee will develop a roadmap for earthquake hazard and risk reduction in the United States. The committee will frame the road map around the goals and objectives for achieving national earthquake resilience in public safety and economic security stated in the current strategic plan of the National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (NEHRP) submitted to Congress in 2008. This roadmap will be based on an analysis of what will be required to realize the strategic plan’s major technical goals for earthquake resilience within 20 years. In particular, the committee will:

• Host a national workshop focused on assessing the basic and applied research, seismic monitoring, knowledge transfer, implementation, education, and outreach activities needed to achieve national earthquake resilience over a twenty-year period.

• Estimate program costs, on an annual basis, that will be required to implement the roadmap.

• Describe the future sustained activities, such as earthquake monitoring (both for research and for warning), education, and public outreach, which should continue following the 20-year period.

to the committee recognized that there would be a requirement for some sustained activities under the NEHRP program after this 20-year period.

To address the charge, the NRC assembled a committee of 12 experts with disciplinary expertise spanning earthquake and structural engineering; seismology, engineering geology, and earth system science; disaster and emergency management; and the social and economic components of resilience and disaster recovery. Committee biographic information is presented in Appendix C .

The committee held four meetings between May and December, 2009, convening twice in Washington, DC; and also in Irvine, CA; and Chicago, IL (see Appendix D ). The major focal point for community input to the committee was a 2-day open workshop held in August 2009, where concurrent breakout sessions interspersed with plenary addresses enabled the committee to gain a thorough understanding of community perspectives regarding program needs and priorities. Additional briefings by NEHRP agency representatives were presented during open sessions at the initial and final committee meetings.

Report Structure

Building on the 2008 NEHRP Strategic Plan and the EERI report, this report analyses the critical issues affecting resilience, identifies challenges and opportunities in achieving that goal, and recommends specific actions that would comprise a roadmap to community resilience. Because the concept of “resilience” is a fundamental tenet of the roadmap for realizing the major technical goals of the NEHRP Strategic Plan, Chapter 2 presents an analysis of the concept of resilience, a description of the characteristics of a resilient community, resilience metrics, and a description of the benefits to the nation of a resilience-based approach to hazard mitigation. Chapter 3 contains descriptions of the 18 broad, integrated tasks comprising the elements of a roadmap to achieve national earthquake resilience focusing on the specific outcomes that could be achieved in a 20-year timeframe, and the elements realizable within 5 years. These tasks are described in terms of the proposed activity and actions, existing knowledge and current capabilities, enabling requirements, and implementation issues. Costs to implement these 18 tasks are presented in Chapter 4 , in as much detail as possible within the constraint that some components have been the subject of specific, detailed costing exercises whereas others are necessarily broad-brush estimates at this stage. The final chapter briefly summarizes the major elements of the roadmap.

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The United States will certainly be subject to damaging earthquakes in the future. Some of these earthquakes will occur in highly populated and vulnerable areas. Coping with moderate earthquakes is not a reliable indicator of preparedness for a major earthquake in a populated area. The recent, disastrous, magnitude-9 earthquake that struck northern Japan demonstrates the threat that earthquakes pose. Moreover, the cascading nature of impacts-the earthquake causing a tsunami, cutting electrical power supplies, and stopping the pumps needed to cool nuclear reactors-demonstrates the potential complexity of an earthquake disaster. Such compound disasters can strike any earthquake-prone populated area. National Earthquake Resilience presents a roadmap for increasing our national resilience to earthquakes.

The National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) is the multi-agency program mandated by Congress to undertake activities to reduce the effects of future earthquakes in the United States. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)-the lead NEHRP agency-commissioned the National Research Council (NRC) to develop a roadmap for earthquake hazard and risk reduction in the United States that would be based on the goals and objectives for achieving national earthquake resilience described in the 2008 NEHRP Strategic Plan. National Earthquake Resilience does this by assessing the activities and costs that would be required for the nation to achieve earthquake resilience in 20 years.

National Earthquake Resilience interprets resilience broadly to incorporate engineering/science (physical), social/economic (behavioral), and institutional (governing) dimensions. Resilience encompasses both pre-disaster preparedness activities and post-disaster response. In combination, these will enhance the robustness of communities in all earthquake-vulnerable regions of our nation so that they can function adequately following damaging earthquakes. While National Earthquake Resilience is written primarily for the NEHRP, it also speaks to a broader audience of policy makers, earth scientists, and emergency managers.

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