effects of eating disorders essay

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Eating disorders

Eating disorders are serious health conditions that affect both your physical and mental health. These conditions include problems in how you think about food, eating, weight and shape, and in your eating behaviors. These symptoms can affect your health, your emotions and your ability to function in important areas of life.

If not treated effectively, eating disorders can become long-term problems and, in some cases, can cause death. The most common eating disorders are anorexia, bulimia and binge-eating disorder.

Most eating disorders involve focusing too much on weight, body shape and food. This can lead to dangerous eating behaviors. These behaviors can seriously affect the ability to get the nutrition your body needs. Eating disorders can harm the heart, digestive system, bones, teeth and mouth. They can lead to other diseases. They're also linked with depression, anxiety, self-harm, and suicidal thoughts and behaviors.

With proper treatment, you can return to healthier eating habits and learn healthier ways to think about food and your body. You also may be able to reverse or reduce serious problems caused by the eating disorder.

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Symptoms vary, depending on the type of eating disorder. Anorexia, bulimia and binge-eating disorder are the most common eating disorders. People with eating disorders can have all different body types and sizes.

Anorexia (an-o-REK-see-uh), also called anorexia nervosa, can be a life-threatening eating disorder. It includes an unhealthy low body weight, intense fear of gaining weight, and a view of weight and shape that is not realistic. Anorexia often involves using extreme efforts to control weight and shape, which often seriously interfere with health and daily life.

Anorexia may include severely limiting calories or cutting out certain kinds of foods or food groups. It may involve other methods to lose weight, such as exercising too much, using laxatives or diet aids, or vomiting after eating. Efforts to reduce weight can cause severe health problems, even for those who continue eating throughout the day or whose weight isn't extremely low.

Bulimia (buh-LEE-me-uh), also called bulimia nervosa, is a serious, sometimes life-threatening eating disorder. Bulimia includes episodes of bingeing, commonly followed by episodes of purging. Sometimes bulimia also includes severely limiting eating for periods of time. This often leads to stronger urges to binge eat and then purge.

Bingeing involves eating food — sometimes an extremely large amount — in a short period of time. During bingeing, people feel like they have no control over their eating and that they can't stop. After eating, due to guilt, shame or an intense fear of weight gain, purging is done to get rid of calories. Purging can include vomiting, exercising too much, not eating for a period of time, or using other methods, such as taking laxatives. Some people change medicine doses, such as changing insulin amounts, to try to lose weight.

Bulimia also involves being preoccupied with weight and body shape, with severe and harsh self-judgment of personal appearance.

Binge-eating disorder

Binge-eating disorder involves eating food in a short amount of time. When bingeing, it feels like there's no control over eating. But binge eating is not followed by purging. During a binge, people may eat food faster or eat more food than planned. Even when not hungry, eating may continue long past feeling uncomfortably full.

After a binge, people often feel a great deal of guilt, disgust or shame. They may fear gaining weight. They may try to severely limit eating for periods of time. This leads to increased urges to binge, setting up an unhealthy cycle. Embarrassment can lead to eating alone to hide bingeing. A new round of bingeing commonly occurs at least once a week.

Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder

Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder includes extremely limited eating or not eating certain foods. The pattern of eating often doesn't meet minimum daily nutrition needs. This may lead to problems with growth, development and functioning in daily life. But people with this disorder don't have fears about gaining weight or body size. Instead, they may not be interested in eating or may avoid food with a certain color, texture, smell or taste. Or they may worry about what can happen when eating. For example, they may have a fear of choking or vomiting, or they may worry about getting stomach problems.

Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder can be diagnosed in all ages, but it's more common in younger children. The disorder can result in major weight loss or failure to gain weight in childhood. A lack of proper nutrition can lead to major health problems.

When to see a doctor

An eating disorder can be difficult to manage or overcome by yourself. The earlier you get treatment, the more likely you'll make a full recovery. Sometimes people can have problem eating behaviors that are similar to some symptoms of an eating disorder, but the symptoms don't meet the guidelines for a diagnosis of an eating disorder. But these problem eating behaviors can still seriously affect health and well-being.

If you have problem eating behaviors that cause you distress or affect your life or health, or if you think you have an eating disorder, seek medical help.

Urging a loved one to seek treatment

Many people with eating disorders may not think they need treatment. One of the main features of many eating disorders is not realizing how severe the symptoms are. Also, guilt and shame often prevent people from getting help.

If you're worried about a friend or family member, urge the person to talk to a health care provider. Even if that person isn't ready to admit to having an issue with food, you can start the discussion by expressing concern and a desire to listen.

Red flags that may suggest an eating disorder include:

Skipping meals or snacks or making excuses for not eating.
Having a very limited diet that hasn't been prescribed by a trained medical professional.
Too much focus on food or healthy eating, especially if it means not participating in usual events, such as sports banquets, eating birthday cake or dining out.
Making own meals rather than eating what the family eats.
Withdrawing from usual social activities.
Frequent and ongoing worry or complaints about being unhealthy or overweight and talk of losing weight.
Frequent checking in the mirror for what are thought to be flaws.
Repeatedly eating large amounts of foods.
Using dietary supplements, laxatives or herbal products for weight loss.
Exercising much more than the average person. This includes not taking rest days or days off for injury or illness or refusing to attend social events or other life events because of wanting to exercise.
Calluses on the knuckles from reaching fingers into the mouth to cause vomiting.
Problems with loss of tooth enamel that may be a sign of repeated vomiting.
Leaving during meals or right after a meal to use the toilet.
Talk of depression, disgust, shame or guilt about eating habits.
Eating in secret.

If you're worried that you or your child may have an eating disorder, contact a health care provider to talk about your concerns. If needed, get a referral to a mental health provider with expertise in eating disorders. Or if your insurance permits it, contact an expert directly.

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The exact cause of eating disorders is not known. As with other mental health conditions, there may be different causes, such as:

Genetics. Some people may have genes that increase their risk of developing eating disorders.
Biology. Biological factors, such as changes in brain chemicals, may play a role in eating disorders.

Risk factors

Anyone can develop an eating disorder. Eating disorders often start in the teen and young adult years. But they can occur at any age.

Certain factors may increase the risk of developing an eating disorder, including:

Family history. Eating disorders are more likely to occur in people who have parents or siblings who've had an eating disorder.
Other mental health issues. Trauma, anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder and other mental health issues can increase the likelihood of an eating disorder.
Dieting and starvation. Frequent dieting is a risk factor for an eating disorder, especially with weight that is constantly going up and down when getting on and off new diets. There is strong evidence that many of the symptoms of an eating disorder are symptoms of starvation. Starvation affects the brain and can lead to mood changes, rigid thinking, anxiety and reduced appetite. This may cause severely limited eating or problem eating behaviors to continue and make it difficult to return to healthy eating habits.
A history of weight bullying. People who have been teased or bullied for their weight are more likely to develop problems with eating and eating disorders. This includes people who have been made to feel ashamed of their weight by peers, health care professionals, coaches, teachers or family members.
Stress. Whether it's heading off to college, moving, landing a new job, or a family or relationship issue, change can bring stress. And stress may increase the risk of an eating disorder.

Complications

Eating disorders cause a wide variety of complications, some of them life-threatening. The more severe or long lasting the eating disorder, the more likely it is that serious complications may occur. These may include:

Serious health problems.
Depression and anxiety.
Suicidal thoughts or behavior.
Problems with growth and development.
Social and relationship problems.
Substance use disorders.
Work and school issues.

There's no sure way to prevent eating disorders, but you can take steps to develop healthy eating habits. If you have a child, you can help your child lower the risk of developing eating disorders.

To develop healthy eating habits and lifestyle behaviors:

Choose a healthy diet rich in whole grains, fruits and vegetables. Limit salt, sugar, alcohol, saturated fat and trans fats. Avoid extreme dieting. If you need to lose weight, talk to your health care provider or a dietitian to create a plan that meets your needs.
Don't use dietary supplements, laxatives or herbal products for weight loss.
Get enough physical activity. Each week, get at least 150 minutes of aerobic activity, such as brisk walking. Choose activities that you enjoy, so you're more likely to do them.
Seek help for mental health issues, such as depression, anxiety, or issues with self-esteem and body image.

For more guidelines on food and nutrition, as well as physical activity, go to health.gov.

Talk to a health care provider if you have concerns about your eating behaviors. Getting treatment early can prevent the problem from getting worse.

Here are some ways to help your child develop healthy-eating behaviors:

Avoid dieting around your child. Family dining habits may influence the relationships children develop with food. Eating meals together gives you an opportunity to teach your child about the pitfalls of dieting. It also allows you to see whether your child is eating enough food and enough variety.
Talk to your child. There are many websites and other social media sites that promote dangerous ideas, such as viewing anorexia as a lifestyle choice rather than an eating disorder. Some sites encourage teens to start dieting. It's important to correct any wrong ideas like this. Talk to your child about the risks of making unhealthy eating choices.
Encourage and reinforce a healthy body image in your child, whatever their shape or size. Talk to your child about self-image and offer reassurance that body shapes can vary. Don't criticize your own body in front of your child. Messages of acceptance and respect can help build healthy self-esteem. They also can build resilience ⸺ the ability to recover quickly from difficult events. These skills can help children get through the challenging times of the teen and young adult years.
Ask your child's health care provider for help. At well-child visits, health care providers may be able to identify early signs of an eating disorder. They can ask children questions about their eating habits. These visits can include checks of height and weight percentiles and body mass index, which can alert you and your child's provider to any big changes.

Reach out to help

If you notice a family member or friend who seems to show signs of an eating disorder, consider talking to that person about your concern for their well-being. You may not be able to prevent an eating disorder from developing, but reaching out with compassion may encourage the person to seek treatment.

Feeding and eating disorders. In: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-5-TR. 5th ed. American Psychiatric Association; 2022. https://dsm.psychiatryonline.org. Accessed Nov. 16, 2022.
Hales RE, et al. Feeding and eating disorders. In: The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Psychiatry. 7th ed. American Psychiatric Publishing; 2019. https://psychiatryonline.org. Accessed Nov. 10, 2022.
Eating disorders: About more than food. National Institute of Mental Health. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/eating-disorders. Accessed Nov. 16, 2022.
Eating disorders. National Alliance on Mental Illness. https://www.nami.org/About-Mental-Illness/Mental-Health-Conditions/Eating-Disorders/Support. Accessed Nov. 16, 2022.
What are eating disorders? American Psychiatric Association. https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/eating-disorders/what-are-eating-disorders. Accessed Nov. 16, 2022.
Treasure J, et al. Eating disorders. The Lancet. 2020; doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30059-3.
Hay P. Current approach to eating disorders: A clinical update. Internal Medicine Journal. 2020; doi:10.1111/imj.14691.
Bhattacharya A, et al. Feeding and eating disorders. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. 2020; doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-64123-6.00026-6.
Uniacke B, et al. Eating disorders. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2022; doi:10.7326/AITC202208160.
Fogarty S, et al. The role of complementary and alternative medicine in the treatment of eating disorders: A systematic review. Eating Behaviors. 2016; doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2016.03.002.
Some imported dietary supplements and nonprescription drug products may harm you. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/some-imported-dietary-supplements-and-nonprescription-drug-products-may-harm-you. Accessed Nov. 16, 2022.
Questions and answers about FDA's initiative against contaminated weight loss products. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/frequently-asked-questions-popular-topics/questions-and-answers-about-fdas-initiative-against-contaminated-weight-loss-products. Accessed Nov. 16, 2022.
Mixing medications and dietary supplements can endanger your health. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/mixing-medications-and-dietary-supplements-can-endanger-your-health. Accessed Nov. 16, 2022.
Lebow JR (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic. Dec. 1, 2022.
2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov. Accessed Feb. 3, 2023.
Long MW, et al. Cost-effectiveness of 5 public health approaches to prevent eating disorders. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2022; doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2022.07.005.
Health.gov. https://health.gov/. Accessed Feb. 7, 2023.
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Eating Disorders in Adolescents Essay

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Eating disorder as a severe health condition that can be manifested in many different ways may tackle a person of any age, gender, and socio-cultural background. However, adolescents, especially when it comes to female teenagers, are considered to be the most vulnerable in terms of developing this condition (Izydorczyk & Sitnik-Warchulska, 2018). According to the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP, 2018), 10 in 100 young women struggle with an eating disorder. Thus, the purpose of the present paper is to dwell on the specifics of external factors causing the disorder as well as the ways to deal with this issue.

To begin with, it is necessary to define which diseases are meant under the notion of an eating disorder. Generally, eating disorders encompass such conditions as anorexia nervosa, bulimia, binge eating, and avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID) (AACAP, 2018). Although these conditions have different manifestations in the context of eating patterns, all of them affect teenager’s nutrition patterns and average weight. According to the researchers, there exist common external stressors that lead to an eating disorder, such as:

Socio-cultural appearance standards. For the most part, modern culture and mass media promote certain body images as a generally accepted ideal, which causes many teenage girls to doubt their appearance and follow the mass trends.
Biological factors. Some teenagers might have a genetic predisposition for certain disorders if anyone in the family struggled with the disease at some point in the past.
Emotional factors. Children, who are at risk of being affected by such mental disorders as anxiety and depression, are likely to disrupt their nutrition patterns.
Peer pressure. Similar to socio-cultural standards, peer pressure dictates certain criteria for the teenagers’ body image, eventually impacting their perception of food and nutrition (Izydorczyk & Sitnik-Warchulska, 2018).

With such a variety of potential stressors, it is imperative for both medical professionals and caregivers to pay close attention to the teenager’s eating habits. Thus, in order to assess the issue, any medical screening should include weight and height measurements. In such a way, medical professionals are able to define any discrepancies in the measurements over time and bring this issue up with a patient. When working with adolescents, it is of paramount importance to establish a trusting relationship with a patient, as teenagers are extremely vulnerable at this age. After identifying any issue related to weight and body image, nurses and physicians need to ask the patient whether they have any problems with eating. In case they are not willing to talk on the matter, it is necessary to emphasize that their response will not be shared with caregivers unless they want it. It is also necessary to ask questions regarding the child’s relationship with peers carefully, as they may easily become an emotional trigger.

In order to avoid such complications as eating disorders, it is vital for caregivers to talk with their children on the topic of the aforementioned stressors. Firstly, they need to promote healthy eating patterns by explaining why it is important for one’s body instead of giving orders to the child. For additional support, they may ask a medical professional to justify this information. Secondly, the caregivers need to dedicate time to explain the inappropriateness of body standards promoted by the mass media and promote diversity and positive body image within the family. Lastly, caregivers are to secure a safe environment for the teenager’s fragile self-esteem and self-actualization in order for them to feel more confident among peers (Boberová & Husárová, 2021). These steps, although frequently undermined, contribute beneficially in terms of dealing with eating disorders external stressors among adolescents.

American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry [AACAP]. (2018). Eating disorders in teens. Web.

Boberová, Z., & Husárová, D. (2021). What role does body image in relationship between level of health literacy and symptoms of eating disorders in adolescents?. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 18 (7), 3482.

Izydorczyk, B., & Sitnik-Warchulska, K. (2018). Socio-cultural appearance standards and risk factors for eating disorders in adolescents and women of various ages. Frontiers in psychology , 9 , 429.

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> Volume 37 Issue 2
> The Explanation of Eating Disorders: A Critical Analysis

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The explanation of eating disorders: a critical analysis.

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 29 April 2020

Eating disorders (EDs) are one of the most severe and complex mental health problems facing researchers and clinicians today. The effective prevention and treatment of these conditions is therefore of paramount importance. However, at present our treatments fall short: generally demonstrating only poor to moderate efficacy, and often completely ineffective for severe or chronic cases. A possible reason for this is that the current theories underlying these treatments are flawed. In this paper, we review and evaluate several prominent theoretical explanations associated with current frontline and promising treatments for ED. In doing so, we identify fundamental problems within the construction of current ED explanations and their implications for treatment. In response to these findings, we propose several strategies for the construction of future ED explanations which we believe have the power to ameliorate these problems and potentially help to develop more efficacious treatment downstream.

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Volume 37, Issue 2
Hannah Hawkins-Elder (a1) and Tony Ward (a1)
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/bec.2020.6

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Eating disorders

Affiliations.

1 Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK. Electronic address: [email protected].
2 Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK; Serviço de Psiquiatria e Saúde Mental, Hospital de Santa Maria, Centro Hospitalar Universitário Lisboa Norte, Lisbon, Portugal.
3 Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK; South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK.
PMID: 32171414
DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30059-3

Eating disorders are disabling, deadly, and costly mental disorders that considerably impair physical health and disrupt psychosocial functioning. Disturbed attitudes towards weight, body shape, and eating play a key role in the origin and maintenance of eating disorders. Eating disorders have been increasing over the past 50 years and changes in the food environment have been implicated. All health-care providers should routinely enquire about eating habits as a component of overall health assessment. Six main feeding and eating disorders are now recognised in diagnostic systems: anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, avoidant-restrictive food intake disorder, pica, and rumination disorder. The presentation form of eating disorders might vary for men versus women, for example. As eating disorders are under-researched, there is a great deal of uncertainty as to their pathophysiology, treatment, and management. Future challenges, emerging treatments, and outstanding research questions are addressed.

PubMed Disclaimer

Eating disorders: innovation and progress urgently needed. The Lancet. The Lancet. Lancet. 2020 Mar 14;395(10227):840. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30573-0. Lancet. 2020. PMID: 32171393 No abstract available.

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Navigating the Fallout of Diet Culture and Weight Stigma

Therapists can adopt strategies that help clients reject diet culture..

Posted September 12, 2024 | Reviewed by Gary Drevitch

What Is Body Image?
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Diet culture promotes unrealistic body standards that are often internalized and cause harm.
Weight stigma increases risks of suicidality and substance use disorders.
Therapists can integrate strategies in their practice to help clients reject the grip of diet culture.

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Diet culture, with its relentless focus on thinness as a marker of success and health, profoundly impacts mental health. Constant exposure to these messages can lead individuals to internalize harmful beliefs about their bodies, resulting in shame , self-hatred , and feelings of inadequacy. Weight stigma —the societal bias against "larger bodies" (bodies outside of an unrealistic socially constructed "thin ideal")—exacerbates these issues, manifesting as anxiety , depression , low self-esteem , and eating disorders.

The impact of weight stigma extends beyond body dissatisfaction. It is strongly linked to an increased risk of suicidality , particularly among those who feel trapped by societal judgment and internalized shame. This ongoing marginalization can lead to feelings of hopelessness and isolation, heightening the risk of suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Additionally, weight stigma is closely associated with substance use disorders. Individuals facing weight bias may turn to substances like alcohol or drugs or engage in disordered eating behaviors as maladaptive coping mechanisms. These behaviors can further worsen mental health and diminish overall quality of life.

Research confirms the severe impact of weight stigma on psychological well-being. Puhl and Heuer (2010) found that weight stigma not only exacerbates mental health issues but also contributes to behaviors such as binge eating, avoiding physical activity, and delaying medical care—factors that further degrade health. The internalization of weight stigma can trap clients in a cycle of body dissatisfaction, significantly undermining their emotional and psychological health.

Key Strategies for Therapists to Challenge Diet Culture

Promote a Weight-Neutral Approach: Shift focus from body size to behaviors that support overall physical and mental health. Encourage intuitive eating and joyful movement instead of calorie counting or exercise as punishment .
Challenge Assumptions About Health and Weight: Avoid assumptions about a client’s health based solely on size or weight. Health can vary widely across body sizes, so focus on comprehensive health indicators rather than weight.
Use Neutral Language: Avoid weight-centric language that reinforces diet culture, like praising weight loss or labeling foods as "good" or "bad." Instead, use language that encourages clients to tune in to their bodies without judgment.
Address Internalized Weight Stigma: Help clients unpack and challenge deep-seated shame and negative beliefs about their bodies. Educate them on the origins of these stigmas and guide them toward body acceptance.
Educate on the Risks of Dieting : Highlight the physical and psychological harms of dieting. Share evidence that dieting, particularly when it leads to weight cycling, can increase the risk of metabolic disorders and psychological distress (Fildes et al., 2015).
Focus on Mental Health Goals , Not Weight Loss: Set goals prioritizing emotional well-being and self-care over body changes. Explore the emotions behind body dissatisfaction and shift focus from weight loss to reconnecting with their bodies.
Encourage Self-Compassion: Help clients develop self-compassion regarding their bodies by focusing on their bodies' abilities rather than appearance. This shift can reduce the negative impact of diet culture and improve self-image .
Debunk Myths About "Food Addiction ": When clients express concerns about purported food addictions, clarify that these feelings often stem from disordered eating patterns influenced by restriction. Support them in rebuilding trust with their body’s cues.
Avoid Reinforcing Diet Culture in Treatment Planning: Ensure that therapeutic interventions don’t inadvertently promote dieting practices. For example, avoid promoting portion control or calorie counting, which can reinforce disordered eating patterns and negatively affect mental health.
Create an Inclusive Space for All Body Sizes: Make your practice welcoming to all body sizes by providing comfortable seating and avoiding weight-centric materials. This will help clients feel seen and respected regardless of their size.

By integrating these strategies into your therapeutic practice, you can help clients break free from the harmful grip of diet culture. These interventions not only support individual healing but also contribute to a broader cultural shift toward body acceptance and inclusivity.

To find a therapist, visit the Psychology Today Therapy Directory .

Fildes, A., Charlton, J., Rudisill, C., Littlejohns, T., Prevost, A. T., & Gulliford, M. C. (2015). Probability of an Obese Person Attaining Normal Body Weight: Cohort Study Using Electronic Health Records. American Journal of Public Health, 105(9), e54-e59. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302773

Montani, J.-P., Schutz, Y., & Dulloo, A. G. (2015). Dieting and Weight Cycling as Risk Factors for Cardiometabolic Diseases: Who is Really at Risk? Obesity Reviews, 16(S1), 7-18. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12251

Puhl, R. M., & Heuer, C. A. (2010). Obesity Stigma: Important Considerations for Public Health. American Journal of Public Health, 100(6), 1019-1028. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.159491

Carolyn Karoll, LCSW-C, CEDS-S, is a therapist specializing in the treatment of eating disorders and co-author of the forthcoming Eating Disorder Group Therapy: A Collaborative Approach .

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Essay on Eating Disorder

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Eating disorders represent a complex intersection of psychological, physical, and social issues. They are not just about food but are serious mental health conditions. This essay aims to delve into the various aspects of eating disorders, exploring their types, causes, effects, and treatments, providing a comprehensive understanding for students and individuals keen on understanding this intricate topic.

Eating Disorders

Eating disorders are serious mental health conditions characterized by an unhealthy preoccupation with eating, exercise, and body weight or shape. They can have devastating physical and psychological consequences. The most common eating disorders include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder.

Anorexia Nervosa: Anorexia is characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight and a distorted body image, leading individuals to restrict their food intake drastically. This can result in severe malnutrition, physical health issues, and even life-threatening conditions.
Bulimia Nervosa: Bulimia involves recurrent episodes of binge eating, followed by behaviors aimed at compensating for the excessive calorie intake, such as purging through vomiting, excessive exercise, or laxative use. This cycle of overeating and purging can have serious health consequences.
Binge-Eating Disorder: Binge-eating disorder is marked by recurrent episodes of consuming large quantities of food in a short period, often without control. Unlike bulimia, individuals with this disorder do not engage in purging behaviors, which can lead to obesity and related health issues.
Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID): ARFID is characterized by highly selective eating patterns, avoiding certain foods or food groups based on sensory issues, aversions, or limited interest in food. This disorder can result in nutritional deficiencies and impaired growth in children.
Other Specified Feeding or Eating Disorders (OSFED): OSFED, previously known as EDNOS (Eating Disorder Not Otherwise Specified), includes a range of eating disorders that do not fit the strict criteria for anorexia, bulimia, or binge-eating disorder. It encompasses various disordered eating patterns.
Night Eating Syndrome: Individuals with night eating syndrome consume a significant portion of their daily caloric intake during the nighttime. They may wake up to eat, often experiencing insomnia and emotional distress.
Muscle Dysmorphia (Bigorexia): Muscle dysmorphia primarily affects men and is characterized by an obsessive desire to gain muscle mass and an intense fear of being inadequately muscular. It can lead to excessive exercise and supplement use.

Causes of Eating Disorders

Eating disorders are caused by a complex interplay of genetic, biological, behavioral, psychological, and social factors.

Genetic Factors : Family and twin studies suggest a genetic predisposition to eating disorders.
Psychological Factors : Low self-esteem, perfectionism, and impulsive behavior are commonly associated with eating disorders.
Social Factors : Cultural pressures that glorify thinness and body shaming can trigger eating disorders.

Effects of Eating Disorders

The effects of eating disorders can be severe and far-reaching.

Malnutrition: Eating disorders often lead to severe malnutrition, resulting in vitamin and mineral deficiencies, weakened immune system, and fragile bones.
Gastrointestinal Issues: Individuals with eating disorders may experience digestive problems such as constipation, bloating, and acid reflux.
Cardiovascular Problems: Heart complications, such as irregular heart rhythms, low blood pressure, and increased risk of heart attack, can occur.
Dental Issues: Frequent vomiting associated with some eating disorders can lead to dental problems, including tooth decay and erosion.
Hair and Skin Problems: Hair loss, brittle nails, and dry, discolored skin are common physical effects.
Anxiety and Depression: Eating disorders are often co-occurring with anxiety and depression, exacerbating these mental health conditions.
Obsessive Thoughts: Individuals with eating disorders may become obsessed with food, body size, and weight, leading to distressing and intrusive thoughts.
Low Self-esteem: Persistent body dissatisfaction and distorted body image contribute to low self-esteem and poor self-worth.
Social Isolation: Eating disorders can lead to social withdrawal, isolation, and strained relationships with friends and family.
Emotional Instability: Mood swings, irritability, and emotional instability are common effects of eating disorders.
Secrecy and Deception: Many individuals with eating disorders engage in secretive behaviors related to eating, hiding their disordered eating habits.
Ritualistic Eating: Rigid food rituals and routines, such as eating specific foods in specific orders, are common among those with eating disorders.
Excessive Exercise: Over-exercising is often seen in individuals with certain eating disorders, leading to physical strain and potential injuries.
Food Hoarding or Bingeing: Some may hoard food or engage in secretive binge-eating episodes, followed by guilt and shame.
Electrolyte Imbalance: Frequent purging behaviors (vomiting, laxative use) can disrupt electrolyte balance, leading to potentially life-threatening conditions like cardiac arrhythmias.
Osteoporosis: Malnutrition can result in bone density loss, increasing the risk of fractures and osteoporosis.
Lanugo Hair: Fine, downy hair growth on the body, known as lanugo, may develop in response to malnutrition.
Organ Damage: Long-term consequences of eating disorders can include damage to vital organs, such as the liver and kidneys.
Menstrual Irregularities: In females, eating disorders can lead to amenorrhea (absence of menstruation) or irregular menstrual cycles.
Fertility Problems: Reduced fertility and complications during pregnancy may occur due to hormonal imbalances and nutritional deficiencies.

Treatment of Eating Disorders

Treating eating disorders generally involves a multidisciplinary approach, including medical care, nutritional counseling, and therapy.

Medical Treatment : Focuses on addressing any immediate health risks.
Nutritional Counseling : Helps in developing a healthy relationship with food.
Psychotherapy : Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is particularly effective in treating eating disorders.

Coping Strategies and Support

Support Groups : Sharing experiences with others facing similar challenges can be comforting.
Healthy Lifestyle Choices : Engaging in regular physical activity and eating a balanced diet can improve mood and health.
Professional Help : Seeking timely professional help is crucial for recovery.

In conclusion, Eating disorders are complex conditions that require a comprehensive understanding of their causes, effects, and treatment options. Awareness and education are key in preventing these disorders and encouraging those affected to seek help. As a community, it is vital to foster an environment where body positivity is embraced, and mental health is taken seriously.

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Essay Examples on Eating Disorders

What makes a good eating disorders essay topic.

When it comes to selecting a topic for your eating disorders essay, it's crucial to consider a multitude of factors that can elevate your writing to new heights. Below are some innovative suggestions on how to brainstorm and choose an essay topic that will captivate your readers:

Brainstorm : Begin by unleashing a storm of ideas related to eating disorders. Delve into the various facets, such as causes, effects, treatment options, societal influences, and personal narratives. Ponder upon what intrigues you and what will engage your audience.
Research : Embark on a comprehensive research journey to accumulate information and gain a profound understanding of the subject matter. This exploration will enable you to identify distinctive angles and perspectives to explore in your essay. Seek out scholarly sources such as academic journals, books, and reputable websites.
Cater to your audience : Reflect upon your readers and their interests to tailor your topic accordingly. Adapting your subject matter to captivate your audience will undoubtedly make your essay more engaging. Consider the age, background, and knowledge level of your readers.
Unveil controversies : Unearth the controversies and debates within the realm of eating disorders. Opting for a topic that ignites discussion will infuse your essay with thought-provoking and impactful qualities. Delve into various viewpoints and critically analyze arguments for and against different ideas.
Personal connection : If you possess a personal connection or experience with eating disorders, contemplate sharing your story or delving into it within your essay. This will add a unique and personal touch to your writing. However, ensure that your personal anecdotes remain relevant to the topic and effectively support your main points.

Overall, a remarkable eating disorders essay topic should be meticulously researched, thought-provoking, and relevant to your audience's interests and needs.

Best Eating Disorders Essay Questions

Below, you will find an array of stellar eating disorders essay questions to explore:

How does social media contribute to the development and perpetuation of eating disorders?
What challenges do males with eating disorders face, and how can these challenges be addressed?
To what extent does the family environment contribute to the development of eating disorders?
What role does diet culture play in fostering unhealthy relationships with food?
How can different treatment approaches be tailored to address the unique needs of individuals grappling with eating disorders?

Eating Disorders Essay Prompts

Below, you will find a collection of eating disorders essay prompts that will kindle your creative fire:

Craft a personal essay that intricately details your voyage towards recovery from an eating disorder, elucidating the lessons you learned along the way.
Picture yourself as a parent of a teenager burdened with an eating disorder. Pen a heartfelt letter to other parents, sharing your experiences and providing valuable advice.
Fabricate a fictional character entangled in the clutches of binge-eating disorder. Concoct a short story that explores their odyssey towards self-acceptance and recovery.
Construct a persuasive essay that fervently argues for the integration of comprehensive education on eating disorders into school curricula.
Immerse yourself in the role of a therapist specializing in eating disorders. Compose a reflective essay that delves into the challenges and rewards of working with individuals grappling with eating disorders.

Writing Eating Disorders Essays: FAQ

Q : How can I effectively commence my eating disorders essay?

A : Commence your essay with a captivating introduction that ensnares the reader's attention and provides an overview of the topic. Consider starting with an intriguing statistic, a powerful quote, or a personal anecdote.

Q : Can I incorporate personal experiences into my eating disorders essay?

A : Absolutely! Infusing your essay with personal experiences adds depth and authenticity. However, ensure that your personal anecdotes remain relevant to the topic and effectively support your main points.

Q : How can I make my eating disorders essay engaging?

A : Utilize a variety of rhetorical devices such as metaphors, similes, and vivid descriptions to transform your essay into an engaging masterpiece. Additionally, consider incorporating real-life examples, case studies, or interviews to provide concrete evidence and make your essay relatable.

Q : Should my essay focus solely on one specific type of eating disorder?

A : While focusing on a specific type of eating disorder can provide a narrower scope for your essay, exploring the broader theme of eating disorders as a whole can also be valuable. Strive to strike a balance between depth and breadth in your writing.

Q : How can I conclude my eating disorders essay effectively?

A : In your conclusion, summarize the main points of your essay and restate your thesis statement. Additionally, consider leaving the reader with a thought-provoking question or a call to action, encouraging further reflection or research on the topic.

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Eating disorders are complex mental health conditions characterized by abnormal or disturbed eating habits that negatively affect a person's physical and mental health.

Anorexia Nervosa: Characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight, a distorted body image, and severe restriction of food intake leading to extreme weight loss and malnutrition.
Bulimia Nervosa: Involves cycles of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting, excessive exercise, or laxative use to prevent weight gain. Sufferers often maintain a normal weight.
Binge Eating Disorder: Marked by recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food in a short period, often accompanied by feelings of loss of control and distress, but without regular use of compensatory behaviors.
Orthorexia: An obsession with eating foods that one considers healthy, often leading to severe dietary restrictions and malnutrition. Unlike other eating disorders, the focus is on food quality rather than quantity.
Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID): Involves limited food intake due to a lack of interest in eating, avoidance based on sensory characteristics of food, or concern about aversive consequences of eating, leading to nutritional deficiencies and weight loss.
Pica: The persistent eating of non-nutritive substances, such as dirt, clay, or paper, inappropriate to the developmental level of the individual and not part of a culturally supported or socially normative practice.
Rumination Disorder: Involves the repeated regurgitation of food, which may be re-chewed, re-swallowed, or spit out. This behavior is not due to a medical condition and can lead to nutritional deficiencies and social difficulties.
Distorted Body Image: Individuals often see themselves as overweight or unattractive, even when underweight or at a healthy weight.
Obsession with Food and Weight: Constant thoughts about food, calories, and weight, leading to strict eating rules and excessive exercise.
Emotional and Psychological Factors: Associated with low self-esteem, perfectionism, anxiety, depression, or a need for control.
Physical Health: Can cause severe health issues like malnutrition, electrolyte imbalances, hormonal disruptions, and organ damage.
Social Isolation: Withdrawal from social activities due to shame, guilt, and embarrassment, leading to loneliness and distress.
Co-occurring Disorders: Often coexists with anxiety, depression, substance abuse, or self-harming behaviors, requiring comprehensive treatment.
Genetic and Biological Factors: Genetic predisposition and biological factors, like brain chemical or hormonal imbalances, can contribute to eating disorders.
Psychological Factors: Low self-worth, perfectionism, body dissatisfaction, and distorted body image perceptions play significant roles.
Sociocultural Influences: Societal pressures, cultural norms, media portrayal of unrealistic body ideals, and peer influence increase the risk.
Traumatic Experiences: Physical, emotional, or sexual abuse can heighten vulnerability, leading to feelings of low self-worth and body shame.
Dieting and Weight-related Practices: Restrictive dieting, excessive exercise, and weight-focused behaviors can trigger disordered eating patterns.

Treatment for eating disorders includes psychotherapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), and family-based therapy (FBT), to address psychological factors and improve self-esteem. Nutritional counseling with dietitians helps develop healthy eating patterns and debunks dietary myths. Medical monitoring involves regular check-ups to manage physical health. Medication may be prescribed for symptoms like depression and anxiety. Support groups and peer support offer community and empathy, providing valuable insights and encouragement from others facing similar challenges.

As per the data provided by the National Eating Disorders Association (NEDA), it is estimated that around 30 million individuals residing in the United States will experience an eating disorder during their lifetime.
Research suggests that eating disorders have the highest mortality rate of any mental illness. Anorexia nervosa, in particular, has a mortality rate of around 10%, emphasizing the seriousness and potential life-threatening nature of these disorders.
Eating disorders can affect individuals of all genders and ages, contrary to the common misconception that they only affect young women. While young women are more commonly affected, studies indicate that eating disorders are increasingly prevalent among men and can also occur in older adults and children.

Eating disorders are a critical topic because they affect millions of people worldwide, leading to severe physical and psychological consequences. Addressing eating disorders helps in understanding their complex causes and improving treatment options. Exploring eating disorders essay topics raises awareness, promotes early intervention, and encourages support for those affected, ultimately contributing to better mental health and well-being.

1. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing. 2. Arcelus, J., Mitchell, A. J., Wales, J., & Nielsen, S. (2011). Mortality rates in patients with anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders: A meta-analysis of 36 studies. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(7), 724-731. 3. Brown, T. A., Keel, P. K., & Curren, A. M. (2020). Eating disorders. In D. H. Barlow (Ed.), Clinical handbook of psychological disorders: A step-by-step treatment manual (6th ed., pp. 305-357). Guilford Press. 4. Fairburn, C. G., & Harrison, P. J. (2003). Eating disorders. The Lancet, 361(9355), 407-416. 5. Herpertz-Dahlmann, B., & Zeeck, A. (2020). Eating disorders in childhood and adolescence: Epidemiology, course, comorbidity, and outcome. In M. Maj, W. Gaebel, J. J. López-Ibor, & N. Sartorius (Eds.), Eating Disorders (Vol. 11, pp. 68-82). Wiley-Blackwell. 6. Hudson, J. I., Hiripi, E., Pope, H. G., & Kessler, R. C. (2007). The prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biological Psychiatry, 61(3), 348-358. 7. Jacobi, C., Hayward, C., de Zwaan, M., Kraemer, H. C., & Agras, W. S. (2004). Coming to terms with risk factors for eating disorders: Application of risk terminology and suggestions for a general taxonomy. Psychological Bulletin, 130(1), 19-65. 8. Keski-Rahkonen, A., & Mustelin, L. (2016). Epidemiology of eating disorders in Europe: Prevalence, incidence, comorbidity, course, consequences, and risk factors. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 29(6), 340-345. 9. Smink, F. R. E., van Hoeken, D., & Hoek, H. W. (2012). Epidemiology of eating disorders: Incidence, prevalence and mortality rates. Current Psychiatry Reports, 14(4), 406-414. 10. Stice, E., Marti, C. N., & Rohde, P. (2013). Prevalence, incidence, impairment, and course of the proposed DSM-5 eating disorder diagnoses in an 8-year prospective community study of young women. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(2), 445-457.

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Eating Disorders, Essay Example

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Introduction

Eating disorders affect men and women of all ages, although adolescents tend to be the age group that is more susceptible. This is because, as their bodies are changing, they may feel more pressure by society as well as peer groups to look attractive and fit in (Segal et al). Types of eating disorders include Anorexia, Bulimia and Compulsive Overeating, which can also be related to the first two. The reasons behind Eating Disorder usually stem from a reaction to low self-esteem and a negative means of coping with life and stress (Something Fishy). Eating disorders are also often associated with an underlying psychological disorder, which may be the reason behind the eating disorder or which may develop from the Eating Disorder itself. Mental health disorders that are often associated with Eating Disorder include Anxiety, Depression, Multiple Personality Disorder, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, BiPolar, BiPolar II, Borderline Personality Disorder, Panic Disorder and Dissociative Disorder. The longer a person suffers from ED, the more probable that they will be dealing with another mental illness, most likely Anxiety or Depression (Something Fishy). The eventual outcome of Eating Disorder can be deadly. “Some eating disorders are associated with a 10-15% mortality rate and a 20-25% suicide rate. Sometimes, anorexia, bulimia and compulsive eating may be perceived as slow suicide (Carruthers).” In order to prevent the deadly consequences of Eating Disorder and to prevent it from becoming more pervasive in society, it is necessary to recognize the correct treatment method for this disease. Traditional treatments have focused on providing risk information to raise awareness of the consequences of Eating Disorder (Lobera et al 263). However, since Eating Disorder is a mental illness, a more effective treatment is one that offers psychological evaluation, counseling and treatment. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is emerging as a more robust and effective method that can be used not only to treat Eating Disorder but the associated mental illnesses that may accompany it.

The Problem

Eating disorder is pervasive in society and can have deadly consequences on those that suffer from it. Many time Eating Disorder goes undetected by family members and friends because those suffering will go to great lengths to hide their problem. However, there are some signs and symptoms that can be clues that a person is suffering from some sort of eating disorder. According to Segal, these signs can include:

Restricting Food or Dieting: A change in eating habits that includes restricting food or excessive dieting. The person my frequently miss meals or not eat, complaining of an upset stomach or that they are not hungry. A use of diet pills or illegal drugs may also be noticed.
Bingeing: Sufferers may binge eat in secret, which can be hard to detect since they will usually do it late at night or in a private place. Signs of potential bingeing are empty food packages and wrappers and hidden stashes of high calorie junk food or desserts.
Purging: Those who suffer from bulimia will force themselves to throw up after meals to rid their body of added calories. A sign that this is occurring is when a person makes a trip to the bathroom right after eating on a regular basis, possible running water or a fan to hide the sound of their vomiting. They may also use perfume, mouthwash or breath mints regularly to disguise the smell. In addition to vomiting, laxatives or diuretics may also be used to flush unwanted calories from the body.
Distorted body image and altered appearance: People suffering from Eating Disorder often have a very distorted image of their own body. While they may appear thin to others, they may view themselves as fat and attempt to hide their body under loose clothing. They will also have an obsessive preoccupation with their weight, and complain of being fat even when it is obvious to others that this is not the case.

There are several possible side effects from Eating Disorders, both physical and psychological. Physical damage can be temporary or permanent, depending on the severity of the eating disorder and the length of time the person has been suffering from it. Psychological consequences can be the development of a mental illness, especially depression and anxiety. Some sufferers of Eating Disorder will also develop a coping mechanism such as harming themselves, through cutting, self-mutilation or self-inflicted violence, or SIV (Something Fishy).

Physical consequences of Eating Disorders depend on the type of eating disorder that the person has. Anorexia nervosa can lead to a slow heart rate and low blood pressure, putting the sufferer at risk for heart failure and permanent heart damage. Malnutrition can lead to osteoporosis and dry, brittle bones. Other common complications include kidney damage due to dehydration, overall weakness, hair loss and dry skin. Bulimia nervosa, where the person constantly purges through vomiting, can have similar consequences as Anorexia but with added complications and damage to the esophagus and gastric cavity due to the frequent vomiting. In addition, tooth decay can occur because of damage caused by gastric juices. If the person also uses laxatives to purge, irregular bowel movements and constipation can occur. Peptic ulcers and pancreatitis can also common negative heath effects (National Eating Disorders Association). If the Eating Disorder goes on for a prolonged time period, death is also a possible affect, which is why it is important to seek treatment for the individual as soon as it is determined that they are suffering from an Eating Disorder.

Once it is recognized that a loved one may be suffering from an Eating Disorder, the next step is coming up with an effective intervention in time to prevent any lasting physical damage or death. The most effective treatment to date is Cognitive-behavioral therapy, an active form of counseling that can be done in either a group or private setting (Curtis). Cognitive-behavioral therapy is used to help correct poor eating habits and prevent relapse as well as change the way the individual thinks about food, eating and their body image (Curtis).

Cognitive-behavioral therapy is considered to be one of the most effective treatments for eating disorders, but of course this depends on both the counselor administrating the therapy and the attitude of the person receiving it. According to Fairburn (3), while patients with eating disorders “have a reputation for being difficult to treat, the great majority can be helped and many, if not most, can make a full and lasting recovery.” In the study conducted by Lobera et al, it was determined that students that took part in group cognitive-behavioral therapy sessions showed a reduced dissatisfaction with their body and a reduction in their drive to thinness. Self esteem was also improved during the group therapy sessions and eating habits were significantly improved.

“The overall effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy can depend on the duration of the sessions. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is considered effective for the treatment of eating disorders. But because eating disorder behaviors can endure for a long period of time, ongoing psychological treatment is usually required for at least a year and may be needed for several years (Curtis).”

Alternative solutions

Traditional treatments for Eating Disorders rely on educating potential sufferers, especially school aged children, of the potential damage, both psychological and physical, that can be caused by the various eating disorders .

“ Research conducted to date into the primary prevention of eating disorders (ED) has mainly considered the provision of information regarding risk factors. Consequently, there is a need to develop new methods that go a step further, promoting a change in attitudes and behavior in the target population (Lobera et al).”

The current research has not shown that passive techniques, such as providing information, reduces the prevalence of eating disorders or improves the condition in existing patients. While education about eating disorders, the signs and symptoms and the potential health affects, is an important part of providing information to both the those that may know someone who is suffering from an eating disorder and those that are suffering from one, it is not an effective treatment by itself. It must be integrated with a deeper level of therapy that helps to improve the self-esteem and psychological issues from which the eating disorder stems.

Hospitalization has also been a treatment for those suffering from an eating disorder, especially when a complication, such as kidney failure or extreme weakness, occurs. However, treating the symptom of the eating disorder will not treat the underlying problem. Hospitalization can effectively treat the symptom only when it is combined with a psychological therapy that treats the underlying psychological problem that is causing the physical health problem.

Effectively treating eating disorders is possible using cognitive-behavioral therapy. However, the sooner a person who is suffering from an eating disorder begins treatment the more effective the treatment is likely to be. The longer a person suffers from an eating disorder, the more problems that may arise because of it, both physically and psychologically. While the deeper underlying issue may differ from patient to patient, it must be addressed in order for an eating disorder treatment to be effective. If not, the eating disorder is likely to continue. By becoming better educated about the underlying mental health issues that are typically the cause of eating disorder, both family members and friends of loved ones suffering from eating disorders and the sufferers themselves can take the steps necessary to overcome Eating Disorder and begin the road to recovery.

Works Cited

“Associated Mental Health Conditions and Addictions.” Something Fishy, 2010. Web. 19 November2010.

Carruthers, Martyn. Who Has Eating Disorders? Soulwork Solutions, 2010. Web. 19 November 2010.

Curtis, Jeanette. “Cognitive-behavioral Therapy for Eating Disorders.” WebMD (September 16, 2009). Web. 19 November 2010.

Fairburn, Christopher G. Cognitive Behavior Therapy and Eating Disorders. New York: The Guilford Press, 2008. Print.

“Health Consequences of Eating Disorders” National Eating Disorders Association (2005). Web. 21 November 2010.

Lobera, I.J., Lozano, P.L., Rios, P.B., Candau, J.R., Villar y Lebreros, Gregorio Sanchez, Millan, M.T.M., Gonzalez, M.T.M., Martin, L.A., Villalobos, I.J. and Sanchez, N.V. “Traditional and New Strategies in the Primary Prevention of Eating Disorders: A Comparative Study in Spanish Adolescents.” International Journal of General Medicine 3 (October 5, 2010): 263-272. Dovepress.Web. 19 November 2010.

Segal, Jeanne, Smith, Melinda, Barston, Suzanne. Helping Someone with an Eating Disorder: Advice for Parents, Family Members and Friends , 2010. Web. 19 November 2010.

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Eating Disorder - Free Essay Examples And Topic Ideas

Eating disorders, severe conditions related to persistent eating behaviors negatively impacting health, emotions, and the ability to function, encompass various types including anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder. Essays on eating disorders could explore the psychological, biological, and societal factors contributing to these conditions, and delve into the experiences of those affected. Discussions might also focus on prevention strategies, treatment options, and the societal perception and stigma surrounding eating disorders. Through a comprehensive exploration of eating disorders, essays can shed light on the multifaceted aspects of these serious health conditions and the importance of awareness, understanding, and support. We have collected a large number of free essay examples about Eating Disorder you can find in Papersowl database. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

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J Eat Disord
PMC10044389

The association between eating disorders and mental health: an umbrella review

Eng joo tan.

1 School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University Health Economics Group (MUHEG), Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia

Tejeesha Raut

2 Deakin Health Economics, Institute for Health Transformation, School of Health and Social Development, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC 3125 Australia

Long Khanh-Dao Le

Phillipa hay.

3 Translational Health Research Institute (THRI), School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW 2751 Australia

4 Camden and Campbelltown Hospital, SWSLHD, Campbelltown, NSW 2560 Australia

Jaithri Ananthapavan

5 Global Obesity Centre, Institute for Health Transformation, School of Health and Social Development, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC 3125 Australia

Yong Yi Lee

6 School of Public Health, The University of Queensland, QLD 4006 Herston, Australia

7 Policy and Epidemiology Group, Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, QLD 4076 Wacol, Australia

Cathrine Mihalopoulos

Associated data.

All relevant data are within the manuscript and supplementary materials.

There have been an increasing number of systematic reviews indicating the association between eating disorders (ED), including its risk factors, with mental health problems such as depression, suicide and anxiety. The objective of this study was to conduct an umbrella review of these reviews and provide a top-level synthesis of the current evidence in this area.

A systematic search was performed using four databases (MEDLINE Complete, APA PyscInfo, CINAHL Complete and EMBASE). The inclusion criteria were systematic reviews (with or without meta-analysis), published in the English language between January 2015 and November 2022. The quality of the studies was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal tools for use of JBI Systematic reviews.

A total of 6,537 reviews were identified, of which 18 reviews met the inclusion criteria, including 10 reviews with meta-analysis. The average quality assessment score for the included reviews was moderate. Six reviews investigated the association between ED and three specific mental health problems: (a) depression and anxiety, (b) obsessive-compulsive symptoms and (c) social anxiety. A further 3 reviews focused on the relationship between ED and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) while 2 reviews focused on ED and suicidal-related outcomes. The remaining 7 reviews explored the association between ED and bipolar disorders, personality disorders, and non-suicidal self-injury. Depression, social anxiety and ADHD are likely to have a stronger strength of association with ED relative to other mental health problems.

Mental health problems such as depression, social anxiety and ADHD were found to be more prevalent among people suffering from eating disorders. Further research is necessary to understand the mechanism and health impacts of potential comorbidities of ED.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40337-022-00725-4.

This review aimed to investigate the association between eating disorders (ED) and mental health problems. A review of existing systematic reviews was conducted to provide a top-level synthesis of the current evidence in this area. Our review found a total of 18 systematic reviews, which investigated the association between ED and a wide range of mental health problems. These conditions include depression and anxiety, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), social anxiety, personality disorders, suicidal-related outcomes, bipolar disorders and non-suicidal self-injury. Depression, social anxiety and ADHD are likely to have a stronger strength of association with ED relative to other mental health problems.

Introduction

Eating disorders (ED) such as anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorders lead to higher physical and psychological morbidity, disabilities, and mortality rates [ 1 ]. The prevalence of eating disorder is increasing, with the lifetime prevalence between 3.3 and 18.6% among women and between 0.8 and 6.5% among men [ 2 ]. Risk factors such as dieting and body dissatisfaction have been considered predictors of ED onset for many years [ 3 ]. Other predisposing factors of ED also include family history of EDs, having close relatives with a mental health problem, personal history of anxiety disorder, and behavioural inflexibility and sociocultural issues such as weight stigma, bullying or teasing and limited social networks [ 4 ].

Many studies have linked EDs to various mental health problems. For example, personality disorders can be found in a portion of patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN), and were encountered in the treatment of EDs [ 5 ]. Binge eating disorder (BED) has been found to impact mental health problems such as anxiety and depression which worsens health-related quality of life (HRQL) of an individual [ 6 ]. In a study of a nationally representative sample of 36,309 adults, all three EDs were associated with more than one comorbid somatic condition, which can range from lifetime mood disorders, anxiety disorders, major depressive disorder and alcohol and drug use disorders [ 7 ]. It has been widely recognized that individuals with EDs show higher rates of suicidality, which includes complete suicide, suicidal attempt, and suicidal ideation [ 8 ]. The negative perception of body image, a risk factor for ED, has also been linked to depression and obesity [ 9 ]. Individuals suffering from anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa also exhibit social anxiety disorders, have low self-esteem and more likely to feel nervous about their appearances in public places [ 10 – 12 ].

The significant burden of mental health problems necessitates a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between mental health and ED. Recent evidence suggested that the burden of mental health problems has increased, with suicide as the second leading cause of death among 15–29 years and the annual global cost of depression and anxiety was estimated to be USD 1 trillion [ 13 ]. While previous studies and reviews have investigated the association between EDs and specific mental health problems such as anxiety, depression and substance use disorder, there is no existing review that provides a top-level summary of these associations by using a broader definition of mental health. Consequently, there is a lack of comparative analyses of the various mental health problems and their associations with ED. Addressing this gap in current research can assist researchers and clinicians to develop a suite of interventions that has the most impact on reducing the ED-mental health co-morbidity. In this context, an umbrella review is useful because it allows the findings of existing reviews to be compared and contrasted. Therefore, this umbrella review aims to synthesize contemporary evidence in order to better understand the relationship between eating disorders and various mental health problems across demographic and clinical factors.

This review adhered to the Joanna Brigg Institute (JBI) guidelines for umbrella reviews [ 14 ] and the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) standards [ 15 ]. An ethics exemption for this research was approved by the Deakin University Human Research Ethics Committee (DUHREC) (ref. 202–1030). The protocol was registered with PROSPERO: International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (ref. CRD42021232372).

Search strategies and databases

In consultation with an experienced librarian, a literature search to identify potentially eligible publications was performed by the second author (TR) on 16 November 2020. A second literature search was performed by the first author (EJT) on 8 November 2022 to include potential studies published from 16 November 2020 onwards. Both searches were conducted via the EBSCOhost platform on four databases: MEDLINE Complete, APA PyscInfo, CINAHL Complete and EMBASE. The International Classification of Diseases version 10 (ICD-10) was used to define the mental health problems relevant to this review. For the purpose of this review, the disease category of disorders of psychological development, which included disorders related to speech, language, scholastic skills, motor function and autism were not considered. The search terms used in the study were various combinations of eating disorder keywords (e.g., “anorexi*”) and mental health keywords (e.g., “addiction”) using Boolean operators (or/and). Further details of the search terms can be found in Table S1 in the supplementary information file.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

The aim of this umbrella review was to identify reviews of studies that investigated the association between eating disorders and mental health problems. Therefore, reviews that reported the association or consequences of EDs or ED risk factors and mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, substance use disorders were included. The inclusion criteria required studies to be systematic reviews with or without meta-analyses while scoping reviews, narrative reviews, or literatures reviews without quality assessment were excluded. For the purpose of this umbrella review, a study is considered a systematic review if it had a clearly formulated research question, reported systematic and reproducible methods to identify, select and critically appraise relevant research studies. The studies were limited to the general population although there were no age or gender restrictions on the participants. All the articles included in the study were human studies, published in the English language published in peer-reviewed journals within the last seven years i.e. from January 2015 to November 2022. Non-review studies such as cohort, prevalence, case-control or cross-sectional studies were excluded from this review. Reviews with the wrong setting, study design, outcomes or the patient population were excluded. Further details of the inclusion and exclusion criteria can be found in Table S2 in the supplementary information file.

Identification of relevant studies and data extraction

All studies from the database search results were imported into Endnote and duplicates were removed. The remaining studies were then uploaded to Covidence, an online systematic review management tool, for screening [ 16 ]. A two-stage screening process applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria was conducted: (a) title and abstract screening and (b) full-text screening. Both screening processes were done independently by two reviewers (TR, EJT) and any discrepancies were discussed and resolved by the third reviewer (LL). The following data were extracted from reviews that fulfilled the inclusion criteria: year of publication, number of included studies, type of eating disorders or risk factors of eating disorders, mental health problem, presence of meta-analysis component, study design, population description, country and effect size (if available). Data extraction was performed by TR and independently checked by EJT and LL.

Quality assessment

The bias and quality of the included reviews were assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal tools for systematic reviews (The Joanna Briggs Institute, 2017). The purpose of this appraisal tool is to assess the methodological quality of the included studies and to determine the extent of the possibility of bias in design, conduct and analysis. The tool consists of 11 items (further details are available Table S2 in the supplementary information file) include three choices - “Yes”, “No” and “Unclear”. The total score on the scale is 11.

A total of 7,275 potentially relevant studies were identified from the database search. After duplicates were removed, 6,537 studies were available for screening. After title and abstract screening, 94 studies were progressed to full-text screening. Full-text screening resulted in 18 studies meeting the inclusion criteria and being included in the umbrella review. The PRISMA diagram shown in Fig. 1 reports the reason for exclusion for the remaining 76 studies with full-text review.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 40337_2022_725_Fig1_HTML.jpg

PRISMA flow diagram of included studies

Characteristics of included studies

Out of the 18 systematic reviews, ten included a meta-analysis component. There were six reviews investigating the association between ED or ED risk factors (e.g. body dissatisfaction) and three specific mental health problems: (a) depression and anxiety, (b) obsessive-compulsive symptoms and (c) social anxiety. Another three reviews focused on the relationship between ED and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) while two reviews focused on ED and suicidal-related outcomes. The remaining seven reviews explored the association between ED and bipolar disorders, personality disorders, and non-suicidal self-injury. Further details of the included studies are presented in Table 1 . The number of individual studies included within the reviews ranged from five to 122 studies with the majority of included studies being conducted using a cross-sectional study design. All but one review investigated the general population, including males and females, and the sample size ranged from 1,792 to 2,321,441 participants.

Summary of included reviews

Author (year)	Type of eating disorder/ risk factors	Mental health problem	Review type	Number of included studies (and study design if available)	Population description (total sample size, age range and sex)	Effect size of meta-analysis (95% CI)	Overall findings	Quality score*
Álvarez Ruiz et al., [ ]	Eating disorder (ED) particularly bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder	Bipolar disorders (BD)	Systematic review	18 studies on ED in patients with BD, 8 studies on BD in patients with ED	General population ( = 7,750, age range = not reported, sex = males and females)	N/A	High comorbidity of bipolar disorder and ED, particularly of bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder. However, further research needed to determine assessment, treatment and disease etiology.	45%
Baskin & Galligan, [ ]	Disordered eating	Depressive and anxiety symptoms, obsessive compulsive symptoms	Systematic review	11 prospective cohort and 14 cross sectional / retrospective studies	Pregnant and post-partum period women ( = 318,049, age range = not reported, sex = females)	N/A	Strong evidence for association between disordered eating and depression and anxiety symptoms during pregnancy. Limited evidence for association between disordered eating and obsessive-compulsive symptoms during pregnancy for association between disordered eating and depressive symptoms during the post-partum period.	81%
Conti et al., [ ]	Binge eating disorder (BED)	Suicidality (i.e. suicidal ideation or attempted and/or committed suicide)	Systematic review	12 cross-sectional studies 5 longitudinal studies	General population ( = 71,610, age range = not reported but generally involved adolescents and adults, sex = males and females)	N/A	BED was significantly associated with higher risk of suicidal behaviors (SB) and suicidal ideation (SI). The correlation between BED and suicide risk is important but there was a lack of studies investigating the size impact of BED on suicide risk.	72%
Cucchi et al., [ ]	Eating disorders (ED), anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN)	Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI)	Systematic review with meta-analysis component	29 studies	General population ( = 6,575, age range = 16–30 years old, sex = males and females)	Any ED diagnosis: Prevalence of NSSI = 27.3% (23.8–31.0%) AN diagnosis only: Prevalence of NSSI = 21.8% (18.5–25.6%) BN diagnosis only: Prevalence of NSSI = 32.7% (26.9–39.1%)	Lifetime history of NSSI is highly prevalent among adolescents and young adults with ED, and correlates positively with a history of suicidal attempt.	72%
Drakes et al., [ ]	Eating disorders	Obsessive-compulsive disorder	Systematic review with meta-analysis component	59 studies	General population ( = unclear, age range = 12–60 years, sex = males and females)	Aggregate lifetime and current prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder was 13.9% [95% CI 10.4, 18.1] and 8.7% [95% CI 5.8, 11.8] respectively across EDs	Obsessive-compulsive disorder is prevalent among individuals with a primary diagnosis of eating disorder.	72%
Farstad et al., [ ]	Eating disorders, including anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN)	Personality disorders (PDs)	Systematic review with meta-analysis component	14 studies	General population (n = 1,884, age range = not reported, sex = males and females)	Pooled prevalence rates ranged from 0% (0–4%) (schizoid) to 30% (0–56%) (obsessive-compulsive) in individuals with ED	Avoidant and obsessive-compulsive PDs were associated with restricting AN and binge-eating disorder while borderline and paranoid PDs were associated with binge-eating/purging AN, BN and other EDs.	63%
Fornaro et al., [ ]	Eating disorders, including anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN) and binge eating disorder (BED)	Bipolar disorder (BD)	Systematic review with meta-analysis component	47 studies	General population ( = 15,146, age range = not reported, sex = males and females)	BED occurred in 12.5% (95%C.I.=9.4–16.6%) of BD cases. BD occurred in 9.1% (95%C.I.=3.3–22.6%) of BED cases. BN occurred in 7.4% (95%C.I.=6–10%) of BD cases. BD occurred in 6.7% (95%C.I.=12-29.2%) of BN cases. AN occurred in 3.8% (95%C.I.=2–6%) of BD cases. BD occurred in 2% (95%C.I.=1–2%) of AN cases.	The comorbidity between ED and BD was present in a considerable number of patients.	72%
Goldstein & Gvion, [ ]	Anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN)	Suicidality (i.e. suicidal ideation or attempted and/or death by suicide)	Systematic review	36 cross sectional studies 2 longitudinal studies	General population (n = 2,321,441, age range = not reported, sex = males and females)	N/A	AN and BN were associated with an increased risk of suicidal behaviours and ideation.	63%
Kaisari et al., [ ]	Disordered eating behavior	Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)	Systematic review	72 studies including 37 cross sectional studies, 11 case-control studies, 6 cohort studies, 7 longitudinal studies, 2 secondary analysis of the National Longitudinal study of Adolescent Health, 3 experimental studies, 3 retrospective studies, 5 prospective studies and 1 epidemiological study	General population ( = 115,418, age range = unclear but includes children, adolescents and adults, sex = males and females)	N/A	Positive association between ADHD and disordered eating. Impulsivity symptoms of ADHD were positively associated with overeating in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Further research is needed to determine the direction of relationship and underlying mechanisms.	90%
Kerr-Gaffney et al. [ ]	Eating disorders (ED), including anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN)	Social anxiety disorder (SA)	Systematic review with meta-analysis component	38 cross-sectional studies, 12 included in meta-analysis	General population (n = 8,501, age range = 12–45 years old, sex = males and females)	AN diagnosis: = 1.65 (1.03–2.27) BN diagnosis: = 0.71 (0.47–0.95)	Significant differences of AN and BN between ED groups and healthy controls. High levels of SA are associated with more severe form of ED.	81%
Levin & Rawana, [ ]	Eating disorders (ED), including disordered eating, anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN) and binge eating disorder (BED)	Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)	Systematic review	37 studies, including 27 cross sectional studies.	General population ( = 74,852 participants, age range = 5–49 years old, sex = males and females)	N/A	Childhood ADHD increases the risk of disordered eating or developing ED in later life.	72%
Lloyd et al., [ ]	Anorexia Nervosa (AN)	Anxiety	Systematic review	8 studies, including 4 retrospective case control studies and 4 prospective cohort studies	General population ( = 1,670,312, age range = unclear, sex = males and females)	N/A	Anxiety disorder diagnosis in general may predict increased anorexia nervosa risk. However, longitudinal associations between specific anxiety disorders and subsequent AN onset unclear.	81%
Mandelli et al., [ ]	Eating disorders, including anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN) and binge eating disorder (BED)	Obsessive-compulsive disorder	Systematic review with meta-analysis component	32 studies	General population (n = unclear, mean age range = 15–45 years, sex = males and females	Lifetime and current comorbidity rates: 19% and 14% in AN patients; 13% and 9% in BN patients. Higher lifetime estimates based on prospective follow up studies: 44% in AN patients; 19% in BN patients.	OCD comorbidity in EDs is a significant phenomenon, affecting almost one fifth of the patients in cross-sectional observations and up to nearly 40% in prospective follow-up studies.	81%
Miller et al., [ ]	Eating disorders, including anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN) and binge eating disorder (BED)	Border personality disorder (BPD) symptoms	Systematic review with meta-analysis component	122 studies	General population ( = unclear, age range = 12 years and above, sex = males and females	Affective instability was the BPD symptom most elevated, while anger was the BPD symptom least elevated, in patients with EDs compared to controls.	Nine symptoms of borderline personality disorder were significantly elevated in patients with EDs compared to controls. Certain symptoms of BPD play a more prominent role in the comorbidity between BPD and EDs than others.
Nazar et al., [ ]	Eating disorders (ED), including anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN) and binge eating disorder (BED)	Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)	Systematic review with meta-analysis component	17 studies	General population ( = 38,421, age range = 9–44 years old, sex = males and females)	Pooled effect ED diagnosis in ADHD: OR = 3.82 (2.34–6.24) AN diagnosis in ADHD: OR = 4.28 (2.24–8.16) BN diagnosis in ADHD: OR = 5.71 (3.56–9.16) BED diagnosis in ADHD: OR = 4.13 (3-5.67) ADHD diagnosis in ED: OR = 2.57 (1.30–5.11)	The risk having an ED for individuals with ADHD is increased three-fold and the risk of having ADHD for individuals with ED is increased by two-fold.	90%
Nicholls et al., [ ]	Binge eating disorder (BED)	Emotions and eating behavior	Systematic review	15 studies, with 13 studies reported on adults and 2 studies reported on children	General population ( = 2,858, age range = 10–47 years old, sex = males and females)	N/A	Depression was consistently associated with binge eating. Negative mood was found to be an antecedents of binge eating within an adult BED-obese sample. However, findings were mixed regarding the role of stress, anger, and positive emotions.	72%
Puccio et al., [ ]	Eating pathology	Depression	Systematic review with meta-analysis component	42 studies assessing longitudinal relationship between eating pathology and depression	General population ( = 73,115, age range = 6–50 years old, sex = males and females)	Correlation value for eating pathology on depression = 0.13 (0.09–0.17) with p < 0.001 Correlation value for depression predicting eating pathology = 0.16 (0.10–0.22), p < 0.001.	Eating pathology is one of the risk factors for depression and vice-versa.	63%
Silva et al., [ ]	Body image	Depression	Systematic review	5 cross-sectional studies	General population ( = 35,518, age range = 18 years and older, sex = males and females)	N/A	Depression or depressive symptoms were associated with body image for both men and women.	63%

SMD = standardized mean difference; OR = odds ratio

*The quality score was calculated from the total score out of 11 based on the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Critical Appraisal Checklist for Systematic Reviews questionnaire

ED, depression and anxiety, obsessive compulsive symptoms and social anxiety

The evidence from two reviews [ 17 – 19 ] suggest that individuals afflicted with BED or disordered eating have a higher risk of experiencing negative mood, tension, sadness and emotional instability [ 19 ], which can further develop into depressive and anxiety symptoms [ 17 ]. However, limited evidence was found to support any link between disordered eating and obsessive-compulsive symptoms [ 17 ]. There is evidence to suggest that the relationship between anxiety and AN can be bi-directional. For example, the review by Lloyd et al. [ 18 ] demonstrated that the risk of anorexia is predicted to increase in adolescents and young adults diagnosed with an anxiety disorder. Meanwhile, Kerr-Gaffney et al. [ 11 ] conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis and found that both BN and AN were associated with social anxiety with a medium effect size of 0.71 [95% CI 0.47, 0.95; p < 0.001] and a large effect size of 1.65 [95% CI 1.03, 2.27; p < 0.001], respectively as estimated using the Cohen’s d statistic. The authors concluded that individuals with AN or BN have high levels of social anxiety compared to healthy controls.

Several reviews have indicated that certain ED risk factors can potentially contribute to depression. The systematic review and meta-analysis conducted by Puccio et al. [ 20 ] suggested that eating pathology is one of the risk factors for depression and vice-versa. The effect of eating pathology on depression among 18,641 females aged 6–50 years was shown to be significant with an effect size of 0.13 (95% CI: 0.09 to 0.17, p < 0.001), which was conducted on r values [ 19 ]. A systematic review of body image dissatisfaction and depression found that in men the perception of being underweight or dissatisfaction due to low weight was observed by idealizing a larger body, whereas women perceived their body larger than it was by idealizing a lean body [ 21 ]. Both of these conditions were associated with the presence of depression or depressive symptoms although the review was unable to conclude whether more severe body image dissatisfaction increased chances of also having depressive symptoms or both conditions co-exist.

ED and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

A systematic review conducted by Kaisari et al. [ 22 ] on disordered eating behaviour and (ADHD) among 115,418 participants (including both male and female populations) suggested that the impulsivity symptoms of ADHD were positively associated with overeating in AN and BN. Similarly, Levin & Rawana [ 23 ] explored the association between AN, BN and BED and ADHD among 74,852 participants and showed that childhood ADHD increases the risk of disordered eating or developing ED in later life. The systematic and meta-analysis of ED on ADHD by Nazar et al. [ 24 ] showed that the pooled odds ratio of diagnosing any ED in ADHD populations was 3.82 (95% CI 2.34–6.24). BN has the highest odds ratio (5.71, 95% CI 3.56–9.16) followed by AN (4.28, 95% CI 2.24–8.16) and BED (4.13, 95% CI 3.00–5.67). On the other hand, the pooled odds ratio of diagnosing ADHD in people with eating disorders was 2.57 (95% CI 1.30–5.11) [ 24 ].

ED and bipolar disorder

The systematic review by Álvarez Ruiz & Gutiérrez-Rojas [ 25 ] found that the severity of BN and BED in women was higher among patients with bipolar disorder. The evidence from their review suggested that there is a comorbidity between ED and bipolar disorder, with prevalence rate of EDs in bipolar disorder patients ranging from 5.3 to 31%. In addition, a more recent meta-analytic review of 47 studies reported the lifetime prevalence of AN, BN and BED as 3.8% (95% CI 2–6%), 7.4% (95% CI 6–10%) and 12.5% (95% CI 9.40–16.6%) among individuals with bipolar disorder, respectively [ 26 ].

ED and suicidal factors

A systematic review of 12 cross-sectional and 5 longitudinal studies on BED and suicidal factors among adolescents and adults found that BED is associated with a higher risk of suicide, including suicidal behaviours and ideation [ 8 ]. Similarly, the systematic review by Goldstein & Gvion [ 27 ], which included 36 cross-sectional studies and 2 longitudinal studies, suggested that eating disorders with purging behaviour, impulsivity and specific interpersonal features were associated with greater risk of suicidal behaviours.

ED and non-suicidal self-injury

A systematic review and meta-analysis by Cucchi et al. [ 28 ] reported that, among patients with various EDs, the prevalence of a lifetime history of non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) was 27.3% (95% CI 23.8–31.0%) for ED, 21.8% (95% CI 18.5–25.6%) for AN, and 32.7% (95% CI 26.9–39.1%) for BN. Based on 29 studies and 6,575 participants, the review concluded that NSSI is a significant correlate of ED and prevalent among adolescents and young adults with ED.

ED and personality disorders

The systematic review and meta-analysis conducted by Farstad et al. [ 29 ] on ED and personality disorders (PD) included 14 studies and showed that pooled prevalence rates of PD ranged from 0% (95% CI: 0–4%) (for schizoid) to 30% (95% CI 0–56%) (for obsessive-compulsive) in individuals with ED. The authors concluded that increases in perfectionism, neuroticism, low extraversion, sensitivity to social rewards, avoidance motivation, negative urgency and high-self-directedness was found in the people presenting with EDs. This finding is consistent with another review that investigated the association between EDs and symptoms of borderline personality disorder [ 30 ]. The authors found that nine symptoms of borderline personality disorder were significantly elevated in patients with EDs compared to controls.

In a meta-analytic review of 59 studies, the lifetime and current prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder was reported to be 13.9% [95% CI 10.4–18.1%] and 8.7% [95% CI 5.8–11.8%] respectively across EDs, which included all ED subtypes [ 31 ]. Another meta-analysis review reported lifetime comorbidity rates for obsessive-compulsive disorder of 19% in AN patients and 14% in BN patients based on cross-sectional studies [ 32 ]. These rates increased to 44% in AN patients and 18.5% in BN patients when longitudinal studies were considered.

Quality of included systematic reviews

The scores achieved by the included reviews ranged from 45% (i.e. 5 out of 11 questions) to 100% (i.e. 11 out of 11 questions). On average, the reviews met 72% of the JBI criteria. The details of the score are presented in Table S3 in the supplementary information file. Overall quality was acceptable and most reviews performed well in the design of review question, inclusion criteria, search strategy and criteria used for study appraisal. The main loss of scores were from the criteria of methods to minimize errors in data extraction and assessment of publication bias.

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first umbrella review to examine the overall evidence of the association between eating disorders and mental health across the age spectrum. While previous reviews were focused on investigating the relationship between eating disorders and specific mental health problems, our review captured all relevant mental health problems, including mental disorders, personality disorders and suicide-related outcomes. The findings of this review were synthesized from contemporaneous systematic reviews (i.e. in the last 7 years) and highlighted the growing body of evidence in this area, particularly the frequency of comorbidity of ED and mental health problems. In addition, our review provides a top-level summary of the strength of the association between the various mental health problems and eating disorders, and the direction of effect where possible.

A total of 643 individual studies were reviewed by the 18 systematic reviews included in this umbrella review. The synthesis of evidence revealed that there is a significant association between ED and mental health problems in general. However, among the various mental health problems investigated, only reviews focusing on depression, social anxiety and ADHD reported an effect size or odds ratio from their respective meta-analysis. Therefore, based on quantitative evidence, the association between these three mental health problems and ED is more prominent compared to other mental health problems. There is also evidence to suggest that depression and anxiety are significantly associated with different types of EDs and their risk factors. For example, symptoms of depression and anxiety were often observed in individuals suffering from AN, BN and BED or those with ED risk factors such as body dissatisfaction [ 16 , 21 ]. Interestingly, existing research shows that childhood ADHD increased the risk of disordered eating or developing ED in later life and vice versa while the risk of ADHD in individuals with ED is increased three-fold, compared to control groups [ 24 ]. This phenomenon is particularly relevant for prevention efforts given that diagnosis of ADHD in young girls or women can be delayed or missed [ 33 ]. As such, there are potential shared benefits to be gained when addressing both conditions. Further research is required to explore the underlying mechanisms and comorbidity between EDs and mental disorders. The prevention or treatment of this comorbidity also needs to be addressed by future intervention studies.

While females continue to be disproportionately affected by ED, including through its association with other mental health problems, there is also growing evidence to indicate the adverse impacts of the ED-mental disorder comorbidity on the male population. For example, the correlation between the risk of developing eating pathology due to childhood ADHD was observed to be stronger in males compared to females [ 23 ]. Furthermore, restrictive eating behaviour has been linked to ADHD-related hyperactivity symptoms in boys although the causal pathway is still not fully understood [ 34 , 35 ] As the population group investigated by the reviews included in this study was predominantly females, the association between ED and mental health may be underestimated in males. A balanced representation of the two sexes should be considered in future studies and will lead to an improved understanding of the function of gender in this emerging comorbidity.

Our umbrella review also reported that most of the research were undertaken in high-income countries, whereas limited studies have been conducted in low- and middle-income countries. This is not surprising given that previous evidence have indicated a severe scarcity of mental health research resources in low- and middle-income countries, especially in Asian and African countries [ 36 ]. Furthermore, ED-related epidemiology research in low- and middle-income countries often focused on prevalence studies and less on comorbidity between ED and mental health problems [ 37 ]. Therefore, there is a need to address this gap in the literature and investigate the generalizability of present evidence across different regions.

One of the limitations of our umbrella review is that it did not include reviews published in languages other than English. In addition, our literature search was limited to the last 7 years, therefore, reviews published before 2015 were not considered. However, it is likely that the more recent reviews in our study have included previous evidence. Another limitation is that no recent individual studies were included. Although this omission may have an impact on the findings of our study, it is unlikely to change the overall conclusion.

Overall, there may be several clinical implications from our findings. First, there is a need to increase awareness and screening for ED in general mental health settings and broader demographics. Compared to general mental health, ED is often underdiagnosed in primary care and therefore the health burden of ED is largely hidden even though it is substantial [ 38 , 39 ]. Second, it is necessary to address the unmet need for treatment of ED. Evidence has shown that although a majority of community cases with a diagnosable ED who seek treatment received treatment for weight loss, only a small proportion received appropriate mental health care [ 40 ]. There is a need to promote supported integrated treatments such as the introduction of mood intolerance module in temperament based therapy with supports [ 41 ].

The outcome of the umbrella review suggests that eating disorders and mental health problems are significantly associated with each other. Mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, suicidal attempts are found to be more prevalent among people suffering from eating disorders. EDs also arise from impulsive behaviours, poor emotion regulation, history of childhood physical and emotional abuse, pain tolerance and interpersonal fears such as perceived burdensomeness [ 16 , 27 ]. Our findings suggest that there is a need for further research to understand the health impacts of eating disorder and mental disorder comorbidities. For instance, there is a limited assessment of risk factors of suicide in people with ED and, therefore, historical and contemporary data need to be collected in order to better understand the risk of suicide in ED. Further efforts should also be made to identify effective and cost-effective interventions for the prevention or treatment of ED and its comorbidities.

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

Author contributions

EJT and LKDL conceptualized and designed the study. TR, EJT, LKDL contributed to the acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data for the work, drafted the initial manuscript, and reviewed and revised the manuscript. PH, JA, YYL and CM contributed to the conception and design of the work and the acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data for the work and critically revised the manuscript. All authors approved the final manuscript as submitted and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

This study was funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council Ideas Grant (APP1183225). LKDL is funded by the Alfred Deakin Postdoctoral Research Fellow. The funder of the study had no role in study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation, or writing of the report. The corresponding author had full access to all the data in the study and had final responsibility for the decision to submit for publication.

Availability of data and materials

Declarations.

An ethics exemption for this research was approved by the Deakin University Human Research Ethics Committee (DUHREC) (ref. 2021-030).

Dr Long Le is a Guest Editor for the collection of “Environmental Influences on Eating disorders, Disordered eating and Body Image” in Journal of Eating Disorders. All other authors do have any competing interest to declare.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Eng Joo Tan, Email: [email protected] .

Long Khanh-Dao Le, Email: [email protected] .

Understanding The Health Complications Of Eating Disorders

Eating disorders are mental health conditions that can significantly impact both physical and psychological well-being. Statistics show that more than 28 million Americans will experience an eating disorder in their lifetime . The complications of this type of complex disorder extend beyond just food and weight. Here, we’ll explore how this type of condition can impact overall well-being. We'll also highlight some specific health complications of eating disorders and take a look at treatment options.

A female doctor sits next to her female patient at a table and shows her some information on a tablet.

What are eating disorders and why are they dangerous?

Eating disorders are marked by irregular eating habits caused by distorted thought patterns. These disorders may impact various bodily functions concurrently, potentially resulting in serious physical and psychological health challenges. Individuals experiencing eating disorders often exhibit marked alterations in food intake, which can pose life-threatening risks when not addressed.

Research suggests that the reach of eating disorders extends across various demographics, affecting individuals regardless of age, gender, body size, or personal history . Recognizing their pervasiveness encourages a deeper understanding of the health risks that may accompany these illnesses and a focus on awareness and treatment availability.

How eating disorders affect overall health

Eating disorders can impact overall health by causing nutritional deficiencies and disrupting metabolic processes. Those affected by eating disorders may face weakened immunity, hormonal irregularities, and impaired organ function. Over time, these conditions can lead to medical issues impacting cardiovascular wellness, bone strength, and reproductive health. The enduring effects of disordered eating behaviors frequently result in marked deterioration of an individual's physical state, and some severe cases may result in death if left untreated .

The connection between eating disorders and mental health

Eating disorders and mental health are closely interrelated. Underlying psychological factors may contribute to disordered eating, while eating disorders themselves can potentially worsen or initiate additional mental health complications.

The mental health impact of living with an eating disorder

Eating disorders often bring about substantial psychological effects. Those affected may find themselves constantly preoccupied with food choices, body weight, and self-image, often experiencing feelings of shame, guilt, and worry. Such pervasive thoughts and emotional distress can influence numerous areas of life, including personal relationships and cognitive functioning. It’s not uncommon for a person with an eating disorder to also have a co-occurring psychiatric disorder like depression or anxiety.

The physical effects of anorexia nervosa on the body

Anorexia nervosa , typically characterized by extreme caloric restriction, often leads to substantial physiological changes. People with eating disorders of this type may observe hair loss, dry skin, and brittle nails. The body's energy conservation efforts may reduce heart rate, lower blood pressure, and reduce core temperature. Prolonged anorexia nervosa can cause muscle deterioration, organ dysfunction, and cognitive decline.

Cardiovascular risks associated with extreme weight loss

Severe weight reduction associated with anorexia nervosa often affects heart health. The condition may lead to cardiac muscle weakening and shrinkage, known as cardiac atrophy. Consequently, individuals may experience hypotension, bradycardia, and arrhythmias, potentially elevating the risk of medical complications like cardiac failure.

Excessive exercise, a common anorexia symptom, may also cause additional cardiovascular issues. During intense physical activity, individuals may experience palpitations, increased heart rate variability, and compromised oxygen supply to the brain.

(h3) Bone density loss and the risk of fractures

Individuals with anorexia nervosa often face low bone mineral density as well, which may elevate fracture risks. The combination of inadequate nutrition, insufficient body mass, and hormonal irregularities can disrupt bone-building mechanisms, possibly resulting in osteopenia or osteoporosis. Bone disease may impact overall mobility, resulting in further complications and effects on an individual’s quality of life.

A close up of a woman talking to a male doctor on her tablet during a telehealth call.

Health complications related to bulimia nervosa

Bulimia nervosa, which involves cycles of binge eating and compensatory actions, often results in various health challenges as well. The recurring pattern of overeating and purging can damage the digestive system. Frequent laxative and diuretic use, common in eating disorders like bulimia nervosa, may disrupt fluid and electrolyte equilibrium, possibly impacting kidney function. Laxative misuse can lead to significant electrolyte imbalances as well. A person could also experience mouth and dental problems due to frequent vomiting.

Gastrointestinal damage and electrolyte imbalances

Recurrent self-induced vomiting often associated with bulimia nervosa may lead to esophageal inflammation, known as esophagitis, potentially increasing the likelihood of tears or ruptures. Purging behaviors can result in fluid and mineral loss, affecting essential electrolytes like potassium, sodium, and chloride. This electrolyte imbalance can influence cardiac function and elevate the risk of irregular heart rhythms.

The physical dangers of binge eating disorder

Binge eating disorder (BED) involves eating excessive amounts of food in a single sitting. This behavior is often used as a way to cope with difficult emotions or memories. BED often contributes to weight gain, which may be accompanied by health risks like elevated blood pressure, type two diabetes, and increased cholesterol. Consuming substantial quantities of food within brief timeframes can also strain the digestive system, possibly resulting in gastrointestinal discomfort and additional digestive issues.

Health challenges related to binge eating disorder

Binge eating disorder can potentially elevate the likelihood of developing metabolic syndrome. The syndrome, also known as insulin resistance syndrome, involves multiple health factors, such as elevated blood pressure, increased blood glucose, excessive abdominal fat, and abnormal cholesterol profiles.

The psychological health consequences of binge eating disorder may also lead to physical ramifications, potentially affecting immune function and heart health. Prolonged elevation of cortisol levels may lead to compromised immune function and cellular deterioration. Persistent stress can increase blood pressure, cause cardiovascular issues, and lead to weight gain.

The mental health consequences of eating disorders

Eating disorders coincide with significant psychological challenges. Many individuals experience symptoms of depression, anxiety disorders, or obsessive-compulsive tendencies. The persistent concern with food, weight, and body image may also contribute to feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem.

(h3) Anxiety, depression, and their interplay with eating disorders

Anxiety and depression often accompany eating disorders. Some individuals may resort to disordered eating patterns as attempts to manage anxiety or depression, while the effects of the eating disorder might amplify these emotional challenges. This interplay can create a cycle that requires professional intervention to address effectively.

(h2) Long-term health effects of untreated eating disorders

Untreated eating disorders can have long-term health effects. Some examples of these additional long-term effects may include:

Long-term changes in heart structure and function
Weakened immune system and greater vulnerability to illnesses
Increased risk of chronic diseases like diabetes, osteoporosis, or heart disease
Permanent damage to vital organs, including the kidneys, heart, liver, and digestive system
Cognitive impairments, including memory loss and difficulty concentrating

The importance of early intervention in eating disorders

Research suggests early intervention may enhance overall outcomes in those with eating disorders and minimize long-term health risks. Timely treatment can address accompanying mental health concerns before they escalate and support healthier eating behaviors before they cause long-term damage. Family members and friends often play a role in detecting the early signs of eating disorders and encouraging loved ones to pursue professional help.

Treatment options

Eating disorder treatment frequently involves care from a diverse team of professionals, including medical care providers, nutritionists, therapists, and psychiatrists. The treatment approach is usually customized based on individual circumstances, the particular eating disorder and its severity, and any concurrent health challenges. For patients exhibiting severe symptoms or facing medical complications, inpatient treatment programs may be necessary.

Supporting individuals with eating disorders

Supporting a loved one with an eating disorder usually involves creating a non-judgmental environment, encouraging open communication, and focusing on overall well-being rather than solely on eating behaviors or weight. Education about eating disorders and their treatment can help friends and family members provide more effective support.

Encouraging treatment and offering support

Those close to individuals with eating disorders may help guide them toward treatment. Providing compassionate support and understanding may help alleviate feelings of solitude and sustain motivation throughout the recovery journey. Family and friends can also participate in family therapy to learn how to support their loved one's recovery effectively.

Seeking mental health support for eating disorder symptoms

Again, treatment for eating disorders often involves in-person physician care and nutritionist guidance, especially in the early stages of recovery. In addition, ongoing support from a therapist is usually a key part of the journey toward improved wellness. For those who have trouble making it to in-person appointments or who would prefer to receive mental health support from home, online therapy can be a convenient and helpful component of treatment.

Online therapy offers various potential advantages for individuals seeking support for eating disorders. The virtual format often results in lower costs, potentially making sustained treatment more financially feasible. Additionally, online platforms often allow for more flexible scheduling, which can be beneficial for those managing the complex daily routines often associated with eating disorders.

Recent research on online therapy for eating disorders indicates promising results. Studies comparing virtual and in-person treatments suggest comparable short-term clinical outcomes. Participants in both delivery methods demonstrated similar improvements in eating-related symptoms . Additionally, individuals who required weight gain showed comparable progress regardless of the therapy format. Patient satisfaction ratings were also consistent across online and traditional therapy settings.

Eating disorders like anorexia nervosa, bulimia, and binge eating disorder can impact a person's physical and mental health. Understanding these potential complications highlights the need for early intervention and comprehensive treatment. Addressing both the physical and psychological aspects of these disorders can lead to more effective care and support for individuals in recovery.

Exploring The Prevalence Of Eating Disorders In The Elderly Medically reviewed by Melissa Guarnaccia , LCSW
Coping Strategies For Managing Anxiety And An Eating Disorder Medically reviewed by April Justice , LICSW
Eating Disorders
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Essay on Eating Disorders

Students are often asked to write an essay on Eating Disorders in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Eating Disorders

Understanding eating disorders.

Eating disorders are serious health problems. They occur when individuals develop unhealthy eating habits that can harm their body. They often start with an obsession with food, body weight, or body shape.

Types of Eating Disorders

There are three main types of eating disorders: Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, and Binge Eating Disorder. Each has different symptoms but all can be harmful.

Impact on Health

Eating disorders can damage important body parts like the heart and brain. They can also affect mental health, causing anxiety or depression.

Getting Help

If you or someone you know has an eating disorder, it’s important to seek help. Doctors, therapists, and support groups can provide treatment and support.

250 Words Essay on Eating Disorders

Introduction.

The most common types are Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, and Binge Eating Disorder. Anorexia is defined by a refusal to maintain a healthy body weight and an obsessive fear of gaining weight. Bulimia involves frequent episodes of binge eating followed by behaviors like forced vomiting to avert weight gain. Binge Eating Disorder is characterized by frequent overeating episodes but without subsequent purging actions.

Sociocultural Influences

Sociocultural factors play a significant role in the onset of eating disorders. The media’s portrayal of an ‘ideal’ body size and shape can contribute to body dissatisfaction and consequently, disordered eating behaviors.

Health Implications

The health implications of eating disorders are severe, impacting both physical and mental health. These can range from malnutrition, organ damage, to increased risk of suicide.

Eating disorders, therefore, are serious conditions that require comprehensive treatment. Increased awareness, early diagnosis, and interventions can significantly improve the prognosis and quality of life for those affected.

500 Words Essay on Eating Disorders

Introduction to eating disorders.

Eating disorders represent a group of serious conditions characterized by abnormal eating habits that can negatively affect a person’s physical and mental health. These disorders often develop from a complex interplay of genetic, psychological, and sociocultural factors.

The Types of Eating Disorders

The underlying causes.

Eating disorders are typically multifactorial and can’t be attributed to a single cause. They often coexist with other mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Genetic predisposition plays a significant role, suggesting that eating disorders can run in families. Sociocultural factors, including societal pressures to be thin, can also contribute to the development of these disorders.

The Impact on Physical and Mental Health

The physical consequences of eating disorders are profound and can be life-threatening. They range from malnutrition, heart conditions, and bone loss in anorexia, to gastrointestinal problems and electrolyte imbalances in bulimia. Binge eating disorder can lead to obesity and related complications like heart disease and type 2 diabetes.

Treatment and Recovery

Treatment for eating disorders typically involves a multidisciplinary approach, combining medical, psychological, and nutritional therapy. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is often effective, helping individuals to understand and change patterns of thought and behavior that lead to disordered eating.

Early intervention is crucial for recovery. However, stigma and lack of understanding about these disorders can often delay treatment. Therefore, raising awareness and promoting understanding about eating disorders is essential.

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The long-term effects of eating disorders like anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder can be devastating, affecting both physical health and mental well-being. However, with early intervention, comprehensive treatment, and ongoing support, recovery is possible. Understanding the importance of recognizing the signs of an ...
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The Explanation of Eating Disorders: A Critical Analysis
A systematic review of dialectical behavior therapy for the treatment of eating disorders. Eating Disorders, 20, 196 - 215. doi: 10.1080/10640266.2012.668478 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed. Berkman, ND, Lohr, KN and Bulik, CM (2007). Outcomes of eating disorders: A systematic review of the literature.
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Eating disorders affect men and women of all ages, although adolescents tend to be the age group that is more susceptible. This is because, as their bodies are changing, they may feel more pressure by society as well as peer groups to look attractive and fit in (Segal et al). Types of eating disorders include Anorexia, Bulimia and Compulsive ...
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The physical consequences of eating disorders are profound and can be life-threatening. They range from malnutrition, heart conditions, and bone loss in anorexia, to gastrointestinal problems and electrolyte imbalances in bulimia. Binge eating disorder can lead to obesity and related complications like heart disease and type 2 diabetes.
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The three main eating disorders include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating, however there are a few others such as pica and rumination disorder that aren't as common but still have their negative effects on many individuals.(1) Even so, because the latter two disorders aren't nearly as common, I think it's more so ...
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