a case study can serve as a visual representation

We use essential cookies to make Venngage work. By clicking “Accept All Cookies”, you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts.

Manage Cookies

Cookies and similar technologies collect certain information about how you’re using our website. Some of them are essential, and without them you wouldn’t be able to use Venngage. But others are optional, and you get to choose whether we use them or not.

Strictly Necessary Cookies

These cookies are always on, as they’re essential for making Venngage work, and making it safe. Without these cookies, services you’ve asked for can’t be provided.

Show cookie providers

• Google Login

Functionality Cookies

These cookies help us provide enhanced functionality and personalisation, and remember your settings. They may be set by us or by third party providers.

Performance Cookies

These cookies help us analyze how many people are using Venngage, where they come from and how they're using it. If you opt out of these cookies, we can’t get feedback to make Venngage better for you and all our users.

• Google Analytics

Targeting Cookies

These cookies are set by our advertising partners to track your activity and show you relevant Venngage ads on other sites as you browse the internet.

• Google Tag Manager
• Infographics
• Daily Infographics
• Popular Templates
• Accessibility
• Graphic Design
• Graphs and Charts
• Data Visualization
• Human Resources
• Beginner Guides

Blog Business How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

Written by: Danesh Ramuthi Sep 07, 2023

Okay, let’s get real: case studies can be kinda snooze-worthy. But guess what? They don’t have to be!

In this article, I will cover every element that transforms a mere report into a compelling case study, from selecting the right metrics to using persuasive narrative techniques.

And if you’re feeling a little lost, don’t worry! There are cool tools like Venngage’s Case Study Creator to help you whip up something awesome, even if you’re short on time. Plus, the pre-designed case study templates are like instant polish because let’s be honest, everyone loves a shortcut.

Click to jump ahead: 

What is a case study presentation?

What is the purpose of presenting a case study, how to structure a case study presentation, how long should a case study presentation be, 5 case study presentation examples with templates, 6 tips for delivering an effective case study presentation, 5 common mistakes to avoid in a case study presentation, how to present a case study faqs.

A case study presentation involves a comprehensive examination of a specific subject, which could range from an individual, group, location, event, organization or phenomenon.

They’re like puzzles you get to solve with the audience, all while making you think outside the box.

Unlike a basic report or whitepaper, the purpose of a case study presentation is to stimulate critical thinking among the viewers. 

The primary objective of a case study is to provide an extensive and profound comprehension of the chosen topic. You don’t just throw numbers at your audience. You use examples and real-life cases to make you think and see things from different angles.

The primary purpose of presenting a case study is to offer a comprehensive, evidence-based argument that informs, persuades and engages your audience.

Here’s the juicy part: presenting that case study can be your secret weapon. Whether you’re pitching a groundbreaking idea to a room full of suits or trying to impress your professor with your A-game, a well-crafted case study can be the magic dust that sprinkles brilliance over your words.

Think of it like digging into a puzzle you can’t quite crack . A case study lets you explore every piece, turn it over and see how it fits together. This close-up look helps you understand the whole picture, not just a blurry snapshot.

It’s also your chance to showcase how you analyze things, step by step, until you reach a conclusion. It’s all about being open and honest about how you got there.

Besides, presenting a case study gives you an opportunity to connect data and real-world scenarios in a compelling narrative. It helps to make your argument more relatable and accessible, increasing its impact on your audience.

One of the contexts where case studies can be very helpful is during the job interview. In some job interviews, you as candidates may be asked to present a case study as part of the selection process.

Having a case study presentation prepared allows the candidate to demonstrate their ability to understand complex issues, formulate strategies and communicate their ideas effectively.

The way you present a case study can make all the difference in how it’s received. A well-structured presentation not only holds the attention of your audience but also ensures that your key points are communicated clearly and effectively.

In this section, let’s go through the key steps that’ll help you structure your case study presentation for maximum impact.

Let’s get into it. 

Open with an introductory overview 

Start by introducing the subject of your case study and its relevance. Explain why this case study is important and who would benefit from the insights gained. This is your opportunity to grab your audience’s attention.

Explain the problem in question

Dive into the problem or challenge that the case study focuses on. Provide enough background information for the audience to understand the issue. If possible, quantify the problem using data or metrics to show the magnitude or severity.

Detail the solutions to solve the problem

After outlining the problem, describe the steps taken to find a solution. This could include the methodology, any experiments or tests performed and the options that were considered. Make sure to elaborate on why the final solution was chosen over the others.

Key stakeholders Involved

Talk about the individuals, groups or organizations that were directly impacted by or involved in the problem and its solution. 

Stakeholders may experience a range of outcomes—some may benefit, while others could face setbacks.

For example, in a business transformation case study, employees could face job relocations or changes in work culture, while shareholders might be looking at potential gains or losses.

Discuss the key results & outcomes

Discuss the results of implementing the solution. Use data and metrics to back up your statements. Did the solution meet its objectives? What impact did it have on the stakeholders? Be honest about any setbacks or areas for improvement as well.

Include visuals to support your analysis

Visual aids can be incredibly effective in helping your audience grasp complex issues. Utilize charts, graphs, images or video clips to supplement your points. Make sure to explain each visual and how it contributes to your overall argument.

Pie charts illustrate the proportion of different components within a whole, useful for visualizing market share, budget allocation or user demographics.

This is particularly useful especially if you’re displaying survey results in your case study presentation.

Stacked charts on the other hand are perfect for visualizing composition and trends. This is great for analyzing things like customer demographics, product breakdowns or budget allocation in your case study.

Consider this example of a stacked bar chart template. It provides a straightforward summary of the top-selling cake flavors across various locations, offering a quick and comprehensive view of the data.

Not the chart you’re looking for? Browse Venngage’s gallery of chart templates to find the perfect one that’ll captivate your audience and level up your data storytelling.

Recommendations and next steps

Wrap up by providing recommendations based on the case study findings. Outline the next steps that stakeholders should take to either expand on the success of the project or address any remaining challenges.

Acknowledgments and references

Thank the people who contributed to the case study and helped in the problem-solving process. Cite any external resources, reports or data sets that contributed to your analysis.

Feedback & Q&A session

Open the floor for questions and feedback from your audience. This allows for further discussion and can provide additional insights that may not have been considered previously.

Closing remarks

Conclude the presentation by summarizing the key points and emphasizing the takeaways. Thank your audience for their time and participation and express your willingness to engage in further discussions or collaborations on the subject.

Well, the length of a case study presentation can vary depending on the complexity of the topic and the needs of your audience. However, a typical business or academic presentation often lasts between 15 to 30 minutes. 

This time frame usually allows for a thorough explanation of the case while maintaining audience engagement. However, always consider leaving a few minutes at the end for a Q&A session to address any questions or clarify points made during the presentation.

When it comes to presenting a compelling case study, having a well-structured template can be a game-changer. 

It helps you organize your thoughts, data and findings in a coherent and visually pleasing manner. 

Not all case studies are created equal and different scenarios require distinct approaches for maximum impact. 

To save you time and effort, I have curated a list of 5 versatile case study presentation templates, each designed for specific needs and audiences. 

Here are some best case study presentation examples that showcase effective strategies for engaging your audience and conveying complex information clearly.

1 . Lab report case study template

Ever feel like your research gets lost in a world of endless numbers and jargon? Lab case studies are your way out!

Think of it as building a bridge between your cool experiment and everyone else. It’s more than just reporting results – it’s explaining the “why” and “how” in a way that grabs attention and makes sense.

This lap report template acts as a blueprint for your report, guiding you through each essential section (introduction, methods, results, etc.) in a logical order.

Want to present your research like a pro? Browse our research presentation template gallery for creative inspiration!

2. Product case study template

It’s time you ditch those boring slideshows and bullet points because I’ve got a better way to win over clients: product case study templates.

Instead of just listing features and benefits, you get to create a clear and concise story that shows potential clients exactly what your product can do for them. It’s like painting a picture they can easily visualize, helping them understand the value your product brings to the table.

Grab the template below, fill in the details, and watch as your product’s impact comes to life!

3. Content marketing case study template

In digital marketing, showcasing your accomplishments is as vital as achieving them. 

A well-crafted case study not only acts as a testament to your successes but can also serve as an instructional tool for others. 

With this coral content marketing case study template—a perfect blend of vibrant design and structured documentation, you can narrate your marketing triumphs effectively.

4. Case study psychology template

Understanding how people tick is one of psychology’s biggest quests and case studies are like magnifying glasses for the mind. They offer in-depth looks at real-life behaviors, emotions and thought processes, revealing fascinating insights into what makes us human.

Writing a top-notch case study, though, can be a challenge. It requires careful organization, clear presentation and meticulous attention to detail. That’s where a good case study psychology template comes in handy.

Think of it as a helpful guide, taking care of formatting and structure while you focus on the juicy content. No more wrestling with layouts or margins – just pour your research magic into crafting a compelling narrative.

5. Lead generation case study template

Lead generation can be a real head-scratcher. But here’s a little help: a lead generation case study.

Think of it like a friendly handshake and a confident resume all rolled into one. It’s your chance to showcase your expertise, share real-world successes and offer valuable insights. Potential clients get to see your track record, understand your approach and decide if you’re the right fit.

No need to start from scratch, though. This lead generation case study template guides you step-by-step through crafting a clear, compelling narrative that highlights your wins and offers actionable tips for others. Fill in the gaps with your specific data and strategies, and voilà! You’ve got a powerful tool to attract new customers.

Related: 15+ Professional Case Study Examples [Design Tips + Templates]

So, you’ve spent hours crafting the perfect case study and are now tasked with presenting it. Crafting the case study is only half the battle; delivering it effectively is equally important. 

Whether you’re facing a room of executives, academics or potential clients, how you present your findings can make a significant difference in how your work is received. 

Forget boring reports and snooze-inducing presentations! Let’s make your case study sing. Here are some key pointers to turn information into an engaging and persuasive performance:

• Know your audience : Tailor your presentation to the knowledge level and interests of your audience. Remember to use language and examples that resonate with them.
• Rehearse : Rehearsing your case study presentation is the key to a smooth delivery and for ensuring that you stay within the allotted time. Practice helps you fine-tune your pacing, hone your speaking skills with good word pronunciations and become comfortable with the material, leading to a more confident, conversational and effective presentation.
• Start strong : Open with a compelling introduction that grabs your audience’s attention. You might want to use an interesting statistic, a provocative question or a brief story that sets the stage for your case study.
• Be clear and concise : Avoid jargon and overly complex sentences. Get to the point quickly and stay focused on your objectives.
• Use visual aids : Incorporate slides with graphics, charts or videos to supplement your verbal presentation. Make sure they are easy to read and understand.
• Tell a story : Use storytelling techniques to make the case study more engaging. A well-told narrative can help you make complex data more relatable and easier to digest.

Ditching the dry reports and slide decks? Venngage’s case study templates let you wow customers with your solutions and gain insights to improve your business plan. Pre-built templates, visual magic and customer captivation – all just a click away. Go tell your story and watch them say “wow!”

Nailed your case study, but want to make your presentation even stronger? Avoid these common mistakes to ensure your audience gets the most out of it:

Overloading with information

A case study is not an encyclopedia. Overloading your presentation with excessive data, text or jargon can make it cumbersome and difficult for the audience to digest the key points. Stick to what’s essential and impactful. Need help making your data clear and impactful? Our data presentation templates can help! Find clear and engaging visuals to showcase your findings.

Lack of structure

Jumping haphazardly between points or topics can confuse your audience. A well-structured presentation, with a logical flow from introduction to conclusion, is crucial for effective communication.

Ignoring the audience

Different audiences have different needs and levels of understanding. Failing to adapt your presentation to your audience can result in a disconnect and a less impactful presentation.

Poor visual elements

While content is king, poor design or lack of visual elements can make your case study dull or hard to follow. Make sure you use high-quality images, graphs and other visual aids to support your narrative.

Not focusing on results

A case study aims to showcase a problem and its solution, but what most people care about are the results. Failing to highlight or adequately explain the outcomes can make your presentation fall flat.

How to start a case study presentation?

Starting a case study presentation effectively involves a few key steps:

• Grab attention : Open with a hook—an intriguing statistic, a provocative question or a compelling visual—to engage your audience from the get-go.
• Set the stage : Briefly introduce the subject, context and relevance of the case study to give your audience an idea of what to expect.
• Outline objectives : Clearly state what the case study aims to achieve. Are you solving a problem, proving a point or showcasing a success?
• Agenda : Give a quick outline of the key sections or topics you’ll cover to help the audience follow along.
• Set expectations : Let your audience know what you want them to take away from the presentation, whether it’s knowledge, inspiration or a call to action.

How to present a case study on PowerPoint and on Google Slides?

Presenting a case study on PowerPoint and Google Slides involves a structured approach for clarity and impact using presentation slides :

• Title slide : Start with a title slide that includes the name of the case study, your name and any relevant institutional affiliations.
• Introduction : Follow with a slide that outlines the problem or situation your case study addresses. Include a hook to engage the audience.
• Objectives : Clearly state the goals of the case study in a dedicated slide.
• Findings : Use charts, graphs and bullet points to present your findings succinctly.
• Analysis : Discuss what the findings mean, drawing on supporting data or secondary research as necessary.
• Conclusion : Summarize key takeaways and results.
• Q&A : End with a slide inviting questions from the audience.

What’s the role of analysis in a case study presentation?

The role of analysis in a case study presentation is to interpret the data and findings, providing context and meaning to them. 

It helps your audience understand the implications of the case study, connects the dots between the problem and the solution and may offer recommendations for future action.

Is it important to include real data and results in the presentation?

Yes, including real data and results in a case study presentation is crucial to show experience,  credibility and impact. Authentic data lends weight to your findings and conclusions, enabling the audience to trust your analysis and take your recommendations more seriously

How do I conclude a case study presentation effectively?

To conclude a case study presentation effectively, summarize the key findings, insights and recommendations in a clear and concise manner. 

End with a strong call-to-action or a thought-provoking question to leave a lasting impression on your audience.

What’s the best way to showcase data in a case study presentation ?

The best way to showcase data in a case study presentation is through visual aids like charts, graphs and infographics which make complex information easily digestible, engaging and creative. 

Don’t just report results, visualize them! This template for example lets you transform your social media case study into a captivating infographic that sparks conversation.

Choose the type of visual that best represents the data you’re showing; for example, use bar charts for comparisons or pie charts for parts of a whole. 

Ensure that the visuals are high-quality and clearly labeled, so the audience can quickly grasp the key points. 

Keep the design consistent and simple, avoiding clutter or overly complex visuals that could distract from the message.

Choose a template that perfectly suits your case study where you can utilize different visual aids for maximum impact. 

Need more inspiration on how to turn numbers into impact with the help of infographics? Our ready-to-use infographic templates take the guesswork out of creating visual impact for your case studies with just a few clicks.

Related: 10+ Case Study Infographic Templates That Convert

Congrats on mastering the art of compelling case study presentations! This guide has equipped you with all the essentials, from structure and nuances to avoiding common pitfalls. You’re ready to impress any audience, whether in the boardroom, the classroom or beyond.

And remember, you’re not alone in this journey. Venngage’s Case Study Creator is your trusty companion, ready to elevate your presentations from ordinary to extraordinary. So, let your confidence shine, leverage your newly acquired skills and prepare to deliver presentations that truly resonate.

Go forth and make a lasting impact!

Discover popular designs

Infographic maker

Brochure maker

White paper online

Newsletter creator

Flyer maker

Timeline maker

Letterhead maker

Mind map maker

Ebook maker

• All Categories
• Marketing Analytics Software

What Is a Case Study? How to Write, Examples, and Template

In this post

How to write a case study

Case study template, case study examples, types of case studies, what are the benefits of case studies , what are the limitations of case studies , case study vs. testimonial.

In today's marketplace, conveying your product's value through a compelling narrative is crucial to genuinely connecting with your customers.

Your business can use marketing analytics tools to understand what customers want to know about your product. Once you have this information, the next step is to showcase your product and its benefits to your target audience. This strategy involves a mix of data, analysis, and storytelling. Combining these elements allows you to create a narrative that engages your audience. So, how can you do this effectively?

What is a case study? 

A case study is a powerful tool for showcasing a business's success in helping clients achieve their goals. It's a form of storytelling that details real-world scenarios where a business implemented its solutions to deliver positive results for a client.

In this article, we explore the concept of a case study , including its writing process, benefits, various types, challenges, and more.

Understanding how to write a case study is an invaluable skill. You'll need to embrace decision-making – from deciding which customers to feature to designing the best format to make them as engaging as possible.  This can feel overwhelming in a hurry, so let's break it down.

Step 1: Reach out to the target persona

If you've been in business for a while, you have no shortage of happy customers. But w ith limited time and resources, you can't choose everyone.  So, take some time beforehand to flesh out your target buyer personas. 

Once you know precisely who you're targeting, go through your stable of happy customers to find a buyer representative of the audience you're trying to reach. The closer their problems, goals, and industries align, the more your case study will resonate.

What if you have more than one buyer persona? No problem. This is a common situation for companies because buyers comprise an entire committee. You might be marketing to procurement experts, executives, engineers, etc. Try to develop a case study tailored to each key persona. This might be a long-term goal, and that's fine. The better you can personalize the experience for each stakeholder, the easier it is to keep their attention.  

Here are a few considerations to think about before research:

• Products/services of yours the customer uses (and how familiar they are with them)
• The customer's brand recognition in the industry
• Whether the results they've achieved are specific and remarkable
• Whether they've switched from a competitor's product/service
• How closely aligned they are with your target audience

These items are just a jumping-off point as you develop your criteria.  Once you have a list, run each customer through it to determine your top targets. Approach the ones on the top (your "dream" case study subjects) and work your way down as needed.

Who to interview

You should consider interviewing top-level managers or executives because those are high-profile positions. But consider how close they are to your product and its results.

Focusing on an office manager or engineer who uses your product daily would be better. Look for someone with a courtside view of the effects.

The ways to request customer participation in case studies can vary, but certain principles can improve your chances:

• Make it easy for customers to work with you, respecting their valuable time. Be well-prepared and minimize their involvement.
• Emphasize how customers will benefit through increased publicity, revenue opportunities, or recognition for their success. 
• Acknowledge their contributions and showcase their achievements.
• Standardizing the request process with a script incorporating these principles can help your team consistently secure case study approvals and track performance.

Step 2: Prepare for the interview

Case study interviews are like school exams. The more prepared you are for them, the better they turn out. Preparing thoroughly also shows participants that you value their time. You don't waste precious minutes rehashing things you should have already known. You focus on getting the information you need as efficiently as possible.

You can conduct your case study interview in multiple formats, from exchanging emails to in-person interviews. This isn't a trivial decision.  As you'll see in the chart below, each format has its unique advantages and disadvantages. 

You'll also have to consider who will ask and answer the questions during your case study interview. It's wise to consider this while considering the case study format.  The number of participants factors into which format will work best. Pulling off an in-person interview becomes much harder if you're trying to juggle four or five people's busy schedules. Try a video conference instead.

Before interviewing your case study participant, it is crucial to identify the specific questions that need to be asked.  It's essential to thoroughly evaluate your collaboration with the client and understand how your product's contributions impact the company. 

Remember that structuring your case study is akin to crafting a compelling narrative. To achieve this, follow a structured approach:

• Beginning of your story. Delve into the customer's challenge that ultimately led them to do business with you. What were their problems like? What drove them to make a decision finally? Why did they choose you?
• The middle of the case study.  Your audience also wants to know about the experience of working with you. Your customer has taken action to address their problems. What happened once you got on board?
• An ending that makes you the hero.  Describe the specific results your company produced for the customer. How has the customer's business (and life) changed once they implemented your solution?

Sample questions for the case study interview

If you're preparing for a case study interview, here are some sample case study research questions to help you get started:

• What challenges led you to seek a solution?
• When did you realize the need for immediate action? Was there a tipping point?
• How did you decide on the criteria for choosing a B2B solution, and who was involved?
• What set our product or service apart from others you considered?
• How was your experience working with us post-purchase?
• Were there any pleasant surprises or exceeded expectations during our collaboration?
• How smoothly did your team integrate our solution into their workflows?
• How long before you started seeing positive results?
• How have you benefited from our products or services?
• How do you measure the value our product or service provides?

Step 3: Conduct the interview

Preparing for case study interviews can be different from everyday conversations. Here are some tips to keep in mind:

• Create a comfortable atmosphere.  Before diving into the discussion, talk about their business and personal interests. Ensure everyone is at ease, and address any questions or concerns.
• Prioritize key questions.  Lead with your most crucial questions to respect your customer's time. Interview lengths can vary, so starting with the essentials ensures you get the vital information.
• Be flexible.  Case study interviews don't have to be rigid. If your interviewee goes "off script," embrace it. Their spontaneous responses often provide valuable insights.
• Record the interview.  If not conducted via email, ask for permission to record the interview. This lets you focus on the conversation and capture valuable quotes without distractions.

Step 4: Figure out who will create the case study

When creating written case studies for your business, deciding who should handle the writing depends on cost, perspective, and revisions.

Outsourcing might be pricier, but it ensures a professionally crafted outcome. On the other hand, in-house writing has its considerations, including understanding your customers and products. 

Technical expertise and equipment are needed for video case studies, which often leads companies to consider outsourcing due to production and editing costs. 

Tip: When outsourcing work, it's essential to clearly understand pricing details to avoid surprises and unexpected charges during payment.

Step 5: Utilize storytelling

Understanding and applying storytelling elements can make your case studies unforgettable, offering a competitive edge. 

Source: The Framework Bank

Every great study follows a narrative arc (also called a "story arc"). This arc represents how a character faces challenges, struggles against raising stakes, and encounters a formidable obstacle before the tension resolves.

In a case study narrative, consider:

• Exposition. Provide background information about the company, revealing their "old life" before becoming your customer.
• Inciting incident. Highlight the problem that drove the customer to seek a solution, creating a sense of urgency.
• Obstacles (rising action). Describe the customer's journey in researching and evaluating solutions, building tension as they explore options.
• Midpoint. Explain what made the business choose your product or service and what set you apart.
• Climax. Showcase the success achieved with your product.
• Denouement. Describe the customer's transformed business and end with a call-to-action for the reader to take the next step.

Step 6: Design the case study

The adage "Don't judge a book by its cover" is familiar, but people tend to do just that quite often!

A poor layout can deter readers even if you have an outstanding case study. To create an engaging case study, follow these steps:

• Craft a compelling title. Just like you wouldn't read a newspaper article without an eye-catching headline, the same goes for case studies. Start with a title that grabs attention.
• Organize your content. Break down your content into different sections, such as challenges, results, etc. Each section can also include subsections. This case study approach divides the content into manageable portions, preventing readers from feeling overwhelmed by lengthy blocks of text.
• Conciseness is key. Keep your case study as concise as possible. The most compelling case studies are precisely long enough to introduce the customer's challenge, experience with your solution, and outstanding results. Prioritize clarity and omit any sections that may detract from the main storyline.
• Utilize visual elements. To break up text and maintain reader interest, incorporate visual elements like callout boxes, bulleted lists, and sidebars.
• Include charts and images. Summarize results and simplify complex topics by including pictures and charts. Visual aids enhance the overall appeal of your case study.
• Embrace white space. Avoid overwhelming walls of text to prevent reader fatigue. Opt for plenty of white space, use shorter paragraphs, and employ subsections to ensure easy readability and navigation.
• Enhance video case studies. In video case studies, elements like music, fonts, and color grading are pivotal in setting the right tone. Choose music that complements your message and use it strategically throughout your story. Carefully select fonts to convey the desired style, and consider how lighting and color grading can influence the mood. These elements collectively help create the desired tone for your video case study.

Step 7: Edits and revisions

Once you've finished the interview and created your case study, the hardest part is over. Now's the time for editing and revision. This might feel frustrating for impatient B2B marketers, but it can turn good stories into great ones.

Ideally, you'll want to submit your case study through two different rounds of editing and revisions:

• Internal review. Seek feedback from various team members to ensure your case study is captivating and error-free. Gather perspectives from marketing, sales, and those in close contact with customers for well-rounded insights. Use patterns from this feedback to guide revisions and apply lessons to future case studies.
• Customer feedback. Share the case study with customers to make them feel valued and ensure accuracy. Let them review quotes and data points, as they are the "heroes" of the story, and their logos will be prominently featured. This step maintains positive customer relationships.

Case study mistakes to avoid

• Ensure easy access to case studies on your website.
• Spotlight the customer, not just your business.
• Tailor each case study to a specific audience.
• Avoid excessive industry jargon in your content.

Step 8: Publishing

Take a moment to proofread your case study one more time carefully. Even if you're reasonably confident you've caught all the errors, it's always a good idea to check. Your case study will be a valuable marketing tool for years, so it's worth the investment to ensure it's flawless. Once done, your case study is all set to go!

Consider sharing a copy of the completed case study with your customer as a thoughtful gesture. They'll likely appreciate it; some may want to keep it for their records. After all, your case study wouldn't have been possible without their help, and they deserve to see the final product.

Where you publish your case study depends on its role in your overall marketing strategy. If you want to reach as many people as possible with your case study, consider publishing it on your website and social media platforms. 

Tip: Some companies prefer to keep their case studies exclusive, making them available only to those who request them. This approach is often taken to control access to valuable information and to engage more deeply with potential customers who express specific interests. It can create a sense of exclusivity and encourage interested parties to engage directly with the company.

Step 9: Case study distribution

When sharing individual case studies, concentrate on reaching the audience with the most influence on purchasing decisions

Here are some common distribution channels to consider:

• Sales teams. Share case studies to enhance customer interactions, retention , and upselling among your sales and customer success teams. Keep them updated on new studies and offer easily accessible formats like PDFs or landing page links.
• Company website. Feature case studies on your website to establish authority and provide valuable information to potential buyers. Organize them by categories such as location, size, industry, challenges, and products or services used for effective presentation.
• Events. Use live events like conferences and webinars to distribute printed case study copies, showcase video case studies at trade show booths, and conclude webinars with links to your case study library. This creative approach blends personal interactions with compelling content.
• Industry journalists. Engage relevant industry journalists to gain media coverage by identifying suitable publications and journalists covering related topics. Building relationships is vital, and platforms like HARO (Help A Reporter Out) can facilitate connections, especially if your competitors have received coverage before.

Want to learn more about Marketing Analytics Software? Explore Marketing Analytics products.

It can seem daunting to transform the information you've gathered into a cohesive narrative.  We’ve created a versatile case study template that can serve as a solid starting point for your case study.

With this template, your business can explore any solutions offered to satisfied customers, covering their background, the factors that led them to choose your services, and their outcomes.

The template boasts a straightforward design, featuring distinct sections that guide you in effectively narrating your and your customer's story. However, remember that limitless ways to showcase your business's accomplishments exist.

To assist you in this process, here's a breakdown of the recommended sections to include in a case study:

• Title.  Keep it concise. Create a brief yet engaging project title summarizing your work with your subject. Consider your title like a newspaper headline; do it well, and readers will want to learn more. 
• Subtitle . Use this section to elaborate on the achievement briefly. Make it creative and catchy to engage your audience.
• Executive summary.  Use this as an overview of the story, followed by 2-3 bullet points highlighting key success metrics.
• Challenges and objectives. This section describes the customer's challenges before adopting your product or service, along with the goals or objectives they sought to achieve.
• How product/service helped.  A paragraph explaining how your product or service addressed their problem.
• Testimonials.  Incorporate short quotes or statements from the individuals involved in the case study, sharing their perspectives and experiences.
• Supporting visuals.  Include one or two impactful visuals, such as graphs, infographics, or highlighted metrics, that reinforce the narrative.
• Call to action (CTA).  If you do your job well, your audience will read (or watch) your case studies from beginning to end. They are interested in everything you've said. Now, what's the next step they should take to continue their relationship with you? Give people a simple action they can complete. 

Case studies are proven marketing strategies in a wide variety of B2B industries. Here are just a few examples of a case study:

• Amazon Web Services, Inc.  provides companies with cloud computing platforms and APIs on a metered, pay-as-you-go basis. This case study example illustrates the benefits Thomson Reuters experienced using AWS.
• LinkedIn Marketing Solutions combines captivating visuals with measurable results in the case study created for BlackRock. This case study illustrates how LinkedIn has contributed to the growth of BlackRock's brand awareness over the years. 
• Salesforce , a sales and marketing automation SaaS solutions provider, seamlessly integrates written and visual elements to convey its success stories with Pepe Jeans. This case study effectively demonstrates how Pepe Jeans is captivating online shoppers with immersive and context-driven e-commerce experiences through Salesforce.
• HubSpot offers a combination of sales and marketing tools. Their case study demonstrates the effectiveness of its all-in-one solutions. These typically focus on a particular client's journey and how HubSpot helped them achieve significant results.

There are two different types of case studies that businesses might utilize:

Written case studies 

Written case studies offer readers a clear visual representation of data, which helps them quickly identify and focus on the information that matters most. 

Printed versions of case studies find their place at events like trade shows, where they serve as valuable sales collateral to engage prospective clients.  Even in the digital age, many businesses provide case studies in PDF format or as web-based landing pages, improving accessibility for their audience. 

Note: Landing pages , in particular, offer the flexibility to incorporate rich multimedia content, including images, charts, and videos. This flexibility in design makes landing pages an attractive choice for presenting detailed content to the audience.

Written case study advantages

Here are several significant advantages to leveraging case studies for your company:

• Hyperlink accessibility.  Whether in PDF or landing page format, written case studies allow for embedded hyperlinks, offering prospects easy access to additional information and contact forms.
• Flexible engagement.  Unlike video case studies, which may demand in-person arrangements, written case studies can be conducted via phone or video streaming, reducing customer commitment and simplifying scheduling.
• Efficient scanning . Well-structured written case studies with a scannable format cater to time-strapped professionals. Charts and callout boxes with key statistics enhance the ease of information retrieval.
• Printable for offline use.  Written case studies can be effortlessly printed and distributed at trade shows, sales meetings, and live events. This tangible format accommodates those who prefer physical materials and provides versatility in outreach, unlike video content, which is less portable.

Written case study disadvantages

Here are some drawbacks associated with the use of case studies:

• Reduced emotional impact.  Written content lacks the emotional punch of live video testimonials, which engage more senses and emotions, making a stronger connection.
• Consider time investment.  Creating a compelling case study involves editing, proofreading, and design collaboration, with multiple revisions commonly required before publication.
• Challenges in maintaining attention.  Attention spans are short in today's ad-saturated world. Using graphics, infographics, and videos more often is more powerful to incite the right emotions in customers.

Video case studies

Video case studies are the latest marketing trend. Unlike in the past, when video production was costly, today's tools make it more accessible for users to create and edit their videos. However, specific technical requirements still apply.

Like written case studies, video case studies delve into a specific customer's challenges and how your business provides solutions. Yet, the video offers a more profound connection by showcasing the person who faced and conquered the problem.

Video case studies can boost brand exposure when shared on platforms like YouTube. For example, Slack's engaging case study video with Sandwich Video illustrates how Slack transformed its workflow and adds humor, which can be challenging in written case studies focused on factual evidence.

Source : YouTube

This video case study has garnered nearly a million views on YouTube.

Video case study advantages

Here are some of the top advantages of video case studies. While video testimonials take more time, the payoff can be worth it. 

• Humanization and authenticity.  Video case studies connect viewers with real people, adding authenticity and fostering a stronger emotional connection.
• Engaging multiple senses.  They engage both auditory and visual senses, enhancing credibility and emotional impact. Charts, statistics, and images can also be incorporated.
• Broad distribution.  Videos can be shared on websites, YouTube, social media, and more, reaching diverse audiences and boosting engagement, especially on social platforms.

Video case study disadvantages

Before fully committing to video testimonials, consider the following:

• Technical expertise and equipment.  Video production requires technical know-how and equipment, which can be costly. Skilled video editing is essential to maintain a professional image. While technology advances, producing amateurish videos may harm your brand's perception.
• Viewer convenience.  Some prospects prefer written formats due to faster reading and ease of navigation. Video typically requires sound, which can be inconvenient for viewers in specific settings. Many people may not have headphones readily available to watch your content.
• Demand on case study participants.  On-camera interviews can be time-consuming and location-dependent, making scheduling challenging for case study participants. Additionally, being on screen for a global audience may create insecurities and performance pressure.
• Comfort on camera.  Not everyone feels at ease on camera. Nervousness or a different on-screen persona can impact the effectiveness of the testimonial, and discovering this late in the process can be problematic.

Written or video case studies: Which is right for you?

Now that you know the pros and cons of each, how do you choose which is right for you?

One of the most significant factors in doing video case studies can be the technical expertise and equipment required for a high level of production quality. Whether you have the budget to do this in-house or hire a production company can be one of the major deciding factors.

Still, written or video doesn't have to be an either-or decision. Some B2B companies are using both formats. They can complement each other nicely, minimizing the downsides mentioned above and reaching your potential customers where they prefer.

Let's say you're selling IT network security. What you offer is invaluable but complicated. You could create a short (three- or four-minute) video case study to get attention and touch on the significant benefits of your services. This whets the viewer's appetite for more information, which they could find in a written case study that supplements the video.

Should you decide to test the water in video case studies, test their effectiveness among your target audience. See how well they work for your company and sales team. And, just like a written case study, you can always find ways to improve your process as you continue exploring video case studies.

Case studies offer several distinctive advantages, making them an ideal tool for businesses to market their products to customers. However, their benefits extend beyond these qualities. 

Here's an overview of all the advantages of case studies:

Valuable sales support

Case studies serve as a valuable resource for your sales endeavors. Buyers frequently require additional information before finalizing a purchase decision. These studies provide concrete evidence of your product or service's effectiveness, assisting your sales representatives in closing deals more efficiently, especially with customers with lingering uncertainties.

Validating your value

Case studies serve as evidence of your product or service's worth or value proposition , playing a role in building trust with potential customers. By showcasing successful partnerships, you make it easier for prospects to place trust in your offerings. This effect is particularly notable when the featured customer holds a reputable status.

Unique and engaging content

By working closely with your customer success teams, you can uncover various customer stories that resonate with different prospects. Case studies allow marketers to shape product features and benefits into compelling narratives. 

Each case study's distinctiveness, mirroring the uniqueness of every customer's journey, makes them a valuable source of relatable and engaging content. Storytelling possesses the unique ability to connect with audiences on an emotional level, a dimension that statistics alone often cannot achieve. 

Spotlighting valuable customers

Case studies provide a valuable platform for showcasing your esteemed customers. Featuring them in these studies offers a chance to give them visibility and express your gratitude for the partnership, which can enhance customer loyalty . Depending on the company you are writing about, it can also demonstrate the caliber of your business.

Now is the time to get SaaS-y news and entertainment with our 5-minute newsletter,   G2 Tea , featuring inspiring leaders, hot takes, and bold predictions. Subscribe below!

It's important to consider limitations when designing and interpreting the results of case studies. Here's an overview of the limitations of case studies:

Challenges in replication

Case studies often focus on specific individuals, organizations, or situations, making generalizing their findings to broader populations or contexts challenging. 

Time-intensive process

Case studies require a significant time investment. The extensive data collection process and the need for comprehensive analysis can be demanding, especially for researchers who are new to this method.

Potential for errors

Case studies can be influenced by memory and judgment, potentially leading to inaccuracies. Depending on human memory to reconstruct a case's history may result in variations and potential inconsistencies in how individuals recall past events. Additionally, bias may emerge, as individuals tend to prioritize what they consider most significant, which could limit their consideration of alternative perspectives.

Challenges in verification

Confirming results through additional research can present difficulties. This complexity arises from the need for detailed and extensive data in the initial creation of a case study. Consequently, this process requires significant effort and a substantial amount of time.

While looking at case studies, you may have noticed a quote. This type of quote is considered a testimonial, a key element of case studies.

If a customer's quote proves that your brand does what it says it will or performs as expected, you may wonder: 'Aren't customer testimonials and case studies the same thing?' Not exactly.

Testimonials are brief endorsements designed to establish trust on a broad scale. In contrast, case studies are detailed narratives that offer a comprehensive understanding of how a product or service addresses a specific problem, targeting a more focused audience. 

Crafting case studies requires more resources and a structured approach than testimonials. Your selection between the two depends on your marketing objectives and the complexity of your product or service.

Case in point!

Case studies are among a company's most effective tools. You're  well on your way to mastering them.

Today's buyers are tackling much of the case study research methodology independently. Many are understandably skeptical before making a buying decision. By connecting them with multiple case studies, you can prove you've gotten the results you say you can. There's hardly a better way to boost your credibility and persuade them to consider your solution.

Case study formats and distribution methods might change as technology evolves. However, the fundamentals that make them effective—knowing how to choose subjects, conduct interviews, and structure everything to get attention—will serve you for as long as you're in business. 

We covered a ton of concepts and resources, so go ahead and bookmark this page. You can refer to it whenever you have questions or need a refresher.

Dive into market research to uncover customer preferences and spending habits.

Kristen McCabe

Kristen’s is a former senior content marketing specialist at G2. Her global marketing experience extends from Australia to Chicago, with expertise in B2B and B2C industries. Specializing in content, conversions, and events, Kristen spends her time outside of work time acting, learning nature photography, and joining in the #instadog fun with her Pug/Jack Russell, Bella. (she/her/hers)

Explore More G2 Articles

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services

Discover proofreading & editing

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, November 20). What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved September 20, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/case-study/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, primary vs. secondary sources | difference & examples, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is action research | definition & examples, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..".

I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't disappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes”

• Tools and Resources
• Customer Services
• Original Language Spotlight
• Alternative and Non-formal Education 
• Cognition, Emotion, and Learning
• Curriculum and Pedagogy
• Education and Society
• Education, Change, and Development
• Education, Cultures, and Ethnicities
• Education, Gender, and Sexualities
• Education, Health, and Social Services
• Educational Administration and Leadership
• Educational History
• Educational Politics and Policy
• Educational Purposes and Ideals
• Educational Systems
• Educational Theories and Philosophies
• Globalization, Economics, and Education
• Languages and Literacies
• Professional Learning and Development
• Research and Assessment Methods
• Technology and Education
• Share Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

Article contents

Visual and screen-based research methodologies.

• Cleo Mees Cleo Mees Macquarie University
• , and  Tom Murray Tom Murray Macquarie University, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9587-643X
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.1196
• Published online: 23 May 2019

Visual and screen-based research practices have a long history in social-science, humanities, education, and creative-arts based disciplines as methods of qualitative research. While approaches may vary substantially across visual anthropology, sociology, history, media, or cultural studies, in each case visual research technologies, processes, and materials are employed to elicit knowledge that may elude purely textual discursive forms. As a growing body of visual and screen-based research has made previously-latent aspects of the world explicit, there has been a concomitant appreciation that visual practices are multisensory and must also be situated within a broader exploration of embodied knowledge and multisensory (beyond the visual) research practice. As audio-visual projects such as Lucien Castaing-Taylor and Véréna Paravel's Leviathan (2013), Rithy Panh's S-21: The Khmer Rouge Death Machine (2003), and Margaret Loescher’s Cameras at the Addy (2003) all demonstrate, screen-based research practices are both modes of, and routes to, knowledge. These projects also demonstrate ways in which screen-based visual research may differ from research exclusively delivered in written form, most specifically in their capacity to document and audio-visually represent intersubjective, embodied, affective, and dynamic relationships between researchers and the subjects of their research. Increasingly, as a range of fields reveal that the incorporative body works as an integrated “perceptive field” as it processes sensory stimuli, visual and screen-based research practices will fulfil an important role in facilitating scholarly access to intuitive, affective, embodied, and analytical comprehension.

• multisensory knowledge
• embodied knowledge
• non-textual discourse
• visual methods
• methodology

Introduction

This article gives an overview of some visual and screen-based methods employed in social sciences, humanities, education, and creative arts research, and explores the unique ways of “knowing” that these methods enable. We begin by providing a historical account of the scholarly uses of visual methods, from their troubled and troublesome origins in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , through to a more recent “visual turn” in the humanities that was driven by the increasing uptake of reflexive, sensory, embodied and participatory approaches to research, and an increasing confidence in the capacity of visual methods to facilitate such approaches. We then go on to describe several ways in which visual and screen-based methods allow researchers to engage with “forms of experience that are either un-securable or much more difficult to secure through other representational forms” (Eisner, as cited in O’Donoghue, 2012 , para. 3). We propose that these methods facilitate multisensory, embodied, personal, empathetic and locomotive routes to knowing about the world. Three examples of visual practice feature in our discussion: Rithy Panh’s documentary film, S-21: The Khmer Rouge Death Machine ( 2003 ); Lucien Castaing-Taylor and Véréna Paravel’s sensory ethnography of a fishing trawler, Leviathan ( 2013 ); and Margaret Loescher’s participatory photography and video project undertaken at “the Addy,” a children’s playground in northern England ( 2003 ). In closing, we consider future developments and remaining questions in the field of visual research.

A Disciplinary Context

In acknowledgement of our own subjectivity, we thought it important to note that we write from backgrounds in documentary filmmaking, performance, and creative practice research informed by history and visual anthropology scholarship. The overview that follows reflects this in several ways.

Firstly, some terminology in this article may be described as “poetic.” This, as Leah Mercer, Julie Robson, and David Fenton ( 2012 ) note, is common in creative arts research, and can help to explain aspects of creative practice “without flattening the liveliness of . . . somatic, aesthetic [approaches]” (p. 16).

Secondly, we write from the understanding that knowledge emerges through context-specific, material practices, and that methodologies appropriate to one context may not be appropriate in others (Barrett & Bolt, 2010 ; Douglas & Gulari, 2015 ; Nelson, 2013 ; Smith & Dean, 2009 ). As such, this article does not aim to be in any way prescriptive.

A History of Visual Research Methodologies

Numerous theorists of visual research have noted the “deep distrust” and “troubled relationship” that social science disciplines have had with visual representations of their key subject areas, such as material culture, social knowledge, and human behavior (Banks, 2001 ; Collier, 1957 ; Pink, 2007 ; Ruby, 2000 ). Indeed, it has been argued that “one of the hallmarks of twentieth-century western thought” was “profound anxiety” toward vision, and its suppression and denigration in favor of textual discourse (Grimshaw & Ravetz, 2005 , pp. 5–6). This suspicion of visual methods has some logic, particularly when we consider the widely discredited 19th-century applications of visual methods (predominantly illustration and photography) employed to advance views based on the superiority of certain races and social classes. This problematic work is most closely associated with various schools of “physical” (rather than cultural) anthropology in France (Paul Broca, Alphonse Bertillon), England (Francis Galton), Germany (Ernst Haeckel, Leo Frobenius), Switzerland (Rudolf Martin), and Austria (Rudolf Pöch), to name just a few of the exponents (Evans, 2010 ; Harper, 1998 ; Morris-Reich, 2013 ). Connections between visual work, colonial aspirations, and state propaganda (particularly during times of war—see Evans, 2010 ) added to concerns regarding the compromising potential of visual materials. Some obvious examples include Leni Riefenstahl’s films in 1930s Germany, and the “Empire Marketing Board” films funded by the British government between 1926 and 1934 , where the producer, John Grierson, put his “Technic [sic] of the Propaganda film” to the creative task of marketing the produce of the British Empire (see Elliot 1931 , pp. 742–744).

Alongside associations with propagandist, racist, and other forms of discriminatory practice, visual media also came to be identified with populist forms of art and entertainment, as well as with less authoritative and intellectual sources of media production, such as tourism and journalism (Grimshaw & Ravetz, 2005 , p. 5). These were all fields with which nascent, professionalizing disciplines wanted no connection. Additionally, within anthropology at least, it has been argued that the preoccupations of mid-20th-century scholarship—with culture as an abstraction in the United States, and with social structure in Britain—had little need for visual tools and methods, as these concerns were much better suited to the analytical form of writing (Banks, 2001 ; Morphy & Banks, 1997 , p. 9). Meanwhile, in sociology, an emphasis by scholars on the statistical analysis of social patterns may account for the dearth of visual research in that field between 1920 and 1960 (Harper, 1988 , p. 58). All of this may serve to account for the 20th-century predominance of writing as a sober, trustworthy, and appropriate form of discourse in which to investigate and describe the world.

This does not mean, however, that visual documentation and the gathering of visual evidence were absent from research practices during this period. What follows is a brief and chronological account of some significant research projects that included visual materials as central to their research aims, beginning with photography in the late 19th and early 20th century .

Photography was integral to a number of early anthropological fieldwork projects, including Alfred Court Haddon’s expeditions to the Torres Strait Islands ( 1888–1899 ), Ryuzo Torii in China, Korea, and Taiwan ( 1895–1911 ), the Hamburg Ethnographic Museum’s South-Seas expedition to the “German” Pacific in 1908–1910 , and Bronislaw Malinowski’s fieldwork in Melanesia ( 1914–1918 ). While moving film was captured during this period, it was not until the 1920s and the work of U.S. documentary pioneer Robert Flaherty and his Russian contemporary Dziga Vertov that “documentary” films began to exploit narrative and descriptive capabilities of the medium that would be inspirational to later visual anthropologists, including French anthropologist and filmmaker Jean Rouch from the 1950s onward (Rouch, 2003 ). Rouch, in turn, developed a method he described as “ cinéma-vérité ” in homage to the “ kino-pravda ” movement of Vertov and others in Russia. His approach would become a key inspiration for later visual anthropologists, in particular because of its reflexive and participatory ethos (MacDougall, 1998 ).

A quick survey of other definitive visual research must suffice to complete this history. Among these must be included the 1930s work of Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, who used photography to a then-unprecedented extent in their studies of culture and social organization in Bali (for a discussion on their films of this era, see Henley, 2013 ). In the 1942 work Balinese Character Bateson and Mead ( 1942 , p. xii) described their project in this way:

we were separately engaged in efforts to translate aspects of culture never successfully recorded by the scientist, although often caught by the artist . . . [our work] attempted to communicate all those intangible aspects of culture which had been vaguely referred to as its ethos. . . . By the use of photographs, the wholeness of each piece of behavior can be preserved.

From the mid- 20th century onward, John Collier’s work ( 1957 , 1967 ) was influential in establishing photo-elicitation as a research practice, while American writer Lorraine Hansberry’s photographic study of U.S. southern civil rights issues in The Movement ( 1964 ) and Bruce Davidson’s 1971 study of black “ghetto” life (Bailey & McAtee, 2003 ; Harper, 1998 ) offered examples of how photography could be used as a research tool in sociology. Paolo Freire, the Brazilian educationalist and sociologist who pioneered “dialogic pedagogy” (Freire, 1970 ), was also foundational in his use of photography in a 1973 project designed to investigate the lived experience of Peruvian slum dwellers. Freire asked his subjects to document their lives in photographs rather than in words, a project that has also been influential in the development of “participatory visual methods.”

It would be impossible to conclude a historical overview of the area without reflecting on the “crisis of representation” (Marcus & Fischer, 1986 , pp. 9–12) that engulfed anthropological discourse in the 1970s as it dealt with disciplinary fragmentation, and with accusations of being a discipline of “merely Western significance” and “colonialist” in nature (Asad, 1973 ; Winthrop, 1991 ). These concerns, allied to broader introspection as a result of participation in the Vietnam war, the publication of Bronislaw Malinowski’s diary revealing a dubious regard for his subjects, and the disclosure of clandestine use of social scientists in Latin America and Southeast Asia, precipitated a “crisis of confidence and loss of innocence” for anthropology (Ruby, 1980 , p. 154). This had significant implications for visual research, as it did for the social sciences as a whole. As Jay Ruby ( 1980 ) notes, it was no longer possible for researchers to be “shamans of objectivity” and it has since become widely appreciated that “all serious filmmakers and anthropologists have ethical, aesthetic, and scientific obligations to be reflexive and self-critical about their work” (p. 154).

In response to these challenges researchers began to develop new and increasingly reciprocal relations with their subjects, and to be more reflective about structural power dynamics, authorial positions, and “looking relations” with subjects, often leading to more shared and collaborative forms of authorship (Gaines, 1986 ; Ginsburg, 1994 , 1995 ; Michaels, 1986 ). All of these challenges would also greatly accelerate the future application of visual research practices, leading to what scholars have described as a “pictorial” (Mitchell, 1994 ) or “visual turn” in cultural research (Jay, 2002 ; Pauwels, 2000 ). In what follows, we will advance a position that this emphasis on the visual also encouraged the consideration of sensory, affective, and embodied dimensions to scholarship (Pink, 2009 , 2012 , para. 7; Rose, 2014 , p. 30).

Beyond Textual Approaches to Knowledge

Visual materials, as discussed in the section, “ A History of Visual Research Methodologies ,” have been a component of qualitative and quantitative research methods for a long time. The legitimacy and efficacy of these practices as methodological tools, however, have been an ongoing source of contention. Indeed, for most of the 20th century —if they were employed at all—visual materials and research practices were primarily understood to function as adjuncts to conceptual and text-based knowledge, useful as sources of data, or as “an audiovisual teaching aid,” as Jay Ruby ( 2000 , p. 3) put it. Skepticism of their value, and ridiculing of the idea that visual methods “might become . . . [more] than mere tools in fieldwork” have continued until recently (Wolcott, 1999 , p. 216, emphasis in original). It has become more common, however, for scholars in the social sciences, education, media studies, and creative arts to acknowledge the value of nontextual and nonverbal ways of knowing, mediating, and communicating experience. These methods can bring us into contact with the world in novel and enlightening ways, with images deployed “not merely [as] appendages to the research but rather [as] inseparable components to learning about our social worlds” (Stanczak, 2011 , para. 6).

Visual anthropologists Anna Grimshaw and Amanda Ravetz ( 2005 , pp. 5–6) make a case that the “dominance of linguistic, semiotic and textual models of interpretation” that characterized 20th-century academic practice has recently begun to erode in the face of a “more phenomenologically inflected” and “sensuous scholarship.” Indeed, the uptake of visual methods is wrapped up in a broader sensory and embodied turn in the humanities (Pink, 2012 , para. 7; Rose, 2014 , p. 30), in which the interconnectedness of the senses and the emotive, tacit, corporeal, and ineffable dimensions of knowing are deemed increasingly valid and worthy of investigation.

A problem remains, however, namely that many of these domains of human experience exist “beyond discursive reach” (Grimshaw & Ravetz, 2005 , p. 6), and attempts to investigate them through nonlinguistic means have sometimes been problematic within a “logocentric” university context (Ruby, 1996 , p. 1351). This has been particularly true of creative arts research, where “personally situated, interdisciplinary and diverse and emergent approaches” (Barrett & Bolt, 2010 , p. 2), including research presented in nontextual forms, have been challenged as (in)valid generators of knowledge.

What follows in this article is not intended as a survey of all the nontextual forms of research enquiry and dissemination that exist across performance, the creative arts, education, the humanities and social sciences in the early 21st century . Instead, we wish to concentrate on visual and “screen-based” research (we use this term in order to encompass the wide range of formats and contexts in which visual screen media can be found), in which the medium of research delivery and dissemination is itself screen-based, and in which the world is explored “through the grain” of the visual medium (MacDougall, 1998 , p. 76). For this reason, we will include three case studies of screen-based research from scholar-screen producers, including Véréna Paravel, Lucien Castaing-Taylor, Rithy Panh, and Margaret Loescher. In each case the researchers describe learning about the world and discovering the essence of their specific knowledge quest through the distinctly material, sensory, and social processes of screen production. Their image-making processes were not so much “an aesthetic or scientific performance” as that they formed the very “arena of inquiry” (MacDougall, 1998 , p. 136), an idea that Lucien Castaing-Taylor ( 1996 ) put in a series of rhetorical questions more than two decades ago: “What if film not only constitutes discourse about the world but also (re)presents experience of it? What if film does not say but show ? What if a film does not just describe but depict ? What, then, if it offers not only ‘thin descriptions’ but also ‘thick depictions’?” (p. 86, emphasis in original).

In making an argument for these screen-based research projects as methodologically powerful ways of accessing previously latent understandings, and hence new knowledge, we do not wish to encourage binary oppositions between written and non-written forms of research, or between the increasingly redundant scholarly division between “theory” and “practice.” Rather, we prefer to draw attention to “all the possible variations in the way [these components] can be combined” (Mercer et al., 2012 , p. 11). This is because, in the first instance, many visual research strategies are employed to support what are ultimately text-based qualitative methods and publications (Rose, 2014 ; Stanczak, 2011 ); and in the second instance, because text-based publications can also facilitate sensory and embodied scholarly practices. Laura U. Marks’s work ( 2002 ) on “haptic criticism,” for example, proposes that writing can offer mimetic, tactile, and experiential accounts of the world that are not so much interested in arriving at clear interpretations of events as brushing up closely to experience and “[forming] multiple points of contact [with it]” (p. vx). This suggests that particular routes to knowledge do not so much rely on a choice of medium as on a particular approach to knowing and mediating. With this important qualification, we will now describe what we see as some fundamental aspects of screen-based visual research. We will illustrate these with reference to the three case studies mentioned in the Introduction to this article.

Some Characteristics of Visual “Knowing” and Screen-Based Research

Multisensory knowledge.

The multisensory nature of vision—and an appreciation of the senses as fundamental to how we understand the world and interpret and represent the worlds of others—has become increasingly significant to scholarship in the humanities and social sciences (Pink, 2009 , p. 7). This understanding has led to calls for further scholarly attention to the multisensory body as a research tool (Howes, 2003 , p. 27).

Vivian Sobchack ( 1992 ), in her work on the phenomenology of vision and the spectatorship of screen works, makes the point that “the senses . . . cooperate as a unified system of access. The lived-body does not have senses. It is, rather, sensible. . . . My entire bodily existence is implicated in my vision” (pp. 77–78). It is a point that has been numerously made since Maurice Merleau-Ponty ( 1962 ) described the body as a “synergic system” of interconnected faculties (as cited in Ingold, 2000 , p. 268) where the body works as an integrated “perceptive field” (MacDougall, 1998 , p. 50). Appreciating the interconnectivity of the senses in this way leads to an understanding of the ways in which audiovisual media offer a multisensory (rather than bi-sensory) encounter with the lives and worlds of other beings (Pink, 2012 , paras. 2–5).

As we explore in more depth later, many discussions of the interconnected functioning of the senses are additionally concerned with the way that the act of looking also facilitates a form of touching , a kind of contact with the world that involves (following Merleau-Ponty) mimesis: that is, a “resonance of bodies” that emerges through an imitation of the “postural schema” of other entities (MacDougall, 1998 , p. 53). By enabling mimetic and multisensory encounters, visual media can teach us about the world in distinctly experiential ways that are replete with affective, emotive, and ambiguous dimensions (Rutherford, 2006 , p. 136).

Véréna Paravel and Lucien Castaing-Taylor’s feature-length film, Leviathan , provides a strong example of how a technically “bi-sensory” medium can convey a multisensory understanding of places, people, and processes.

Case Study : Leviathan

Carrying us from night to day, and back into night aboard a fishing trawler, Leviathan consists of a series of long takes, a roaring soundscape, and virtually no human speech. Michael Ungar’s suggestion that the film creates an audiovisual rendition of the experience of being aboard the ship (2017, p. 15) feels apt: we begin the film disoriented, clanking about in the dark, unsure of where we are, or of what we are seeing.

This state of disorientation prompts us to sensorily ascertain the parameters of our environment: its textures, forms, weight, smells, and temperatures. Visual ethnographer Sarah Pink’s argument that we use vision to make multisensory evaluations of materials (such as evaluating whether an object is hot to the touch, heavy to lift, etc.) rings true here: we use the aural and visual materials available to us to develop a multisensory understanding of an unfamiliar environment. Sound, condensation on camera lenses, and flashes of recognizable forms in the maelstrom create sensations of extreme wetness, of hard wind, and hard work. When the camera is pushed underwater, we meet the sharp edges of danger: shards of broken coral flash menacing and close, and we feel the force of water rushing past the ship’s keel. Rather than telling us about this world, the film subjects us to its sensory physicality, giving us an embodied and affective sense of its stakes, and of the elements within it.

Disorientation and ambiguity are key attributes of this work and are intentionally contrary to disciplinary norms that Castaing-Taylor has described as “the discursive and its desire for transparency” (in MacDonald, 2013 , p. 295). Paravel and Castaing-Taylor ( 2013 ) have stated that their “purpose was to give people a very potent aesthetic experience, to give them a glimpse into a reality that they haven’t had first-hand – a protracted, painful, difficult, visceral, profound embodied experience. . . . Our desire was simply to give an experience of an experience . . .” (as cited in Pavsek, 2015 , p. 6).

For those who argue that Leviathan makes a contribution to scholarly knowledge, as we do, its value exists in what each of us extract from this “experience.” Anna Grimshaw ( 2011 ), for example, has argued that it opens “a space between the experiential and propositional, between the perceptual and conceptual” (pp. 257–258), which it does through a disavowal of conventional codes of semiotic screen-based meaning, such as forms of direct address to the audience (voice-over, text, interview), or indirect address through on-screen characters. We are asked to construct meaning through our own sensory experience of the film rather than through a “semiotic coding and decoding” that co-director Paravel believes, “cuts off viewers from the pro-filmic world in the very act of seeming to provide them with authoritative knowledge about it” (as cited in interview with Alvarez, 2012 , para. 13).

Empathetic, Mimetic, and Embodied Knowledge

The notion that looking becomes a sort of touching (mentioned in the sub-section “ Multisensory Knowledge ”) is significantly based on the idea of kinesthetic empathy: the idea that when we look at movement, we are able to mimic that movement in our own bodies and establish a kind of physical contact with it. Knowledge of the world thus emerges from what Anna Gibbs ( 2010 ) calls a “ borrowing of form that might be productively thought of as communication” (p. 193, emphasis added), or even what Sarah Pink ( 2009 ) has called “(audio)visual sensory apprenticeship” (para. 1). This idea is significant because it points to another way in which screen-based research might communicate with audiences.

A central feature of kinesthetic empathy is what neuroscientists Vittorio Gallese and Michele Guerra call “embodied simulation.” This revolves around the activity of mirror neurons in the brain. When a person watches other humans (or animals, or entities) do things—like eat an apple or jump up and down—their mirror neurons fire in exactly the way that they would if they were doing that thing themselves, producing a physiological, empathetic response (Gallese & Guerra, 2012 , p. 184). As Karen Nakamura ( 2013 ) notes, theories of kinesthetic empathy dovetail with theories of synesthesia (or, the ways sensory information can flow across, or trigger, multiple sensory channels at once) (p. 135), further bolstering our understanding of the human body as a “unified system of access” to the world (Sobchack, 1992 , p. 77).

The concept of kinesthetic empathy also has a strong basis in philosophical thought. Philosopher David Abram ( 1996 ), for example, invokes the work of Merleau-Ponty to imagine an epistemology that does not so much aim to achieve a “mastering” overview of the world, as to participate with it. This means entering into a physical “conversation” with things, working with them and mimicking them, such that we “enter into a sympathetic relation with [the world]” and achieve an “attunement or synchronization between [our] own rhythms and the rhythms of the things themselves” (p. 54). In such an epistemology, the sensible is not comprehended by us, but rather “animate[s]” us, and “thinks itself within [us]” (p. 55). Anne Rutherford ( 2003 ), in a similar spirit, describes the effect of mimesis as “a kind of contact—a mode of sensory, tactile perception that . . . closes the gap between the spectator and image” (p. 127). Looking thus provides, through a process of empathy and attunement, a shared sense of physical locomotion as a way of getting closer to the experiences of other entities.

It is important, however, to note the ethical complexities that surround the notion of “empathy”—achieved either through mimetic processes, or any other method. As feminist scholar Sandra Bartky argued in her book, Sympathy and Solidarity ( 2002 ), our capacity to gain access to the experiences (and particularly the suffering) of others will always remains limited. And if, by putting ourselves in the shoes of others, we partially overwrite their experience with our own, then perhaps empathy is not always appropriate, or sufficiently respectful of others’ difference. Such concerns must continue to be explored in accounts of the communicative capacities of audiovisual media.

By accepting this qualification, the significant idea here is that moving with or like the world teaches us about it in an intimate, embodied way, and has the capacity to bring forth both new and remembered knowledge. This might happen through the physical retracing of particular movement pathways in the body and in place (Pink & Leder-Mackley, 2014 , p. 147), through re-enacting or performing historical events (Dening, 1996 ; McCalman & Pickering, 2010 ; Pink & Leder-Mackley, 2014 ) and, as we have described earlier in this section, through the kinesthetic, empathetic, mimetic act of looking.

The potential of movement to bring about new and remembered knowledge is foundational to the visual and re-enactment methods employed in the making of Rithy Panh’s S-21: The Khmer Rouge Death Machine ( 2003 —henceforth S-21 ), as well as to its knowledge claims.

Case Study : S-21

S-21 reunites perpetrators and victims of state-sanctioned torture at the titular “S-21” prison during the repressive rule of the Khmer Rouge between 1975 and 1979 . Panh has explained that the visual methods he used for the film were founded on a belief in the powerful ways that multisensory environments, actions and gestures, and (audio)visual materials could function as “footholds” in the process of knowing and remembering (Oppenheimer, 2012 , p. 244). In the film, the former guards of the Khmer Rouge–run S-21 prison are faced with the enormous challenge of recalling, describing, and reflecting on their crimes. The following account by Panh shows how central the revisiting of sensory states, locations, and actions was to accessing repressed, traumatic, and often ineffable memories:

I met Paul, who does the re-enactment in the film, in his native village. And I understood that this man wanted very much to explain what he had done at S21. But he couldn’t get round to explaining it properly, all his phrases were cut off. So at a certain moment I brought him a map of the camp. And so he said, “oh yes, I was a guard in this part of the building.” So then he was able to explain, but in doing that he made the gestures that you see in the film, which completed the phrases he couldn’t discuss. And it’s then that I discovered that there was another memory, which is the bodily memory. . . . Sometimes the violence is so strong that words don’t suffice to describe it. . . . So it was then that I said to the guard “you can use gestures, you can speak, explain it in any way you wish.” And then that I had the idea [sic] of taking the guard back to S21, which is now a museum of the genocide, and because the guard said that he worked at night there, I took him there at night. I asked at the museum how the building was lit at night—it was lit only by neon—so I cut all the other lighting and just put the neon up there. I sought to create an atmosphere, which recalled the situation, which the guard was actually working in. Sometimes at night they had the radio on with revolutionary songs so that’s why the radio came into it, with the revolutionary songs. . . . I made him listen to the songs. . . . It’s like giving somebody a foothold to get up a mountain. He needs to have these grips . . . in order to achieve what he’s setting out to do, which is to describe his own testimony. (Oppenheimer, 2012 , p. 244)

In addition to recording the film at the location where the atrocities occurred, re-creating sensory and physical environments, and inviting his participants to re-enact what they did as a means to remembering it, Panh also used elicitation devices such as the sprawling archive of photographs, logbooks, and other documents that remained from the prison as props to facilitate remembering (Oppenheimer, 2012 , p. 245). Sensory encounters with these artifacts supported participants in the process of testifying. In the film, we see these processes at work. We see the former prison guards enter the former cells, yell at, handcuff, physically assault, and escort imaginary (and/or remembered) prisoners; we see them leaf through and recite from the logbooks and other archival materials provided by the filmmakers. Doing these tasks helps the guards to start talking about the unspeakable things they participated in many years ago, reflecting Gillian Rose’s observation ( 2014 ) that visual methods allow participants and researchers access to not only aspects of experience that are multisensory, but also to affective or feelingful experiences that are ineffable (p. 28), or difficult to talk about.

Panh’s belief in the power of mimicry to produce empathy and understanding meant that he refused to enter the prison cells with the guards when they were re-enacting their routines. The prisoners had (historically) been chained to the floor, lying down in rows like sardines—and so to walk into the room, Panh, said, would have been akin to stepping on them, throwing into question his moral position as a filmmaker. As Panh put it: “it was instinctive to stop, to hold the camera at the door, not to follow in. Otherwise we’d be walking over the prisoners, if you like. And would knock over into the side of the guards. . . . If I had done, ‘who would I be?’” (Oppenheimer, 2012 , p. 245).

It was a space in which Panh did not belong, either historically or in the process of re-enactment. He literally had no place there, and in the dynamic of re-enactment—which is an environment of mimicry and empathy where affects and emotions might spill from body to body through shared physical movement (Gibbs, 2010 )—his presence would confuse and disturb. His presence would also demand that he be a social “actor,” in which case Panh’s question, “who would I be?” describes a powerful (and impossible) ethical rhetoric. Such dilemmas get to the heart of the methods used in S-21 to access and represent the events of the past in mimetic, embodied, and affective ways.

Screen-Based Research Is Informed by Material Contexts and Is Process-Driven

In much early- 21st-century visual and creative practice research, it is accepted that research outcomes follow from the material contexts and processes of production. This is to say that “thinking” and “making” require material tools, and interactions between these materials and the subjects of research are part of a dynamic that influences both the research processes and outcomes of the work (as argued by Paul Carter in Material Thinking [ 2004 ]). This is also to appreciate that research materials (for example, a camera, a screen) can serve as both the means of investigation, and the means of research dissemination, and that these have their own capacities and limitations.

As just one example, the camera’s ability to objectify others, and the capacity for the embodied presence of researchers and their instruments to shape events and distort “pro-filmic” reality, has been amply noted (Bruzzi, 2000 ; Gaines, 1986 ; MacDougall, 1998 ; Mulvey, 1975 ; Rouch, 2003 ). The critical concept here is that the space between subject and camera/operator is an inherently “intersubjective” and dynamic one. The act of recording and rendering a subject—the particular way in which a place is materialized on screen for example—is in itself a description of the circumstances and decision-making processes embedded (and embodied) within the moment of capture. Sarah Pink ( 2007 ), for example, suggests that the places she films consist of multiple interweaving trajectories, including the trajectory of the camera. In her definition of place (which draws on definitions put forward by Tim Ingold and Doreen Massey), places are not fixed, but reconstituted moment by moment, depending on these variously moving entities and trajectories.

Trinh T. Minh-ha also describes the image capturing process in distinctly relational terms, calling it “an intrinsic activity of image-making and of relation-forming.” She writes that “the subject who films is always caught in the process of relating—or of making and re-presenting—and is not to be found outside that process” (Lippit & Minh-ha, 2012 , para. 15–19). Jean Rouch would agree that the camera instigates many of the movements and responses it captures. For him, the “fundamental problem in social science,” namely that “you distort the answer simply by asking a question” (Georgakas, Gupta, Janda, & Rouch, 1978 , p. 22), must be embraced and openly examined in the screen works one makes.

One outcome of this reflexive awareness is a growing tendency to prioritize participatory and participant-led modes of screen research—methods where subjects have agency to negotiate, and even direct the ways they are represented (Ruby, 1996 , p. 1350). In such approaches, the screen researcher is required to share the filmmaking process with the subjects of the research, and to operate with a “willingness to be decentred in acts of translation” (Clifford, 2000 , p. 56).

Such practices not only help to redress the historical power imbalances implicit in visual and social research, they can also provide a unique form of knowledge in that they record, and give material form to, the negotiation of knowledge and representation between researcher and subject. As Rose ( 2014 ) points out, “taking a photo always entails some sort of negotiated relationship between the person making the image and those being pictured” (p. 29), and the resulting image can, if the researcher allows for it, bear the very imprint of that negotiation. The traces of negotiations surrounding representation, power, and knowledge embedded in participatory visual media may offer us unique routes to thinking about these issues.

All of the case studies invoked in this article were profoundly informed by material and relational processes of production (see Oppenheimer, 2012 , p. 243, and MacInnis, 2013 , p. 60), and the following case study offers an insight into how the materials employed within the research project were part of a negotiated and process-driven method of research.

Case Studies: Cameras at the Addy

Margaret Loescher’s visual ethnography project at “the Addy,” an adventure playground in Hulme, northern England, provides a good example of a collaborative ethnography, in which the subjects have been allowed forms of agency in which to represent themselves. The project explored the ways children navigate and make use of urban spaces, and resulted in the production of a photo essay, a documentary film, and reflective writing.

When Loescher ( 2003 ) set out to film her six- to eight-year-old subjects at play in “the Addy” in an observational style, she noticed that they would—against her intentions—constantly perform to her camera, drawing on pop culture references and in fact using the camera as a “doorway into the world of ‘pop’ culture” (p. 79). After a period of inner resistance to this, she gave the children disposable cameras to represent their own lives and play. Upon looking at the composition of the photographs the children took, she learned that when they were performing to the camera, they were not trying to be someone “other” than their authentic selves, and that these performances were in fact ways of self-identifying in a contemporary, media-saturated cultural landscape, and of “forging relationships with their urban [play] environment” (p. 80).

In addition to the children’s unexpected response to her camera, Loescher’s choice to give them disposable cameras to record their own lives was driven by a discomfort with her own relative power to represent the subjects of her research, particularly given the substantial differences in age and class that she noted between them (p. 77). She reflects that giving the children disposable cameras did something to shift the power balance. Armed with cameras of their own, “[the children] are learning about [the camera] as much as it is learning about them.” This “disarms the camera as a force of categorization and potential oppression and pulls it into the children’s world. It becomes another thing which signifies them as social agents, like the television, the mobile telephones, the football ground and the pop-star poster [that feature] in the photographs taken by the children” (p. 84).

Loescher’s work also foregrounds the sometimes uneasy negotiation of knowledge and representation between researcher and subject, and provides an example of how this might occur “through the very grain of the filmmaking” (MacDougall, 1998 , p. 76). At the beginning of her screen work she includes a recording of her initial interaction with one of her subjects, six-year-old Ainsley. She recalls that this meeting had “an air of uncertainty and mistrust” about it. “I am wondering what this boy is ‘about’. I want to know him and he wants to know me; but I am unsure on what basis we will be ‘knowing’ each other” (Loescher, 2003 , p. 77). A negotiation of the terms on which subject and researcher would “know” each other was then undertaken with and through the camera, and included in public documentation of the research.

Loescher’s work provides a particularly vivid example of a process-driven methodology that is strongly influenced by the interpersonal and material process of recording still and moving images with her subjects. Cameras at the Addy reflects the ways that visual methods are both informed by, and constructive of, relational (and social, and therefore ethical) encounters. Knowledge emerges from these encounters, and resides in them as they unfold.

Event-Based Knowledge

Visual research methods, and screen-based research in particular, can constitute forms of knowing through events rather than through concepts. Addressing observational approaches to documentary and ethnographic filmmaking in particular, MacDougall ( 1998 ) writes:

By focusing on discrete events rather than abstract concepts . . . and by seeking to render faithfully the natural sounds, structure, and duration of events, filmmakers have hoped to provide the viewer with sufficient evidence to judge the film's larger analysis. . . . [These films] are essentially revelatory rather than illustrative, for they explore substance before theory. (p. 126)

MacDougall is here describing the ways in which screen media forms can capture and represent the inherent ambiguity of events and entities and resist clear-cut conclusions about them. MacDougall ( 2006 ) writes that “what we show in images . . . is a different knowledge, stubborn and opaque, but with a capacity for the finest detail. . . . This puts (film) at odds with most academic writing, which, despite its caution and qualifications, is a discourse that advances always toward conclusions” (p. 6).

While images may promise insight and overview (rendering their subjects legible and subject to interpretation), they may equally come with minimal guidelines for how they should be read, and may even resist interpretation—as Laura U. Marks ( 2002 ) has argued in her work on the “haptic” for example. This approach to rendering experience is evident in visual research works like Leviathan . It has been argued that this “different knowledge,” which is inherently subjective and events-based, also signals “a significant epistemological, philosophical, and aesthetic shift . . . founded in a new approach to the world that respect[s] its materiality, its continuity, and fundamental ambiguity” (Grimshaw, 2011 , p. 255). It should be noted that the quality of being ambiguous—or “downright mysterious” as Catherine Russell’s ( 2005 ) critique of Leviathan describes it (p. 28)—is not universally appreciated. Some critics see in this work a conscious “disavowal” of meaning-making, and are concerned about the ethical implication of viewers left to make “sense of that world on their own terms” (Pavsek, 2015 , pp. 8–9). What is certain is that a scholarship that foregrounds “revelation,” and embodied, affective, and sensory experience over discourses of explanation and illustration is unconventional and challenging to traditional scholarship.

Leviathan presents events in a way that some have argued is “analogous to the experience of the filmmaker at the ethnographic site” with a seeming absence of contextualizing that might “clarify or conceptualize that experience” (Ungar, 2017 , p. 14). The lack of obvious discursive strategies, and the “openness” (Russell, 2015 , p. 28) of the authorial and narrative structure leads commentators such as Allan MacInnis to reflect that the film does not seem to have the same “polemical intent” as other films dealing with the suffering of animals in the meat industry. Rather, he feels that the film presents animal death and suffering with a “mixture of brutality and beauty,” which “opens [his] thoughts” (MacInnis, 2013 , pp. 58–59), delaying moral judgement and emphasizing the complexity of its subject(s).

Indeed, in Leviathan , blood flies as marine animals are hacked unceremoniously to pieces, but the film does not seem to incriminate fishermen, or even make clear-cut judgements about fishing as an industry. This could be because the film’s composition frustrates attempts to extract messages or social/political meanings from it (Thain, 2015 , p. 44). This is not only due to the absence of spoken or written guidelines for interpretation (for, as Russell [ 2015 [ notes, “visual and audio material can also be textual” [p. 32]), but also due to the ways the moving images and sounds are assembled to create a landscape of “productive disorientation[s]” (Thain, 2015 , p. 42). As viewers, we may be so consumed with the process of keeping ourselves afloat in the film’s immersive flood of sensory information, that the additional work of judging what we are sensing becomes a lesser priority. Or perhaps it is that the extended, intimate moments we have with the fishermen themselves “amplify” (Rutherford, 2006 , p. 153) our sense of both their unknowability (or opacity), and their humanity.

In fact, the same might be said of the approach to filming the former Khmer Rouge guards in S-21 . In both films, the choice to express (or preserve) the temporal dimension of specific concrete events (a fishing trawler at sea, re-enacted historical scenes) may allow subjects to transform under our sustained gaze. A significant knowledge-based implication of this strategy may be that this kind of scholarship “opens up” contemplative spaces regarding the subjects and “pro-filmic” world being represented to us, rather than configuring a form of knowledge that advances quickly “towards conclusions” (MacDougall, 2006 , p. 6).

Future Developments, Remaining Questions

The final section of this article will make some brief propositions regarding future directions and remaining questions in the area of visual and screen-based research methods.

It seems to us that the ubiquity of screen-based knowledge delivery (despite the continuing dominance of textual discourse in the early 21st century ), together with a growing confidence in the unique knowledge-creation capacities of visual screen-based media methods, as discussed in this article, will facilitate greater instances of audiovisual, nontextual knowledge production. Some of the forms this knowledge production will take are bound to challenge conventional ideas of what constitutes “scholarly knowledge.”

It may be that the knowledge contribution of research incorporating re-enacted, embodied, sensory, affective, and experiential concerns will be sufficiently discrete from existing research categories that new ones are demanded, such as Brad Haseman’s case for “performative” research methods (2006, p. 98), that would stand alongside quantitative and qualitative methodologies. Haseman defines “performative” research outputs as those that embody or enact the questions and concerns they are “about.” These do not need to be delivered in traditional textual form. Yet, much of this “knowledge” may just as easily fall into existing categories of discursive practice—for there is no reason that audiovisual texts be any less “discursive” (putting aside the specific merits and demerits of forms of “discourse”) than written ones.

Much of the research discussed here, and the various “turns” of cultural and scholarly attention, point to a growing diversification of research methods. To take just one example only briefly discussed: the methods that might follow from the concept of knowing as something that emerges in a context-specific process of making (Smith & Dean, 2009 ). In relation to this idea, Tim Ingold ( 2011 ) suggests that in a world consisting of materials on the move —where things do not so much have properties as that they have histories (p. 30)—we can imagine that there will be new epistemological challenges to the things we know, and to our methods for coming to know them.

This article has highlighted research that invites ambiguity, heterogeneity, and uncertainty (Barrett & Bolt, 2010 ; Haseman, 2006 ; Nelson, 2013 ), and debates will certainly continue about the scholarly potential of this kind of research. Ross Gibson ( 2010 ), for example, has noted that responding to experimental and experiential research that often seeks to reveal “tacit” understandings (see Polanyi, 1966 for a description of “tacit knowledge”) of the kind that we have described, requires an “acknowledgement” (a shift in knowledge) that necessitates new critical and analytical strategies of comprehension. We must enable ourselves, he writes, to be “immersed and extracted, involved yet also critically distanced” (Gibson, 2010 , p. 10). In other words, Gibson informs us, the consumption of this research requires both discipline and reflection, and sometimes contradictory processes of intuitive, affective, sober, embodied, and analytical comprehension. The challenge, both for researchers and for those seeking to gain access to the knowledge communicated in these forms of research, is to “entwine the insider’s embodied know-how with the outsider’s analytical precepts” (Gibson, 2010 , p. 11). Paul Carter ( 2010 ), writing in response to claims of a lack of “rigor” in research he describes as “aleatory,” wonders if it is not, on the contrary, “a sign of its sophistication” that this work remains “constitutionally open” in comparison to scientific approaches that “identif[y] power with abstraction and the dematerialisation of thought from the matrix of its production” (p. 16).

As ever, much revolves around questions of support for such practices in a university context (Barrett & Bolt, 2010 ; Carter, 2010 ; Haseman, 2006 ; Nelson, 2013 ; Van Loon, 2014 ), and the ways in which academic cultures, institutions, and governments respond to the challenges of shifting epistemologies and methodologies that seek to investigate the world.

Finally, persistent questions about the ethics and politics of using images will continue to be important as image-making technologies and global political and media landscapes continue to evolve. The ethical dimensions of representation, and of what we do with visual technologies, must always remain integral to the contemplation and revision of visual and screen-based research methods.

Further Reading

• Banks, M. (2001). Visual methods in social research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Barrett, E. , & Bolt, B. (Eds.). (2010). Practice as research: Approaches to creative arts Enquiry . London, U.K.: I. B. Tauris.
• Carter, P. (2004). Material thinking: The theory and practice of creative research . Carlton, Australia: Melbourne University Publishing.
• Grimshaw, A. , & Ravetz, A. (Eds.). (2005). Visualizing anthropology . Bristol, U.K.: Intellect Books.
• Howes, D. (2003). Sensual relations: Engaging the senses in culture and social theory . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
• Ingold, T. (2011). Being alive: Essays on movement, knowledge and description . Abingdon, U.K.: Routledge.
• MacDougall, D. (2006). The corporeal image: Film, ethnography and the senses . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Margolis, E. , & Pauwels, L. (Eds.). (2011). The SAGE handbook of visual research methods . London, U.K.: SAGE.
• Marks, L. U. (2002). Touch: Sensuous theory and multisensory media . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
• Morphy, H. , & Banks, M. (Eds.). (1997). Rethinking visual anthropology . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
• Nelson, R. (2013). Practice as research in the arts: Principles, protocols, pedagogies, resistances . New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Oliver, J. (Ed.). (2018). Associations: Creative practice and research . Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press.
• Pink, S. (2009). Doing sensory ethnography , London, U.K.: SAGE.
• Prosser, J. (Ed.). (1998). Image based research: A sourcebook for qualitative researchers . London, U.K.: Falmer Press.
• Ruby, J. (2000). Picturing culture: An exploration of film and anthropology . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
• Smith, H. , & Dean, R. T. (2009). Practice-led research, research-led practice in the creative arts . Edinburgh, U.K.: Edinburgh University Press.
• Sobchack, V. (1992). The address of the eye: A phenomenology of film experience . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Abram, D. (1996). The spell of the sensuous: Perception and language in a more-than-human world . New York, NY: Vintage Books.
• Alvarez, P. (2012). Interview with Verena Paravel and J. P. Sniadecki . Visual and New Media Review, “Cultural Anthropology” website.
• Asad, T. (1973). Anthropology and the colonial encounter . London, U.K.: Ithaca Press.
• Aufderheide, P. (2008). Documentary film: A very short introduction . New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
• Bailey, J. , & McAtee, D. (2003). “Another way of telling”: The use of visual methods in research. International Employment Relations Review , 9 (1), 45–60.
• Banks, M. (2007). Visual data in qualitative research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Barnouw, E. (1993). Documentary: A history of the non-fiction film (2nd rev. ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
• Bartky, S. (2002). “Sympathy and Solidarity” and other essays . Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
• Bateson, G. , & Mead, M. (1942). Balinese character: A photographic analysis . New York: The New York Academy of Sciences.
• Bolt, B. (2010). The magic is in handling. In E. Barrett , & B. Bolt (Eds.), Practice as research: Approaches to creative arts enquiry (pp. 27–34). London, U.K.: I. B. Tauris.
• Bruzzi, S. (2000). New Documentary—A Critical Introduction (2nd ed.). London, U.K.: Routledge.
• Carter, P. (2010). Interest: The ethics of invention. In E. Barrett , & B. Bolt (Eds.), Practice as Research: Approaches to creative arts enquiry (pp. 15–26). London, U.K.: I. B. Tauris.
• Castaing-Taylor, L. (Director, Producer), & Paravel, V. (Director, Producer). (2013). Leviathan [Motion picture]. New York, NY: Cinema Guild.
• Clifford, J. (2000). An ethnographer in the field. In Coles, A. (Ed.), Site-specificity: The ethnographic turn (pp. 52–73). London, U.K.: Black Dog Press.
• Collier, J. (1957). Photography in anthropology: A report on two experiments. American Anthropologist , 59 (5), 843–859.
• Collier, J. (1967). Visual anthropology: Photography as a research method . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
• Dening, G. (1996). Performances . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
• Douglas, A. , & Gulari, M. N. (2015). Understanding experimentation as improvisation in arts research . Qualitative Research Journal , 15 (4), 392–403.
• Eliot, W. (1931). The work of the Empire Marketing Board. Journal of the Royal Society of Arts , 79 (4101), 736–748.
• Evans, A. D. (2010). Anthropology at War: World War I and the science of race in Germany . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
• Foster, S. L. (2011). Choreographing empathy: Kinesthesia in performance . New York, NY: Routledge.
• Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed . New York, NY: Herder and Herder.
• Gaines, J. (1986). White privilege and looking relations: Race and gender in feminist film theory. Cultural Critique , 4 (Fall), 59–79.
• Gaines, J. (1999). Political mimesis. In J. Gaines , & M. Renov (Eds.), Collecting visible evidence (pp. 84 – 102). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
• Gallese, V. , & Guerra, M. (2012). Embodying movies: Embodied simulation and film studies. Cinema , 3 , 183–210.
• Georgakas, D. , Gupta, U. , Janda, J. , & Rouch, J. (1978). The politics of visual anthropology: An interview with Jean Rouch. Cinéaste , 8 (4), 16–24.
• Gibbs, A. (2010). After affect: Sympathy, synchrony and mimetic communication. In M. Gregg , & G. Seigworth (Eds.), The affect theory reader (pp. 186–204). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
• Gibson, R. (2010). The known world. Text , 14 (2) (Special Issue #8), 1–11.
• Ginsburg, F. (1994). Culture/media: A (mild) polemic. Anthropology Today , 10 (2), 5–15.
• Ginsburg, F. (1995). The parallax effect: The impact of Aboriginal media on ethnographic film. Visual Anthropology Review , 11 (2), 64–76.
• Ginsburg, F. (2002). Screen memories: Signifying the traditional in indigenous media. In F. Ginsburg , L. Abu-Lughod , & B. Larkin (Eds.), Media worlds: Anthropology on new terrain (pp. 39–57). Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Grimshaw, A. (2011). The Bellwether ewe: Recent developments in ethnographic filmmaking and the aesthetics of anthropological inquiry . Cultural Anthropology , 26 (2), 247–262.
• Gubrium, A. , & Krista, H. (2013). Participatory visual and digital methods . Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.
• Hansen, M. (1999). Benjamin and cinema: Not a one-way street. Critical Inquiry , 25 , 306–343.
• Harper, D. (1988). Visual sociology: Expanding sociological vision. American Sociologist , 19 (1), 54–70.
• Harper, D. (1998). An argument for visual sociology. In J. Prosser (Ed.), Image based research: A sourcebook for qualitative researchers (pp. 24–41). London, U.K.: Falmer Press.
• Haseman, B. (2006). A manifesto for performative research. Media International Australia , 118 (1), 98–106.
• Henley, P. (2013). From documentation to representation: Recovering the films of Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson. Visual Anthropology , 26 (2), 75–108.
• Howes, D. (2003). Sensual Relations: Engaging the senses in culture and social theory . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
• Ingold, T. (2000). The perception of the environment: Essays in livelihood, dwelling and skill . London, U.K.: Routledge.
• Ingold, T. (2010). Ways of mind-walking: Reading, writing, painting . Visual Studies , 25 (1), 15–23.
• Jay, M. (2002). That visual turn: The advent of visual culture. Journal of Visual Culture , 1 (1), 87–92.
• Law, J. (2009). Seeing like a survey . Cultural Sociology , 3 (2), 239–256.
• Lippit, A. M. , & Minh-ha, T. T. (2012). When the eye frames red .
• Loescher, M. (2003). Cameras at the Addy . Journal of Media Practice , 3 (2), 75–84.
• MacDonald, S. (2013). American ethnographic film and personal documentary: The Cambridge turn . Berkeley: University of California Press.
• MacDougall, D. (1997). The visual in anthropology. In M. Banks & H. Morphy (Eds.), Rethinking visual anthropology (pp. 276 – 295). London, U.K.: Yale University.
• MacDougall, D. (1998). Transcultural cinema . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• MacInnis, A. (2013). The aesthetics of slaughter: Leviathan in context. Cineaction , 91 , 58–64.
• Marcus, G. E. , & Fischer, M. J. (1986). Anthropology as cultural critique: An experimental moment in the human sciences . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
• McCalman, I. , & Pickering, P. A. (2010). Historical reenactment: From realism to the affective turn . Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Mercer, L. , Robson, J. , & Fenton, D. (Eds.). (2012). Live research: Methods of practice-led inquiry in performance . Nerang, Australia: Ladyfinger.
• Merleau-Ponty, M. (1962). Phenomenology of perception . London, U.K.: Routledge.
• Michaels, E. , & Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies (1986). The Aboriginal invention of television in Central Australia, 1982-1986 . Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.
• Miles, A. (2015, November). About 7am . Paper presented at the Dialogues and Atmospheres Symposium, RMIT and Macquarie University, Melbourne, Australia.
• Minh-ha, T. T. (Director), & Bourdier, J.-P. (Co-Producer). (1982). Reassemblage: From firelight to the screen [Motion picture]. New York, NY: Women Make Movies.
• Mitchell, W. J. T. (1994). Picture theory . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
• Morris-Reich, A. (2013). Anthropology, standardization and measurement: Rudolf Martin and anthropometric photography. British Journal for the History of Science , 46 (3), 487–516.
• Mulvey, L. (1975). Visual pleasure and narrative cinema. Screen , 16 (3), 6–18.
• Murphy, S. (2012). Writing practice. In L. Mercer , J. Robson , & D. Fenton (Eds.), Live research: Methods of practice-led inquiry in performance (pp. 164–174). Nerang, Australia: Ladyfinger.
• Nakamura, K. (2013). Making sense of sensory ethnography: The sensual and the multisensory . American Anthropologist , 115 (1), 132–144.
• Nichols, B. (1991). Representing reality: Issues and concepts in documentary . Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• Nichols, B. (2010). Introduction to documentary (2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• O’Donoghue, D. (2012). Doing and disseminating visual research: Visual arts-based approaches. In E. Margolis , & L. Pauwels (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of visual research methods . London, U.K.: SAGE.
• Oppenheimer, J. (2012). Perpetrators’ testimony and the restoration of humanity: S-21 , Rithy Panh. In J. Ten Brink , & J. Oppenheimer (Eds.), Killer images: Documentary film, memory and the performance of violence (pp. 243–255). London, U.K.: Wallflower Press.
• Oppenheimer, J. (Director), & Sørensen, S. B. (Producer). (2012). The act of killing [Motion picture]. Norway, Denmark, U.K.: Det Danske Filminstitut, Dogwoof Pictures.
• Panh, R. (Director), Couteau, C. (Producer), & Hastier, D. (Producer). (2003). S-21: The Khmer Rouge death machine [Motion picture]. Cambodia, France: Institut National de l’Audiovisuel, First Run Features.
• Pauwels, L. (2000). Taking the visual turn in research and scholarly communication: key issues in developing a more visually literate (social) science . Visual Sociology , 15 (1), 7–14.
• Pavsek, C. (2015). Leviathan and the experience of sensory ethnography . Visual Anthropology Review , 31 (1), 4–11.
• Pink, S. (2007). Walking with video. Visual Studies , 22 (3), 240–252.
• Pink, S. (2009). Visualising emplacement: Visual methods for multisensory scholars . In Doing sensory ethnography . London, U.K.: SAGE.
• Pink, S. (2012). A multisensory approach to visual methods . In E. Margolis , & L. Pauwels (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of visual research methods . London, U.K.: SAGE.
• Pink, S. , & Leder-Mackley, K. (2012). Video and a sense of the invisible: Approaching domestic energy consumption through the sensory home. Sociological Research Online , 17 (1), 1–19.
• Pink, S. , & Leder-Mackley, K. (2014). Re-enactment methodologies for everyday life research: Art therapy insights for video ethnography . Visual Studies , 29 (2), 146–154.
• Polanyi, M. (1966). The tacit dimension . London, U.K.: Routledge.
• Rose, G. (2014). On the relation between “Visual Research Methods” and contemporary visual culture. Sociological Review , 62 , 24–46.
• Rouch, J. (2003). The camera and man. In S. Field (Ed.), Cine-ethnography (pp. 29–46). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
• Ruby, J. (1980). Exposing yourself: Reflexivity, anthropology, and film. Semiotica , 30 (1/2), 153–179.
• Ruby, J. (1996). Visual anthropology. In D. Levinson , & M. Ember (Eds.), Encyclopedia of cultural anthropology (Vol. 4, pp. 1345–1351). New York, NY: Henry Holt.
• Russell, C. (2015). Leviathan and the discourse of sensory ethnography: Spleen et idéal . Visual Anthropology Review , 31 (1), 27–34.
• Rutherford, A. (2003). The poetics of a potato: Documentary that gets under the skin. Metro: Media & Education Magazine , 137 (Summer 2003), 126–131.
• Rutherford, A. (2006). “What makes a film tick?”: Cinematic affect, materiality and mimetic innervation (Doctoral dissertation). University of Western Sydney.
• Stanczak, G. C. (2011). Introduction: Images, methodologies, and generating social knowledge . In Visual research methods . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Taussig, M. (1993). Mimesis and alterity: A particular history of the senses . New York, NY: Routledge.
• Thain, A. (2015). A bird’s-eye view of Leviathan . Visual Anthropology Review , 31 (1), 41–48.
• Taylor, L. (1996). Iconophobia. Transition , 69 , 64–88.
• Ungar, M. (2017). Castaing-Taylor and Paravel’s GoPro sensorium: Leviathan (2012), experimental documentary, and subjective sounds. Journal of Film and Video , 69 (3), 3–18.
• Van Loon, J. (2014). The play of research: What creative writing has to teach the academy. TEXT , 18 (1).
• Winston, B. (1988). The tradition of the victim in Griersonian documentary. In A. Rosenthal (Ed.), New challenges for documentary (pp. 269–287). Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Winston, B. (2008). Claiming the real II: Documentary: Grierson and beyond (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Winthrop, R. H. (1991). Dictionary of concepts in cultural anthropology . Westport, Ireland: Greenwood.
• Wolcott, H. F. (1999). Ethnography: A way of seeing . London, U.K.: AltaMira Press.

Printed from Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Education. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice).

date: 20 September 2024

• Cookie Policy
• Privacy Policy
• Legal Notice
• Accessibility
• [81.177.182.174]
• 81.177.182.174

Character limit 500 /500

• SUGGESTED TOPICS
• The Magazine
• Newsletters
• Managing Yourself
• Managing Teams
• Work-life Balance
• The Big Idea
• Data & Visuals
• Case Selections
• HBR Learning
• Topic Feeds
• Account Settings
• Email Preferences

Visualizations That Really Work

• Scott Berinato

Not long ago, the ability to create smart data visualizations (or dataviz) was a nice-to-have skill for design- and data-minded managers. But now it’s a must-have skill for all managers, because it’s often the only way to make sense of the work they do. Decision making increasingly relies on data, which arrives with such overwhelming velocity, and in such volume, that some level of abstraction is crucial. Thanks to the internet and a growing number of affordable tools, visualization is accessible for everyone—but that convenience can lead to charts that are merely adequate or even ineffective.

By answering just two questions, Berinato writes, you can set yourself up to succeed: Is the information conceptual or data-driven? and Am I declaring something or exploring something? He leads readers through a simple process of identifying which of the four types of visualization they might use to achieve their goals most effectively: idea illustration, idea generation, visual discovery, or everyday dataviz.

This article is adapted from the author’s just-published book, Good Charts: The HBR Guide to Making Smarter, More Persuasive Data Visualizations.

Know what message you’re trying to communicate before you get down in the weeds.

Idea in Brief

Knowledge workers need greater visual literacy than they used to, because so much data—and so many ideas—are now presented graphically. But few of us have been taught data-visualization skills.

Tools Are Fine…

Inexpensive tools allow anyone to perform simple tasks such as importing spreadsheet data into a bar chart. But that means it’s easy to create terrible charts. Visualization can be so much more: It’s an agile, powerful way to explore ideas and communicate information.

…But Strategy Is Key

Don’t jump straight to execution. Instead, first think about what you’re representing—ideas or data? Then consider your purpose: Do you want to inform, persuade, or explore? The answers will suggest what tools and resources you need.

Not long ago, the ability to create smart data visualizations, or dataviz, was a nice-to-have skill. For the most part, it benefited design- and data-minded managers who made a deliberate decision to invest in acquiring it. That’s changed. Now visual communication is a must-have skill for all managers, because more and more often, it’s the only way to make sense of the work they do.

• Scott Berinato is a senior editor at Harvard Business Review and the author of Good Charts Workbook: Tips Tools, and Exercises for Making Better Data Visualizations and Good Charts: The HBR Guide to Making Smarter, More Persuasive Data Visualizations .

Partner Center

• UI Designers
• UX Designers
• Creative Directors
• Web Designers
• Mobile App Designers
• Visual Designers
• Product Designers
• Responsive Web Designers

All About Process: Dissecting Case Study Portfolios

A portfolio is more than a cache of images, it’s a way to demonstrate design skills and problem solving to clients. We show how to elevate portfolios by explaining the inner workings of a case study.

By Adnan Puzic

Adnan is a UI/UX expert with a bold aesthetic and a passion for designing digital products for startups and corporations.

PREVIOUSLY AT

Designers have portfolios. It’s a precondition of our profession. We all know we need one, so we get to work assembling images and writing project descriptions. Then, we put our work on the web for all to see, tiny shrines to individual talent and creativity.

It’s a familiar process, a rite of passage, but why do we need portfolios in the first place?

If we’re honest, we must admit that most of our portfolio design decisions are influenced by what other designers are doing. That’s not necessarily bad, but if we don’t understand why portfolios look the way they do, we’re merely imitating.

We may produce dazzling imagery, but we also risk a portfolio experience that’s like strolling through an art gallery. “Look at the pretty pictures…”

The number one audience that design portfolios must please? Non-designers.

These are the people who seek our services, the ones working for the businesses and organizations that invest in our problem solving abilities.

Non-designers need more than beauty from a design portfolio; they need clarity and assurance. They need to come away believing in a designer’s expertise, their design process, and ability to solve problems in an efficient manner.

Luckily, it’s not difficult to design a portfolio to meet those needs.

The Advantages of a Case Study

What is a case study?

A case study is a tool that a designer may use to explain his involvement in a design project, whether as a solo designer or part of a team. It is a detailed account, written in the designer’s own voice (first person), that examines the client’s problem, the designer’s role, the problem solving process, and the project’s outcome.

Who can use a case study?

The beauty of the case study framework is that it’s adaptable to multiple design disciplines. It organizes need-to-know information around common categories and questions that are applicable to all kinds of design projects—from UX research to visual identities .

At its core, a case study is a presentation format for communicating the journey from problem to solution. Details within the framework may change, but the momentum is always moving towards clarity and uncovering a project’s most important whats , whys , and hows .

How do case studies benefit designers?

Many clients don’t understand all that goes into the design process. And while they certainly don’t need to know everything , a case study provides a big-picture overview and sets up realistic expectations about what it takes to design an elegant solution.

A case study can also be a handy presentation aide that a designer may use when interviewing a potential client. The format allows a designer to talk about their work and demonstrate their expertise in a natural and logical progression. “Here’s what I did, how it helped, and how I might apply a similar approach with you.”

Are there any drawbacks to using case studies?

Don’t let a case study turn into a ca-a-a-a-a-se study. The whole project should be digestible within 1-2 minutes max. If necessary, provide links to more detailed documents so that interested visitors may explore further.

A lot of design work, especially digital, is created within multidisciplinary teams, so designers need to be clear about their role in a project. Blurring the lines of participation gives clients false expectations.

Many make the mistake of treating portfolios as repositories of all of their past projects, but three to five case studies documenting a designer’s most outstanding work is enough to satisfy the curiosity of most potential clients (who simply don’t have time to mine through everything a designer ever did).

Case studies are professional documents, not tell-all manuscripts, and there are some things that simply shouldn’t be included. Descriptions of difficult working relationships, revelations of company-specific information (i.e., intellectual property), and contentious explanations of rejected ideas ought to be left out.

Crafting a Customer-centric Case Study

It’s one thing to know what a case study is and why it’s valuable. It’s an entirely different and more important thing to know how to craft a customer-centric case study. There are essentials that every case study must include if clients are to make sense of what they’re seeing.

What are the core elements of a case study?

Introduce the client.

Present the design problem.

Recap your role.

Share the solution you designed.

Walk through the steps of your design process.

Describe the results.

Note any key learnings.

Wrap it all up with a short conclusion.

Happily, the core elements also outline a case study presentation format that’s simple, repeatable, and applicable to multiple disciplines. Let’s look closer:

• Who was the client?
• What industry are they in?
• What goods or services do they provide?
• Keep this section brief.
• What was the client’s problem?
• Why was it important that the problem be solved?
• Are there any additional background tidbits that might be helpful or interesting?

• What, specifically, were you hired to do?
• What were the constraints? Time. Budgetary. Technological. Etc.
• Before diving into your process, summarize the solution you designed.
• Make the summary short but powerful.
• Don’t give all the good parts away, and don’t be afraid to use language that makes your audience curious about the rest of the project.
• Go through the various steps of your discipline specific process.
• Again, summarize what you did, but don’t overload. Find a balance between informational and interesting.
• If you can, try to make each step introduce a question that only the following step can answer.

• Use this section to share a more robust description of the results of your design process.
• Be direct, avoid jargon, and don’t get too carried away with the amount of text you include.
• Don’t go overboard here, but if there are interesting things that you learned during the process, include them.
• If they won’t be helpful for the client, leave them out.
• Quickly summarize the project, and invite potential customers to contact you.
• It doesn’t hurt to provide a call to action and a contact link.

*Note: This isn’t the only case study format, just one that works. It’s helpful for people to encounter a predictable framework so they can focus on what they’re looking at as opposed to interpreting an inventive presentation structure.

The Value of Overlooked Details

Want to create a case study with a top notch user experience? Don’t underestimate the value of design details. Design projects are more than problem-meets-solution. They’re deeply human endeavors, and it makes a difference to clients when they see that a designer goes above and beyond in their work.

Share client feedback.

How did the client feel about your working relationship and the solution you provided? When you deliver top-notch work and nurture trust, get client feedback and include it in the case study as a testimonial.

If something you designed blew your client away, weave a testimonial into the case study (along with an image of what you made). This combo is proof positive to potential customers that you can deliver.

Explain positive metrics.

Not all design work has direct metrics that prove its success, but if your work does, and the results are impressive, include them. Just make sure that you don’t mislead (easy to do with statistics), and be careful that the metrics make sense to your audience.

Show unselected work.

Sometimes, amazing work from the design process doesn’t make it through to the finished product. These unused artifacts are helpful because they show an ability to explore a range of concepts.

Highlight unglamorous design features.

Not every aspect of design is glamorous. Like a pinky finger, small details may seem insignificant but they’re actually indispensable. Highlight these and recap why they matter.

Link to live projects.

It can be highly persuasive for a client to experience your work doing it’s thing out in the real world. Don’t hesitate to include links to live projects. Just make sure that your role in the project is clear, especially when you didn’t design everything you’re linking to.

Win Clients and Advance Careers with Case Study Portfolios

Designers need clients. We need their problems, their insights, their feedback, and their investments in the solutions we provide.

Since clients are so important, we ought to think about them often and strive to make entering into partnership with us as easy and painless as possible. Design portfolios are a first impression, an opportunity to put potential clients at ease and show that we understand their needs.

Case studies push our design portfolios past aesthetic allure to a level where our skills, communication abilities, and creativity instill trust and inspire confidence. Even better, they take clients out of a passive, browsing mindset to a place where “That looks cool,” becomes “That’s someone I’d like to work with.”

Further Reading on the Toptal Blog:

• UX Portfolio Tips and Best Practices
• Ditch MVPs, Adopt Minimum Viable Prototypes (MVPrs)
• Breaking Down the Design Thinking Process
• The Best UX Designer Portfolios: Inspiring Case Studies and Examples
• Influence with Design: A Guide to Color and Emotions

Understanding the basics

How do i create a design portfolio.

Nowadays, it’s best to create a design portfolio online. Options vary: Some designers use a service like Behance or a WYSIWYG website builder like Squarespace, while others build custom sites with CSS. It’s also important that online design portfolios be responsive for multiple screen sizes.

How do I create an online portfolio for free?

Websites like Behance and Dribbble (among others) are free options for designers to publish online portfolios. Some designers have opted to forgo traditional web portfolios and instead document their work on social platforms like Instagram and Facebook. Free sites also take care of design portfolio layout.

How do you organize a design portfolio?

A designer ought to organize his portfolio according to his strengths. This means highlighting his best and most relevant work. Remember that design portfolios should be made with potential clients in mind. Avoid overly technical project descriptions, images without context, and excessively long case studies.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Many design portfolios consist of short project summaries and process images, but case studies are a way for designers to show their problem-solving skills to clients in greater detail. This is achieved by defining the client’s problem and the designer’s role, along with an overview of the designer’s process.

What are the advantages of a case study?

Case studies combine descriptive text and images and allow designers to demonstrate the details of their design processes to potential clients. They are also a great way for designers to highlight problem solving and small, but powerful, design features that may otherwise be overlooked.

• VisualDesign
• DesignProcess

Adnan Puzic

Sarajevo, Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Member since September 28, 2015

About the author

World-class articles, delivered weekly.

By entering your email, you are agreeing to our privacy policy .

Toptal Designers

• Adobe Creative Suite Experts
• Agile Designers
• AI Designers
• Art Direction Experts
• Augmented Reality Designers
• Axure Experts
• Brand Designers
• Dashboard Designers
• Digital Product Designers
• E-commerce Website Designers
• Information Architecture Experts
• Interactive Designers
• Mockup Designers
• Presentation Designers
• Prototype Designers
• SaaS Designers
• Sketch Experts
• Squarespace Designers
• User Flow Designers
• User Research Designers
• Virtual Reality Designers
• Wireframing Experts
• View More Freelance Designers

Join the Toptal ® community.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

The PMC website is updating on October 15, 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Patterns (N Y)
• v.1(9); 2020 Dec 11

Principles of Effective Data Visualization

Stephen r. midway.

1 Department of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA

We live in a contemporary society surrounded by visuals, which, along with software options and electronic distribution, has created an increased importance on effective scientific visuals. Unfortunately, across scientific disciplines, many figures incorrectly present information or, when not incorrect, still use suboptimal data visualization practices. Presented here are ten principles that serve as guidance for authors who seek to improve their visual message. Some principles are less technical, such as determining the message before starting the visual, while other principles are more technical, such as how different color combinations imply different information. Because figure making is often not formally taught and figure standards are not readily enforced in science, it is incumbent upon scientists to be aware of best practices in order to most effectively tell the story of their data.

The Bigger Picture

Visuals are an increasingly important form of science communication, yet many scientists are not well trained in design principles for effective messaging. Despite challenges, many visuals can be improved by taking some simple steps before, during, and after their creation. This article presents some sequential principles that are designed to improve visual messages created by scientists.

Many scientific visuals are not as effective as they could be because scientists often lack basic design principles. This article reviews the importance of effective data visualization and presents ten principles that scientists can use as guidance in developing effective visual messages.

Introduction

Visual learning is one of the primary forms of interpreting information, which has historically combined images such as charts and graphs (see Box 1 ) with reading text. 1 However, developments on learning styles have suggested splitting up the visual learning modality in order to recognize the distinction between text and images. 2 Technology has also enhanced visual presentation, in terms of the ability to quickly create complex visual information while also cheaply distributing it via digital means (compared with paper, ink, and physical distribution). Visual information has also increased in scientific literature. In addition to the fact that figures are commonplace in scientific publications, many journals now require graphical abstracts 3 or might tweet figures to advertise an article. Dating back to the 1970s when computer-generated graphics began, 4 papers represented by an image on the journal cover have been cited more frequently than papers without a cover image. 5

Regarding terminology, the terms graph , plot , chart , image , figure , and data visual(ization) are often used interchangeably, although they may have different meanings in different instances. Graph , plot , and chart often refer to the display of data, data summaries, and models, while image suggests a picture. Figure is a general term but is commonly used to refer to visual elements, such as plots, in a scientific work. A visual , or data visualization , is a newer and ostensibly more inclusive term to describe everything from figures to infographics. Here, I adopt common terminology, such as bar plot, while also attempting to use the terms figure and data visualization for general reference.

There are numerous advantages to quickly and effectively conveying scientific information; however, scientists often lack the design principles or technical skills to generate effective visuals. Going back several decades, Cleveland 6 found that 30% of graphs in the journal Science had at least one type of error. Several other studies have documented widespread errors or inefficiencies in scientific figures. 7 , 8 , 9 In fact, the increasing menu of visualization options can sometimes lead to poor fits between information and its presentation. These poor fits can even have the unintended consequence of confusing the readers and setting them back in their understanding of the material. While objective errors in graphs are hopefully in the minority of scientific works, what might be more common is suboptimal figure design, which takes place when a design element may not be objectively wrong but is ineffective to the point of limiting information transfer.

Effective figures suggest an understanding and interpretation of data; ineffective figures suggest the opposite. Although the field of data visualization has grown in recent years, the process of displaying information cannot—and perhaps should not—be fully mechanized. Much like statistical analyses often require expert opinions on top of best practices, figures also require choice despite well-documented recommendations. In other words, there may not be a singular best version of a given figure. Rather, there may be multiple effective versions of displaying a single piece of information, and it is the figure maker's job to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each. Fortunately, there are numerous principles from which decisions can be made, and ultimately design is choice. 7

The data visualization literature includes many great resources. While several resources are targeted at developing design proficiency, such as the series of columns run by Nature Communications , 10 Wilkinson's The Grammar of Graphics 11 presents a unique technical interpretation of the structure of graphics. Wilkinson breaks down the notion of a graphic into its constituent parts—e.g., the data, scales, coordinates, geometries, aesthetics—much like conventional grammar breaks down a sentence into nouns, verbs, punctuation, and other elements of writing. The popularity and utility of this approach has been implemented in a number of software packages, including the popular ggplot2 package 12 currently available in R. 13 (Although the grammar of graphics approach is not explicitly adopted here, the term geometry is used consistently with Wilkinson to refer to different geometrical representations, whereas the term aesthetics is not used consistently with the grammar of graphics and is used simply to describe something that is visually appealing and effective.) By understanding basic visual design principles and their implementation, many figure authors may find new ways to emphasize and convey their information.

The Ten Principles

Principle #1 diagram first.

The first principle is perhaps the least technical but very important: before you make a visual, prioritize the information you want to share, envision it, and design it. Although this seems obvious, the larger point here is to focus on the information and message first, before you engage with software that in some way starts to limit or bias your visual tools. In other words, don't necessarily think of the geometries (dots, lines) you will eventually use, but think about the core information that needs to be conveyed and what about that information is going to make your point(s). Is your visual objective to show a comparison? A ranking? A composition? This step can be done mentally, or with a pen and paper for maximum freedom of thought. In parallel to this approach, it can be a good idea to save figures you come across in scientific literature that you identify as particularly effective. These are not just inspiration and evidence of what is possible, but will help you develop an eye for detail and technical skills that can be applied to your own figures.

Principle #2 Use the Right Software

Effective visuals typically require good command of one or more software. In other words, it might be unrealistic to expect complex, technical, and effective figures if you are using a simple spreadsheet program or some other software that is not designed to make complex, technical, and effective figures. Recognize that you might need to learn a new software—or expand your knowledge of a software you already know. While highly effective and aesthetically pleasing figures can be made quickly and simply, this may still represent a challenge to some. However, figure making is a method like anything else, and in order to do it, new methodologies may need to be learned. You would not expect to improve a field or lab method without changing something or learning something new. Data visualization is the same, with the added benefit that most software is readily available, inexpensive, or free, and many come with large online help resources. This article does not promote any specific software, and readers are encouraged to reference other work 14 for an overview of software resources.

Principle #3 Use an Effective Geometry and Show Data

Geometries are the shapes and features that are often synonymous with a type of figure; for example, the bar geometry creates a bar plot. While geometries might be the defining visual element of a figure, it can be tempting to jump directly from a dataset to pairing it with one of a small number of well-known geometries. Some of this thinking is likely to naturally happen. However, geometries are representations of the data in different forms, and often there may be more than one geometry to consider. Underlying all your decisions about geometries should be the data-ink ratio, 7 which is the ratio of ink used on data compared with overall ink used in a figure. High data-ink ratios are the best, and you might be surprised to find how much non-data-ink you use and how much of that can be removed.

Most geometries fall into categories: amounts (or comparisons), compositions (or proportions), distributions , or relationships . Although seemingly straightforward, one geometry may work in more than one category, in addition to the fact that one dataset may be visualized with more than one geometry (sometimes even in the same figure). Excellent resources exist on detailed approaches to selecting your geometry, 15 and this article only highlights some of the more common geometries and their applications.

Amounts or comparisons are often displayed with a bar plot ( Figure 1 A), although numerous other options exist, including Cleveland dot plots and even heatmaps ( Figure 1 F). Bar plots are among the most common geometry, along with lines, 9 although bar plots are noted for their very low data density 16 (i.e., low data-ink ratio). Geometries for amounts should only be used when the data do not have distributional information or uncertainty associated with them. A good use of a bar plot might be to show counts of something, while poor use of a bar plot might be to show group means. Numerous studies have discussed inappropriate uses of bar plots, 9 , 17 noting that “because the bars always start at zero, they can be misleading: for example, part of the range covered by the bar might have never been observed in the sample.” 17 Despite the numerous reports on incorrect usage, bar plots remain one of the most common problems in data visualization.

Examples of Visual Designs

(A) Clustered bar plots are effective at showing units within a group (A–C) when the data are amounts.

(B) Histograms are effective at showing the distribution of data, which in this case is a random draw of values from a Poisson distribution and which use a sequential color scheme that emphasizes the mean as red and values farther from the mean as yellow.

(C) Scatterplot where the black circles represent the data.

(D) Logistic regression where the blue line represents the fitted model, the gray shaded region represents the confidence interval for the fitted model, and the dark-gray dots represent the jittered data.

(E) Box plot showing (simulated) ages of respondents grouped by their answer to a question, with gray dots representing the raw data used in the box plot. The divergent colors emphasize the differences in values. For each box plot, the box represents the interquartile range (IQR), the thick black line represents the median value, and the whiskers extend to 1.5 times the IQR. Outliers are represented by the data.

(F) Heatmap of simulated visibility readings in four lakes over 5 months. The green colors represent lower visibility and the blue colors represent greater visibility. The white numbers in the cells are the average visibility measures (in meters).

(G) Density plot of simulated temperatures by season, where each season is presented as a small multiple within the larger figure.

For all figures the data were simulated, and any examples are fictitious.

Compositions or proportions may take a wide range of geometries. Although the traditional pie chart is one option, the pie geometry has fallen out of favor among some 18 due to the inherent difficulties in making visual comparisons. Although there may be some applications for a pie chart, stacked or clustered bar plots ( Figure 1 A), stacked density plots, mosaic plots, and treemaps offer alternatives.

Geometries for distributions are an often underused class of visuals that demonstrate high data density. The most common geometry for distributional information is the box plot 19 ( Figure 1 E), which shows five types of information in one object. Although more common in exploratory analyses than in final reports, the histogram ( Figure 1 B) is another robust geometry that can reveal information about data. Violin plots and density plots ( Figure 1 G) are other common distributional geometries, although many less-common options exist.

Relationships are the final category of visuals covered here, and they are often the workhorse of geometries because they include the popular scatterplot ( Figures 1 C and 1D) and other presentations of x - and y -coordinate data. The basic scatterplot remains very effective, and layering information by modifying point symbols, size, and color are good ways to highlight additional messages without taking away from the scatterplot. It is worth mentioning here that scatterplots often develop into line geometries ( Figure 1 D), and while this can be a good thing, presenting raw data and inferential statistical models are two different messages that need to be distinguished (see Data and Models Are Different Things ).

Finally, it is almost always recommended to show the data. 7 Even if a geometry might be the focus of the figure, data can usually be added and displayed in a way that does not detract from the geometry but instead provides the context for the geometry (e.g., Figures 1 D and 1E). The data are often at the core of the message, yet in figures the data are often ignored on account of their simplicity.

Principle #4 Colors Always Mean Something

The use of color in visualization can be incredibly powerful, and there is rarely a reason not to use color. Even if authors do not wish to pay for color figures in print, most journals still permit free color figures in digital formats. In a large study 20 of what makes visualizations memorable, colorful visualizations were reported as having a higher memorability score, and that seven or more colors are best. Although some of the visuals in this study were photographs, other studies 21 also document the effectiveness of colors.

In today's digital environment, color is cheap. This is overwhelmingly a good thing, but also comes with the risk of colors being applied without intention. Black-and-white visuals were more accepted decades ago when hard copies of papers were more common and color printing represented a large cost. Now, however, the vast majority of readers view scientific papers on an electronic screen where color is free. For those who still print documents, color printing can be done relatively cheaply in comparison with some years ago.

Color represents information, whether in a direct and obvious way, or in an indirect and subtle way. A direct example of using color may be in maps where water is blue and land is green or brown. However, the vast majority of (non-mapping) visualizations use color in one of three schemes: sequential , diverging , or qualitative . Sequential color schemes are those that range from light to dark typically in one or two (related) hues and are often applied to convey increasing values for increasing darkness ( Figures 1 B and 1F). Diverging color schemes are those that have two sequential schemes that represent two extremes, often with a white or neutral color in the middle ( Figure 1 E). A classic example of a diverging color scheme is the red to blue hues applied to jurisdictions in order to show voting preference in a two-party political system. Finally, qualitative color schemes are found when the intensity of the color is not of primary importance, but rather the objective is to use different and otherwise unrelated colors to convey qualitative group differences ( Figures 1 A and 1G).

While it is recommended to use color and capture the power that colors convey, there exist some technical recommendations. First, it is always recommended to design color figures that work effectively in both color and black-and-white formats ( Figures 1 B and 1F). In other words, whenever possible, use color that can be converted to an effective grayscale such that no information is lost in the conversion. Along with this approach, colors can be combined with symbols, line types, and other design elements to share the same information that the color was sharing. It is also good practice to use color schemes that are effective for colorblind readers ( Figures 1 A and 1E). Excellent resources, such as ColorBrewer, 22 exist to help in selecting color schemes based on colorblind criteria. Finally, color transparency is another powerful tool, much like a volume knob for color ( Figures 1 D and 1E). Not all colors have to be used at full value, and when not part of a sequential or diverging color scheme—and especially when a figure has more than one colored geometry—it can be very effective to increase the transparency such that the information of the color is retained but it is not visually overwhelming or outcompeting other design elements. Color will often be the first visual information a reader gets, and with this knowledge color should be strategically used to amplify your visual message.

Principle #5 Include Uncertainty

Not only is uncertainty an inherent part of understanding most systems, failure to include uncertainty in a visual can be misleading. There exist two primary challenges with including uncertainty in visuals: failure to include uncertainty and misrepresentation (or misinterpretation) of uncertainty.

Uncertainty is often not included in figures and, therefore, part of the statistical message is left out—possibly calling into question other parts of the statistical message, such as inference on the mean. Including uncertainty is typically easy in most software programs, and can take the form of common geometries such as error bars and shaded intervals (polygons), among other features. 15 Another way to approach visualizing uncertainty is whether it is included implicitly into the existing geometries, such as in a box plot ( Figure 1 E) or distribution ( Figures 1 B and 1G), or whether it is included explicitly as an additional geometry, such as an error bar or shaded region ( Figure 1 D).

Representing uncertainty is often a challenge. 23 Standard deviation, standard error, confidence intervals, and credible intervals are all common metrics of uncertainty, but each represents a different measure. Expressing uncertainty requires that readers be familiar with metrics of uncertainty and their interpretation; however, it is also the responsibility of the figure author to adopt the most appropriate measure of uncertainty. For instance, standard deviation is based on the spread of the data and therefore shares information about the entire population, including the range in which we might expect new values. On the other hand, standard error is a measure of the uncertainty in the mean (or some other estimate) and is strongly influenced by sample size—namely, standard error decreases with increasing sample size. Confidence intervals are primarily for displaying the reliability of a measurement. Credible intervals, almost exclusively associated with Bayesian methods, are typically built off distributions and have probabilistic interpretations.

Expressing uncertainty is important, but it is also important to interpret the correct message. Krzywinski and Altman 23 directly address a common misconception: “a gap between (error) bars does not ensure significance, nor does overlap rule it out—it depends on the type of bar.” This is a good reminder to be very clear not only in stating what type of uncertainty you are sharing, but what the interpretation is. Others 16 even go so far as to recommend that standard error not be used because it does not provide clear information about standard errors of differences among means. One recommendation to go along with expressing uncertainty is, if possible, to show the data (see Use an Effective Geometry and Show Data ). Particularly when the sample size is low, showing a reader where the data occur can help avoid misinterpretations of uncertainty.

Principle #6 Panel, when Possible (Small Multiples)

A particularly effective visual approach is to repeat a figure to highlight differences. This approach is often called small multiples , 7 and the technique may be referred to as paneling or faceting ( Figure 1 G). The strategy behind small multiples is that because many of the design elements are the same—for example, the axes, axes scales, and geometry are often the same—the differences in the data are easier to show. In other words, each panel represents a change in one variable, which is commonly a time step, a group, or some other factor. The objective of small multiples is to make the data inevitably comparable, 7 and effective small multiples always accomplish these comparisons.

Principle #7 Data and Models Are Different Things

Plotted information typically takes the form of raw data (e.g., scatterplot), summarized data (e.g., box plot), or an inferential statistic (e.g., fitted regression line; Figure 1 D). Raw data and summarized data are often relatively straightforward; however, a plotted model may require more explanation for a reader to be able to fully reproduce the work. Certainly any model in a study should be reported in a complete way that ensures reproducibility. However, any visual of a model should be explained in the figure caption or referenced elsewhere in the document so that a reader can find the complete details on what the model visual is representing. Although it happens, it is not acceptable practice to show a fitted model or other model results in a figure if the reader cannot backtrack the model details. Simply because a model geometry can be added to a figure does not mean that it should be.

Principle #8 Simple Visuals, Detailed Captions

As important as it is to use high data-ink ratios, it is equally important to have detailed captions that fully explain everything in the figure. A study of figures in the Journal of American Medicine 8 found that more than one-third of graphs were not self-explanatory. Captions should be standalone, which means that if the figure and caption were looked at independent from the rest of the study, the major point(s) could still be understood. Obviously not all figures can be completely standalone, as some statistical models and other procedures require more than a caption as explanation. However, the principle remains that captions should do all they can to explain the visualization and representations used. Captions should explain any geometries used; for instance, even in a simple scatterplot it should be stated that the black dots represent the data ( Figures 1 C–1E). Box plots also require descriptions of their geometry—it might be assumed what the features of a box plot are, yet not all box plot symbols are universal.

Principle #9 Consider an Infographic

It is unclear where a figure ends and an infographic begins; however, it is fair to say that figures tend to be focused on representing data and models, whereas infographics typically incorporate text, images, and other diagrammatic elements. Although it is not recommended to convert all figures to infographics, infographics were found 20 to have the highest memorability score and that diagrams outperformed points, bars, lines, and tables in terms of memorability. Scientists might improve their overall information transfer if they consider an infographic where blending different pieces of information could be effective. Also, an infographic of a study might be more effective outside of a peer-reviewed publication and in an oral or poster presentation where a visual needs to include more elements of the study but with less technical information.

Even if infographics are not adopted in most cases, technical visuals often still benefit from some text or other annotations. 16 Tufte's works 7 , 24 provide great examples of bringing together textual, visual, and quantitative information into effective visualizations. However, as figures move in the direction of infographics, it remains important to keep chart junk and other non-essential visual elements out of the design.

Principle #10 Get an Opinion

Although there may be principles and theories about effective data visualization, the reality is that the most effective visuals are the ones with which readers connect. Therefore, figure authors are encouraged to seek external reviews of their figures. So often when writing a study, the figures are quickly made, and even if thoughtfully made they are not subject to objective, outside review. Having one or more colleagues or people external to the study review figures will often provide useful feedback on what readers perceive, and therefore what is effective or ineffective in a visual. It is also recommended to have outside colleagues review only the figures. Not only might this please your colleague reviewers (because figure reviews require substantially less time than full document reviews), but it also allows them to provide feedback purely on the figures as they will not have the document text to fill in any uncertainties left by the visuals.

What About Tables?

Although often not included as data visualization, tables can be a powerful and effective way to show data. Like other visuals, tables are a type of hybrid visual—they typically only include alphanumeric information and no geometries (or other visual elements), so they are not classically a visual. However, tables are also not text in the same way a paragraph or description is text. Rather, tables are often summarized values or information, and are effective if the goal is to reference exact numbers. However, the interest in numerical results in the form of a study typically lies in comparisons and not absolute numbers. Gelman et al. 25 suggested that well-designed graphs were superior to tables. Similarly, Spence and Lewandowsky 26 compared pie charts, bar graphs, and tables and found a clear advantage for graphical displays over tabulations. Because tables are best suited for looking up specific information while graphs are better for perceiving trends and making comparisons and predictions, it is recommended that visuals are used before tables. Despite the reluctance to recommend tables, tables may benefit from digital formats. In other words, while tables may be less effective than figures in many cases, this does not mean tables are ineffective or do not share specific information that cannot always be displayed in a visual. Therefore, it is recommended to consider creating tables as supplementary or appendix information that does not go into the main document (alongside the figures), but which is still very easily accessed electronically for those interested in numerical specifics.

Conclusions

While many of the elements of peer-reviewed literature have remained constant over time, some elements are changing. For example, most articles now have more authors than in previous decades, and a much larger menu of journals creates a diversity of article lengths and other requirements. Despite these changes, the demand for visual representations of data and results remains high, as exemplified by graphical abstracts, overview figures, and infographics. Similarly, we now operate with more software than ever before, creating many choices and opportunities to customize scientific visualizations. However, as the demand for, and software to create, visualizations have both increased, there is not always adequate training among scientists and authors in terms of optimizing the visual for the message.

Figures are not just a scientific side dish but can be a critical point along the scientific process—a point at which the figure maker demonstrates their knowledge and communication of the data and results, and often one of the first stopping points for new readers of the information. The reality for the vast majority of figures is that you need to make your point in a few seconds. The longer someone looks at a figure and doesn't understand the message, the more likely they are to gain nothing from the figure and possibly even lose some understanding of your larger work. Following a set of guidelines and recommendations—summarized here and building on others—can help to build robust visuals that avoid many common pitfalls of ineffective figures ( Figure 2 ).

Overview of the Principles Presented in This Article

The two principles in yellow (bottom) are those that occur first, during the figure design phase. The six principles in green (middle) are generally considerations and decisions while making a figure. The two principles in blue (top) are final steps often considered after a figure has been drafted. While the general flow of the principles follows from bottom to top, there is no specific or required order, and the development of individual figures may require more or less consideration of different principles in a unique order.

All scientists seek to share their message as effectively as possible, and a better understanding of figure design and representation is undoubtedly a step toward better information dissemination and fewer errors in interpretation. Right now, much of the responsibility for effective figures lies with the authors, and learning best practices from literature, workshops, and other resources should be undertaken. Along with authors, journals play a gatekeeper role in figure quality. Journal editorial teams are in a position to adopt recommendations for more effective figures (and reject ineffective figures) and then translate those recommendations into submission requirements. However, due to the qualitative nature of design elements, it is difficult to imagine strict visual guidelines being enforced across scientific sectors. In the absence of such guidelines and with seemingly endless design choices available to figure authors, it remains important that a set of aesthetic criteria emerge to guide the efficient conveyance of visual information.

Acknowledgments

Thanks go to the numerous students with whom I have had fun, creative, and productive conversations about displaying information. Danielle DiIullo was extremely helpful in technical advice on software. Finally, Ron McKernan provided guidance on several principles.

Author Contributions

S.R.M. conceived the review topic, conducted the review, developed the principles, and wrote the manuscript.

Steve Midway is an assistant professor in the Department of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences at Louisiana State University. His work broadly lies in fisheries ecology and how sound science can be applied to management and conservation issues. He teaches a number of quantitative courses in ecology, all of which include data visualization.

• For Readers
• For Authors
• For reviewers
• For manuscripts
• Announcements

Effective Use of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching within Higher Education

By charles buckley 1 and chrissi nerantzi 2.

1 University of Liverpool 2 Manchester Metropolitan University

Cite as: Buckley, C, A. and Nerantzi, C. (2020), "Effective Use of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching within Higher Education", International Journal of Management and Applied Research , Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 196-214. https://doi.org/10.18646/2056.73.20-014 | Download PDF | Cited by

There are now increasing opportunities for educators to use creative forms of visual representation in their professional practice. Despite the potential for increasing researcher and teacher understanding and student engagement and learning through the proliferation of visual material, the rationale and deliberate planning of using images remains relatively unexplored. The potential benefits to learners through the incorporation of visual representation on its own or with text are well-documented although the ways in which it can be used effectively is less well-established. This paper provides an introduction to some of the research into using visual representation within researching and teaching and learning within higher education. It draws on examples from the authors’ own practice to provide insights into a selection of ways in which visual representation might be used in various ways such as generative/analytical techniques and communicative tools. The authors provide two examples of visualised frameworks and models that have been developed and used in the context of academic development; the use of simple relationship diagrams in learning and teaching and dissemination of practice; the use of diagrams to explain complex phenomenon and an example of using images juxtaposed with diagrams and text to present a case for professional teaching recognition.

1. Introduction

Visual communication has become an integral part of everyday life yet this is not mirrored in higher education practices within learning and teaching settings as many classrooms still heavily focus on traditional oral and written instruction (Daniels, 2018). The use of various types of images has been increasing, especially since the incorporation of digital technology, social media and open practices in Higher Education in the UK and more widely. However, the benefits, challenges and opportunities for incorporating such images need clarification. Staffs with teaching responsibilities are increasingly interested in incorporating visual representation into their practices to create stimulating learning experiences for learners in face-to-face, blended and online settings. Presentational software such as PowerPoint, which is a commonly used slideware, allows for the incorporation of images although critics argue that such these are sometimes only used for decoration (Gabriel, 2008) rather than being used in creative ways to enhance learning. Hallewell and Lackovic (2017) for example, explored the ways in which 145 photographs used in PowerPoint presentations were used in 16 UK universities for undergraduate Psychology lectures and found that only 33% were referred to explicitly with the majority representing a case of ‘unprobed representations’, that is, the photograph and its meaning were not explicitly referenced. Furthermore, Carpenter, Witherby and Tauber (2020) argue that students have a tendency to over-endorse the effectiveness of images even when they are only used for decorative purposes leading to them thinking they have learned more than they actually have. Visual aids can enhance learning when they provide additional explanatory information that is relevant to the text (Carney and Levin, 2002).

There has been a growing interest in using visual representation in teaching and work such as that of Mayer (2014) on Multimedia learning offers some guiding principles such as the various ways in which words and pictures can be used to enhance learning as does Jewitt, Bezemer and O’ Halloran (2012) approach to multimedia model of learning using digital technologies. Mayer (2014) proposed the following principles for good practice in the use of multimodal approaches:

• Multimedia principle -- It is better to use both words and pictures rather than just words;
• Contiguity principle -- Words and pictures should be presented at the same time, rather than successively;
• Modality principle -- When associated with an animation, words should be presented orally rather than in print form on the screen;
• Redundancy principle -- The simultaneous verbal and visual presentation of words is to be avoided;
• Personalisation principle -- Words are better presented in a conversational style rather than a formal, didactic, style;
• Interactivity principle -- Learners should be able to control the rate at which the presentation is made;
• Signalling principle -- Key steps in a narrative should be verbally signalled.

The influential theory of Clark and Pavio (1991), the dual-coding theory, has also gained wide acceptance and suggests that it is easier to understand something when we combine verbal and non-verbal elements. The value of the dual-coding approach is that, by providing a description of what happens during learning, it enables us to explain, to some extent causally, what happens in the brain. The activity in the brain is ‘visualisation’ and it operates on models. The implications of this are obvious for teaching in most educational settings including university, especially with an ever- growing interest in enhancing learner experiences.

The presence of visual elements in learning and teaching is increasing as the integration of images and visual presentations with text in textbooks, instructional manuals, classroom presentations, and computer interfaces broadens (Kleinman and Dwyer, 1999). Visual information plays a fundamental role in our understanding, more than any other form of information (Colin, 2012). Colin (2012: 2) defines visualisation as “a graphical representation of data or concepts.” Presenting data, concepts and outputs through a visualisation helps us communicate more effectively complex and often large amounts of information or concepts and identify patterns. It can make information more accessible and visual metaphors can evolve familiar text into something more extraordinary and engaging. Visualisation helps make sense of data that may have seemed previously unintelligible (Stokes, 2001). In addition to this, images evoke an emotional dimension. Harper (2002) argues that, as a species, we began with pictures and progressed to the word, therefore, images can evoke deeper elements of human consciousness. This reflective article explores the authors’ experiences of using various forms of visual representation in their research, academic practice and learning and teaching.

2. Visual representation in the process of learning and teaching

Visual representation has great potential to enhance learning and teaching throughout the many stages involved from researching pedagogical practice, scholarship, linking research and teaching, planning and curriculum development through to presentation and evaluation amongst many others. Curricula should draw on research to stay fresh and can involve the teacher’s own disciplinary and pedagogical research. Growing numbers of academics across disciplines are conducting research in their teaching (Cousin, 2009). The UK Professional Standards Framework (2011) emphasises the importance of using evidence-based approaches and the outcomes from research, scholarship and continuing professional development. Whilst images can arguably provide a visual enhancement to text heavy forms of communication, they can also convey meanings and impact emotions. In addition, images can enhance the learning experience and provide for a more inclusive approach to learning and teaching. The creation of suitable visual materials helps the author to structure and make sense of their own thinking. The process helps “embed representations, using graphical and textual semiotic conventions of their creator’s understanding of a given issue” (diSessa, 2002: 1).

3. Examples

3.1. visualisation of concepts and models.

In the context of learning and teaching in higher education and education more generally, conceptual and empirical pedagogical frameworks and models are evidence-based outputs that are often not just described using written language but also visual. The visualisation of such frameworks and models, often in the form of diagrams, can play an important role in explaining and illuminating key features, connections and patterns that have been identified through research. They can aid the design, implementation and evaluation of specific learning and teaching strategies and become valuable tools during curriculum design processes, including conversation and professional discussions. Other frameworks and models are directly used during the learning process to support specific teaching methods.

In the following sections two examples of visualised frameworks and models that have been developed and used in the context of academic development are reported together with further supporting visualisations related to these:

In 2012, the openly licensed course Flexible, Distance and Online Learning (FDOL) was developed out of a PGCert in Academic Practice module at the University of Salford by Chrissi Nerantzi in collaboration with Lars Uhlin, a colleague academic developer from the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden to bring together colleagues from different institutions to develop their practice around the themes of the course in a supportive and collaborative learning environment. It was offered for the first time in 2013 and then again twice in 2014 as an informal cross-institutional collaboration among colleagues in these institutions with facilitators and participants from different parts of the world and between 80 and 100 registered participants in each iteration (Nerantzi, 2014).

Problem-Based Learning (PBL), developed in the 1960s at McMaster University in Canada, first for Medical Education (Barrows and Tamblyn, 1980) was selected by the course designers as the underpinning learning and teaching approach to foster inquiry within small groups (8-9 individuals initially) for those who expressed an interest to engage in this way (Figure 1).

The majority of all registered learners participated in groups (Nerantzi, 2014). PBL is a structured approach to inquiry which normally utilises a PBL model. Existing models that were reviewed by the course designers felt too complicated (Nerantzi, 2014). As they felt that something simpler would work better in an online and open environment, they decided to create their own based on the fundamentals of PBL and Mills’ (2006) 5-step model. This is how FISh was born (Nerantzi and Uhlin, 2012).

FISh, is a three-step PBL model that aided PBL group members and their facilitators in FDOL to engage in inquiry in a systematic way based on specific learning scenarios that where either provided or contributed by the groups. This PBL model and its three steps were accompanied by a set of questions that guided PBL group members and facilitators during the learning process. These are:

Step 1: Focus

• What do I/we see?
• How do I/we understand what we see?
• What do I/we need to find out more about?
• Specify learning issues/intended learning outcomes!

Step 2: Investigate

• How and where am I/are we going to find answers?
• What will I do/Who will do what and by when?
• What main findings and solutions do I/we propose?

Step 3: Share

• How am I/are we going to present my/our findings?
• What do I/we want to share with the community?
• How can I/we provide feedback to others?
• What reflections do I have about my learning (and working with others)?

The FISh model is simple and memorable. What makes it memorable is perhaps the name itself. That was intentional. The acronym FISh consists of letters representing the 3 stages of the PBL model: Focus – Investigate – Share. Using FISh as the name of the model, the visualisation happens almost automatically as we think about the word “fish” (Figure 2 depicts the original design). Therefore, one could claim that the FISh model may be a metaphor. FISh has become the model (Geary, 2012). The use of FISh helps us perhaps remember the concept and pattern behind it, the pattern of the PBL process, in a way that perhaps just worlds would not be able to if the designers had selected other words and phrases to characterise the three steps of the model that didn’t create that mental image in our minds.

Later, the hand drawn FISh image was replaced with the following (Figure 3).

The idea behind it was not just to use it as a visual metaphor of the PBL model itself and the three steps but also to provide a worksheet that could be used to capture ideas by members of the group linked to a specific PBL activity, in digital format or as a print-out that could then inform their discussions and help them take decisions and move forward. Participant F5 noted for example,

“I love the COOL FISh illustration. I think that's great. But then I know that I'm a very visual person. My background's graphic design, I like visual metaphor. So I really buy into that. You don't need to be persuaded to buy into that, you know. But it did get me thinking about things in a slightly different way. And it's something that I tried as well, you know, using the visual metaphor idea that you were using.” (Nerantzi, 2017: 173)

The FISh model helped the FDOL course designers provide a simple and memorable PBL model that would be easy to use for the PBL activities and also helped learners who were academics and other professionals teaching in higher education to reflect on their own practice and potentially adopt similar more visual approaches in their own practice with their students.

A phenomenographic study into collaborative open learning in two open cross-institutional courses (FDOL and #creativeHE) let to the development of the cross-boundary collaborative open learning framework which has been developed to help practitioners in curriculum development, planning and evaluation activities especially linked to collaborative learning (Nerantzi, 2017; Nerantzi, 2018). The FDOL course mentioned in the previous section was one of the two cases of this study in which the collective lived collaborative learning experience and its qualitatively different variations was explored (Marton, 1981). The analysis led to the construction of specific categories of description their variations as well as the outcome space, the final output of a phenomenographic study, which depicts the logical relationships among the categories of descriptions in a visual way (Marton, 1981). See Figure 4.

The discussion of the phenomenographic findings led to the development of the cross-boundary collaborative open learning framework. It consists of the following three dimensions. It is presented below (Figure 5) as it was reported for the first time in the doctoral thesis.

While in Figure 5, the dimensions of the framework have been captured and the key characteristics are communicated, I felt that there was a need to further work on its visualisation to show the relationships among the dimensions with greater clarity. The above separation of the dimensions could perhaps be interpreted as a disconnect, if seen in isolation without the accompanying text. Therefore, in a subsequent publication about the framework (Figure 6), I decided to design and share a more integrated visualisation of the framework. The aim was to illuminate with greater clarity the relationships between the three dimensions and how they influence each other. Moving away from a table format towards a circular representation and using colour to highlight the inter-relationship between the two identified learning engagement patterns and learning needs makes, I feel, the framework more useful a standalone resource and guide during curriculum design and course evaluation activities.

3.2. The use of diagrams to make sense of complex situations and concepts

Diagrams are sense making representations of complex situations although their use in teaching and learning should bear some relation to use within related professional practice. Effective learning and teaching draws on relevant research and scholarship. The range of sub-forms of diagrams is extensive and only a few examples are given in this paper. Through ongoing research experimentation and evaluation of teaching practice, lecturers can evolve and adapt their approaches to enhance the student experience. Visual representation can provide an invaluable tool at all stages of research into teaching. Diagrams, pictures, images, photographs, conceptual maps, matrices, tables and charts not only serve as visual representations of what is being discovered through analysis but also as generative/analytical techniques and communicative tools. Banks and Zeitlan (2015) explain that the distinction between text and image which can be found in textbooks using illustrations is not absolute. There are times, they argue, when the strict linearity of language is insufficient to convey information and visual arrangements of the language need to be considered. Tables and lists are a midway point between the linear flow of language and open-endedness of photographs or picture whereas various types of diagrams and infographics lie nearer to the pure image where text acts as labels although the frame that holds these elements together is less predictable than scientific graphs.

Simple relationship diagrams using Microsoft SmartArt graphics is an easy way of demonstrating the relationships between complex and overlapping concepts. In this instance, as simple relationship diagram (Figure 7) used in a webinar presentation captures the interrelatedness of key criteria, that of evidencing Reach, Value and Impact, in developing an Advance HE National Teaching Fellowship claim. Where Reach is the scale of influence (department, faculty, institution, national, global). Value is the benefit derived for students and staff and Impact is the difference that has been made to policy, practice and/or student outcomes. To give coherence to the claim, it is recommended that the writer identifies a ‘golden thread’ which permeates the narrative across the whole claim.

The authors have also used relationship diagrams in other publications, e.g., in a book chapter on using technology to enhance learning and teaching (Buckley, Nerantzi and Spiers, 2017), the diagram was used to demonstrate clearly to the reader the three dimensions of technology-supported practice as defined by the authors of this chapter (see Figure 8).

The construction of diagrams requires that the creator has a certain level of understanding. Generating diagrams from thoughts or text has many potential benefits and the linking of concepts through the creation of a map requires higher levels of thinking and processing. The amalgamation of text and drawings can act as a powerful tool for the dissemination of complex ideas to critical audiences, but that the use of diagrams still seems to be an area of under-explored potential for the development of theory (Buckley and Waring, 2013).

The important links between research and teaching have received increasing attention in higher education. Healey’s (2004) representation of the research-teaching nexus is used widely and acts as a powerful reflective tool for teachers to think about their own practice. A curriculum which draws on the lecturer’s own discipline or pedagogic research can give the student a connection with the research process and connect with the tutor. The following example draws on the author’s own experience of using diagrams and drawings in research leading to a research-informed approach with students. In the second example the author shows how, following mind-mapping, images and text can be juxtaposed with diagrams and text to present a case for professional recognition through fellowship with Advance HE. The examples are supported with visual representations from the author.

Teaching modules on children’s health and physical activity within Sports Science as an academic discipline effectively requires encouraging students to gain insights into the importance of recognising the complexities associated with investigating children’s social worlds. Incorporating diagrams from longitudinal studies the author was able to provide a visual map of the ways in which children perceive sport and physical education (Buckley and Waring, 2013). The diagram below (Figure 9), although rich in text, acts as a powerful reflective tool to show the relationships between codes, themes and emergent categories. This also acts as a useful discussion for emphasising some of the processes associated with different stages of the process of collecting, analysing and interpreting qualitative data. In addition, it can act as a structured stimulus for discussions with co-researchers or critical friends. In research, diagrams helps to show the ways in which categories relate to each other and the rela¬tionship with theoretical codes.

The researcher used the Draw and Write technique (Wetton and McWhirter, 1998) with children interviewed as part of the research. Young Children are more used to visual and written techniques at school, and there should be more attempts to tap into their interests. The advantage of using drawing with children is that it can be creative and fun, and can encourage children to be more actively involved in the research. In addition, the drawings can provide a stimulus for discussion to encourage a more interactive atmosphere in focus group interview situations. In this way, drawings can provide a powerful tool when researching with young children where text or comprehension might be a challenge. The use of drawing gives children time to think about what they wish to portray and can provide a break for younger children who typically have limited concentration spans compared with adults.

Diagrams can be used at various stages of the research process as effective instruments of thought, for organising thinking, looking for relationships in emergent themes and illustrating the ways in which the researcher thinks about the data. Diagrams facilitate both the development and presentation of the researcher’s emerging interpretations or theories and are able to convey meaning in a variety of ways, which is not possible using text alone (Crilly et al., 2006). These diagrams provide an indication of ways in which graphic representation can be used to create a visual map that enables readers to digest key aspects of a sophisticated analysis. They represent emergent theories and can be structured as types of layered diagrams and provide multiple windows illuminating various stages of the research. During the final stages of the study, the Core category diagram (Figure 10) was created to provide a visual representation of the main findings within the Identity Profile continuum. This strategy of generating a diagram is useful for encapsulating the main findings from the research and being able to share these through dissemination at conferences as well as sharing the process with students whilst teaching modules on children’s health in university.

There has been a proliferation of software tools to allow for digital visual representation of thoughts and ideas during the process of constructing and collating complex idea. Mind maps, also referred to as concept maps or spider diagrams can assist in helping the creator to see connections and provide an overview of key points. They can also be a useful tool for revision: for example, MindMeister ; miro ; Stormboard ; InVision , and Cmap mind maps. These creative planning devices are not new to education and whilst the end product as a material artefact can be useful in communication of ideas, there is pedagogical value in their use as uncovering and organising thoughts, improving creativity and providing an alternative to linear thought processing. As Kinchin (2017: 9) states:

The externalisation of ideas as a concept map allows the developing understanding to be manipulated by the learner without placing impossible demands on short-term memory, and also allows the developing understanding to be shared for peer review and evaluation.

The UK Professional Standards Framework (2011) is now used in many countries as a mechanism for universities to accredit courses which provide a route to professional recognition to achieve a relevant category of fellowship with Advance HE. There has been little scope for colleagues who wish to incorporate various forms of visual representation into their claims and this remains the case for people who apply directly to Advance HE. There is institutional variation in the scope for applicants to incorporate pictures, diagrams, drawings and other forms of visual representation.

In the author’s application to a university for Principal Fellowship claimants were encouraged to think about more flexible approaches to representing their practice and mapping their experience to the PSF. The author began by generating hand-drawn sketches to map experience against the required criteria from the Descriptors in the UKPSF. This then provided a useful artefact for discussion and further development with a mentor. My own application included a PowerPoint slide which was reproduced as an A0 (84.1 x 118.9 cms).

Figure 11 included images and photographs (some of which have been altered for Copyright purposes. The advantage of this type of visual representation lies in that it allows the reviewers to see the clear relationships between the various Descriptors which embody the criteria for Principal Fellowship and the projects and experience covered by the person making the claim.

4. Concluding thoughts

Relationships between concepts, and their contexts, can be more easily and quickly understood using diagrams rather than in textual form (Lowe, 2004). It is claimed people with normal perceptual abilities are predominantly visual (Few, 2015). Lecturers have a responsibility to carefully consider lecture design, to harness visual tools throughout their professional practice. This can lead to a more effective use of increasing volumes of data and visual resources for learning and teaching, as well as support enhanced understanding amongst students and colleagues.

As the examples illustrate, the authors of this paper incorporate visual representation as an integral aspect of their practice. There are a plethora of ways that visual representation can be used in the process in making sense of data and theoretical frameworks; providing prompts for discussion with interviewees, allowing for alternative forms of expression amongst respondents in focus group interviews and visual dissemination of complex findings from projects.

Being competent in the analysis and interpretation of words and numbers is not sufficient in a society dominated by visual images and must be supplemented. Eilam (2012) has argued that information presented to students, including visual representations, needs to be accompanied with suitable teacher critique and guidance for students to develop their visual literacy. The exponential growth of available software and images for use in research, researching teaching and learning and teaching practices has not been paralleled with research into their effective and critical use. As Stokes (2001) suggests, the use of visuals in education, although consistently shown to aid in learning, must be carefully planned. There is a need for more research to gain insights into the ways in which lecturers’ and students’ attitudes, opinions and knowledge can be enhanced through various forms of visual representation to guide future practice.

5. References

• Banks, M. and Zeitlan, D. (2015), Visual Methods for Social Research , 2nd ed, London: Sage.
• Buckley CA (1997), A study of grounded theory identities, childhood identities and the culture of physical activity. PhD Thesis, Loughborough University, UK.
• Buckley, C.A., Nerantzi, C and Spiers, A. (2017), “Chapter 7: Enhancing learning and teaching with technology”, in: Scales, P. (Ed), An Introduction to Teaching and Learning in Higher Education: Supporting Fellowship , UK: Open University Press. pp. 107-116.
• Buckley, C. A. and Waring J. (2013), “Using Diagrams to Support the Research Process: Examples from grounded theory”, Qualitative Research , Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 148-172. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794112472280
• Barrows, H.S., and Tamblyn, R.M. (1980), Problem-based learning: An approach to medical education. New York: Springer.
• Carney, R. N., and Levin, J. R. (2002), “Pictorial illustrations still improve students’ learning from text”, Educational Psychology Review , Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 5–26. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013176309260
• Carpenter, S, K., Witherby, A. E and Tauber, S, K. (2020), “On students’ (Mis)judgments of learning and teaching effectiveness”, Journal of Applied research in Memory and cognition , Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 137-151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2019.12.009
• Clark, J. M., and Paivio, A. (1991), “Dual coding theory and education”, Educational Psychology Review , Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 149-210. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01320076
• Colin, W. (2012), Information visualisation: Perception for design , Cambridge, MA: Morgan Kaufman.
• Cousin, G. (2009), Researching Learning in Higher education: An Introduction to Contemporary Methods and Approaches , New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203884584
• Crilly, N.; Blackwell, A.F. and Clarkson, P.J. (2006), “Graphic elicitation: using research diagrams as interview stimuli”, Qualitative Research , Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 341–366. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1468794106065007
• Daniels, S. (2018), Praise for Visual Learning and Teaching , Minneapolis: Free Spirit Publishing.
• diSessa. A. A. (2002), “Students’ Criteria for Representational Adequacy”, in: Gravemeijer K., Lehrer R., Van Oers B., Verschaffel L. (eds), Symbolizing, Modeling and Tool Use in Mathematics Education: Mathematics Education Library , Vol. 30. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 105–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-3194-2_7
• Eilam, B. (2012), Teaching, Learning and Visual Literacy: The Dual Role of visual Representation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139026611
• Few, S. (2014), “Data Visualisation for Human Perception”, The Encyclopaedia of Human-Computer Interaction , 2nd edition (online). Available at: https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/book/the-encyclopedia-of-human-computer-interaction-2nd-ed/data-visualisation-for-human-perception [Accessed 2 May 2020].
• Gabriel, Y. (2008), “Against the tyranny of PowerPoint: Technology-in-use and technology abuse”, Organization Studies , Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 255–276. https://doi.org/10.1177/0170840607079536
• Geary, J. (2011), I is an other: The secret life of metaphor and how it shapes the way we see the world , New York: Harper Perennial.
• Hallewell, M. J. and Lackovic, N. (2017), “Do pictures ‘tell’ a thousand words in lectures? How lecturers vocalise photographs in the presentations”, Higher Education Research and Development , Vol. 36, No. 6, pp. 1166-1180 https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2017.1303454
• Harper, D. (2002), “Talking about pictures: a case for photo elicitation”, Visual Studies , Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 13–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/14725860220137345
• Jewitt, C. Bezemer, J and O’ Halloran, K. (2016), Introducing Multimodality. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315638027
• Kinchin, I.M. (2016), Visualising Powerful Knowledge to develop the Expert Student , Rotterdam: Sense publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6300-627-9
• Kleinman, E. B., and Dwyer, F. M. (1999), “Analysis of computerized visual skills: Relationships to intellectual skills and achievement”, International Journal of Instructional Media , Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 53-69.
• Lowe, R. (2004), “Interrogation of a dynamic visualisation during learning”, Learning and Instruction , Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 257-274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2004.06.003
• Marton, F. (1981), “Phenomenography – describing conceptions of the world around us”, Instructional Science , Vol. 10, pp. 177-200. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00132516
• Mayer, R. (2014), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning . 2nd Ed. New York: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139547369
• Mills, D. (2006), Problem-based learning: An overview , Available from: https://www.c-sap.bham.ac.uk/resources/project_reports/ShowOverview.asp?id=4 [Accessed on 2 May 2020].
• Nerantzi, C. (2018), “The design of an empirical cross-boundary collaborative open learning framework for cross-institutional academic development”, Open Praxis , Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 325-342, https://doi.org/10.5944/openpraxis.10.4.907
• Nerantzi, C. (2017), Towards a framework for cross-boundary collaborative open learning in cross-institutional academic development , PhD thesis, Edinburgh: Edinburgh Napier University.
• Nerantzi, C. (2014), “A personal journey of discoveries through a DIY open course development for professional development of teachers in Higher Education”, Journal of Pedagogic Development , Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 42-58.
• Nerantzi, C. and Uhlin, L. (2012), Flexible, Distance and Online Learning (FDOL) 131 Design , Available from: https://fdol.wordpress.com/fdol131/design/ [Accessed on 2 May 2020].
• Stokes, S. (2001), “Visual literacy in teaching and learning: A literature perspective”, Electronic Journal for the Integration of Technology in Education , Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 10-19.
• Wetton, N.M. and McWhirter, J. (1998), “Images and curriculum development in health education”, In: Prosser, J. (Ed.), Image-Based Research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers. London: Falmer Press, 263–283.

ISSN 2056-757X

If You See What I Mean? Visual Narratives – Stories Told Through, With And By Visual Images

• First Online: 08 September 2016

Cite this chapter

• lisahunter 4  

2167 Accesses

1 Citations

Visual field texts, visual methods, and representation of research using visual genres have had a long history and at times a close relationship with narrative research. Visual methods can contribute particular depth to what we can understand from a story and a teller: Visual diaries to tell personal stories; found images and participatory/researcher constructed images act as representations of narratives; photo elicitation can be used to stimulate stories; documentaries capture personal and cultural stories; and, storytelling may be captured visually as a representation and non-representation. Drawing on the work of scholars in visual traditions, including visual narrative and my own visual work, I will illustrate (in visual and textual modes) how the visual may be harnessed in three research spaces: during field text creation, as interim research texts or analysis, and as research texts for dissemination (Clandinin and Connelly 2000). I conclude with some of the issues and challenges for those wanting to employ visual narrative.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime
• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Ethical Issues in Visual Research and the Value of Stories from the Field

IE and Visual Research Methods: An Open-Ended Discussion

Visuality and Anthropology: Drawings, Painting, Photography, and Movie

In 2014 the special issue Framing Lives (2014) employed visual life narratives (Chansky 2014 ), graphic memoirs (Refaie 2014 ), photo memoirs (Tamboukou 2014 ) and photographs in memoirs (Cantiello 2014 ) to “rigorously explore …’framing’ [what is in and not in the picture] as it applies to presenting and displaying lives” (Arthur 2014 , p. 2). What this issue makes clear is the key role of visual culture in creating and representing memories.

See one opinion piece that includes the film made with Lima http://www.theinertia.com/surf/silvana-lima-says-she-wasnt-pretty-enough-to-sponsor/ as well as a response saying ‘get over it’ http://www.theinertia.com/surf/womens-surfing-doesnt-do-ugly-get-over-it/

For a good summary see Wiles, R., Prosser, J., Bagnoli, A., Clark, A., Davies, K., Hollands, S., & Renold, E. (2008). Visual ethics: Ethical issues in visual research and Waycott, J., Guillemin, M., Warr, D., Cox, S., Drew, S. E., & Howell, C. (2015). Re/formulating ethical issues for visual research methods. Visual Methodologies: A Postdisciplinary Journal, 3 (2). doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7331/vm.v3i2.64

Such as Bank’s visual methods in social research, 2001; Bates’ Video methods: Social science research in motion , 2015; Harpers Visual sociology , 2012 ; Rose’s Visual methodologies , 2012; and Pink’s Advances in visual methodologies , 2012.

(2015). Special issue: The narrative function of photography in comics. Image [&] Narrative , 16(2), 1–145.

Google Scholar  

Amihay, O. (2015). Red diapers, pink stories. Color photography and self-outing in Jewish women’s comics. Image [&] Narrative, 16 (2), 42–64.

Arthur, P. (2014). Out of frame. a/b: Auto/Biography Studies, 29 (1), 1–9.

Article   Google Scholar  

Azzarito, L. (2012). Photography as a pedagogical tool for shedding light on ‘bodies-at-risk’ in physical culture. Visual Studies, 27 (3), 295–309.

Bach, H. (1999, April). Breast wishes: A visual narrative. Poster/paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

Bach, H. (2007). Composing a visual narrative inquiry. In D. J. Clandinin (Ed.), Handbook of narrative inquiry: Mapping a methodology (pp. 280–307). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Bamburg, M. (2006). Stories: Big or small: Why do we care? Narrative Inquiry, 16 (1), 139–147.

Barkhuizen, G. (2008). A narrative approach to exploring context in language teaching. ELT Journal, 62 (3), 231–239. doi: 10.1093/elt/ccm043 .

Barthes, R. (1977). Image-music-text . (ed. and trans. S. Heath). London: Fontana.

Barthes, R. (1983). The photographic message. In Selected writings . New York: Fontana.

Bates, C. (Ed.). (2015). Video methods: Social science research in motion . London: Routledge.

Becker, H. (Ed.). (1981). Exploring society photographically . Evanston: Northwestern University Press.

Bekkers, V., & Moody, R. (2014). Accountability and the framing power of visual technologies: How do visualized reconstructions of incidents influence public and political accountability discussions? The Information Society: An International Journal, 30 (2), 144–158.

Bell, S. E. (1999). Narratives and lives: Women’s health politics and the diagnosis of cancer for DES daughters. Narrative Inquiry, 9 (2), 347–389.

Berger, J. (1972). Ways of seeing . London/Harmondsworth: British Broadcasting Corporation/Penguin.

Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a theory of practice . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Book   Google Scholar  

Brown, D. (2006). Surfing: Historic images from Bishop Museum archives. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press.

Busanich, R., McGannon, K., & Schinke, R. (2016). Exploring disordered eating and embodiment in male distance runners through visual narrative methods. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 8 (1), 95–112.

Caine, V. (2010). Visualizing community understanding narrative inquiry as action research. Educational Action Research, 18(4), 481–496.

Calhoun, C. (2012). Foreward. In F. Franz Schultheis & C. Frisinghelli (Eds.), Picturing Algeria: Pierre Bourdieu (pp. i–xvi). New York: Columbia University Press.

Cantiello, J. (2014). School pictures: Photographs in the memoirs of White Teachers of Native American Children. a/b: Auto/Biography Studies, 29 (1), 79–106.

Carrington, S., Allen, K., & Osmolowksi, D. (2007). Visual narrative – A technique to enhance secondary students’ contribution to the development of inclusive, socially just school environments – Lessons from a box of crayons. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 7 (1), 8–15.

Cashmore, A., Green, P., & Scott, J. (2010). An ethnographic approach to studying the student experience: The student perspective through free form video diaries. The International Journal of the First Year in Higher Education, 1 (1), 106–111.

Chansky, R. (2014). When words are not enough: Narrating power and femininity through the visual language of Judy Chocago’s The Dinner Party. a/b: Auto/biography Studies, 29 (1), 51–77.

Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research (1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Cohn, N. (2013). Visual narrative structure. Cognitive Science, 34 , 413–452.

Comer, K. (2010). Surfer girls in the new world order . Durham: Duke University Press.

Eisner, W. (1985). Comics and sequential art . Tamarac: Poorhouse Press.

Ernst, N. (2015). Authenticity in graphic memoirs. Two nordic examples. Image [&] Narrative, 16 (2), 65–83.

Everett, M. (2015, online). Fostering first-year students’ engagement and well-being through visual narratives. Studies in Higher Education.

Evers, C. (2015). Researching action sport with a GoPro TM camera: An embodied and emotional mobile video tale of the sea, masculinity and men-who-surf. In I. Wellard (Ed.), Researching embodied sport: Exploring movement cultures (pp. 145–163). Routledge: London.

Ewert, J. (2000). Visual narrative: Art Spiegelman’s “Mauss”. Narrative, 8 (1), 87–103.

Frohmann, I. (2005). The framing safety project: Photographs and narratives by battered women. Violence Against Women, 11 (11), 1396–1419.

Fyfe, G., & Law, J. (1988). Introduction: On the invisibility of the visible. In G. Fyfe & J. Law (Eds.), Picturing power: Visual depiction and social relations (pp. 1–14). London: Routledge.

Gillies, V., Harden, A., Johnson, K., Reavey, P., Strange, V., & Willig, C. (2005). Painting pictures of embodied experience: The use of nonverbal data production for the study of embodiment. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 2 , 199–212.

Goffman, E. (1979). Gender advertisements . London: Macmillan.

Greenwood, K., & Jenkins, J. (2015). Visual framing of the Syrian conflict in news and public affairs magazines. Journalism Studies, 16 (2), 207–227.

Hamburger, J. (1997). Nuns as artists: The visual culture of a medieval convent . Berkeley: California University Press.

Harper, D. (1998). An argument for visual sociology. In J. Prosser (Ed.), Image-based research: A sourcebook for qualitative researchers (pp. 24–41). London: Falmer Press.

Harper, D. (2002). Talking about pictures: A case for photo-elicitation. Visual Studies, 17 , 13–26.

Harper, D. (2012). Visual sociology . London: Routledge.

Harrison, B. (2002). Photographic visions and narrative inquiry. Narrative Inquiry, 12 (1), 87–111.

Hoecker, R. (2014). Visual narrative and trauma recovery. Narrative Inquiry, 24 (2), 259–280.

Horstkotte, S., & Pedri, N. (2008). Introduction: Photographic interventions. Photography in fiction. In S. Horstkotte & N. Pedri. (Eds.), Special issue of Poetics Today , 29 (1), 1–29.

Hunter, L. (2002). Young people, physical education, and transition: understanding practices in the middle years of schooling. (Doctoral Thesis), The University of Queensland, Brisbane.

Hunter, L. (2004). Bourdieu and the social space of the PE class: Reproduction of Doxa through practice. Sport, Education and Society, 9 (2), 175–192.

Jacobs, D. (2007). More than words: Comics as a means of teaching multiple literacies. The English Journal, 96(3), 19–25.

Jay, M. (1993). Downcast eyes: The denigration of vision in twentieth-century French thought . Berkeley: California University Press.

Jenks, C. (1995). The centrality of the eye in Western culture. In C. Jenks (Ed.), Visual culture (pp. 1–12). London: Routledge.

Johnson, G. (2004). Reconceptualising the visual in narrative inquiry into teaching. Teaching & Teacher Education, 20 , 423–434.

Jones, R. (2015). (Re)thinking orientalism: Using graphic narratives to teach critical visual literacy . New York: Peter Lang.

Jungnickel, K. (2015). Jumps, stutters, blurs and other failed images: Using time-lapse video in cycling research. In C. Bates (Ed.), Video methods: Social science research in motion (pp. 121–140). London: Routledge.

Kang, J., & Lin, C. (2015). Effects of message framing and visual-fear appeals on smoker responses to antismoking ads. Journal of Health Communication: International Perspectives, 20 (6), 647–655.

Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (2006). Reading images: The grammar of visual design (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.

lisahunter (2006). Fueled by desire: Token hotties, celebrities, girls who kick arse and hardcore candy as possible representations in board cultures . Paper presented at the 13th Commonwealth International Sport Conference, Melbourne.

lisahunter. (2012). “You hurt me Fizz-edd”: The socially classed discursive practices of the PE lesson. In F. Dowling, H. Fitzgerald, & A. Flintoff (Eds.), Equity and difference in physical education, youth sport and health: A narrative approach (pp. 140–149). London: Routledge.

lisahunter. (2013). What did I do-see-learn at the beach? Surfing festival as a cultural pedagogical sight/site. In L. Azzarito & D. Kirk (Eds.), Physical culture, pedagogies and visual methods (pp. 144–161). New York: Routledge.

lisahunter (2014a). Exploitation and (unqueering) public pedagogy: Gender and sex parody in YouTube surf festival promotion . Paper presented at the Gender & Education, Melbourne, Australia.

lisahunter (2014b). She was/is naked on a surfboard: Making sens* of female, surfing, and the Pacific . Paper presented at the Contemporary Ethnography Across the Disciplines, Waikato, Aotearoa New Zealand.

lisahunter (2015a, Feb, 26). Positioning female participation in the field of surfing: Illusio, equity and sex . Paper presented at the Beyond the fields we know: A cross-disciplinary colloquium on Bourdieusian Field methods and theories, Sydney.

lisahunter. (2015a). ‘Stop’: ‘No’. Exploring social suffering in practices of surfing as opportunities for change. In lisahunter, W. Smith, & E. Emerald (Eds.), Pierre Bourdieu and physical capital (pp. 47–56). Abingdon: Routledge.

lisahunter (2015c). Digital $%#@ smarts a lot! An autoethnographic account of academic work. In N. Wright & D. Forbes (Eds.), Digital smarts: Enhancing learning and teaching (pp. 179–208). The University of Waikato: Wilf Malcolm Institute of Educational Research http://www.waikato.ac.nz/wmier/publications/books/digital-smarts-enhancing-learning-and-teaching

lisahunter. (2016). Spinning wheel very pretty: Cybridity and the cyborg academic. In E. Emerald, R. E. Rinehart, & A. Garcia (Eds.), Global South ethnographies: Minding the senses (pp. 147–152). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.

lisahunter (in press a). Desexing surfing? Pedagogies of possibility. In D. Hough-Snee, & A. Eastman (Eds.), Radical politics, global culture: A critical surf studies reader. Durham: Duke University Press.

lisahunter (in press b). Visual narratives of ‘female’ as a political position: Pedagogies of surfing events and their media. In H. Thorpe & R. Olive (Eds.), Women in action sport cultures: identity, politics, experience and pedagogy. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

lisahunter, & Austin, H. (2006). Pedagogy of the surfing magazine: Learning to be female. Unpublished paper, Griffith University.

lisahunter, Wubbels, T., Clandinin, D. J., & Hamilton, M. L. (2014). Moving beyond text: Editorial for special issue. Teaching & Teacher Education, 37 (1), 162–164.

Luttrell, W. (2003). Pregnant bodies, fertile minds: Gender, race and the schooling of pregnant teens . New York: Routledge.

MacDougall, D. (2006). The corporeal image film, ethnography, and the senses. Alexander Street anthropology (pp. 1 online resource (xiii, 312). Retrieved from http://www.aspresolver.com/aspresolver.asp?ANTH;1666491

McCloud, S. (1993). Understanding comics: The invisible art . New York: HarperCollins.

McNutt, J. (2013). Art therapy as a form of visual narrative in oncology care. In C. Malchiodi (Ed.), Art therapy and health care (pp. 127–135). New York: Guilford Press.

Mirzoeff, N. (1999). An introduction to visual culture . London: Routledge.

Pedri, N. (2015). Thinking about photography in comics. Image [&] Narrative, 16 (2), 1–13.

Phoenix, C. (2010). Seeing the world of physical culture: The potential of visual methods for qualitative research in sport and exercise. Qualitative Research in Sport and Exercise, 2 (2), 93–108.

Pink, S. (Ed.). (2012). Advances in visual methodologies . London: Sage.

Postema, B. (2013). Narrative structure in comics: Making sense of fragments . Rochester: RIT Press.

Prosser, J. (2011). Visual methodology: Toward a more seeing research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (4th ed., pp. 479–495). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Radley, A. (2004). Pity, modernity and the spectacle of suffering. Journal of Palliative Care, 20 (3), 179–184.

Refaie, E. (2014). Looking on the dark and bright side: Creative metaphors of depression in two graphic memoirs. a/b: Auto/Biography Studies, 29 (1), 149–174.

Rich, M., Patashnick, J., & Chalfen, R. (2002). Visual illness narratives of asthma: Explanatory models and health-related behavior. American Journal of Health Behavior, 26 (6), 442–453.

Riessman, C. (2008). Narrative methods for the human sciences . Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Rose, G. (2012). Visual methodologies: An introduction to researching with visual materials (3rd ed.). London: Sage.

Schultheis, F., & Frisinghelli, C. (Eds.). (2012). Picturing Algeria: Pierre Bourdieu . New York: Columbia University Press.

Shohat, E., & Stam, R. (1998). Narrativizing visual culture: Towards a polycentric aesthetic. In N. Mirzoeff (Ed.), The visual culture reader (pp. 27–49). London: Routledge.

Smith, B., & Sparkes, A. (2008). Narrative inquiry in sport and exercise psychology: What can it mean, and why might we do it? Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10 , 1–11.

Sontag, S. (1977). On photography . New York: Picador.

Sontag, S. (2003). Regarding the pain of others . New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux.

Sztompka, P. (2015). Visual sociology. In J. Wright (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (2nd ed., Vol. 25, pp. 191–196). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Tamboukou, M. (2014). Narrative personae and visual signs: Reading Leonard’s intimate photo memoir. a/b: Auto/Biography Studies, 29 (1), 27–49.

The New London Group. (1996). A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard Educational Review, 66 (1), 60–92.

Vannini, P. (2015). Afterword: Video methods beyond representation: Experimenting with multimodal, sensuous, affective intensities in the 21st century. In C. Bates (Ed.), Video methods: Social science research in motion (pp. 230–240). London: Routledge.

Walker, S. (2005). Artmaking in an age of visual culture: Vision and visuality. Visual Arts Research, 59, 23–37.

Walkerdine, V. (1990). Video replay: Families, films and fantasy. In M. Alvarado & J. Thompson (Eds.), The media reader (pp. 339–357). London: BFI.

Zelizer, B. (1998). Remembering to forget: Holocaust memory through the camera’s eye . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Freelance Academic, Independent Scholar, Hamilton, New Zealand

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to lisahunter .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Queensland Conservatorium Research Centre, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

Rachael Dwyer

Griffith Institute for Educational Research, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

elke emerald

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer Science+Business Media Singapore

About this chapter

lisahunter (2017). If You See What I Mean? Visual Narratives – Stories Told Through, With And By Visual Images. In: Dwyer, R., Davis, I., emerald, e. (eds) Narrative Research in Practice. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1579-3_5

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1579-3_5

Published : 08 September 2016

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

Print ISBN : 978-981-10-1577-9

Online ISBN : 978-981-10-1579-3

eBook Packages : Education Education (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

• Search Menu

Sign in through your institution

• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
• Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
• Archaeology by Region
• Archaeology of Religion
• Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
• Biblical Archaeology
• Contemporary and Public Archaeology
• Environmental Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• History and Theory of Archaeology
• Industrial Archaeology
• Landscape Archaeology
• Mortuary Archaeology
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Underwater Archaeology
• Urban Archaeology
• Zooarchaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• Architectural Structure and Design
• History of Architecture
• Residential and Domestic Buildings
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• Art Subjects and Themes
• History of Art
• Industrial and Commercial Art
• Theory of Art
• Biographical Studies
• Byzantine Studies
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Mythology
• Classical Numismatics
• Classical Literature
• Classical Reception
• Classical Art and Architecture
• Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
• Greek and Roman Papyrology
• Greek and Roman Epigraphy
• Greek and Roman Law
• Greek and Roman Archaeology
• Late Antiquity
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Social History
• Digital Humanities
• Browse content in History
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Diplomatic History
• Environmental History
• Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Emotions
• History of Agriculture
• History of Education
• History of Gender and Sexuality
• Industrial History
• Intellectual History
• International History
• Labour History
• Legal and Constitutional History
• Local and Family History
• Maritime History
• Military History
• National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
• Oral History
• Political History
• Public History
• Regional and National History
• Revolutions and Rebellions
• Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Urban History
• World History
• Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
• Language Learning (Specific Skills)
• Language Teaching Theory and Methods
• Browse content in Linguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Computational Linguistics
• Forensic Linguistics
• Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
• Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
• History of English
• Language Evolution
• Language Reference
• Language Acquisition
• Language Variation
• Language Families
• Lexicography
• Linguistic Anthropology
• Linguistic Theories
• Linguistic Typology
• Phonetics and Phonology
• Psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Translation and Interpretation
• Writing Systems
• Browse content in Literature
• Bibliography
• Children's Literature Studies
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies (Asian)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
• Literary Studies (Modernism)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (African American Literature)
• Literary Studies (British and Irish)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (History of the Book)
• Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
• Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
• Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
• Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
• Literary Studies (War Literature)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Applied Music
• Dance and Music
• Ethics in Music
• Ethnomusicology
• Gender and Sexuality in Music
• Medicine and Music
• Music Cultures
• Music and Media
• Music and Religion
• Music and Culture
• Music Education and Pedagogy
• Music Theory and Analysis
• Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
• Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
• Musicology and Music History
• Performance Practice and Studies
• Race and Ethnicity in Music
• Sound Studies
• Browse content in Performing Arts
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Epistemology
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Meta-Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Moral Philosophy
• Non-Western Philosophy
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Perception
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
• Practical Ethics
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• East Asian Religions
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Qumran Studies
• Religion and Education
• Religion and Health
• Religion and Politics
• Religion and Science
• Religion and Law
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cookery, Food, and Drink
• Cultural Studies
• Customs and Traditions
• Ethical Issues and Debates
• Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
• Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
• Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
• Sports and Outdoor Recreation
• Technology and Society
• Travel and Holiday
• Visual Culture
• Browse content in Law
• Arbitration
• Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
• Commercial Law
• Company Law
• Browse content in Comparative Law
• Systems of Law
• Competition Law
• Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Government Powers
• Judicial Review
• Local Government Law
• Military and Defence Law
• Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
• Construction Law
• Contract Law
• Browse content in Criminal Law
• Criminal Procedure
• Criminal Evidence Law
• Sentencing and Punishment
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• Browse content in Financial Law
• Banking Law
• Insolvency Law
• History of Law
• Human Rights and Immigration
• Intellectual Property Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
• Public International Law
• IT and Communications Law
• Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
• Law and Politics
• Law and Society
• Browse content in Legal System and Practice
• Courts and Procedure
• Legal Skills and Practice
• Legal System - Costs and Funding
• Primary Sources of Law
• Regulation of Legal Profession
• Medical and Healthcare Law
• Browse content in Policing
• Criminal Investigation and Detection
• Police and Security Services
• Police Procedure and Law
• Police Regional Planning
• Browse content in Property Law
• Personal Property Law
• Restitution
• Study and Revision
• Terrorism and National Security Law
• Browse content in Trusts Law
• Wills and Probate or Succession
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Allied Health Professions
• Arts Therapies
• Clinical Science
• Dietetics and Nutrition
• Occupational Therapy
• Operating Department Practice
• Physiotherapy
• Radiography
• Speech and Language Therapy
• Browse content in Anaesthetics
• General Anaesthesia
• Clinical Neuroscience
• Browse content in Clinical Medicine
• Acute Medicine
• Cardiovascular Medicine
• Clinical Genetics
• Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
• Dermatology
• Endocrinology and Diabetes
• Gastroenterology
• Genito-urinary Medicine
• Geriatric Medicine
• Infectious Diseases
• Medical Toxicology
• Medical Oncology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Medicine
• Rehabilitation Medicine
• Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
• Rheumatology
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports and Exercise Medicine
• Community Medical Services
• Critical Care
• Emergency Medicine
• Forensic Medicine
• Haematology
• History of Medicine
• Browse content in Medical Skills
• Clinical Skills
• Communication Skills
• Nursing Skills
• Surgical Skills
• Browse content in Medical Dentistry
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Paediatric Dentistry
• Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
• Surgical Dentistry
• Medical Ethics
• Medical Statistics and Methodology
• Browse content in Neurology
• Clinical Neurophysiology
• Neuropathology
• Nursing Studies
• Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
• Gynaecology
• Occupational Medicine
• Ophthalmology
• Otolaryngology (ENT)
• Browse content in Paediatrics
• Neonatology
• Browse content in Pathology
• Chemical Pathology
• Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
• Histopathology
• Medical Microbiology and Virology
• Patient Education and Information
• Browse content in Pharmacology
• Psychopharmacology
• Browse content in Popular Health
• Caring for Others
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Self-help and Personal Development
• Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
• Cell Biology
• Molecular Biology and Genetics
• Reproduction, Growth and Development
• Primary Care
• Professional Development in Medicine
• Browse content in Psychiatry
• Addiction Medicine
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Learning Disabilities
• Old Age Psychiatry
• Psychotherapy
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Radiology
• Clinical Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Oncology
• Reproductive Medicine
• Browse content in Surgery
• Cardiothoracic Surgery
• Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
• General Surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Paediatric Surgery
• Peri-operative Care
• Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
• Surgical Oncology
• Transplant Surgery
• Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
• Vascular Surgery
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Aquatic Biology
• Biochemistry
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
• Developmental Biology
• Ecology and Conservation
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Microbiology
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Natural History
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Research Methods in Life Sciences
• Structural Biology
• Systems Biology
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry
• Computational Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Environmental Chemistry
• Industrial Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Materials Chemistry
• Medicinal Chemistry
• Mineralogy and Gems
• Organic Chemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Polymer Chemistry
• Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
• Theoretical Chemistry
• Browse content in Computer Science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Architecture and Logic Design
• Game Studies
• Human-Computer Interaction
• Mathematical Theory of Computation
• Programming Languages
• Software Engineering
• Systems Analysis and Design
• Virtual Reality
• Browse content in Computing
• Business Applications
• Computer Security
• Computer Games
• Computer Networking and Communications
• Digital Lifestyle
• Graphical and Digital Media Applications
• Operating Systems
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Atmospheric Sciences
• Environmental Geography
• Geology and the Lithosphere
• Maps and Map-making
• Meteorology and Climatology
• Oceanography and Hydrology
• Palaeontology
• Physical Geography and Topography
• Regional Geography
• Soil Science
• Urban Geography
• Browse content in Engineering and Technology
• Agriculture and Farming
• Biological Engineering
• Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
• Electronics and Communications Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Engineering (General)
• Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
• History of Engineering and Technology
• Mechanical Engineering and Materials
• Technology of Industrial Chemistry
• Transport Technology and Trades
• Browse content in Environmental Science
• Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
• Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Environmental Sustainability
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
• Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Materials Science
• Ceramics and Glasses
• Composite Materials
• Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
• Nanotechnology
• Browse content in Mathematics
• Applied Mathematics
• Biomathematics and Statistics
• History of Mathematics
• Mathematical Education
• Mathematical Finance
• Mathematical Analysis
• Numerical and Computational Mathematics
• Probability and Statistics
• Pure Mathematics
• Browse content in Neuroscience
• Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
• Development of the Nervous System
• Disorders of the Nervous System
• History of Neuroscience
• Invertebrate Neurobiology
• Molecular and Cellular Systems
• Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
• Neuroscientific Techniques
• Sensory and Motor Systems
• Browse content in Physics
• Astronomy and Astrophysics
• Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
• Biological and Medical Physics
• Classical Mechanics
• Computational Physics
• Condensed Matter Physics
• Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
• History of Physics
• Mathematical and Statistical Physics
• Measurement Science
• Nuclear Physics
• Particles and Fields
• Plasma Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Relativity and Gravitation
• Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
• Browse content in Psychology
• Affective Sciences
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Criminal and Forensic Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems in Psychology
• Music Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational Psychology
• Psychological Assessment and Testing
• Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
• Psychology Professional Development and Training
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Human Evolution
• Medical Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Theory and Practice of Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business Ethics
• Business Strategy
• Business History
• Business and Technology
• Business and Government
• Business and the Environment
• Comparative Management
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Entrepreneurship
• Health Management
• Human Resource Management
• Industrial and Employment Relations
• Industry Studies
• Information and Communication Technologies
• International Business
• Knowledge Management
• Management and Management Techniques
• Operations Management
• Organizational Theory and Behaviour
• Pensions and Pension Management
• Public and Nonprofit Management
• Social Issues in Business and Management
• Strategic Management
• Supply Chain Management
• Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Criminal Justice
• Criminology
• Forms of Crime
• International and Comparative Criminology
• Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
• Development Studies
• Browse content in Economics
• Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
• Asian Economics
• Behavioural Finance
• Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
• Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
• Economic History
• Economic Systems
• Economic Methodology
• Economic Development and Growth
• Financial Markets
• Financial Institutions and Services
• General Economics and Teaching
• Health, Education, and Welfare
• History of Economic Thought
• International Economics
• Labour and Demographic Economics
• Law and Economics
• Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
• Microeconomics
• Public Economics
• Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
• Welfare Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Adult Education and Continuous Learning
• Care and Counselling of Students
• Early Childhood and Elementary Education
• Educational Equipment and Technology
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Organization and Management of Education
• Philosophy and Theory of Education
• Schools Studies
• Secondary Education
• Teaching of a Specific Subject
• Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
• Teaching Skills and Techniques
• Browse content in Environment
• Applied Ecology (Social Science)
• Climate Change
• Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Social Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environment)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Social Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
• Sustainability
• Browse content in Human Geography
• Cultural Geography
• Economic Geography
• Political Geography
• Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
• Communication Studies
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• African Politics
• Asian Politics
• Chinese Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Elections and Electoral Studies
• Environmental Politics
• Ethnic Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Gender and Politics
• Human Rights and Politics
• Indian Politics
• International Relations
• International Organization (Politics)
• Irish Politics
• Latin American Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Behaviour
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Political Methodology
• Political Communication
• Political Philosophy
• Political Sociology
• Political Theory
• Politics and Law
• Politics of Development
• Public Policy
• Public Administration
• Qualitative Political Methodology
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• Regional Political Studies
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• State and Local Government
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• East Asian Studies
• Japanese Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Scottish Studies
• Browse content in Research and Information
• Research Methods
• Browse content in Social Work
• Addictions and Substance Misuse
• Adoption and Fostering
• Care of the Elderly
• Child and Adolescent Social Work
• Couple and Family Social Work
• Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
• Emergency Services
• Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
• International and Global Issues in Social Work
• Mental and Behavioural Health
• Social Justice and Human Rights
• Social Policy and Advocacy
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Social Work Macro Practice
• Social Work Practice Settings
• Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
• Welfare and Benefit Systems
• Browse content in Sociology
• Childhood Studies
• Community Development
• Comparative and Historical Sociology
• Disability Studies
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Gerontology and Ageing
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Organizations
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Theory
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Social Research and Statistics
• Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Browse content in Warfare and Defence
• Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
• Land Forces and Warfare
• Military Administration
• Military Life and Institutions
• Naval Forces and Warfare
• Other Warfare and Defence Issues
• Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
• Weapons and Equipment

• < Previous chapter
• Next chapter >

5 On the Function of Visual Representation

• Published: April 1996
• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

The advent of the computer age enabled significant developments in the study of visual representation, particularly in the emergence of computational theories which are able to make sense of the large volume of data collected. This background leads into a discussion of the “Literalist View,” which explains the phenomenon of perception as the product of similar logical computations by the brain to reconcile visual stimuli with existing mental “retinotopic structures,” which are assumed to be truthful representations of our world. The chapter then cites several works—namely, that of Churchland, Grimes, and the Nina experiments—that discuss the loopholes in the theory. An alternative, non-Literalist theory is then offered—the “Functional View”—which provides a different insight into how the brain interprets visual stimuli. Specifically, it is posited that there is evidence of selective visual representation, dependent on the importance of the visual stimuli to the particular individual.

Personal account

• Sign in with email/username & password
• Get email alerts
• Save searches
• Purchase content
• Activate your purchase/trial code
• Add your ORCID iD

Institutional access

Sign in with a library card.

• Sign in with username/password
• Recommend to your librarian
• Institutional account management
• Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

• Click Sign in through your institution.
• Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
• When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
• Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

• Click Sign in through society site.
• When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Rights and permissions
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Initial Thoughts

Perspectives & resources, what is high-quality mathematics instruction and why is it important.

• Page 1: The Importance of High-Quality Mathematics Instruction
• Page 2: A Standards-Based Mathematics Curriculum
• Page 3: Evidence-Based Mathematics Practices

What evidence-based mathematics practices can teachers employ?

• Page 4: Explicit, Systematic Instruction

Page 5: Visual Representations

• Page 6: Schema Instruction
• Page 7: Metacognitive Strategies
• Page 8: Effective Classroom Practices
• Page 9: References & Additional Resources
• Page 10: Credits

Research Shows

• Students who use accurate visual representations are six times more likely to correctly solve mathematics problems than are students who do not use them. However, students who use inaccurate visual representations are less likely to correctly solve mathematics problems than those who do not use visual representations at all. (Boonen, van Wesel, Jolles, & van der Schoot, 2014)
• Students with a learning disability (LD) often do not create accurate visual representations or use them strategically to solve problems. Teaching students to systematically use a visual representation to solve word problems has led to substantial improvements in math achievement for students with learning disabilities. (van Garderen, Scheuermann, & Jackson, 2012; van Garderen, Scheuermann, & Poch, 2014)
• Students who use visual representations to solve word problems are more likely to solve the problems accurately. This was equally true for students who had LD, were low-achieving, or were average-achieving. (Krawec, 2014)

Visual representations are flexible; they can be used across grade levels and types of math problems. They can be used by teachers to teach mathematics facts and by students to learn mathematics content. Visual representations can take a number of forms. Click on the links below to view some of the visual representations most commonly used by teachers and students.

How does this practice align?

High-leverage practice (hlp).

• HLP15 : Provide scaffolded supports

CCSSM: Standards for Mathematical Practice

• MP1 : Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.

Number Lines

Definition : A straight line that shows the order of and the relation between numbers.

Common Uses : addition, subtraction, counting

Strip Diagrams

Definition : A bar divided into rectangles that accurately represent quantities noted in the problem.

Common Uses : addition, fractions, proportions, ratios

Definition : Simple drawings of concrete or real items (e.g., marbles, trucks).

Common Uses : counting, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division

Graphs/Charts

Definition : Drawings that depict information using lines, shapes, and colors.

Common Uses : comparing numbers, statistics, ratios, algebra

Graphic Organizers

Definition : Visual that assists students in remembering and organizing information, as well as depicting the relationships between ideas (e.g., word webs, tables, Venn diagrams).

Common Uses : algebra, geometry

Before they can solve problems, however, students must first know what type of visual representation to create and use for a given mathematics problem. Some students—specifically, high-achieving students, gifted students—do this automatically, whereas others need to be explicitly taught how. This is especially the case for students who struggle with mathematics and those with mathematics learning disabilities. Without explicit, systematic instruction on how to create and use visual representations, these students often create visual representations that are disorganized or contain incorrect or partial information. Consider the examples below.

Elementary Example

Mrs. Aldridge ask her first-grade students to add 2 + 4 by drawing dots.

Notice that Talia gets the correct answer. However, because Colby draws his dots in haphazard fashion, he fails to count all of them and consequently arrives at the wrong solution.

High School Example

Mr. Huang asks his students to solve the following word problem:

The flagpole needs to be replaced. The school would like to replace it with the same size pole. When Juan stands 11 feet from the base of the pole, the angle of elevation from Juan’s feet to the top of the pole is 70 degrees. How tall is the pole?

Compare the drawings below created by Brody and Zoe to represent this problem. Notice that Brody drew an accurate representation and applied the correct strategy. In contrast, Zoe drew a picture with partially correct information. The 11 is in the correct place, but the 70° is not. As a result of her inaccurate representation, Zoe is unable to move forward and solve the problem. However, given an accurate representation developed by someone else, Zoe is more likely to solve the problem correctly.

Manipulatives

Some students will not be able to grasp mathematics skills and concepts using only the types of visual representations noted in the table above. Very young children and students who struggle with mathematics often require different types of visual representations known as manipulatives. These concrete, hands-on materials and objects—for example, an abacus or coins—help students to represent the mathematical idea they are trying to learn or the problem they are attempting to solve. Manipulatives can help students develop a conceptual understanding of mathematical topics. (For the purpose of this module, the term concrete objects refers to manipulatives and the term visual representations refers to schematic diagrams.)

It is important that the teacher make explicit the connection between the concrete object and the abstract concept being taught. The goal is for the student to eventually understand the concepts and procedures without the use of manipulatives. For secondary students who struggle with mathematics, teachers should show the abstract along with the concrete or visual representation and explicitly make the connection between them.

A move from concrete objects or visual representations to using abstract equations can be difficult for some students. One strategy teachers can use to help students systematically transition among concrete objects, visual representations, and abstract equations is the Concrete-Representational-Abstract (CRA) framework.

If you would like to learn more about this framework, click here.

Concrete-Representational-Abstract Framework

• Concrete —Students interact and manipulate three-dimensional objects, for example algebra tiles or other algebra manipulatives with representations of variables and units.
• Representational — Students use two-dimensional drawings to represent problems. These pictures may be presented to them by the teacher, or through the curriculum used in the class, or students may draw their own representation of the problem.
• Abstract — Students solve problems with numbers, symbols, and words without any concrete or representational assistance.

CRA is effective across all age levels and can assist students in learning concepts, procedures, and applications. When implementing each component, teachers should use explicit, systematic instruction and continually monitor student work to assess their understanding, asking them questions about their thinking and providing clarification as needed. Concrete and representational activities must reflect the actual process of solving the problem so that students are able to generalize the process to solve an abstract equation. The illustration below highlights each of these components.

For Your Information

One promising practice for moving secondary students with mathematics difficulties or disabilities from the use of manipulatives and visual representations to the abstract equation quickly is the CRA-I strategy . In this modified version of CRA, the teacher simultaneously presents the content using concrete objects, visual representations of the concrete objects, and the abstract equation. Studies have shown that this framework is effective for teaching algebra to this population of students (Strickland & Maccini, 2012; Strickland & Maccini, 2013; Strickland, 2017).

Kim Paulsen discusses the benefits of manipulatives and a number of things to keep in mind when using them (time: 2:35).

Kim Paulsen, EdD Associate Professor, Special Education Vanderbilt University

View Transcript

Transcript: Kim Paulsen, EdD

Manipulatives are a great way of helping kids understand conceptually. The use of manipulatives really helps students see that conceptually, and it clicks a little more with them. Some of the things, though, that we need to remember when we’re using manipulatives is that it is important to give students a little bit of free time when you’re using a new manipulative so that they can just explore with them. We need to have specific rules for how to use manipulatives, that they aren’t toys, that they really are learning materials, and how students pick them up, how they put them away, the right time to use them, and making sure that they’re not distracters while we’re actually doing the presentation part of the lesson. One of the important things is that we don’t want students to memorize the algorithm or the procedures while they’re using the manipulatives. It really is just to help them understand conceptually. That doesn’t mean that kids are automatically going to understand conceptually or be able to make that bridge between using the concrete manipulatives into them being able to solve the problems. For some kids, it is difficult to use the manipulatives. That’s not how they learn, and so we don’t want to force kids to have to use manipulatives if it’s not something that is helpful for them. So we have to remember that manipulatives are one way to think about teaching math.

I think part of the reason that some teachers don’t use them is because it takes a lot of time, it takes a lot of organization, and they also feel that students get too reliant on using manipulatives. One way to think about using manipulatives is that you do it a couple of lessons when you’re teaching a new concept, and then take those away so that students are able to do just the computation part of it. It is true we can’t walk around life with manipulatives in our hands. And I think one of the other reasons that a lot of schools or teachers don’t use manipulatives is because they’re very expensive. And so it’s very helpful if all of the teachers in the school can pool resources and have a manipulative room where teachers can go check out manipulatives so that it’s not so expensive. Teachers have to know how to use them, and that takes a lot of practice.