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Table of Contents – Types, Formats, Examples

Table of Contents

Definition:

Table of contents (TOC) is a list of the headings or sections in a document or book, arranged in the order in which they appear. It serves as a roadmap or guide to the contents of the document, allowing readers to quickly find specific information they are looking for.

A typical table of contents includes chapter titles, section headings, subheadings, and their corresponding page numbers.

The table of contents is usually located at the beginning of the document or book, after the title page and any front matter, such as a preface or introduction.

Table of Contents in Research

In Research, A Table of Contents (TOC) is a structured list of the main sections or chapters of a research paper , Thesis and Dissertation . It provides readers with an overview of the organization and structure of the document, allowing them to quickly locate specific information and navigate through the document.

Importance of Table of Contents

Here are some reasons why a TOC is important:

• Navigation : It serves as a roadmap that helps readers navigate the document easily. By providing a clear and concise overview of the contents, readers can quickly locate the section they need to read without having to search through the entire document.
• Organization : A well-structured TOC reflects the organization of the document. It helps to organize the content logically and categorize it into easily digestible chunks, which makes it easier for readers to understand and follow.
• Clarity : It can help to clarify the document’s purpose, scope, and structure. It provides an overview of the document’s main topics and subtopics, which can help readers to understand the content’s overall message.
• Efficiency : This can save readers time and effort by allowing them to skip to the section they need to read, rather than having to go through the entire document.
• Professionalism : Including a Table of Contents in a document shows that the author has taken the time and effort to organize the content properly. It adds a level of professionalism and credibility to the document.

Types of Table of Contents

There are different types of table of contents depending on the purpose and structure of the document. Here are some examples:

Simple Table of Contents

This is a basic table of contents that lists the major sections or chapters of a document along with their corresponding page numbers.

Example: Table of Contents

I. Introduction …………………………………………. 1

II. Literature Review ………………………………… 3

III. Methodology ……………………………………… 6

IV. Results …………………………………………….. 9

V. Discussion …………………………………………. 12

VI. Conclusion ……………………………………….. 15

Expanded Table of Contents

This type of table of contents provides more detailed information about the contents of each section or chapter, including subsections and subheadings.

A. Background …………………………………….. 1

B. Problem Statement ………………………….. 2

C. Research Questions ……………………….. 3

II. Literature Review ………………………………… 5

A. Theoretical Framework …………………… 5

B. Previous Research ………………………….. 6

C. Gaps and Limitations ……………………… 8 I

II. Methodology ……………………………………… 11

A. Research Design ……………………………. 11

B. Data Collection …………………………….. 12

C. Data Analysis ……………………………….. 13

IV. Results …………………………………………….. 15

A. Descriptive Statistics ……………………… 15

B. Hypothesis Testing …………………………. 17

V. Discussion …………………………………………. 20

A. Interpretation of Findings ……………… 20

B. Implications for Practice ………………… 22

VI. Conclusion ……………………………………….. 25

A. Summary of Findings ……………………… 25

B. Contributions and Recommendations ….. 27

Graphic Table of Contents

This type of table of contents uses visual aids, such as icons or images, to represent the different sections or chapters of a document.

I. Introduction …………………………………………. [image of a light bulb]

II. Literature Review ………………………………… [image of a book]

III. Methodology ……………………………………… [image of a microscope]

IV. Results …………………………………………….. [image of a graph]

V. Discussion …………………………………………. [image of a conversation bubble]

Alphabetical Table of Contents

This type of table of contents lists the different topics or keywords in alphabetical order, along with their corresponding page numbers.

A. Abstract ……………………………………………… 1

B. Background …………………………………………. 3

C. Conclusion …………………………………………. 10

D. Data Analysis …………………………………….. 8

E. Ethics ……………………………………………….. 6

F. Findings ……………………………………………… 7

G. Introduction ……………………………………….. 1

H. Hypothesis ………………………………………….. 5

I. Literature Review ………………………………… 2

J. Methodology ……………………………………… 4

K. Limitations …………………………………………. 9

L. Results ………………………………………………… 7

M. Discussion …………………………………………. 10

Hierarchical Table of Contents

This type of table of contents displays the different levels of headings and subheadings in a hierarchical order, indicating the relative importance and relationship between the different sections.

    A. Background …………………………………….. 2

      B. Purpose of the Study ……………………….. 3

      A. Theoretical Framework …………………… 5

             1. Concept A ……………………………….. 6

                    a. Definition ………………………….. 6

                     b. Example ……………………………. 7

              2. Concept B ……………………………….. 8

       B. Previous Research ………………………….. 9

III. Methodology ……………………………………… 12

       A. Research Design ……………………………. 12

             1. Sample ……………………………………. 13

               2. Procedure ………………………………. 14

       B. Data Collection …………………………….. 15

            1. Instrumentation ……………………….. 16

            2. Validity and Reliability ………………. 17

       C. Data Analysis ……………………………….. 18

          1. Descriptive Statistics …………………… 19

           2. Inferential Statistics ………………….. 20

IV. Result s …………………………………………….. 22

    A. Overview of Findings ……………………… 22

B. Hypothesis Testing …………………………. 23

V. Discussion …………………………………………. 26

A. Interpretation of Findings ………………… 26

B. Implications for Practice ………………… 28

VI. Conclusion ……………………………………….. 31

A. Summary of Findings ……………………… 31

B. Contributions and Recommendations ….. 33

Table of Contents Format

Here’s an example format for a Table of Contents:

I. Introduction

C. Methodology

II. Background

A. Historical Context

B. Literature Review

III. Methodology

A. Research Design

B. Data Collection

C. Data Analysis

IV. Results

A. Descriptive Statistics

B. Inferential Statistics

C. Qualitative Findings

V. Discussion

A. Interpretation of Results

B. Implications for Practice

C. Limitations and Future Research

VI. Conclusion

A. Summary of Findings

B. Contributions to the Field

C. Final Remarks

VII. References

VIII. Appendices

Note : This is just an example format and can vary depending on the type of document or research paper you are writing.

When to use Table of Contents

A TOC can be particularly useful in the following cases:

• Lengthy documents : If the document is lengthy, with several sections and subsections, a Table of contents can help readers quickly navigate the document and find the relevant information.
• Complex documents: If the document is complex, with multiple topics or themes, a TOC can help readers understand the relationships between the different sections and how they are connected.
• Technical documents: If the document is technical, with a lot of jargon or specialized terminology, This can help readers understand the organization of the document and locate the information they need.
• Legal documents: If the document is a legal document, such as a contract or a legal brief, It helps readers quickly locate specific sections or provisions.

How to Make a Table of Contents

Here are the steps to create a table of contents:

• Organize your document: Before you start making a table of contents, organize your document into sections and subsections. Each section should have a clear and descriptive heading that summarizes the content.
• Add heading styles : Use the heading styles in your word processor to format the headings in your document. The heading styles are usually named Heading 1, Heading 2, Heading 3, and so on. Apply the appropriate heading style to each section heading in your document.
• Insert a table of contents: Once you’ve added headings to your document, you can insert a table of contents. In Microsoft Word, go to the References tab, click on Table of Contents, and choose a style from the list. The table of contents will be inserted into your document.
• Update the table of contents: If you make changes to your document, such as adding or deleting sections, you’ll need to update the table of contents. In Microsoft Word, right-click on the table of contents and select Update Field. Choose whether you want to update the page numbers or the entire table, and click OK.

Purpose of Table of Contents

A table of contents (TOC) serves several purposes, including:

• Marketing : It can be used as a marketing tool to entice readers to read a book or document. By highlighting the most interesting or compelling sections, a TOC can give readers a preview of what’s to come and encourage them to dive deeper into the content.
• Accessibility : A TOC can make a document or book more accessible to people with disabilities, such as those who use screen readers or other assistive technologies. By providing a clear and organized overview of the content, a TOC can help these readers navigate the material more easily.
• Collaboration : This can be used as a collaboration tool to help multiple authors or editors work together on a document or book. By providing a shared framework for organizing the content, a TOC can help ensure that everyone is on the same page and working towards the same goals.
• Reference : It can serve as a reference tool for readers who need to revisit specific sections of a document or book. By providing a clear overview of the content and organization, a TOC can help readers quickly locate the information they need, even if they don’t remember exactly where it was located.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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• Writing Tips

How to Structure the Table of Contents for a Research Paper

4-minute read

• 16th July 2023

So you’ve made it to the important step of writing the table of contents for your paper. Congratulations on making it this far! Whether you’re writing a research paper or a dissertation , the table of contents not only provides the reader with guidance on where to find the sections of your paper, but it also signals that a quality piece of research is to follow. Here, we will provide detailed instructions on how to structure the table of contents for your research paper.

Steps to Create a Table of Contents

• Insert the table of contents after the title page.

Within the structure of your research paper , you should place the table of contents after the title page but before the introduction or the beginning of the content. If your research paper includes an abstract or an acknowledgements section , place the table of contents after it.

• List all the paper’s sections and subsections in chronological order.

Depending on the complexity of your paper, this list will include chapters (first-level headings), chapter sections (second-level headings), and perhaps subsections (third-level headings). If you have a chapter outline , it will come in handy during this step. You should include the bibliography and all appendices in your table of contents. If you have more than a few charts and figures (more often the case in a dissertation than in a research paper), you should add them to a separate list of charts and figures that immediately follows the table of contents. (Check out our FAQs below for additional guidance on items that should not be in your table of contents.)

• Paginate each section.

Label each section and subsection with the page number it begins on. Be sure to do a check after you’ve made your final edits to ensure that you don’t need to update the page numbers.

• Format your table of contents.

The way you format your table of contents will depend on the style guide you use for the rest of your paper. For example, there are table of contents formatting guidelines for Turabian/Chicago and MLA styles, and although the APA recommends checking with your instructor for formatting instructions (always a good rule of thumb), you can also create a table of contents for a research paper that follows APA style .

• Add hyperlinks if you like.

Depending on the word processing software you’re using, you may also be able to hyperlink the sections of your table of contents for easier navigation through your paper. (Instructions for this feature are available for both Microsoft Word and Google Docs .)

To summarize, the following steps will help you create a clear and concise table of contents to guide readers through your research paper:

1. Insert the table of contents after the title page.

2. List all the sections and subsections in chronological order.

3. Paginate each section.

4. Format the table of contents according to your style guide.

5. Add optional hyperlinks.

If you’d like help formatting and proofreading your research paper , check out some of our services. You can even submit a sample for free . Best of luck writing your research paper table of contents!

What is a table of contents?

A table of contents is a listing of each section of a document in chronological order, accompanied by the page number where the section begins. A table of contents gives the reader an overview of the contents of a document, as well as providing guidance on where to find each section.

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What should I include in my table of contents?

If your paper contains any of the following sections, they should be included in your table of contents:

●  Chapters, chapter sections, and subsections

●  Introduction

●  Conclusion

●  Appendices

●  Bibliography

Although recommendations may differ among institutions, you generally should not include the following in your table of contents:

●  Title page

●  Abstract

●  Acknowledgements

●  Forward or preface

If you have several charts, figures, or tables, consider creating a separate list for them that will immediately follow the table of contents. Also, you don’t need to include the table of contents itself in your table of contents.

Is there more than one way to format a table of contents?

Yes! In addition to following any recommendations from your instructor or institution, you should follow the stipulations of your style guide .

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• Dissertation
• Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Published on 15 May 2022 by Tegan George .

The table of contents is where you list the chapters and major sections of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, alongside their page numbers. A clear and well-formatted table of contents is essential, as it demonstrates to your reader that a quality paper will follow.

The table of contents (TOC) should be placed between the abstract and the introduction. The maximum length should be two pages. Depending on the nature of your thesis, dissertation, or paper, there are a few formatting options you can choose from.

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Table of contents

What to include in your table of contents, what not to include in your table of contents, creating a table of contents in microsoft word, table of contents examples, updating a table of contents in microsoft word, other lists in your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, frequently asked questions about the table of contents.

Depending on the length of your document, you can choose between a single-level, subdivided, or multi-level table of contents.

• A single-level table of contents only includes ‘level 1’ headings, or chapters. This is the simplest option, but it may be too broad for a long document like a dissertation.
• A subdivided table of contents includes chapters as well as ‘level 2’ headings, or sections. These show your reader what each chapter contains.
• A multi-level table of contents also further divides sections into ‘level 3’ headings. This option can get messy quickly, so proceed with caution. Remember your table of contents should not be longer than 2 pages. A multi-level table is often a good choice for a shorter document like a research paper.

Examples of level 1 headings are Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, and Bibliography. Subsections of each of these would be level 2 headings, further describing the contents of each chapter or large section. Any further subsections would be level 3.

In these introductory sections, less is often more. As you decide which sections to include, narrow it down to only the most essential.

Including appendices and tables

You should include all appendices in your table of contents. Whether or not you include tables and figures depends largely on how many there are in your document.

If there are more than three figures and tables, you might consider listing them on a separate page. Otherwise, you can include each one in the table of contents.

• Theses and dissertations often have a separate list of figures and tables.
• Research papers generally don’t have a separate list of figures and tables.

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All level 1 and level 2 headings should be included in your table of contents, with level 3 headings used very sparingly.

The following things should never be included in a table of contents:

• Your acknowledgements page
• Your abstract
• The table of contents itself

The acknowledgements and abstract always precede the table of contents, so there’s no need to include them. This goes for any sections that precede the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, be sure to first apply the correct heading styles throughout the document, as shown below.

• Choose which headings are heading 1 and which are heading 2 (or 3!
• For example, if all level 1 headings should be Times New Roman, 12-point font, and bold, add this formatting to the first level 1 heading.
• Highlight the level 1 heading.
• Right-click the style that says ‘Heading 1’.
• Select ‘Update Heading 1 to Match Selection’.
• Allocate the formatting for each heading throughout your document by highlighting the heading in question and clicking the style you wish to apply.

Once that’s all set, follow these steps:

• Add a title to your table of contents. Be sure to check if your citation style or university has guidelines for this.
• Place your cursor where you would like your table of contents to go.
• In the ‘References’ section at the top, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Here, you can select which levels of headings you would like to include. You can also make manual adjustments to each level by clicking the Modify button.
• When you are ready to insert the table of contents, click ‘OK’ and it will be automatically generated, as shown below.

The key features of a table of contents are:

• Clear headings and subheadings
• Corresponding page numbers

Check with your educational institution to see if they have any specific formatting or design requirements.

Write yourself a reminder to update your table of contents as one of your final tasks before submitting your dissertation or paper. It’s normal for your text to shift a bit as you input your final edits, and it’s crucial that your page numbers correspond correctly.

It’s easy to update your page numbers automatically in Microsoft Word. Simply right-click the table of contents and select ‘Update Field’. You can choose either to update page numbers only or to update all information in your table of contents.

In addition to a table of contents, you might also want to include a list of figures and tables, a list of abbreviations and a glossary in your thesis or dissertation. You can use the following guides to do so:

• List of figures and tables
• List of abbreviations

It is less common to include these lists in a research paper.

All level 1 and 2 headings should be included in your table of contents . That means the titles of your chapters and the main sections within them.

The contents should also include all appendices and the lists of tables and figures, if applicable, as well as your reference list .

Do not include the acknowledgements or abstract   in the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, follow these steps:

• Apply heading styles throughout the document.
• In the references section in the ribbon, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Click the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon and select Custom Table of Contents.
• Select which levels of headings you would like to include in the table of contents.

Make sure to update your table of contents if you move text or change headings. To update, simply right click and select Update Field.

The table of contents in a thesis or dissertation always goes between your abstract and your introduction.

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A Table of Contents in APA Format

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Adah Chung is a fact checker, writer, researcher, and occupational therapist. 

General Guidelines

• Table of Contents

APA style does not require a table of contents, but there are cases where you may need to include one. For example, your instructor may specify that your paper must be submitted with a table of contents. A table of contents can be particularly helpful in cases where your paper is lengthy or covers a lot of material, such as a thesis paper or dissertation. Research papers, in particular, may benefit from the addition of a table of contents.

APA style is the official publication style of the American Psychological Association. APA style is used in psychology courses as well as other social science classes including those in social science, behavioral sciences, and education.

The table of contents serves as a basic roadmap of your paper. It should list all of the major headings and subheadings within the body of your paper. For a standard psychology paper, it might include listings for the introduction, method, results, and discussion sections of your paper.

While the APA may not specify guidelines for a table of contents, you should use the basic APA format for formatting your table of contents:

• Use one-inch margins on all sides
• Use 12-point Times New Roman font
• Double-space

Since APA does not require a table of contents, you should always refer to your instructor’s guidelines when deciding whether or not to include one.

It is also important to note that the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association was published in 2020, and included updated guidelines on many topics.

For example, while the previous edition of the style manual required a running head on each page of a paper, the 7th edition has eliminated that requirement on student papers unless your instructor specifies to include it. Always ask first.

If you are using a standard APA paper format, your table of contents should include the following sections:

• Introduction

The above format may work well for a standard lab report or research paper. However, your table of contents will look much different if you are writing something such as a critique, essay, or case study.

Notice, that the table of contents does not include the abstract or acknowledgments pages. When applicable, it should list the appendices and the lists of tables and figures.

The exact order of your paper depends largely on the type of paper you are writing. In general, your paper should be presented in the following order:

• Main Body of Paper

Table of Contents Format

Because there is no standard format for a table of contents in APA style, you should always defer to the provided guidelines for your assignment.

If your instructor does not have a preferred format, consider using the following:

• Title the page “Table of Contents” and center the title at the top of the page.
• Most papers should include at least two levels of headings, up to five levels.
• Level one headings will be for main topics, such as chapter titles like "Chapter One; Name of Chapter," or research sections like "Method," "Results," and "Discussion."
• All level-one headings should be flush-left and sub-headings should be indented five spaces deeper than the last. 
• All heading levels should be in title case, capitalizing the first letter of each word. The font type, style, and size stay the same for each level.
• The page number for each heading is formatted flush-right. Include dot leaders between the headings and the page number to improve readability.

While you might not think that following APA format is important, it is one of those areas where students can lose points for making small errors. It pays to spend a little extra time and attention making sure that your paper is formatted in proper APA style.

• If you need help, you can get assistance from your school's writing lab.
• Getting your own copy of the latest edition of the APA publication manual can be very helpful.
• Always refer to any instructions or guidelines that were provided by your course instructor.
• There is a helpful feature in most word processors that you can use to pre-format your paper in APA style. It takes a little effort to set it up, but well worth it in the end, especially for longer documents. You can save the style to apply to your future papers saving you the effort next time.

For those writing a paper to submit for publication, check with the publisher for any specific formatting requirements that they may have.

American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.) ; 2020.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

How to Write a Table of Contents for Different Formats With Examples

• Icon Calendar 18 May 2024
• Icon Page 984 words
• Icon Clock 6 min read

Rules that guide academic writing are specific to each paper format. However, some rules apply to all styles – APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. Basically, one of these rules is the inclusion of a Table of Contents (TOC) in an academic text, particularly long ones, like theses, dissertations, and research papers. When writing a TOC, students or researchers should observe some practices regardless of paper formats. Also, it includes writing the TOC on a new page after the title page, numbering the first-level and corresponding second-level headings, and indicating the page number of each entry. Hence, scholars need to learn how to write a table of contents in APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard styles.

General Guidelines

When writing academic texts, such as theses, dissertations, and other research papers, students observe academic writing rules as applicable. Generally, the different paper formats – APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard – have specific standards that students must follow in their writing. In this case, one of the rules is the inclusion of a Table of Contents (TOC) in the document. By definition, a TOC is a roadmap that scholars provide in their writing, outlining each portion of a paper. In other words, a TOC enables readers to locate specific information in documents or revisit favorite parts within written texts. Moreover, this part of academic papers provides readers with a preview of the paper’s contents.

Difference Between a Table of Contents and an Outline

In essence, a TOC is a description of first-level headings (topics) and second-level headings (subtopics) within the paper’s body. For a longer document, writers may also include third-level titles to make the text palatable to read. Ideally, the length of papers determines the depth that authors go into detailing their writing in TOCs. Basically, this feature means that shorter texts may not require third-level headings. In contrast, an essay outline is a summary of the paper’s main ideas with a hierarchical or logical structuring of the content. Unlike a TOC that only lists headings and subheadings, outlines capture these headings and then describe the content briefly under each one. As such, an outline provides a more in-depth summary of essay papers compared to a TOC.

How to Write a Table of Contents in APA

When writing a TOC in the APA format, writers should capture all the headings in the paper – first-level, second-level, and even third-level. Besides this information, they should also include an abstract, references, and appendices. Notably, while a TOC in the APA style has an abstract, this section is not necessary for the other formats, like MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. Hence, an example of a Table of Contents written in the APA format is indicated below:

How to Write a Table of Contents in MLA

Unlike papers written in the APA style, MLA papers do not require a Table of Contents unless they are long enough. In this case, documents, like theses, dissertations, and books written in the MLA format should have a TOC. Even where a TOC is necessary, there is no specific method that a writer should use when writing it. In turn, the structure of the TOC is left to the writer’s discretion. However, when students have to include a TOC in their papers, the information they capture should be much more than what would appear in the APA paper. Hence, an example of writing a Table of Contents in MLA format is:

In the case of writing a research paper, an example of a Table of Contents should be:

How to Write a Table of Contents in Chicago/Turabian

Like the MLA style, a Chicago/Turabian paper does not require writing a Table of Contents unless it is long enough. When a TOC is necessary, writers should capitalize on major headings. Additionally, authors do not need to add a row of periods (. . . . . . . .) between the heading entry and the page number. Moreover, the arrangement of the content should start with the first-level heading, then the second-level heading, and, finally, the third-level title, just like in the APA paper. In turn, all the information that precedes the introduction part should have lowercase Roman numerals. Also, the row of periods is only used for major headings. Hence, an example of writing a Table of Contents in a Chicago/Turabian paper is:

How to Write a Table of Contents in Harvard

Like in the other formats, writing a Table of Contents in the Harvard style is captured by having the title “Table of Contents” at the center of the page, in the first line. Basically, it comes after the title page and captures all the sections and subsections of Harvard papers. In other words, writers must indicate first-level headings in a numbered list. Also, scholars should align titles to the left side and capitalize them. In turn, if there is a need to show second-level headings, authors should list them under corresponding first-level headings by using bullet points. However, it is essential for students not to disrupt the numbering of first-level headings. Moreover, writers should align second-level headings to the left side and indent them by half an inch and capitalize on this content. Hence, an example of writing a Table of Contents in a Harvard paper should appear as below:

A Table of Content (TOC) is an essential component of an academic paper, particularly for long documents, like theses, dissertations, and research papers. When students are writing a TOC, they should be careful to follow the applicable format’s rules and standards. Regardless of the format, writers should master the following tips when writing a TOC:

• Write the TOC on a new page after the title page.
• Indicate first-level headings of the document in a numbered list.
• Indicate second-level headings under the corresponding first-level heading.
• If applicable, indicate third-level headings under the corresponding second-level heading.
• Write the page number for each heading.
• Put the content in a two-column table.
• Title the page with “Table of Contents.”

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A guide to the table of contents page

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Definition: Table of Contents
• 3 Everything for Your Thesis
• 5 Create in Microsoft Word
• 6 In a Nutshell

Definition: Table of Contents

The table of contents is an organized listing of your document’s chapters, sections and, often, figures, clearly labelled by page number. Readers should be able to look at your table of contents page and understand immediately how your paper is organized, enabling them to skip to any relevant section or sub-section. The table of contents should list all front matter, main content and back matter, including the headings and page numbers of all chapters and the bibliography . A good table of contents should be easy to read, accurately formatted and completed last so that it is 100% accurate. Although you can complete a table of contents manually, many word processing tools like Microsoft Word enable you to format your table of contents automatically.

When adding the finishing touches to your dissertation, the table of contents is one of the most crucial elements. It helps the reader navigate (like a map) through your argument and topic points. Adding a table of contents is simple and it can be inserted easily after you have finished writing your paper. In this guide, we look at the do’s and don’ts of a table of contents; this will help you process and format your dissertation in a professional way.

When adding the finishing touches to your dissertation, the table of contents is one of the most crucial elements. It helps the reader navigate (like a map) through your argument and topic points. Adding a table of contents is simple and can be inserted easily after you have finished writing your paper. In this guide, we look at the do’s and don’ts of a table of contents; this will help you process and format your dissertation in a professional way.

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What is a table of contents?

A table of contents is a list, usually on a page at the beginning of a piece of academic writing , which outlines the chapters or sections names with their corresponding page numbers. In addition to chapter names, it includes bullet points of the sub-chapter headings or subsection headings. It usually comes right after the title page of a research paper.

How do you write a table of contents

To write a table of contents, you first write the title or chapter names of your research paper in chronological order. Secondly, you write the subheadings or subtitles, if you have them in your paper. After that, you write the page numbers for the corresponding headings and subheadings. You can also very easily set up a table of contents in Microsoft Word.

Where do you put a table of contents?

The table of contents is found on a page right at the beginning of an academic writing project. It comes specifically after the title page and acknowledgements, but before the introductory page of a writing project. This position at the beginning of an academic piece of writing is universal for all academic projects.

What to include in a table of contents?

A sample table of contents includes the title of the paper at the very top, followed by the chapter names and subtitles in chronological order. At the end of each line, is the page number of the corresponding headings. Examples of chapter names can be: executive summary,  introduction, project description, marketing plan, summary and conclusion. The abstract and acknowledgments are usually not included in the table of contents, however this could depend on the formatting that is required by your institution. Scroll down to see some examples.

How important is a table of contents?

A table of contents is very important at the beginning of a writing project for two important reasons. Firstly, it helps the reader easily locate contents of particular topics itemized as chapters or subtitles. Secondly, it helps the writer arrange their work and organize their thoughts so that important sections of an academic project are not left out. This has the extra effect of helping to manage the reader’s expectation of any academic essay or thesis right from the beginning.

Everything for Your Thesis

A table of contents is a crucial component of an academic thesis. Whether you’re completing a Bachelor’s or a postgraduate degree, the table of contents is a requirement for dissertation submissions. As a rule of thumb, your table of contents will usually come after your title page , abstract, acknowledgement or preface. Although it’s not necessary to include a reference to this front matter in your table of contents, different universities have different policies and guidelines.

Although the table of contents is best completed after you have finished your thesis, it’s a good idea to draw up a mock table of contents in the early stages of writing. This allows you to formulate a structure and think through your topic and how you are going to research, answer and make your argument. Think of this as a form of “reverse engineering”. Knowing how your chapters are going to be ordered and what topics or research questions are included in each will help immensely when it comes to your writing.

The table of contents is not just an academic formality, it allows your examiner to quickly get a feel for your topic and understand how your dissertation will be presented. An unclear or sloppy table of contents may even have an adverse effect on your grade because the dissertation is difficult to follow.

Examiners are readers, after all, and a dissertation is an exercise in producing an argument. A clear table of contents will give both a good impression and provide an accurate roadmap to make the examiner’s job easier and your argument more persuasive.

Your table of contents section will come after your acknowledgements and before your introduction. It includes a list of all your headers and their respective pages and will also contain a sub-section listing your tables, figures or illustrations (if you are using them). In general, your thesis can be ordered like this:

1. Title Page 2. Copyright / Statement of Originality 3. Abstract 4. Acknowledgement, Dedication and Preface (optional) 5. Table of Contents 6. List of Figures/Tables/Illustrations 7. Chapters 8. Appendices 9. Endnotes (depending on your formatting) 10. Bibliography / References

The formatting of your table of contents will depend on your academic field and thesis length. Some disciplines, like the sciences, have a methodical structure which includes recommended subheadings on methodology, data results, discussion and conclusion. Humanities subjects, on the other hand, are far more varied. Whichever discipline you are working in, you need to create an organized list of all chapters in their order of appearance, with chapter subheadings clearly labelled.

Sample table of contents for a short dissertation:

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ii Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iii Dedication ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iv List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. x List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. xi Chapter 1: Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Chapter 2: Literature Survey ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 13 Chapter 3: Methodology ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 42 Chapter 4: Analysis ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 100 Chapter 5: Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 129 Appendices ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 169 References ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 172

When producing a more significant and longer dissertation, say for a Master’s degree or even a PhD, your chapter descriptions should contain all subheadings. These are listed with the chapter number, followed by a decimal point and the subheading number.

Sample table of contents for a PhD dissertation:

Chapter 1 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Literature Review 1.3 Data 1.4 Findings 1.5 Conclusion

Chapter 2, and so on.

The key to writing a good table of contents is consistency and accuracy. You cannot list subheadings for one chapter and forget them for another. Subheadings are not always required but they can be very helpful if you are dealing with a detailed topic. The page numbers in the table of contents must match with the respective pages in your thesis or manuscript.

What’s more, chapter titles and subheading titles must match their corresponding pages. If your first chapter is called “Chapter 1: The Beginning”, it must be written as such on both the table of contents and first chapter page. So long as you remain both accurate and consistent, your table of contents will be perfect.

Create in Microsoft Word

Fortunately, the days of manually writing a contents page are over. You can still produce a contents page manually with Microsoft Word, but consider using their automatic feature to guarantee accuracy and save time.

To produce an automatically-generated table of contents, you must first work with heading styles. These can be found in the home tab under “Styles”. Select top-level headings (your chapter titles) and apply the Heading 1 style. This ensures that they will be formatted as main headings. Second-level headings (subheadings) can be applied with the Heading 2 style. This will place them underneath and within each main heading.

Once you have worked with heading styles, simply click on the “References” tab and select “Table of Contents”. This option will allow you to automatically produce a page with accurate page links to your document. To customize the format and style applied to your table of contents, select “Custom Table of Contents” at the bottom of the tab. Remember to update your table of contents by selecting the table and choosing “Update” from the drop-down menu. This will ensure that your headings, sub-headings and page numbers all add up.

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In a Nutshell

• The table of contents is a vital part of any academic thesis or extensive paper.
• It is an accurate map of your manuscript’s content – its headings, sub-headings and page numbers.
• It shows how you have divided your thesis into more manageable chunks through the use of chapters.
• By breaking apart your thesis into discrete sections, you make your argument both more persuasive and easier to follow.
• What’s more, your contents page should produce an accurate map of your thesis’ references, bibliography, illustrations and figures.
• It is an accurate map of the chapters, references, bibliography, illustrations and figures in your thesis.

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Table of Contents

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The Table of Contents should follow these guidelines:

• ​All sections of the manuscript are listed in the Table of Contents except the Title Page, the Copyright Page, the Dedication Page, and the Table of Contents.
• You may list subsections within chapters
• Creative works are not exempt from the requirement to include a Table of Contents

Table of Contents Example

Here is an example of a Table of Contents page from the Template. Please note that your table of contents may be longer than one page.

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How to Create a Table of Contents for Dissertation, Thesis or Paper & Examples

Table of contents

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A dissertation table of contents is a list of the chapters and sections included in a dissertation or thesis, along with their page numbers. It helps to navigate the document easily and locate specific information. Each chapter or section should be listed with its corresponding page number. The table of contents should be formatted according to the guidelines of the specific style guide being used, such as APA or MLA.

We would guess that students usually start working on the table of contents at the last minute. It is quite apparent and makes sense, as this is the list of chapters and sections with page locations. Do you think it's easy? 

From our experience, it can be quite tricky to organize everything according to APA, Chicago, or any other academic writing style. In this blog, we will discuss how to write a table of contents for a research paper , thesis or dissertation in Microsoft Word. We will create it together to guide students through the process. 

Also, here you will find examples of table of contents created by thesis writers at StudyCrumb . Let’s go!

What Is a Table of Contents: Definition

It is obvious that the table of contents (TOC) is an essential manuscript part you can’t skip. If you are dealing with a dissertation, thesis or research paper, you need to know how to build it in accordance with academic guidance. This is a detailed roadmap for your work and outlined structure you can follow for a research presentation. 

In case you are working on an essay or report, you may not include the table of contents, as it is a short academic text. But for the research paper, thesis or dissertation, table of contents is essential and required. It is possible to say the same about any Master’s project. It should be located between the dissertation abstract and introduction chapter. In most cases, it is about 2-3 pages long. 

Our expert dissertation writing service prepared a great template that can be used for your work. Make your research formatting easy with ready solutions!

Types of Table of Contents

How to choose which table of contents will fit your research paper, thesis, dissertation, or report best? Make a decision based on your work length. Some academic writing styles, such as APA paper format or MLA style , have specific formatting for this list. 

However, we will outline the most commonly used typology:

• Single-level table of contents. At this type, we use only chapters. For instance, you will have an Introduction, Literature Review, methodology, and other chapters with page numbers. It can be used for shorter research work. For long writing forms like manuscripts, it can be too broad, and you will need to go into details.
• Subdivided table of contents. The most frequently used form to organize the contents table. It will include not only chapters but also sections — a level 2 subheading for each part. It will help to be more specific about what to expect in each part of your research work.
• Table of contents with multiple levels. This is a more divided structure, including subheadings with a level 3 for each section. Quite often, those subheadings can be rewritten or deleted during the last editing. It is essential to keep them in the right order.

Before you decide which type will work best for you, let us share with you some examples of each formatting style.

Example of Table of Contents With a Single Level

Introduction: The Misinformation Roots ………..…… 3 Literature Review .....................................….....………… 10 Research Methodology and Design ……................. 24 Results.............................................................................. 28 Discussion ....................................................................... 32

Sometimes, you will need to put an extra emphasis on subsections. Check this layout to see how your subheadings can be organized.

Example of Table of Contents Page with Subdivided Levels

Introduction: Information War ............……………….. 3       Background…………………………………….………..…… 4       Current State ……………………………………...…...…… 5       Defining Research Questions………………………. 9 Literature Review………………………...……………..……... 11       The Roots of Information Warfare ………....… 11        Information Wars …………………………….………..… 14        Cyber Wars Research ........................................ 17

If you are working on a lengthy, complex paper, this outline will suit your project most. It will help readers navigate through your document by breaking it down into smaller, more manageable sections.

Multi-Level Table of Contents Page Example

Introduction……………………………………………….......……….… 3       Emergence of Climate Change ………..……....….….. 3       Key Activist Groups in Climate Change .............. 5              Greenpeace International ………..…………......... 9              European Climate Foundation …….……………. 10              WWF ……………………………………….……….............. 11        Significant Movements ……………….………....……… 13 Literature Review ……………………………………......…………. 15

What Sections Should Be Included in a Table of Contents?

To start with, the scientific table of contents should include all chapters and its subheading. It is important to choose the formatting that will give your readers a full overview of your work from the very beginning. However, there are other chapters that you may miss constructing the 2-pager table. So, let's look at all you need to include:

• Dissertation introduction
• Literature review
• Research methodology
• Results section
• Dissertation discussion
• Conclusion of a thesis
• Reference list. Mention a number of a page where you start listing your sources.
• Appendices. For instance, if you have a data set, table or figure, include it in your research appendix .

This is how the ideal structured dissertation or research paper table of contents will look like. Remember that it still should take 2 pages. You need to choose the best formatting style to manage its length.

Tables, Figures, and Appendices in TOC

While creating a table of contents in a research paper, thesis or dissertation, you will need to include appendices in each case you have them. However, the formatting and adding tables and figures can vary based on the number and citation style. If you have more than 3 tables or figures, you may decide to have all of them at the end of your project. So, add them to the table of contents. 

Figures, graphics, and diagrams in research papers, dissertations and theses should be numbered. If you use them from another source, ensure that you make a proper citation based on the chosen style guide.

Appendix in Table of Contents Example

Appendix A. Row Data Set…………………………………… 41 Appendix B. IBR Data………………………………………….… 43 Appendix C. SPSS Data………………………………………… 44

What Shouldn't Be Included in a Table of Contents?

When creating a dissertation table of contents, students want to include everything they have in a document. However, some components should not be on this page. Here is what we are talking about:

• Thesis acknowledgement
• Paper abstract
• The content list itself

Acknowledgement and abstract should be located before the content list, so there is no need to add them. You need to present a clear structure that will help your readers to navigate through the work and quickly find any requested information.

How to Create a Table of Contents for a Research Paper or Dissertation In Word?

It may look like working with this list can take a long. But we have one proposal for our users. Instead of writing a table of contents manually, create it automatically in Microsoft Word. You do not need any specific tech knowledge to do this. Let’s go through this process step-by-step and explain how to make a table of contents for a research paper or dissertation in a few clicks.

• Open Home tab and choose the style for your table of contents (ToC next).
• Apply heading 1 to your chapters, heading 2 to the subheading, and if needed heading 3 to the level 3 heading.
• Next, you are going to create a research paper or PhD dissertation table of contents. Open References and choose ToC.
• Choose the citation style for your work. For example, let’s choose APL for now. Meeting all style requirements (bold font, title formatting, numbers) is essential.
• Define the number of levels for your dissertation or thesis table of contents. In case you want to have 3 levels, choose Automatic Table 2.
• You are done! Click ok, and here is your page with listed chapters!

You see how easy it can be! Every time you make changes to your text or headings, it will be automatic.

Updating Your Table of Contents in MS Word

Table of contents of a research paper or dissertation is created, and you continue to edit your work until submission. It is common practice, and with MS Word, you can automate all the updates. 

Let’s outline this process in our step-by-step guide!

• Right-click on your ToC in a document.
• Update field section is next.
• Choose “update ToC."
• Here, you can update your entire ToC — choose an option that works the best for you!

As you may see, working with automated solutions is much easier when you write a dissertation which has manifold subsections. That is why it is better to learn how to work on MS Word with the content list meaning be able to manage it effectively.

Table of Contents Examples

From our experience, students used to think that the content list was quite a complicated part of the work. Even with automated solutions, you must be clear about what to include and how to organize formatting. To solve the problem and answer all your questions, use our research paper or dissertation contents page example. Our paper writers designed a sample table of contents to illustrate the best practices and various styles in formatting the work. 

Check our samples to find advanced options for organizing your own list.

Example of Table of Contents in Research Paper

As you can see, this contents page includes sections with different levels.

Thesis/Dissertation Table of Contents Example

Have a question about your specific case? Check samples first, as we are sure you can get almost all the answers in our guides and sample sets. 

>> Read more: APA Format Table of Contents

Tips on Creating a Table of Contents

To finalize all that we shared on creating the table of contents page, let’s go through our tips list. We outline the best advice to help you with a dissertation table of contents.

• Use automated solutions for creating a list of chapters for your report, research papers, or dissertations — it will save you time in the future.
• Be clear with the formatting style you use for the research.
• Choose the best level type of list based on the paper length.
• Update a list after making changes to the text.
• Check the page list before submitting the work.

Bottom Line on Making Table of Contents for Dissertations/ Papers

To summarize, working with a research paper, thesis or dissertation table of contents can be challenging. This article outlines how to create a table of contents in Word and how to update it appropriately. You can learn what to include in the content list, how long it can be, and where to locate it. Write your work using more than one table of contents sample we prepared for students. It is often easy to check how the same list was made for other dissertations before finalizing yours. We encourage you to learn how to create a list with pages automatically and update it. It will definitely make your academic life easier.

Not sure if your work 's quality level is enough for getting a top-notch result? We’ve got you covered! Our team of skilled academic writers is always ready to help once you ask “ write my dissertation for me !" Just select your writer, send them your requirements and get a custom study tailored to your instructions.

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This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 27.5.2024 in Vol 8 (2024)

This is a member publication of University of Colorado Denver HARC

Lessons Learned From a Sequential Mixed-Mode Survey Design to Recruit and Collect Data From Case-Control Study Participants: Formative Evaluation

Authors of this article:

Original Paper

• Amanda D Tran 1 , MPH   ; 
• Alice E White 1 , MPH   ; 
• Michelle R Torok 1 , PhD   ; 
• Rachel H Jervis 2 , MPH   ; 
• Bernadette A Albanese 3 , MD, MPH   ; 
• Elaine J Scallan Walter 1 , MA, PhD  

1 Department of Epidemiology, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, United States

2 Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, Denver, CO, United States

3 Adams County Health Department, Brighton, CO, United States

Corresponding Author:

Elaine J Scallan Walter, MA, PhD

Department of Epidemiology

Colorado School of Public Health

University of Colorado

13001 East 17th Place

3rd Floor, Mail Stop B119

Aurora, CO, 80045

United States

Phone: 1 303 724 5162

Email: [email protected]

Background: Sequential mixed-mode surveys using both web-based surveys and telephone interviews are increasingly being used in observational studies and have been shown to have many benefits; however, the application of this survey design has not been evaluated in the context of epidemiological case-control studies.

Objective: In this paper, we discuss the challenges, benefits, and limitations of using a sequential mixed-mode survey design for a case-control study assessing risk factors during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Methods: Colorado adults testing positive for SARS-CoV-2 were randomly selected and matched to those with a negative SARS-CoV-2 test result from March to April 2021. Participants were first contacted by SMS text message to complete a self-administered web-based survey asking about community exposures and behaviors. Those who did not respond were contacted for a telephone interview. We evaluated the representativeness of survey participants to sample populations and compared sociodemographic characteristics, participant responses, and time and resource requirements by survey mode using descriptive statistics and logistic regression models.

Results: Of enrolled case and control participants, most were interviewed by telephone (308/537, 57.4% and 342/648, 52.8%, respectively), with overall enrollment more than doubling after interviewers called nonresponders. Participants identifying as female or White non-Hispanic, residing in urban areas, and not working outside the home were more likely to complete the web-based survey. Telephone participants were more likely than web-based participants to be aged 18-39 years or 60 years and older and reside in areas with lower levels of education, more linguistic isolation, lower income, and more people of color. While there were statistically significant sociodemographic differences noted between web-based and telephone case and control participants and their respective sample pools, participants were more similar to sample pools when web-based and telephone responses were combined. Web-based participants were less likely to report close contact with an individual with COVID-19 (odds ratio [OR] 0.70, 95% CI 0.53-0.94) but more likely to report community exposures, including visiting a grocery store or retail shop (OR 1.55, 95% CI 1.13-2.12), restaurant or cafe or coffee shop (OR 1.52, 95% CI 1.20-1.92), attending a gathering (OR 1.69, 95% CI 1.34-2.15), or sport or sporting event (OR 1.05, 95% CI 1.05-1.88). The web-based survey required an average of 0.03 (SD 0) person-hours per enrolled participant and US $920 in resources, whereas the telephone interview required an average of 5.11 person-hours per enrolled participant and US $70,000 in interviewer wages.

Conclusions: While we still encountered control recruitment challenges noted in other observational studies, the sequential mixed-mode design was an efficient method for recruiting a more representative group of participants for a case-control study with limited impact on data quality and should be considered during public health emergencies when timely and accurate exposure information is needed to inform control measures.

Introduction

Often used during disease outbreak investigations, case-control studies that retrospectively compare people who have a disease (case participants) with people who do not have the disease (control participants) are an efficient and relatively inexpensive method of identifying potential disease risk factors to guide control measures and interventions. Perhaps the most critical and challenging component of conducting a case-control study is the recruitment of appropriate control participants who are from the same source population as case participants [ 1 ]. Because control participants are not ill and may not be connected to the outbreak, they may be less motivated to complete a lengthy questionnaire that collects personal information and detailed exposure histories [ 2 - 4 ]. Moreover, with the increased use of mobile telephones and the routine use of caller ID, study participants contacted by traditional telephone-based survey methodologies may be less likely to answer the telephone [ 5 , 6 ], further reducing the opportunity for participant screening and recruitment.

Recruitment challenges are not unique to case-control studies, and other types of observational studies have shifted from traditional telephone interviews to web-based surveys with the goal of reaching larger groups of people more efficiently and at a lower cost [ 7 - 12 ]. While offering some advantages over traditional telephone interviews, web-based surveys often experience lower response rates and lower data quality [ 13 ], and some studies have found demographic differences between telephone and web-based survey participants, likely driven in part by disparities in internet connectivity and access [ 14 ]. For this reason, researchers have increasingly used both telephone interviews and web-based surveys in a sequential mixed-mode design, first contacting participants using a self-administered web-based survey, and then following up with nonresponders with an interviewer-administered telephone survey [ 15 ]. In other types of observational studies, this mixed-mode design has been shown to reduce selection bias, reduce costs, improve data quality, and result in higher response rates and faster participant recruitment [ 16 , 17 ], making it an appealing design choice for case-control studies.

In March 2020, the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a global pandemic, and throughout many countries, public health or other governmental authorities implemented stay-at-home orders, travel restrictions, and other public health interventions to reduce disease transmission. In the absence of adequate data-driven evidence about community risk factors for COVID-19 transmission, we implemented a sequential mixed-mode case-control study design in Colorado to evaluate community exposures and behaviors associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection and inform public health control measures. While the benefits and limitations of sequential mixed-mode designs have been well-documented in other contexts [ 14 , 16 , 18 - 20 ], they have not been examined in the context of rapidly implemented epidemiological case-control studies. In this paper, we discuss the challenges, benefits, and limitations of using a sequential mixed-mode survey design using web-based surveys disseminated via SMS text message and telephone interviews for a case-control study assessing exposures during a public health emergency. Specific aims are (1) to compare the sociodemographic characteristics of web-based and telephone survey participants, (2) to evaluate the representativeness of survey participants to the sample population, (3) to assess the completeness of participant responses by survey mode, and (4) to estimate the time and resources required to recruit web-based and telephone survey participants.

Case-Control Study Design and Implementation

The case-control study was conducted among Colorado adults aged 18 years and older who had a positive (case) or negative (control) SARS-CoV-2 reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction test result in Colorado’s electronic laboratory reporting (ELR) system with a specimen collection date from March 16 to April 29, 2021 [ 21 ]. Eligible individuals testing positive with a completed routine public health interview in Colorado’s COVID-19 surveillance system were randomly selected and individually matched on age (±10 years), zip code (urban areas) or region (rural and frontier areas), and specimen collection date (±3 days) with up to 20 individuals with a negative test, with the goal of enrolling 2 matched controls per enrolled case.

Self-administered (web-based) and interviewer-administered (telephone) case and control surveys were developed in Research Electronic Data Capture (REDCap; Vanderbilt University). REDCap is a secure, web-based platform designed to support data capture for research studies [ 22 ]. The surveys asked about contact with a person with confirmed or suspected COVID-19, travel history, employment, mask use, and community exposure settings (bar or club; church, religious, or spiritual gathering; gathering; grocery or retail shopping; gym or fitness center; health care setting; restaurant, cafe, or coffee shop; salon, spa, or barber; social event; or sports or sporting events) during the 14 days before illness onset or specimen submission. The full survey questionnaire is available in Multimedia Appendix 1 . Demographic data were obtained from Colorado’s COVID-19 case surveillance system and the control survey. Web-based surveys were offered in English and Spanish and included clarifying language, prompts, skip logic, text piping, and progress bars. Interviewers used computer-assisted telephone interviewing in REDCap with scripting and language line services when needed. Questions and response options were identically worded in the web-based and telephone surveys, with the exception of a “refused” option for questions in the telephone survey.

Using the Twilio integration in REDCap, selected individuals were sent an SMS text message to the telephone number provided at the time of testing (which may include both landlines and mobile phones) 3 to 7 days after their specimen collection date, inviting them to complete the web-based survey. A team of trained interviewers began contacting nonresponders for telephone interviews approximately 3 hours after the initial SMS text message was sent, making 1 contact attempt for individuals testing positive for SARS-CoV-2 and up to 2 contact attempts for those testing negative. Interviewers only contacted as many controls by telephone as needed to enroll 2 matched controls per enrolled case. The web-based survey link was resent via SMS text message or sent via email when requested. When possible, voicemail messages were left encouraging SMS text message recipients to complete the web-based survey. As the goal of the case-control study was to assess the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection from community exposures, we only included surveys that had responses to all 15 community exposure questions. Partial surveys that did not have complete community exposure data were excluded from analyses. Individuals were also excluded if they reported living in an institution, close contact with a household member with confirmed or suspected COVID-19, receiving ≥1 dose of a COVID-19 vaccine (which was not universally available in Colorado at the time of the study), symptom onset date >7 days from specimen collection (case participants), a prior positive COVID-19 result (control participants), or providing personal identifying information in the web-based survey that was inconsistent with information from the ELR system (control participants).

Evaluation of a Sequential Mixed-Mode Survey Design

We evaluated the impact of conducting the COVID-19 case-control study using a sequential mixed-mode design by (1) comparing the sociodemographic characteristics of web-based and telephone survey participants, (2) evaluating the representativeness of study participants to the sample population, (3) assessing the completeness of participant responses by survey mode, and (4) estimating the time and resources required to recruit web-based and telephone survey participants. All analyses were performed using SAS (version 9.4; SAS Institute).

Comparison of Web-Based and Telephone Survey Participants

Case and control participants were eligible individuals who completed the web-based or telephone survey. We compared the demographic characteristics (age, gender, race and ethnicity, geographic location, working outside the home, and socioeconomic factors) of case and control participants completing the web-based and telephone survey to each other using 2-tailed t tests, Pearson χ 2 , or Fisher exact tests. Socioeconomic factors, which are not routinely asked in surveillance and therefore not included in the survey, were evaluated by aggregating mean scores for 4 Colorado EnviroScreen indicators (less than high school education, linguistic isolation, low income, and people of color) based on the participant’s county of residence. Colorado EnviroScreen (version 1.0; Colorado State University and the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment) is a publicly available environmental justice mapping tool developed by the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment and Colorado State University that evaluates 35 distinct environmental, health, economic, and demographic indicators. Colorado EnviroScreen scores range from 0 to 100, with the highest score representing the highest burden of health injustice.

Representativeness of Study Participants

We compared the demographic characteristics (as described earlier) of case and control participants completing the web-based and telephone surveys (separately and combined) to the sample pool of all randomly selected individuals testing positive (case sample pool) or negative (control sample pool) for SARS-CoV-2 using 2-tailed t tests, Pearson χ 2 , or Fisher exact tests.

Participant Responses

We evaluated data completeness and differential responses between web-based and telephone survey modes by comparing responses to exposure and behavior questions we deemed prone to social desirability bias (close contact with individuals with confirmed or suspected COVID-19, community exposures, travel, and mask use). Two bivariate logistic regression models, the first adjusting for case-control status and the second adjusting for case-control status and sociodemographic variables shown to be associated with mode effects (age, gender, race and ethnicity, and geographic location), examined the association between survey mode and participant response. Question nonresponse, where data were missing or refused, was evaluated for these questions as well as for other questions with free-text or multiple-choice response options (industry, occupation, reasons for COVID-19 testing, and mask type).

Time and Resource Needs

The time spent by study personnel contacting potential participants by SMS text message and telephone was obtained from self-recorded data in timesheets and used to calculate the person-hours required per enrolled participant. Total expenditures for the web-based and telephone surveys were calculated using staff wages and Twilio texting costs (an average of US $0.008 for a 160-character SMS text message).

Ethical Considerations

The case-control study was deemed by the Colorado Multiple Institutional Review Board to be public health surveillance and not human participant research and was therefore exempt from full approval and requirements for informed consent (protocol 21-2973).

Case and Control Participant Enrollment

The case sample pool included 1323 individuals. Of these, 318 (24%) responded to the web-based survey, and 331 (25%) were interviewed by telephone ( Figure 1 ). A total of 537 (40.6%) case participants were enrolled after excluding 78 (5.9%) partial and 34 (2.6%) ineligible survey responses. Of the 10,898 individuals in the control sample pool, 1072 (9.8%) responded to the web-based survey, and 1268 (11.6%) were interviewed by telephone. A total of 648 (5.9%) control participants were enrolled after excluding 1565 (14.4%) partial and 127 (1.2%) ineligible surveys. Of the enrolled case and control participants, most were interviewed by telephone (308/537, 57.4% and 342/648, 52.8%, respectively).

Case participants completing the web-based and telephone surveys were similar in age (mean 37, SD 13.21 and 14.69 years, respectively), whereas web-based control participants were slightly older than those completing the telephone survey (mean 38, SD 12.44 vs mean 36, SD 12.62 years, respectively; Table 1 ). For both case and control participants, those aged 40-59 years were more likely to complete the web-based survey, whereas participants aged 18-39 years and 60 years and older were more likely to complete the telephone survey. Web-based case and control participants were more likely to identify as female, White, non-Hispanic, reside in urban areas, and be less likely to work outside the home. Compared to web-based case and control participants, telephone participants had higher EnviroScreen scores for all socioeconomic indicators, indicating they resided in counties with larger populations of individuals with less than high school education, linguistic isolation, low income, and people of color.

a Individuals with a positive SARS-CoV-2 test result.

b Individuals with a negative SARS-CoV-2 test result.

c P <.05; control participant web-based versus telephone.

d P <.01; survey mode (web-based, telephone, and web-based and telephone combined) versus sample pool.

e P <.05; case participant web-based versus telephone.

f P <.05; survey mode (web-based, telephone, and web-based and telephone combined) versus sample pool.

g Information on sex and working outside the home were not available from Colorado’s electronic laboratory reporting system for control participants.

h Not available.

i Colorado EnviroScreen is an environmental justice mapping tool. Scores are assigned at the county level, with a higher score indicating that an area is more likely to be affected by the indicated health injustice.

There were statistically significant sociodemographic differences noted between web-based and telephone case and control participants and their respective sample pools ( Table 1 ). More web-based case participants identified as female (134/228, 58.8%) than those in the case sample pool (642/1318, 48.7%). More web-based control participants identified as White, non-Hispanic (205/267, 76.8%) than those in the control sample pool (4467/7812, 57.2%) and more often resided in urban areas (247/306, 80.7%) than those in the control sample pool (7841/10,898, 71.9%). Case and control participants were more similar to their respective sample pools when evaluated as a single group (total enrolled).

In the model adjusting for case or control status only, web-based participants were less likely to report close contact with an individual with COVID-19 when compared to telephone participants (odds ratio [OR] 0.70, 95% CI 0.53-0.94) but more likely to report community exposures including visiting a grocery store or retail shop (OR 1.55, 95% CI 1.13-2.12), visiting a restaurant or cafe or coffee shop (OR 1.52, 95% CI 1.20-1.92), attending a gathering outside the home (OR 1.69, 95% CI 1.34-2.15), or attending or participating in a sport or sporting event (OR 1.05, 95% CI 1.05-1.88) in 14 days before symptom onset or specimen collection ( Table 2 ). When adjusted for case or control status, age, gender, race and ethnicity, and geographic location, the only associations that remained statistically significant were close contact (adjusted OR 0.65, 95% CI 0.48-0.88) and gatherings (adjusted OR 1.44, 95% CI 1.12-1.85).

a Full survey questions are available in Multimedia Appendix 1 .

b Adjusted for case or control status.

c OR: odds ratio.

d Adjusted for case or control status, age, gender, race and ethnicity, and geographic location.

e N/A: not applicable.

Question nonresponse was low across both modalities, with similar ranges of missingness between the web-based survey (0/535, 0% to 22/535, 4.1%) and telephone survey (2/650, 0.3% to 34/650, 5.2%). Nonresponse to industry, occupation, and masking questions was higher in the telephone survey (9/650, 1.4% to 34/650, 5.2%) than the web-based survey (1/535, 0.2% to 22/535, 4.1%; Table 2 ).

Over the course of the study, staff spent a cumulative 15 hours randomly selecting and texting potential participants for the web-based survey, averaging 0.03 person-hours per enrolled participant (15 person-hours per 535 web-based participants) and US $500 in staff wages. Twilio texting costs were US $420, amounting to US $920 in total expenditures for the web-based survey. Comparatively, 3319 hours were spent by interviewers attempting to contact nonresponders by telephone, for an average of 5.11 person-hours per enrolled participant (3319 person-hours per 650 telephone participants) and US $70,000 in interviewer wages.

Principal Findings

While the web-based survey was more time- and cost-efficient than the telephone interview, participant enrollment was low, and there were statistically significant sociodemographic differences between the web-based case and control participants and their respective sample pools. Adding the follow-up telephone interview increased participant enrollment and the representativeness of both the case and control participants to sample pools. Participant responses to exposure and behavior questions and data completeness were similar between the 2 survey modalities.

Enrollment more than doubled for case and control participants after interviewers called individuals who did not respond to the web-based survey to complete the survey by telephone. Case participant enrollment for our mixed-mode study was higher than those for other COVID-19 case-control studies using telephone only (40.6% vs 3%-25% case participant enrollment in other studies), but control participant enrollment was lower (5.9% vs 9%-13% control participant enrollment in other studies) [ 23 - 25 ]. However, control participant enrollment in our sequential mixed-mode study may not be comparable to telephone-only COVID-19 case-control studies for 2 reasons. First, we texted up to 20 potential controls for every enrolled case participant in anticipation of lower response rates for the web-based survey, inflating the number of contacted controls in our response rate calculations. Second, we did not follow up with all potential controls by telephone once our quota of 2 controls per case was reached. In contrast, telephone-only studies only call as many controls as needed to enroll the desired number of matched control participants, which is typically less than 20.

We found sociodemographic differences between participants completing the survey on the web and by telephone. Web-based respondents were more likely to be female, identify as White, non-Hispanic, have higher levels of education, and reside in urban areas, which was consistent with other studies evaluating survey mode effects [ 12 , 26 , 27 ]. Contrary to other studies that found higher web-based response rates among those younger than 35 years of age [ 14 ], participants aged 18-39 years in our case-control study were more likely to respond to the telephone survey, as were participants aged 60 years and older, participants working outside the home, and participants residing in areas with a higher burden of health injustices. Some of these differences may be attributable to the timing of when potential participants were contacted. While potential participants were texted a link to complete the web-based survey only in the morning, telephone interviews were administered throughout the day, including in the late afternoon and evening when more people may be at home and not working. In addition, older participants and participants in lower socioeconomic settings may experience more barriers to completing a web-based survey, such as limited internet access or less comfort using mobile platforms [ 15 ], making them more likely to complete a telephone interview.

While there were sociodemographic differences between web-based and telephone participants and between web-based and telephone case and control participants and their respective sample pools, the sociodemographic characteristics of combined web-based and telephone survey participants were broadly representative of the sample pools. This indicates that the sequential mixed-mode design allowed for the recruitment of more representative case and control participant groups than if we had used a telephone or web-based survey alone, and the use of this survey design can help reduce selection bias in case-control studies.

Telephone surveys conducted by trained interviewers have several advantages over other modes of administration. Most importantly, trained interviewers can answer participants’ questions, add clarifying questions, and probe interviewees for more complete responses, leading to better data completeness and quality. While increasing data quality, telephone surveys can lead to social desirability bias as participants may alter answers to questions to seem more favorable or socially acceptable to an interviewer [ 19 , 20 ]. An advantage of using a web-based survey is that the absence of an interviewer may provide participants with the opportunity to answer questions more candidly, potentially reducing social desirability bias [ 19 , 20 ]. While we found that web-based participants were more likely to report certain community exposures, most of the differential responses between web-based and telephone participants were no longer statistically significant after adjusting for variables shown to be associated with mode effects (age, gender, race, ethnicity, and geographic location). This suggests that demographic differences between web-based and telephone participants may be confounding variables and should be considered when analyzing and interpreting data for case-control studies.

Limitations

This project was subject to several limitations. First, cases were randomly selected from persons reported in Colorado’s COVID-19 surveillance system who had already completed an interview with public health, which may impact study findings. For example, this method of case-participant selection may account for the high enrollment rates we had for our case-control study, and these individuals may systematically differ from those testing positive for SARS-CoV-2 who did not complete an initial interview with public health. Second, sample pool data were obtained from the ELR system for control participants, which had incomplete demographic data. The sample pool characteristics presented in this paper may not be accurate because of these missing data and, in turn, affect our evaluations of sample representativeness. Third, the socioeconomic characteristics of participants may be subject to ecological fallacy as we used county-level Colorado EnviroScreen scores as a proxy for individual socioeconomic status. Fourth, it is unclear whether the systematic differences noted between web-based and telephone participants were due to the survey mode itself or due to the additional contact attempts made to enroll telephone participants. Finally, this sequential mixed-mode case-control study was implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic, a period marked by various political and social factors that could have influenced who responded to our survey and their responses. As such, findings from this paper may not be generalizable to case-control studies evaluating other diseases or outbreaks.

Conclusions

Telephone interviews conducted as part of an outbreak investigation are time-consuming and costly [ 8 ]. Given the limited resources and staff at many public health agencies, it is critical to find methods to increase efficiency and reduce the costs of outbreak investigations. Web-based surveys are more time- and cost-efficient than telephone interviews, greatly reducing the workload for health departments. However, web-based surveys may appeal to specific demographics, have lower enrollment rates, and may require a larger sample pool or a longer time to enroll participants, which may not be feasible for small outbreaks or ideal for public health emergencies when timely data collection is crucial.

By using a sequential mixed-mode design, we were able to efficiently recruit participants for a case-control study with limited impact on data quality. Moreover, using the sequential mixed-mode approach allowed for maximal sample representativeness compared to a web-based or telephone interview alone. This is critical during public health emergencies, when timely and accurate exposure information is needed to inform control measures and policy. While the sequential mixed-mode design allowed us to reach more potential control participants with fewer resources, we still encountered the same challenges recruiting control participants noted in other studies.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the following people for their contributions to the conception, design, or management of the case-control study: Nisha Alden, Andrea Buchwald, Nicole Comstock, Lauren Gunn-Sandell, Tye Harlow, Breanna Kawasaki, Emma Schmoll, RX Schwartz, Ginger Stringer, and Rachel K Herlihy. This project was supported by a financial assistance award from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and awarded to the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment. The Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment contracted with EJSW at the Colorado School of Public Health. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily reflect the official views of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention or the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment.

Data Availability

The data sets generated and analyzed during this study are not publicly available due to Colorado state statutes and regulations, which limit data release based on maintaining confidentiality for potentially identifiable person-level data, but are available from the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment upon reasonable request.

Authors' Contributions

ADT contributed to the study’s conception, reviewed current research, performed statistical analyses, interpreted results, and was the primary author of the manuscript. AEW, MRT, and EJSW made significant contributions to the study’s conception and interpretation of results and critically revised the manuscript. RHJ and BAA substantively reviewed and revised the manuscript for its content. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

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Abbreviations

Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 19.01.24; peer-reviewed by M Couper, J Ziegenfuss; comments to author 13.02.24; revised version received 29.03.24; accepted 04.04.24; published 27.05.24.

©Amanda D Tran, Alice E White, Michelle R Torok, Rachel H Jervis, Bernadette A Albanese, Elaine J Scallan Walter. Originally published in JMIR Formative Research (https://formative.jmir.org), 27.05.2024.

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