need of digital literacy in pakistan essay

Digital literacy in Pakistan:Where do we stand?

Since the onset of Covid-19, there has been increasing reliance on the digital world. Businesses must grow accustomed to e-commerce and social media to increase and retain customers. Amid these rapid changes, Samara Ali, a 27-year-old Correspondent from Pakistan questions, where does Pakistan stand in the race?

Pakistan’s pace in the start-up landscape has been tremendously fast, with a 47% growth in freelance earnings as of 2019 . In addition to this, World Advertising Research Center (WARC) has predicted that Pakistan will be among the countries with the highest growth in smartphone use by 2025. Yet Pakistan has one of the slowest growth rates in internet penetration. This means that entrepreneurship in Pakistan will not be sustainable unless more of the population has access to the internet.

The average Pakistani citizen has had very limited digital experience.

According to the After Access Report as of 2019 , internet enabled mobile phones are mainly used for social media and not for the vast range of digital services.

The situation is even worse for Pakistani women. Taking Stock: Data and Evidence on Gender Equality in Digital Access, Skills and Leadership states that as of March 2019 reports that only 3% of women in Pakistan could copy or move a file on a computer. Similarly, only 2% of women from Russia were able to perform the same task while 89% of women in Brunei were capable of completing this task. These factors mean that digital literacy has a long way to go in Pakistan.

Increased digital literacy results in a cascade of advantages for an economy. I would like to highlight a personal experience which would help substantiate this viewpoint.

Earlier this month, I attempted to secure my learner’s permit through the Sindh Driving License Authority. Due to the pandemic, the provincial government made strong efforts to digitalize the application process. Not only was I able to avoid overcrowding in the registration office but the application process which would usually take around 2 to 3 hours on a normal day only took a few minutes to be completed.

If we were to replicate this on a larger scale, transactions, processes, and services would become faster and more efficient and our economy more productive.

This is exactly why digital literacy is profound; when we begin to use digital tools to our advantage, we will drive our economy towards sustainable growth and enjoy a better quality of living.

Photo Credit: Shutterstock

About Samara Ali: I’m currently a graduate student who has always harboured an interest in speaking on current issues through her writing. I hope to contribute greatly to the missing Pakistani narrative in a world bustling with opinions.

About the author

Samara Ali is a business graduate from Pakistan who loves to discuss ideas and achievements that can create cultural change around the world, in any magnitude.

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Breaking Barriers: Digital Education can Empower Pakistani Students

According to a World Bank analysis report, Pakistan faces a significant challenge with almost 23 million children aged 5 to 16 not attending school. It makes us one of the countries with the highest rates of out-of-school children globally. In rural Pakistan, teacher shortages, distance to school, and safety are the major obstacles to accessing education.

In today’s digital age, any nation seeking to raise educational standards and better prepare students for the needs of the future must digitalize education. Digitalizing education refers to the integration of technology into the teaching and learning process, which helps enhance the quality of education and prepare students for the demands of a rapidly changing world.

For developing countries like Pakistan, where access to quality education is limited and socio-economic disparities persist, digital education can play a crucial role in breaking down barriers and empowering students. In Pakistan, digitalizing education can help to address the many challenges that the education system currently faces. For instance, the high dropout rate, especially among girls, is due to socio-economic factors such as poverty and cultural norms. With digitalized education, students can continue their education remotely, which can help reduce the dropout rate and improve access to education for all.

Digital education can also help to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of teaching and learning with online platforms and software helping teachers to cater to the individual needs of each student. This can help to promote a more personalized approach to education, which can be more effective in helping students learn and retain information.

In this blog, we will explore in detail the advantages of digital education in empowering Pakistani students and breaking down the barriers that prevent them from accessing quality education.

Advantages of Digital Education

Digital education has become increasingly important in today’s world, offering numerous benefits to students, teachers, and educational institutions alike. Through the integration of technology into the teaching and learning process, digital education can improve the quality and efficiency of education, promote equality in access to education, and prepare students for the demands of a rapidly changing world.

In this section, we will explore some of the most significant advantages of digital education.

Digital Education can Empower Pakistani Students

Cost-Efficient

By digitalizing marking , assessments, and remote proctoring , regular institutions can reduce administrative costs and free up time for teachers to focus on delivering quality education. Online courses benefit students in remote areas who may have limited access to traditional education due to geographical or financial constraints. Digital education eliminates the need for physical classrooms, which can significantly reduce infrastructure and maintenance costs for educational institutions. Overall, digital education offers a cost-effective solution to improve access to quality education and ensure a better future for students, regardless of their location or socio-economic background.

Unlimited Information

Digital education provides students with access to unlimited information worldwide, promoting critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and creativity. This access to high-quality courses and educational materials not available in traditional institutions is particularly beneficial for students pursuing higher education.

Moreover, students can learn at their own pace and convenience, revisit concepts, watch lectures multiple times, and access learning materials 24/7, regardless of location. Overall, unlimited information is a significant benefit of digital education that offers students a wealth of knowledge and opportunities for personal and professional growth.

Easy Access

The ability to attend lessons while sitting at home is one of the main advantages of online education. With a laptop and a strong internet connection, students can learn and actively engage in their classes without worrying about running late to class or missing work.

Students Learn More

Students develop excellent self-directed learning strategies as a result of exposure to new learning tools and technologies, which makes them smarter. Students can evaluate the information they need to have in order to access and use online resources because of the digital education system. As a result, their productivity, efficiency, and capacity for learning all significantly increase.

Up-to-date Knowledge Base

As the world is always changing and advancing in terms of technology, customs, and knowledge can quickly become obsolete. Presenting students with current information and other subject-related topics is now necessary, not optional. Because they use their phones and laptops so regularly, students need to be proficient with technology. This is what the digital world of education is all about.

Before moving further check out the Self-Assessment App by RedMarker System, which is becoming an educational standard and go-to app for all student assessment needs in Pakistan.

Adaptable Timetable

Academies and tuition centers have set schedules that not all students can adhere to. In this sense, online learning is advantageous since it gives students the freedom to choose their own timetables. The learning platforms are available to them 24 hours a day. In this manner, students are able to maintain their various obligations without having their study and exam preparation suffer.

Innovative Teaching Methods

Digital education promotes innovative teaching methods that leverage technology to enhance the learning experience. Teachers can use multimedia content such as videos, images, and simulations to present complex concepts and engage students in learning. Interactive activities such as quizzes and games can reinforce learning and make the experience more enjoyable for students.

Now that we’ve discussed the ultimate advantages of education in Pakistan. Let’s take a closer look at some of the digital education initiatives taken by the government of Pakistan.

Digital Education Initiatives in Pakistan

Pakistan has made substantial efforts in recent years to support programs in digital education that would increase access to education and improve learning quality. Digital education initiatives have grown to be an essential part of Pakistan’s educational system as a result of the widespread adoption of digital technologies and the rising demand for flexible learning alternatives. The following are Pakistan’s most noteworthy digital education initiatives.

E-Learn Punjab

E-Learn Punjab is an ambitious initiative by the Punjab government that aims to revolutionize the education sector in the province. The platform offers free online courses and learning resources for grades 1 to 12.

E-Learn Punjab leverages digital technologies to provide interactive and engaging content that is designed to enhance learning outcomes. The platform also offers video lectures, quizzes, and assessments, making it an ideal tool for distance learning.

Digital Learning Initiatives by Sindh Education Department

The Sindh Education Department has taken several initiatives to promote digital learning in the province. One of the most notable initiatives is establishing the Sindh Virtual Learning Program (SVLP), which offers online courses for students in grades 1 to 12.

The SVLP provides high-quality content aligned with the national curriculum and is available in English and Urdu. The platform also offers interactive activities, assessments, and teacher support to enhance the learning experience.

Digital Education Initiatives by the Higher Education Commission (HEC)

The Higher Education Commission (HEC) promotes higher education in Pakistan. In recent years, the HEC has taken several initiatives to promote digital education in the country.

One of the most notable initiatives is the establishment of the National Digital Library of Pakistan (NDLP), which offers free access to e-books, journals, and research papers to students, researchers, and scholars across the country. The HEC has also launched several online degree programs and e-learning initiatives to promote distance learning in the country.

The Virtual University of Pakistan

The Virtual University of Pakistan (VUP) is Pakistan’s first online university. The VUP offers online degree programs in various disciplines, including business, computer science, and education.

The university leverages digital technologies to provide high-quality education to students across the country. The VUP also offers a range of online resources, including lectures, quizzes, and assessments, to enhance the learning experience.

Challenges in Implementing Digital Education in Pakistan

Technology has rendered digital education a necessity in modern learning. Innovation can alter education and prepare students for the future. Digital education in Pakistan must overcome different barriers.

In this section, we’ll explore some of the most pressing concerns that must be overcome for digital learning to be successful in Pakistan.

Limited access to technology and infrastructure

One of the primary challenges in implementing digital education in Pakistan is limited access to technology and infrastructure.

Many schools in rural areas need access to reliable internet connectivity or basic technology such as computers and tablets. This limited access to technology and infrastructure makes it difficult for students and teachers to engage effectively with digital learning initiatives.

Limited digital literacy among teachers and students

Another significant challenge is the limited digital literacy among teachers and students. Many teachers in Pakistan have little experience with digital technologies, making it challenging to teach effectively in a digital environment. Similarly, many students may need digital skills to engage effectively with online learning platforms.

Resistance to change from traditionalist groups and teachers

Resistance to change from traditionalist groups and teachers is another challenge in implementing digital education in Pakistan. Some teachers may be resistant to adopting new teaching methods, which can hinder the implementation of digital education initiatives. Additionally, some conservative groups in Pakistan may view digital education as a threat to traditional teaching methods and may resist its implementation.

Lack of coordination and funding

The lack of coordination and funding is a significant challenge in implementing digital education initiatives in Pakistan. Many initiatives are launched without proper coordination, resulting in duplication of efforts and inefficiencies. Additionally, the funding for digital education initiatives needs to be increased, which can limit their scope and impact.

While digital education initiatives can potentially transform Pakistan’s education system, several challenges need to be addressed. Addressing the limited access to technology and infrastructure, improving digital literacy among teachers and students, managing resistance to change, and improving coordination and funding will be crucial in overcoming these challenges and ensuring the success of digital education initiatives in Pakistan.

Opportunities for Partnerships and Collaboration

Collaboration and partnerships between various entities can lead to more effective and efficient solutions to complex problems. Several opportunities for partnerships and collaborations can help improve educational outcomes for students. Here are three potential areas for collaboration.

Government partnerships with the private sector

The government can work with private companies to provide educational resources and school support. For example, a technology company could provide laptops or tablets to students in under-resourced schools, or a transportation company could offer free or discounted rides to students who live far from their schools. In return, the government could offer these companies tax incentives or other benefits.

Partnerships with international organizations and donors

International organizations and donors can offer financial and technical support to education initiatives in countries with limited resources. For example, organizations like the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) or the World Bank can fund teacher training programs or build new schools. This support can be particularly valuable for countries struggling to educate all children.

Collaboration between universities and schools

Universities can collaborate with schools to offer resources and support to students and teachers. For example, universities could train teachers in subjects like science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) or offer mentoring programs for high school students interested in pursuing higher education.

Such collaborations help ensure that students are prepared for college-level work and have access to the resources they need to succeed.

Overall, partnerships and collaborations between different entities can help address the challenges facing education systems worldwide. Governments, private companies, international organizations, universities, and schools can create more equitable and effective education systems that benefit all students.

Online education is the future of the education system in Pakistan as much as it is for any other country. By taking baby steps, educational institutes and decision-makers in government can integrate this into the existing traditional education system.

Realizing the benefits of digital education, the transformation in Pakistan requires a concerted effort from policymakers, educators, and citizens alike. Policymakers must prioritize funding and support for digital education initiatives. Educators must receive adequate training to incorporate digital tools into their teaching methods effectively.

The lack of qualified instructors in Pakistan can be addressed with the digitalization of education. Experienced teachers can impart their knowledge to students in faraway locations using online teaching platforms, enhancing the standard of instruction and advancing educational equity.

Giving students access to a greater range of resources, such as online libraries, research databases, and instructional films, can also help to raise the standard of education. This can enhance the educational process and make it more engaging and participatory. Additionally, by giving remote students access to high-quality education through online courses, digitalizing education can aid in closing the gap between rural and urban locations.

It is crucial for the Pakistani education sector to invest in digital education and embrace technology as a means of promoting a brighter future for its students

The importance of digital education in Pakistan cannot be overstated. It is up to all of us to prioritize this issue and work towards a future where digital education is accessible to all.

We, at RedMarker, are committed to supporting teachers, students, and parents, in their journey of digital transformation for better education. With our education technology solutions , we are paving the way for the digitalization of the complete examination system to promote online education in Pakistan.

What is digital education, and how does it differ from traditional education?

Digital education uses digital technologies and tools to enhance or transform the learning experience. It differs from traditional education in that it often incorporates online platforms, digital resources, and interactive multimedia tools to engage and motivate learners.

What are the advantages of digital education for students?

Digital education provides students with greater flexibility and access to learning resources, including multimedia content, online tutorials, and interactive simulations. It also promotes personalized learning and allows students to work independently.

How does digital education impact the role of teachers and instructors?

Digital education can shift the role of teachers from being lecturers to facilitators and mentors. Teachers can use digital tools to provide students with personalized feedback and monitor their progress. Digital education can also allow teachers to collaborate with other educators, share resources, and access professional development opportunities.

What are some of the challenges associated with implementing digital education?

Challenges associated with implementing digital education include the need for reliable and accessible technology infrastructure, training and support for teachers and instructors, and concerns around the digital divide and unequal access to technology.

How can digital education help to address educational inequality and provide access to quality education for students in remote or underserved areas?

Digital education can provide students in remote or underserved areas access to quality learning resources and connect them with educators and learners worldwide. It can also offer more flexible learning opportunities that fit the needs and schedules of students who may face barriers to attending traditional schools.

What is the future of digital education?

The future of digital education will likely continue to be shaped by technological advances, including the increased use of artificial intelligence, augmented reality, and gamification. It may also involve integrating digital education into other aspects of daily life, such as work and social activities. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has also accelerated the adoption of digital teaching and may lead to more hybrid or blended learning models.

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Education is Pakistan’s Achilles heel. More than 230 million people live in Pakistan, making it the fifth most populous country in the world. About one third of them is aged below 15, according to the UN Population Fund (UNFPA). It is imperative to ensure that this young and dynamic population has access to quality education if Pakistan wants to achieve its economic and socio-political potential.

However, the country’s public investment in education is dismal, with Pakistan spending only 2.4 % of its total GDP on education in 2021. This figure has remained between 1.8 and 3 % in recent decades, paling in comparison to EU member states that allocate between 4.5 and 5.5 % of their GDP to education.

Thus Pakistan’s poor literacy rates should come as no surprise. They differ significantly between the country’s provinces, between 66.3 % in Punjab and 54.5 % in Baluchistan. Since the 18th Constitutional Amendment in 2010, education has become a provincial matter. Each region is responsible for its own policies.

Within the provinces, literacy rates can be expected to be significantly higher in urban centres than in rural areas. Additionally, men enjoy notably higher rates than women. This holds true for all ages across the country.

Digitisation is key

To improve education for all, access to technology and digitisation are essential. The Covid-19 pandemic brought this need into sharp focus, as lockdowns and job losses disrupted digital connectivity. Online teaching underscored the importance of internet access as an integral component of education (see box ).

However, Pakistan has been slow to adopt technological progress, particularly in the education system, largely due to high costs. The country ranks in the bottom quarter of the Inclusive Internet Index, which evaluates nations’ availability, affordability, relevance and readiness of internet services. The gender gap is also a significant challenge, with just 19 % of Pakistani women accessing mobile internet compared to 37 % of men in 2020.

The country’s government has taken measures to address these issues. In 2017, Pakistan’s Ministry of Information launched the Digital Pakistan Policy 2017, which aimed to promote IT usage across all sectors, including education. Its objectives included:

enhancing public-private partnerships,
developing accessible software,
incorporating IT accessibility in all competitive exams and
subsidising assistive technologies’ costs.

The policy also aimed at providing pupils with better digital learning opportunities, including access to better tools. It could have proven effective for students, especially those enrolled in public schools during Covid-19 lockdowns. However, it was abandoned after a new government took over following the 2018 general elections.

In Punjab, the provincial government had set up the Punjab Information Technology Board (PITB) to provide IT services and infrastructure, with a plan to implement a massive internet connectivity spread. A 2017 education policy aimed to capitalise on this initiative. However, political interference in the PITB’s structure and work following the regime change in 2018 led to earlier formulated policies and actions being set aside.

Additionally, Pakistan’s digital infrastructure has been subject to government restrictions, including the banning of websites like Youtube and Wikipedia on the grounds of “offensive” or “blasphemous” content.

Private sector steps in

As the Pakistani government continued to neglect the education sector, private educational institutes have stepped up to the plate, investing in quality education and leveraging technological advancements and digitisation. These institutes are primarily concentrated in three major urban centres – Lahore, Karachi and Islamabad. They predominantly offer secondary education based on British and American systems. However, their high fee structures make them a rather exclusive option.

The private sector has assumed a critical role in Pakistan’s education system. In 2017/2018, privately owned institutes accounted for 38 % of all educational institutes and 44 % of total enrolments. While some of these “elite” institutions provide access to modern technology, disparities persist across the board.

Among the first institutions and organisations in Pakistan to use digital technology for education purposes have been some that provide education and training to persons with disabilities, including the Ida Rieu Welfare Association, the Pakistan Association of the Deaf, the Aziz Jehan Begum Trust & Institute and the Special Talent Exchange Program. Additionally, some higher educational institutes increasingly leverage assistive technologies and digitisation to make education more accessible to persons with disabilities. For example, Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS) has established its Assistive Technology Lab, a facility designed to assist impaired students and staff.

For Pakistan to prosper as a country, better education for all is paramount. Investing in digitisation and education should be the main tool to achieve this goal, both in the private and public sectors. Notably, closing the gender gap in education and access to technology should be a top priority.

Marva Khan is an assistant professor of law at LUMS (Lahore University of Management Sciences) and co-founder of the Pakistani Feminist Judgments Project. [email protected]

Digital learning during the pandemic in pakistan, related articles, preparing for ebola, the difficulty of quantifying diversity in the us, when a relatively strong african country is struggling on all fronts, poverty reduction.

The first UN Sustainable Development Goal is to end poverty in all its forms everywhere.

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In order to achieve gender equality, it is necessary to empower women and girls.

Achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals will require good governance – from the local to the global level.

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, information and digital literacy: a stumbling block to development a pakistan perspective.

Library Management

ISSN : 0143-5124

Article publication date: 2 January 2009

The paper aims to explore the overall state of information and digital illiteracy (IDL) in developing countries and how it hampers the growth of individuals and nations. The case of Pakistan is to be used as an example to illustrate the endemic state of poor information and digital literacy. It also aims to discuss the general drawbacks to effective IDL in developing Asian countries.

Design/methodology/approach

To achieve the objectives of the study, the literature review and result of Pakistan‐based surveys are used to indicate the state of IDL among university students and faculty in one country while integrating these findings with discussion.

It was found that in Pakistan, as elsewhere, IL/IDL practice and training are not the norm in libraries or in education; they are not operational priorities. The low level of IL/IDL among the educated classes contributes to the status quo of information illiterate citizens. It also establishes that becoming “critical consumers” of information is essential for personal and national empowerment.

Originality/value

The study explores the overall status of IDL in the developing countries using case of Pakistan as example. It suggests conducting local research on contextually relevant literacies and IL/IDL. The paper invokes the appreciation for making IL/IDL an integral part of learning programmes at all levels.

Information literacy
Developing countries
Disadvantage groups

Ameen, K. and Gorman, G.E. (2009), "Information and digital literacy: a stumbling block to development? A Pakistan perspective", Library Management , Vol. 30 No. 1/2, pp. 99-112. https://doi.org/10.1108/01435120910927565

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Educations.pk

Educations.pk is the online educational portal of pakistan, helping students, teachers, parents and educational institutes with a mission to solve the most critical challenges in education..

Future of digital literacy in Pakistan

The advent of digital technology has fundamentally changed the lifestyle of people around the globe. Not only are people living differently, but their way of working and learning has also changed. The access to digital information and making use of it in the modern lifestyle has opened up innumerable opportunities to improve the quality of life, learning and education. In fact, in the modern day, without the acceptance of digital technology and its related literacy, no nation would be able to survive this digital age.

Digital literacy in Pakistan

The arrival of digital technology and its literacy has brought about the same vicissitudes in Pakistan also. The acceptance of digital literacy and its application to various branches across this developing nation has unlocked new horizons for people and organizations under the Prime Minister’s vision of Digital Pakistan. This vision of digital Pakistan is based on the robust development of digital infrastructure, global connectivity, innovation, digital entrepreneurship and the access to training of digital technology being given to the layman in the Pakistani society. However, presently, the full potential of digital technology has not been realized because only a quarter of adult population has access to the internet.

Smart phone and its use in Pakistan

In spite of people having a rampant obsession to have smart phones in the Pakistani society, people are not using these smart phones to its full potential. Smartphone applications such as social media like Facebook, Instagram and WhatsApp, ride hailing service applications like Uber and digital banking applications like Easy Paisa, Alfa and Jazz Cash are not being used fully. Although many people across the country have started using these applications to gain some benefit, most of the market space has still been untapped. In this regard, it is of prudent importance that people are given digital literacy and know-how of using the smart phones in such a way that they are able to reap financial benefits to its full probability.

Covid-19 and Scope of freelancing

In the context of working dynamics, especially during the Covid-19 pandemic, the importance of digital literacy cannot be denied. People, not only in Pakistan, but also around the world, are connected to their workplaces through internet, which is why the running of economy did not stop entirely despite of slowing down. Freelancing and meeting clients around the world through internet are now being realized as a financial sector with the efforts organizations like Enablers and Extreme Commerce . The slogan that Pakistan can and will become a Billion Dollar Pakistan is being promoted by these organizations, and all this has been possible because of the initiation of digital literacy, which is expected to rise in the future and bring even more benefits to the financial sector and economy of Pakistan.

Measures needed for digital literacy

There is a universal fact that with literacy and education, even the most difficult of situations can be handled. Therefore, it is the need of the hour to enhance measures for digital literacy across the country so that socio-economic and financial development of the country can take its pace. Organizations like Extreme Commerce, Enablers should be supported by the government so that they can make their contributions in making the dream of billion dollar Pakistan come true. In addition to this, government organizations like Digiskills.pk should also be accepted by the masses so that the digital literacy can take its effect and contribute to productivity and enhancement of the economy.

Content writer, educationist, teacher, researcher, social media manager, and a SEO manager from lahore. She has been working as a freelance academic and non-academic writer for more than 10 years now. She has a passion to learn new things and has a knack for writing and she combines both things to produce write ups she pours her heart out in.

Community engagement and online literacy empower girls and women in Pakistan

A Pakistani literacy programme with an online platform for women and out-of-school girls has been awarded the 2017 UNESCO Confucius Prize for Literacy.

The Citizens Foundation, a literacy programme with an online platform for women and out-of-school girls in Pakistan, has been awarded the 2017 UNESCO Confucius Prize for Literacy .

The Citizens Foundation was created in 1995 by a group of citizens concerned about the poor state of education in Pakistan. It has since generated positive social change in the country by building and managing schools. Today, the foundation runs 1,441 school units in over 100 of the poorest slums and villages across Pakistan. The community runs 85 % of the foundation’s literacy centres.

“The inspiration for starting an adult literacy programme emerged from the gap in home-school communication as mothers could not read or write, and teachers had no way of reliably communicating with parents,” said Amna Waheed Khalid, the Executive Advisor at The Citizens Foundation.

The programme offers a chance for acquiring literacy, numeracy and basic life skills to help learners become independent and manage everyday tasks related to household management, budgeting and reading and writing. In 2016, the programme enrolled 14,020 girls and women with a completion rate of 77 %.

The benefits of online presence and community engagement for literacy

By going digital, the programme has been able to reach new and wider learner groups through its ‘Aagahi Online’ platform. The management and monitoring has become easier by tracking location, recruiting staff and providing enrolment details of the literacy centres.

The digital platforms open up new possibilities for literacy learning, but the community engagement is as important to advance literacy. “Literacy course materials can be provided at all private schools, they are ready to be downloaded through the website or ordered online,” said Ms Waheed Khalid “If each literate person over the age of 15 years were to teach only one other illiterate person, we would eradicate illiteracy in less than a year.”

An ‘Aagahi’ student, Gul Bano, who mobilized other women and girls in her community to enrol and whose daughter is now a teacher at one of the schools of The Citizens Foundation, stressed on the importance of literacy teaching and learning.

“Everyone feels the need and the will to be literate, but only a few get this opportunity,” he said. “The challenges are the lack of schools, poverty, and social taboos on girls’ education. I think that teaching someone to be literate is a greater service to humanity.”

In terms of the benefits of winning the Prize award and the future of the literacy programme, Ms Waheed Khalid enthusiastically said:

“We have already gotten calls from the Ministry of Education in the Government of Pakistan, wanting to learn more about our literacy programme! The global recognition of our project is such a wonderful and unique opportunity for us to mobilise national and international support for eradicating illiteracy in Pakistan. We plan to use the prize money to help us scale further while focusing on cost efficiencies through digitization of training content and better inventory management.”

This year’s UNESCO International Literacy Prizes will be awarded to laureates from Canada, Colombia, Jordan, Pakistan and South Africa on the occasion of International Literacy Day, celebrated on 8 September. The award ceremony will be organized at UNESCO Headquarters and will be part of the global event. This year’s Literacy Prizes will focus on Literacy in a digital world.

International Literacy Prizes
International Literacy Day 2017

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The digital transformation of public education in pakistan.

UNICEF's Learning Passport programme empowers students

Sana'a Zuberi

Karachi, Sindh: In a country like Pakistan, where a significant gap exists between technology's potential to revolutionise the education system and its current state, UNICEF introduced the Learning Passport (LP) programme. The objective was to address considerable equity challenges, especially for marginalised children, particularly girls, through access to digital learning.

The LP programme, a solution designed by UNICEF with Microsoft to close the learning poverty gap, is a digital platform enabling high-quality, flexible learning. In Sindh, this was piloted as an 'education model' for middle school girls and boys (in grades 6-8), making digital content aligned to the Sindh Government curriculum available through the platform to ensure their education meets specific learning standards. The LP stores each student’s unique learning history allowing targeted support to improve their learning experiences.

At the Government Girls Comprehensive High School (GGHS) in North Nazimabad, Karachi, the LP programme demonstrated its effectiveness. “We have found it to be very effective for our girls,” expresses Dr. Shazia Syed, GGHS Principal, enthusiastically, noting its high impact on students' eagerness to attend LP classes.

The programme enables students to strengthen their academic experience by helping to bridge the digital learning divide. In Pakistan, inequitable access to EdTech (educational technology) for learners is influenced by geographic location, the educational institution they attend, and the grade level they are in. With only 33% of households having internet access, many students encounter challenges using learning solutions, especially girls.

Its unique interoperability feature enables access to educational applications in local languages, ensuring inclusivity and catering to the diverse linguistic needs of students. By using digital tablets, the programme introduces a system of learning that is not bound by traditional classroom constraints. With 90% of its current users being girls, the LP prioritizes narrowing the digital gender divide while enhancing learning outcomes.

The pilot initially focused on three pivotal subjects where most students were seen struggling: Science, Social Studies, and Mathematics, with digital content developed based on the Sindh Education Curriculum and endorsed by the Sindh Education & Learning Department.

Since its inception in September 2022, the LP pilot programme has made significant strides, engaging over 4,000 students across 28 schools in Karachi, Hyderabad, Jamshoro, and Sukkur. With 970 tablets distributed among participating schools and designated classrooms dedicated to Learning Passport sessions, the infrastructure is well-equipped to support the programme's objectives. This becomes particularly important for schools without conventional computer labs due to cost constraints or inadequate internet access, or those with obsolete computer equipment.

In supervised sessions, students access digital content aligned with their subject curriculum using tablets. Scheduled Learning Passport classes cover each subject weekly. Guided by teachers, students navigate through instructional videos, interactive games, and assessments upon completing modules. These built-in tools, like online questionnaires and quizzes, help evaluate student performance, aiding teachers in tracking progress and finding ways to support students’ academic growth.

Muniba Khan, a dedicated math teacher at GGHS, emphasizes the programme's positive impact. "It's easier for me to teach because the girls’ concepts are now clearer. They can watch the video at their own pace and rewatch or ask if something is unclear," she says.

Beyond its structured curriculum, the Learning Passport programme excels in breaking down complex learning objectives into comprehensible components through its diverse range of multimedia resources. The LP’s approach not only encourages peer-to-peer learning but also empowers students to learn at their own pace, promoting a sense of autonomy and self-directed learning.

Students like Kashaf, aged 13, exemplify the programme's success stories. Kashaf speaks of her experience, stating, "Tablets teach us through multimedia presentations. We enjoy the videos and the games, and it helps make concepts clearer for us."

She appreciates the program's flexibility, finding it more engaging than traditional chalkboard lessons. Pausing videos and seeking immediate clarification has enhanced her learning.

The Learning Passport programme extends beyond classroom boundaries, enabling students with internet connectivity to access learning materials at home. This not only fosters independent study but also aids UNICEF in measuring learning outcomes through assessment records.

GGHS teachers are thrilled with the pilot program's integration into the curriculum, witnessing its positive impact on student learning. They are eager for its continuity and propose adding English, aligning with student and parent desires for expanded opportunities and an enriched educational experience.

Lessons learnt from the Learning Passport pilot include the creation of a training programme for lead trainers who can offer continuous support to public school teachers, including a digital certification for deploying the LP and the provision of support channels for teachers using WhatsApp or email.

It is evident that this initiative serves as a beacon of hope in narrowing the digital gender divide. Its success calls for broader adoption and increased funding to expand its reach beyond Sindh, envisioning a future where such innovative educational programmes uplift public schools across Pakistan.

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Pakistan consolidated emergency report 2023, unicef pakistan country office annual report 2023, unicef unveils new vision to protect and empower adolescent girls in pakistan.

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Fellowship recipients to continue their studies in the u.k..

Ten Yalies who have received fellowships to study in the United Kingdom.

Top row, from left, Paulina Pimentel-Mora, Tony Wang,Galia Newberger, Ellie Burke, and Giuliana Pavanelli Durón. Second row, Yosef Malka, Joshua Nguyen, Anjali Mangla, Sophie Kane, and Vijay Pathak.

Eight Yale seniors and two recent graduates have been awarded fellowships from various organizations for graduate study in the United Kingdom.

These are in addition to students, previously announced in Yale News , who have won Rhodes scholarships.

The fellowship winners and their awards follow:

Ellie Burke , who is studying history at Yale, was awarded a Paul Mellon fellowship to pursue an M.Phil. degree in World History at the University of Cambridge. For her thesis project, Burke, who is originally from Kansas City, examined the impacts of the South African musical “Sarafina!” on anti-apartheid protest in the United States with advisor Professor Daniel Magaziner. At Cambridge, she will expand this project to more broadly examine the role of anti-apartheid theater in the United Kingdom. During her time at Yale, Burke produced multiple independent theater shows, sang in a cappella groups, and served in arts leadership roles including Outreach Coordinator for the executive board of the Yale Dramatic Association. She also worked as a barista in the Silliman student-run coffee shop, served as a First-Year Outdoor Orientation (FOOT) Leader, and is currently finishing her year as a First-Year Counselor in Silliman.

Giuliana Pavanelli Durón , who will graduate from Yale with a degree in Urban Studies and Architecture, was awarded a Paul Mellon Fellowship for graduate study at the University of Cambridge, where she will pursue an M.Phil. degree in Architecture and Urban Studies. As an Edward A. Bouchet Research Fellow, she has explored the history of landscape architecture in Mexico City, focusing on how the Mexican Revolution affected the design of urban parks and citizens’ relationship to land. In her thesis, she has explored the political and cultural dimensions of water infrastructure in Mexico City. She addresses how Indigenous histories and colonial legacies have been memorialized in hydrologic monuments within the city’s parks, specifically El Bosque de Chapultepec. She has also interned at the Housing and Health Equity Lab, analyzing the effects of pandemic-era moratoriums on housing-insecure individuals. As an Urban Fellow, Giuliana also works on data analysis for New Haven's Fair Rent and Housing Commission, advocating for tenant rights and healthy living conditions. Her research at Cambridge will focus on urban gardens in Mexico City, with an emphasis on how these community spaces serve as a source for alternative planning strategies based on grassroots practices. 

Sophie Kane , a Senegalese-American who has grown up across seven countries, is an American Studies major aspiring to a career at the intersection of law and social policy. On the Yale campus, she served as the first president of the Yale Votes student organization and led the Intercultural and Social Justice program at the AFAM House. In her senior thesis, she compares restorative and reparatory justice commissions in the United States and South Africa. As an undergraduate, she has worked on a presidential campaign, in Congress, and at two nonprofit policy advocacy organizations: Solitary Watch and the Legal Action Center. She has been a Women in Government and Arthur Liman Fellow and is a former student of the Brady-Johnson Program in Grand Strategy. This summer, she will work at the Public Defender Service for the District of Columbia before pursuing a Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree in comparative social policy at Oxford in the fall. At Oxford, she will investigate targeted universalism as a strategic tool to reinvent American welfare.

Yosef Malka , a history major whose academic interests lie in the history of political thought, modern Jewish history, and legal theory, was awarded a Paul Mellon Fellowship to pursue an M.Phil. degree in political thought and intellectual history at Cambridge University. Malka, who is from Rockville, Maryland, will examine 20th-century debates over minority rights, the nation-state, and liberalism while at Cambridge. During his time at Yale, Malka served as co-editor-in-chief of Shibboleth, Yale’s undergraduate journal of Jewish studies, worked as an editorial assistant for the Yale Law Journal, interned for the Office of the New York State attorney general, co-led a Sephardic singing group, and founded a student forum for the study of political theory.

Anjali Mangla , who is completing a double major in Neuroscience and Global Affairs, received a Rotary Global Grant Scholarship that will allow her to pursue a master’s degree in Global Health Policy at London School of Tropical Hygiene and Medicine and London School of Economics. Mangla is interested in global health policymaking, particularly in investigating sustainable financing mechanisms for global health care policy and community-based initiatives. She is currently leading the HAVEN Free Clinic’s pilot “Food as Medicine” program, and, as the clinic’s community relations and advocacy director, has started a variety of initiatives such as reproductive health workshops with Planned Parenthood, and advocacy with the HUSKY4Immigrants Coalition to expand access to public health coverage for all eligible Connecticut residents regardless of immigration status. She has also engaged with the New Haven community through Community Health Educators and volunteering at the hospital and with IRIS' family literacy program. During spring break, she traveled to Liberia to learn more about global health initiative funding for her capstone project on the need for more indirect cost funding for low- and middle-income countries. She hopes to pioneer sustainable global health financing policies with a focus on mitigating noncommunicable diseases in the future.

Galia Newberger  was awarded the King’s-Yale Fellowship to pursue an M.Phil. degree in politics and international studies at the University of Cambridge. She will study the rise of illiberalism in Central and Eastern Europe, particularly in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia. At Yale, she double majored in Humanities and Political Science, and her joint senior essay explored what Plato’s Republic can teach modern readers about preventing a backsliding of democracy. Newberger competes on Yale’s Model United Nations team, and previously served as communications director for the Yale College Democrats and as managing editor at the Yale Daily News Magazine. Outside of Yale, she has served as a legislative and communications intern for U.S. Rep. Jan Schakowsky, D-Illinois, as a political advocacy intern at the ACLU, and as an intern at the Federal Defenders of New York.

Joshua Nguyen , who graduated from Yale in 2023 with a Bachelor of Science degree in Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology , was awarded the Rotary Global Grant Scholarship to pursue an M.Sc. degree in Digital Health at the University of Oxford. During his time at Yale, Nguyen worked as a research assistant at the Yale School of Medicine, investigating the underlying genetic mechanisms of lymphedema, and was recognized as a Dean’s Research Fellow and STARS II Scholar. His interest in health care equity will guide his studies at Oxford, where he plans to delve into leveraging digital health innovations to serve marginalized populations. While at Yale he spearheaded patient care initiatives for uninsured individuals at the HAVEN Free Clinic and Yale New Haven Hospital, and serving as an ESL tutor for refugees and immigrants in the New Haven area. He was also a peer liaison for Yale’s Asian American Cultural Center, the president of Yale Outdoors, and a clarinetist and recorderist in various music ensembles. He aspires to a career dedicated to improving health equity, with a focus on supporting uninsured and low-income communities.

Vijay Pathak , a senior from Luxembourg and France who will graduate with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Ethics, Politics, and Economics, has been awarded the Rotary Global Grant to pursue studies in European Politics and international conflict prevention in the United Kingdom. His academic interests lie at the intersections of statecraft, international law, and the foreign and security policies of the EU and United States. He has pursued these interests at Yale as a scholar in the Brady-Johnson Program in Grand Strategy and also as a Fellow of the Peace, Dialogue, and Leadership Initiative. Pathak has worked as a research assistant at Yale Law School on the United Nations Legal Committee’s efforts to introduce legal frameworks on crimes against humanity, and is also a European Studies Undergraduate Fellow at the Yale MacMillan Center. He has completed coursework in international relations at Bocconi University in Milan, international law at the University of Oxford, and South Asian Studies at the University of Wisconsin-Madison as a recipient of the Yale SASC Light Fellowship.

Paulina Pimentel-Mora , who graduated from Yale in 2023 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science, has been awarded the Sidney Hellman Ehrman Studentship pursue a M.Phil. degree in health, medicine, and society at King’s College, Cambridge. Her research will delve into the realm of reproductive autonomy within health care systems, employing a comparative approach to analyze reproductive policies and the diverse factors influencing women’s reproductive decisions. A first-generation community college transfer student at Yale, Pimental-Mora served as a transfer peer advisor, admissions officer blogger, and residential teaching assistant with Yale Pathways to Science and the Yale School of Art’s “The Way We See It” workshop. She was also a member of the Yale College Student Health Advisory Council and participated in the Political Science Undergraduate Advisory Committee, in addition to working at the Yale University Art Gallery. Outside of Yale, she was a 2022 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Future Public Health Scholar at the University of Michigan, where she was awarded the 2022-2023 CDC Williams-Hutchins Health Equity Award for her work as a COVID-19 case investigator.

Tony Wang , a double major in Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations and History of Art at Yale, has been awarded the 2024 Henry Fellowship to pursue postgraduate studies in Asian and Middle Eastern Studies at Oxford University. His academic pursuits are deeply anchored in the ancient history and archaeology of the Silk Road, with a keen focus on the Buddhist and Persian material cultures that flourished within Central Asia's heartlands. An active member of the “Guardian of Bamiyan and Gandhara” initiative, Wang is committed to the preservation of cultural heritage and the advancement of local education in the historically rich regions of Afghanistan and Pakistan. He also served as a curator and educator at the Yale Art Gallery, the UNESCO-recognized Dunhuang Academy, the Iran National Museum, and the Tsinghua University Art Gallery. He served as a research assistant with Professor Valerie Hanson, in Yale’s Department of History, and as a junior researcher at the Institution of Global Art History at Shanghai International University.

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Climate-smart agriculture: adoption, impacts, and implications for sustainable development

Original Article
Open access
Published: 29 April 2024
Volume 29 , article number 44 , ( 2024 )

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Wanglin Ma ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7847-8459 1 &
Dil Bahadur Rahut ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7505-5271 2

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The 19 papers included in this special issue examined the factors influencing the adoption of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices among smallholder farmers and estimated the impacts of CSA adoption on farm production, income, and well-being. Key findings from this special issue include: (1) the variables, including age, gender, education, risk perception and preferences, access to credit, farm size, production conditions, off-farm income, and labour allocation, have a mixed (either positive or negative) influence on the adoption of CSA practices; (2) the variables, including labour endowment, land tenure security, access to extension services, agricultural training, membership in farmers’ organizations, support from non-governmental organizations, climate conditions, and access to information consistently have a positive impact on CSA adoption; (3) diverse forms of capital (physical, social, human, financial, natural, and institutional), social responsibility awareness, and digital advisory services can effectively promote CSA adoption; (4) the establishment of climate-smart villages and civil-society organizations enhances CSA adoption by improving their access to credit; (5) CSA adoption contributes to improved farm resilience to climate change and mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions; (6) CSA adoption leads to higher crop yields, increased farm income, and greater economic diversification; (7) integrating CSA technologies into traditional agricultural practices not only boosts economic viability but also contributes to environmental sustainability and health benefits; and (8) there is a critical need for international collaboration in transferring technology for CSA. Overall, the findings of this special issue highlight that through targeted interventions and collaborative efforts, CSA can play a pivotal role in achieving food security, poverty alleviation, and climate resilience in farming communities worldwide and contribute to the achievements of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

A systematic literature review of factors influencing the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices

Farm households’ adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices: empirical evidence from Seychelles

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) adaptation, adaptation determinants and extension services synergies: a systematic review

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

Climate change reduces agricultural productivity and leads to greater instability in crop production, disrupting the global food supply and resulting in food and nutritional insecurity. In particular, climate change adversely affects food production through water shortages, pest outbreaks, and soil degradation, leading to significant crop yield losses and posing significant challenges to global food security (Kang et al. 2009 ; Läderach et al. 2017 ; Arora 2019 ; Zizinga et al. 2022 ; Mirón et al. 2023 ). United Nations reported that the human population will reach 9.7 billion by 2050. In response, food-calorie production will have to expand by 70% to meet the food demand of the growing population (United Nations 2021 ). Hence, it is imperative to advocate for robust mitigation strategies that counteract the negative impacts of climate change and enhance the flexibility and speed of response in smallholder farming systems.

A transformation of the agricultural sector towards climate-resilient practices can help tackle food security and climate change challenges successfully. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach that guides farmers’ actions to transform agrifood systems towards building the agricultural sector’s resilience to climate change based on three pillars: increasing farm productivity and incomes, enhancing the resilience of livelihoods and ecosystems, and reducing and removing greenhouse gas emissions from the atmosphere (FAO 2013 ). Promoting the adoption of CSA practices is crucial to improve smallholder farmers’ capacity to adapt to climate change, mitigate its impact, and help achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

Realizing the benefits of adopting CSA, governments in different countries and international organizations such as the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have made great efforts to scale up and out the CSA. For example, climate-smart villages in India (Alam and Sikka 2019 ; Hariharan et al. 2020 ) and civil society organizations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America (Waters-Bayer et al. 2015 ; Brown 2016 ) have been developed to reduce information costs and barriers and bridge the gap in finance access to promote farmers’ adoption of sustainable agricultural practices, including CSA. Besides, agricultural training programs have been used to enhance farmers’ knowledge of CSA and their adoption of the technology in Ghana (Zakaria et al. 2020 ; Martey et al. 2021 ).

As a result, smallholder farmers worldwide have adopted various CSA practices and technologies (e.g., integrated crop systems, drop diversification, inter-cropping, improved pest, water, and nutrient management, improved grassland management, reduced tillage and use of diverse varieties and breeds, restoring degraded lands, and improved the efficiency of input use) to reach the objectives of CSA (Kpadonou et al. 2017 ; Zakaria et al. 2020 ; Khatri-Chhetri et al. 2020 ; Aryal et al. 2020a ; Waaswa et al. 2022 ; Vatsa et al. 2023 ). In the Indian context, technologies such as laser land levelling and the happy seeder have been promoted widely for their potential in climate change adaptation and mitigation, offering benefits in terms of farm profitability, emission reduction, and water and land productivity (Aryal et al. 2020b ; Keil et al. 2021 ). In some African countries such as Tanzania and Kenya, climate-smart feeding practices in the livestock sector have been suggested to tackle challenges in feed quality and availability exacerbated by climate change, aiming to improve livestock productivity and resilience (García de Jalón et al. 2017 ; Shikuku et al. 2017 ; Radeny et al. 2022 ).

Several studies have investigated the factors influencing farmers’ decisions to adopt CSA practices. They have focused on, for example, farmers’ characteristics (e.g., age, gender, and education), farm-level characteristics (e.g., farm size, land fertility, and land tenure security), socioeconomic factors (e.g., economic conditions), institutional factors (e.g., development programs, membership in farmers’ organizations, and access to agricultural training), climate conditions, and access to information (Aryal et al. 2018 ; Tran et al. 2020 ; Zakaria et al. 2020 ; Kangogo et al. 2021 ; Diro et al. 2022 ; Kifle et al. 2022 ; Belay et al. 2023 ; Zhou et al. 2023 ). For example, Aryal et al. ( 2018 ) found that household characteristics (e.g., general caste, education, and migration status), plot characteristics (e.g., tenure of plot, plot size, and soil fertility), distance to market, and major climate risks are major factors determining farmers’ adoption of multiple CSA practices in India. Tran et al. ( 2020 ) reported that age, gender, number of family workers, climate-related factors, farm characteristics, distance to markets, access to climate information, confidence in the know-how of extension workers, membership in social/agricultural groups, and attitude toward risk are the major factors affecting rice farmers’ decisions to adopt CSA technologies in Vietnam. Diro et al.’s ( 2022 ) analysis revealed that coffee growers’ decisions to adopt CSA practices are determined by their education, extension (access to extension services and participation on field days), and ownership of communication devices, specifically radio in Ethiopia. Zhou et al. 2023 ) found that cooperative membership significantly increases the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices among banana-producing farmers in China. These studies provide significant insights regarding the factors influencing farmers’ decisions regarding CSA adoption.

A growing body of studies have also estimated the effects of CSA adoption. They have found that CSA practices enhance food security and dietary diversity by increasing crop yields and rural incomes (Amadu et al. 2020 ; Akter et al. 2022 ; Santalucia 2023 ; Tabe-Ojong et al. 2023 ; Vatsa et al. 2023 ; Omotoso and Omotayo 2024 ). For example, Akter et al. ( 2022 ) found that adoption of CSA practices was positively associated with rice, wheat, and maize yields and household income, contributing to household food security in Bangladesh. By estimating data from rice farmers in China, Vatsa et al. ( 2023 ) reported that intensifying the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices improved rice yield by 94 kg/mu and contributed to food security. Santalucia ( 2023 ) and Omotoso and Omotayo ( 2024 ) found that adoption of CSA practices (improved maize varieties and maize-legume intercropping) increases household dietary diversity and food security among smallholders in Tanzania and Nigeria, respectively.

Agriculture is crucial in climate change, accounting for roughly 20% of worldwide greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Additionally, it is responsible for approximately 45% of the global emissions of methane, a potent gas that significantly contributes to heat absorption in the atmosphere. CSA adoption improves farm resilience to climate variability (e.g., Makate et al. 2019 ; Jamil et al. 2021 ) and mitigates greenhouse gas emissions (Israel et al. 2020 ; McNunn et al. 2020 ). For example, Makate et al. ( 2019 ) for southern Africa and Jamil et al. ( 2021 ) for Pakistan found that promoting CSA innovations is crucial for boosting farmers’ resilience to climate change. McNunn et al. ( 2020 ) reported that CSA adoption significantly reduces greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture by increasing soil organic carbon stocks and decreasing nitrous oxide emissions.

Although a growing number of studies have enriched our understanding of the determinants and impacts of ICT adoption, it should be emphasized that no one-size-fits-all approach exists for CSA technology adoption due to geographical and environmental variability. The definitions of CSA should also be advanced to better adapt to changing climate and regional production conditions. Clearly, despite the extensive research on CSA, several gaps remain. First, there is a lack of comprehensive studies that consolidate findings across different geographical regions to inform policymaking effectively. The calls for studies on literature review and meta-analysis to synthesize the findings of the existing studies to make our understanding generalized. Second, although the literature on determinants of CSA adoption is becoming rich, there is a lack of understanding of how CSA adoption is influenced by different forms of capital, social responsibility awareness of farmers’ cultivating family farms, and digital advisory services. Third, there is a lack of understanding of how climate-smart villages and civil society organizations address farmers’ financial constraints and encourage them to adopt modern sustainable agricultural practices, including CSA practices. Fourth, very few studies have explored how CSA adoption influences the benefit–cost ratio of farm production, factor demand, and input substitution. Fifth, no previous studies have reported the progress of research on CSA. Addressing these gaps is crucial for designing and implementing effective policies and programs that support the widespread adoption of CSA practices, thereby contributing to sustainable agricultural development and climate resilience.

We address the research gaps mentioned above and extend the findings in previous studies by organizing a Special Issue on “Climate-Smart Agriculture: Adoption, Impacts, and Implications for Sustainable Development” in the Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change (MASGC) journal. We aim to collect high-quality theoretical and applied research papers discussing CSA and seek to comprehensively understand the associations between CSA and sustainable rural and agricultural development. To achieve this goal, we aim to find answers to these questions: What are the CSA practices and technologies (either single or multiple) that are currently adopted in smallholder farming systems? What are the key barriers, challenges, and drivers of promoting CSA practices? What are the impacts of adopting these practices? Answers to these questions will help devise appropriate solutions for promoting sustainable agricultural production and rural development. They will also provide insights for policymakers to design appropriate policy instruments to develop agricultural practices and technologies and promote them to sustainably enhance the farm sector’s resilience to climate change and increase productivity.

Finally, 19 papers were selected after a rigorous peer-review process and published in this special issue. We collected 10 papers investigating the determinants of CSA adoption. Among them, four papers investigated the determinants of CSA adoption among smallholders by reviewing and summarizing the findings in the literature and conducting a meta-analysis. Three papers explored the role of social-economic factors on ICT adoption, including capital, social responsibility awareness, and digital advisory services. Besides, three papers examined the associations between external development interventions, including climate-smart villages and civil-society initiatives, and CSA adoption. We collected eight papers exploring the impacts of CSA adoption. Among them, one paper conducted a comprehensive literature review to summarize the impacts of CSA adoption on crop yields, farm income, and environmental sustainability. Six papers estimated the impacts of CSA adoption on crop yields and farm income, and one paper focused on the impact of CSA adoption on factor demand and input substitution. The last paper included in this special issue delved into the advancements in technological innovation for agricultural adaptation within the context of climate-smart agriculture.

The structure of this paper is as follows: Section 2 summarizes the papers received in this special issue. Section 3 introduces the international conference that was purposely organized for the special issue. Section 4 summarizes the key findings of the 19 papers published in the special issue, followed by a summary of their policy implications, presented in Section 5 . The final section provides a brief conclusion.

2 Summary of received manuscripts

The special issue received 77 submissions, with the contributing authors hailing from 22 countries, as illustrated in Fig. 1 . This diversity highlights the global interest and wide-ranging contributions to the issue. Notably, over half of these submissions (53.2%) originated from corresponding authors in India and China, with 29 and 12 manuscripts, respectively. New Zealand authors contributed six manuscripts, while their Australian counterparts submitted four. Following closely, authors from the United Kingdom and Kenya each submitted three manuscripts. Authors from Thailand, Pakistan, Japan, and Germany submitted two manuscripts each. The remaining 12 manuscripts came from authors in Vietnam, Uzbekistan, the Philippines, Nigeria, the Netherlands, Malaysia, Italy, Indonesia, Ghana, Ethiopia, Brazil, and Bangladesh.

Distributions of 77 received manuscripts by corresponding authors' countries

Among the 77 received manuscripts, 30 were desk-rejected by the guest editors because they did not meet the aims and scope of the special issue, and the remaining 47, considered candidate papers for the special issue, were sent for external review. The decision on each manuscript was made based on review reports of 2–4 experts in this field. The guest editors also read and commented on each manuscript before they made decisions.

3 ADBI virtual international conference

3.1 selected presentations.

The guest editors from Lincoln University (New Zealand) and the Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI) (Tokyo, Japan) organized a virtual international conference on the special issue theme “ Climate-Smart Agriculture: Adoption, Impacts, and Implications for Sustainable Development ”. The conference was organized on 10–11 October 2023 and was supported by the ADBI. Footnote 1 As previously noted, the guest editors curated a selection of 47 manuscripts from the pool of 77 submissions, identifying them as potential candidates for inclusion in the special issue, and sent them out for external review. Given the logistical constraints of orchestrating a two-day conference, the guest editors ultimately extended invitations to 20 corresponding authors. These authors were invited to present their work at the virtual international conference.

Figure 2 illustrates the native countries of the presenters, showing that the presenters were from 10 different countries. Most of the presenters were from India, accounting for 40% of the presenters. This is followed by China, where the four presenters were originally from. The conference presentations and discussions proved immensely beneficial, fostering knowledge exchange among presenters, discussants, and participants. It significantly allowed presenters to refine their manuscripts, leveraging the constructive feedback from discussants and fellow attendees.

Distributions of selected presentations by corresponding authors' countries

3.2 Keynote speeches

The guest editors invited two keynote speakers to present at the two-day conference. They were Prof. Edward B. Barbier from the Colorado State University in the United States Footnote 2 and Prof. Tatsuyoshi Saijo from Kyoto University of Advanced Science in Japan. Footnote 3

Prof. Edward Barbier gave a speech, “ A Policy Strategy for Climate-Smart Agriculture for Sustainable Rural Development ”, on 10th October 2023. He outlined a strategic approach for integrating CSA into sustainable rural development, particularly within emerging markets and developing economies. He emphasized the necessity of CSA and nature-based solutions (NbS) to tackle food security, climate change, and rural poverty simultaneously. Highlighting the substantial investment needs and the significant role of international and domestic financing, Prof. Barbier advocated reducing harmful subsidies in agriculture, forestry, fishing, and fossil fuel consumption to redirect funds toward CSA and NbS investments. He also proposed the implementation of a tropical carbon tax as an innovative financing mechanism. By focusing on recycling environmentally harmful subsidies and leveraging additional funding through public and private investments, Prof. Barbier’s strategy aims to foster a “win–win” scenario for climate action and sustainable development, underscoring the urgency of adopting comprehensive policies to mobilize the necessary resources for these critical investments.

Prof. Tatsuyoshi Saijo, gave his speech, “ Future Design ”, on 11th October 2023. He explored the significant impact of the Haber–Bosch process on human civilization and the environment. Prof. Saijo identifies this process, which synthetically fixed nitrogen from the atmosphere to create ammonia for fertilizers and other products, as the greatest invention from the twentieth century to the present, fundamentally transforming the world’s food production and enabling the global population and industrial activities to expand dramatically. He also discussed the environmental costs of this technological advancement, including increased greenhouse gas emissions, pollution, and contribution to climate change. Prof. Saijo then introduced the concept of “Future Design” as a method to envision and implement sustainable social systems that consider the well-being of future generations. He presented various experiments and case studies from Japan and beyond, showing how incorporating perspectives of imaginary future generations into decision-making processes can lead to more sustainable choices. By doing so, Prof. Saijo suggested that humanity can address the “Intergenerational Sustainability Dilemma” and potentially avoid the ecological overshoot and collapse faced by past civilizations like Easter Island. He called for a redesign of social systems to activate “futurability”, where individuals derive happiness from decisions that benefit future generations, ultimately aiming to ensure the long-term survival of humankind amidst environmental challenges.

4 Summary of published articles

As a result of a rigorous double-anonymized reviewing process, the special issue accepted 19 articles for publication. These studies have investigated the determinants and impacts of CSA adoption. Table 1 in the Appendix summarises the CSA technologies and practices considered in each paper. Below, we summarize the key findings of the contributions based on their research themes.

4.1 Determinants of CSA adoption among smallholders

4.1.1 influencing factors of csa adoption from literature review.

Investigating the factors influencing farmers’ adoption of CSA practices through a literature review helps offer a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted determinants of CSA adoption. Investigating the factors influencing farmers’ adoption of CSA practices through a literature review helps provide a comprehensive understanding of the determinants of CSA adoption. Such analyses help identify consistent trends and divergences in how different variables influence farmers’ CSA adoption decisions. In this special issue, we collected four papers that reviewed the literature and synthesized the factors influencing farmers’ decisions to adopt CSA.

Li, Ma and Zhu’s paper, “ A systematic literature review of factors influencing the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices ”, conducted a systematic review of the literature on the adoption of CSA, summarizing the definitions of CSA practices and the factors that influence farmers’ decisions to adopt these practices. The authors reviewed 190 studies published between 2013 and 2023. They broadly defined CSA practices as “agricultural production-related and unrelated practices that can help adapt to climate change and increase agricultural outputs”. Narrowly, they defined CSA practices as “agricultural production-related practices that can effectively adapt agriculture to climate change and reinforce agricultural production capacity”. The review identified that many factors, including age, gender, education, risk perception, preferences, access to credit, farm size, production conditions, off-farm income, and labour allocation, have a mixed (positive or negative) influence on the adoption of CSA practices. Variables such as labour endowment, land tenure security, access to extension services, agricultural training, membership in farmers’ organizations, support from non-governmental organizations (NGOs), climate conditions, and access to information were consistently found to positively influence CSA practice adoption.

Thottadi and Singh’s paper, “ Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) adaptation, adaptation determinants and extension services synergies: A systematic review ””, reviewed 45 articles published between 2011 and 2022 to explore different CAS practices adopted by farmers and the factors determining their adoption. They found that CSA practices adopted by farmers can be categorized into five groups. These included resilient technologies (e.g., early maturing varieties, drought-resistant varieties, and winter ploughing), management strategies (e.g., nutrient management, water management, and pest management), conservation technologies (e.g., vermicomposting and residue management, drip and sprinkler irrigation, and soil conservation), diversification of income security (e.g., mixed farming, livestock, and crop diversification), and risk mitigation strategies (e.g., contingent planning, adjusting plant dates, and crop insurance). They also found that farmers’ decisions to adopt CSA practices are mainly determined by individual characteristics (age, gender, and education), socioeconomic factors (income and wealth), institutional factors (social group, access to credit, crop insurance, distance, land tenure, and rights), behavioural factors (climate perception, farmers’ perception on CSA, Bookkeeping), and factor endowments (family labour, machinery, and land size). The authors emphasized that extension services improved CSA adaptation by reducing information asymmetry.

Naveen, Datta, Behera and Rahut’s paper, “ Climate-Smart Agriculture in South Asia: Exploring Practices, Determinants, and Contribution to Sustainable Development Goals ”, offered a comprehensive systematic review of 78 research papers on CSA practice adoption in South Asia. Their objective was to assess the current implementation of CSA practices and to identify the factors that influence farmers’ decisions to adopt these practices. They identified various CSA practices widely adopted in South Asia, including climate-resilient seeds, zero tillage, water conservation, rescheduling of planting, crop diversification, soil conservation and water harvesting, and agroforestry. They also identified several key factors that collectively drive farmers’ adoption of CSA practices. These included socioeconomic factors (age, education, livestock ownership, size of land holdings, and market access), institutional factors (access to information and communication technology, availability of credit, input subsidies, agricultural training and demonstrations, direct cash transfers, and crop insurance), and climatic factors (notably rising temperatures, floods, droughts, reduced rainfall, and delayed rainfall).

Wang, Wang and Fu’s paper, “ Can social networks facilitate smallholders’ decisions to adopt Climate-smart Agriculture technologies? A three-level meta-analysis ”, explored the influence of social networks on the adoption of CSA technologies by smallholder farmers through a detailed three-level meta-analysis. This analysis encompassed 26 empirical studies, incorporating 150 effect sizes. The authors reported a modest overall effect size of 0.065 between social networks and the decision-making process for CSA technology adoption, with an 85.21% variance observed among the sample effect sizes. They found that over half (55.17%) of this variance was attributed to the differences in outcomes within each study, highlighting the impact of diverse social network types explored across the studies as significant contributors. They did not identify publication bias in this field. Among the three types of social networks (official-advising network, peer-advising network, and kinship and friendship network), kinship and friendship networks are the most effective in facilitating smallholders’ decisions to adopt climate-smart agriculture technologies.

4.1.2 Socioeconomic factors influencing CSA adoption

We collected three papers highlighting the diverse forms of capital, social responsibility awareness, and effectiveness of digital advisory services in promoting CSA in India, China and Ghana. These studies showcase how digital tools can significantly increase the adoption of CSA technologies, how social responsibility can motivate CSA practices and the importance of various forms of capital in CSA strategy adoption.

Sandilya and Goswami’s paper, “ Effect of different forms of capital on the adoption of multiple climate-smart agriculture strategies by smallholder farmers in Assam, India ”, delved into the determinants behind the adoption of CSA strategies by smallholder farmers in Nagaon district, India, a region notably prone to climate adversities. The authors focused on six types of capital: physical, social, human, financial, natural, and institutional. They considered four CSA practices: alternate land use systems, integrated nutrient management, site-specific nutrient management, and crop diversification. Their analyses encompassed a dual approach, combining a quantitative analysis via a multivariate probit model with qualitative insights from focus group discussions. They found that agricultural cooperatives and mobile applications, both forms of social capital, play a significant role in facilitating the adoption of CSA. In contrast, the authors also identified certain barriers to CSA adoption, such as the remoteness of farm plots from all-weather roads (a component of physical capital) and a lack of comprehensive climate change advisories (a component of institutional capital). Furthermore, the authors highlighted the beneficial impact of irrigation availability (a component of physical capital) on embracing alternate land use and crop diversification strategies. Additionally, the application of indigenous technical knowledge (a component of human capital) and the provision of government-supplied seeds (a component of institutional capital) were found to influence the adoption of CSA practices distinctly.

Ye, Zhang, Song and Li’s paper, “ Social Responsibility Awareness and Adoption of Climate-smart Agricultural Practices: Evidence from Food-based Family Farms in China ”, examined whether social responsibility awareness (SRA) can be a driver for the adoption of CSA on family farms in China. Using multiple linear regression and hierarchical regression analyses, the authors analyzed data from 637 family farms in five provinces (Zhejiang, Shandong, Henan, Heilongjiang, and Hebei) in China. They found that SRA positively impacted the adoption of CSA practice. Pro-social motivation and impression management motivation partially and completely mediated the relationship between SRA and the adoption of CSA practices.

Asante, Ma, Prah and Temoso’s paper, “ Promoting the adoption of climate-smart agricultural technologies among maize farmers in Ghana: Using digital advisory services ”, investigated the impacts of digital advisory services (DAS) use on CSA technology adoption and estimated data collected from 3,197 maize farmers in China. The authors used a recursive bivariate probit model to address the self-selection bias issues when farmers use DAS. They found that DAS notably increases the propensity to adopt drought-tolerant seeds, zero tillage, and row planting by 4.6%, 4.2%, and 12.4%, respectively. The average treatment effect on the treated indicated that maize farmers who use DAS are significantly more likely to adopt row planting, zero tillage, and drought-tolerant seeds—by 38.8%, 24.9%, and 47.2%, respectively. Gender differences in DAS impact were observed; male farmers showed a higher likelihood of adopting zero tillage and drought-tolerant seeds by 2.5% and 3.6%, respectively, whereas female farmers exhibited a greater influence on the adoption of row planting, with a 2.4% probability compared to 1.5% for males. Additionally, factors such as age, education, household size, membership in farmer-based organizations, farm size, perceived drought stress, perceived pest and disease incidence, and geographic location were significant determinants in the adoption of CSA technologies.

4.1.3 Climate-smart villages and CSA adoption

Climate-Smart Villages (CSVs) play a pivotal role in promoting CSA by significantly improving farmers’ access to savings and credit, and the adoption of improved agricultural practices among smallholder farmers. CSV interventions demonstrate the power of community-based financial initiatives in enabling investments in CSA technologies. In this special issue, we collected two insightful papers investigating the relationship between CSVs and the adoption of CSA practices, focusing on India and Kenya.

Villalba, Joshi, Daum and Venus’s paper, “ Financing Climate-Smart Agriculture: A Case Study from the Indo-Gangetic Plains ”, investigated the adoption and financing of CSA technologies in India, focusing on two capital-intensive technologies: laser land levelers and happy seeders. Conducted in Karnal, Haryana, within the framework of Climate-Smart-Villages, the authors combined data from a household survey of 120 farmers, interviews, and focus group discussions with stakeholders like banks and cooperatives. The authors found that adoption rates are high, with 77% for laser land levelers and 52% for happy seeders, but ownership is low, indicating a preference for renting from Custom-Hiring Centers. Farmers tended to avoid formal banking channels for financing, opting instead for informal sources like family, savings, and money lenders, due to the immediate access to credit and avoidance of bureaucratic hurdles. The authors suggested that institutional innovations and governmental support could streamline credit access for renting CSA technologies, emphasizing the importance of knowledge transfer, capacity building, and the development of digital tools to inform farmers about financing options. This research highlights the critical role of financing mechanisms in promoting CSA technology adoption among smallholder farmers in climate-vulnerable regions.

Asseldonk, Oostendorp, Recha, Gathiaka, Mulwa, Radeny Wattel and Wesenbeeck’s paper, “ Distributional impact of climate‑smart villages on access to savings and credit and adoption of improved climate‑smart agricultural practices in the Nyando Basin, Kenya ”, investigated the impact of CSV interventions in Kenya on smallholder farmers’ access to savings, credit, and adoption of improved livestock breeds as part of CSA practices. The authors employed a linear probability model to estimate a balanced panel of 118 farm households interviewed across 2017, 2019, and 2020. They found that CSV interventions significantly increased the adoption of improved livestock breeds and membership in savings and credit groups, which further facilitated the adoption of these improved breeds. The findings highlighted that community-based savings and loan initiatives effectively enable farmers to invest in CSA practices. Although there was a sustained positive trend in savings and loans group membership, the adoption of improved livestock did not show a similar sustained increase. Moreover, the introduction of improved breeds initially benefited larger livestock owners more. However, credit availability was found to reduce this inequity in ownership among participants, making the distribution of improved livestock more equitable within CSVs compared to non-CSV areas, thus highlighting the potential of CSV interventions to reduce disparities in access to improved CSA practices.

4.1.4 Civil-society initiatives and CSA adoption

Civil society initiatives are critical in promoting CSA by embedding its principles across diverse agricultural development projects. These initiatives enhance mitigation, adaptation, and food security efforts for smallholder farmers, demonstrating the importance of varied implementation strategies to address the challenges of CSA. We collected one paper investigating how civil society-based development projects in Asia and Africa incorporated CSA principles to benefit smallholder farmers and local communities.

Davila, Jacobs, Nadeem, Kelly and Kurimoto’s paper, “ Finding climate smart agriculture in civil-society initiatives ”, scrutinized the role of international civil society and non-government organizations (NGOs) in embedding CSA principles within agricultural development projects aimed at enhancing mitigation, adaptation, and food security. Through a thematic analysis of documentation from six projects selected on the basis that they represented a range of geographical regions (East Africa, South, and Southeast Asia) and initiated since 2009, the authors assessed how development programs incorporate CSA principles to support smallholder farmers under CSA’s major pillars. They found heterogeneous application of CSA principles across the projects, underscoring a diversity in implementation strategies despite vague definitions and focuses of CSA. The projects variedly contributed to greening and forests, knowledge exchange, market development, policy and institutional engagement, nutrition, carbon and climate action, and gender considerations.

4.2 Impacts of CSA adoption

4.2.1 impacts of csa adoption from literature review.

A comprehensive literature review on the impacts of CSA adoption plays an indispensable role in bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical implementation in the agricultural sector. In this special issue, we collected one paper that comprehensively reviewed the literature on the impacts of CSA adoption from the perspective of the triple win of CSA.

Zheng, Ma and He’s paper, “ Climate-smart agricultural practices for enhanced farm productivity, income, resilience, and Greenhouse gas mitigation: A comprehensive review ”, reviewed 107 articles published between 2013–2023 to distill a broad understanding of the impacts of CSA practices. The review categorized the literature into three critical areas of CSA benefits: (a) the sustainable increase of agricultural productivity and incomes; (b) the adaptation and enhancement of resilience among individuals and agrifood systems to climate change; and (c) the reduction or avoidance of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions where feasible. The authors found that CSA practices significantly improved farm productivity and incomes and boosted technical and resource use efficiency. Moreover, CSA practices strengthened individual resilience through improved food consumption, dietary diversity, and food security while enhancing agrifood systems’ resilience by mitigating production risks and reducing vulnerability. Additionally, CSA adoption was crucial in lowering Greenhouse gas emissions and fostering carbon sequestration in soils and biomass, contributing to improved soil quality.

4.2.2 Impacts on crop yields and farm income

Understanding the impact of CSA adoption on crop yields and income is crucial for improving agricultural resilience and sustainability. In this special issue, we collected three papers highlighting the transformative potential of CSA practices in boosting crop yields, commercialization, and farm income. One paper focuses on India and the other concentrates on Ghana and Kenya.

Tanti, Jena, Timilsina and Rahut’s paper, “ Enhancing crop yields and farm income through climate-smart agricultural practices in Eastern India ”, examined the impact of CSA practices (crop rotation and integrated soil management practices) on crop yields and incomes. The authors used propensity score matching and the two-stage least square model to control self-selection bias and endogeneity and analyzed data collected from 494 farm households in India. They found that adopting CSA practices increases agricultural income and paddy yield. The crucial factor determining the adoption of CSA practices was the income-enhancing potential to transform subsistence farming into a profoundly ingrained farming culture.

Asante, Ma, Prah and Temoso’s paper, “ Farmers’ adoption of multiple climate-smart agricultural technologies in Ghana: Determinants and impacts on maize yields and net farm income ”, investigated the factors influencing maize growers’ decisions to adopt CSA technologies and estimated the impact of adopting CSA technologies on maize yields and net farm income. They considered three CSA technology types: drought-resistant seeds, row planting, and zero tillage. The authors used the multinomial endogenous switching regression model to estimate the treatment effect of CSA technology adoption and analyze data collected from 3,197 smallholder farmers in Ghana. They found that farmer-based organization membership, education, resource constraints such as lack of land, access to markets, and production shocks such as perceived pest and disease stress and drought are the main factors that drive farmers’ decisions to adopt CSA technologies. They also found that integrating any CSA technology or adopting all three CSA technologies greatly enhances maize yields and net farm income. Adopting all three CSA technologies had the largest impact on maize yields, while adopting row planting and zero tillage had the greatest impact on net farm income.

Mburu, Mburu, Nyikal, Mugera and Ndambi’s paper, “ Assessment of Socioeconomic Determinants and Impacts of Climate-Smart Feeding Practices in the Kenyan Dairy Sector ”, assessed the determinants and impacts of adopting climate-smart feeding practices (fodder and feed concentrates) on yield, milk commercialization, and household income. The authors used multinomial endogenous switching regression to account for self-selection bias arising from observable and unobservable factors and estimated data collected from 665 dairy farmers in Kenya. They found that human and social capital, resource endowment, dairy feeding systems, the source of information about feeding practices, and perceived characteristics were the main factors influencing farmers’ adoption of climate-smart feeding practices. They also found that combining climate-smart feed concentrates and fodder significantly increased milk productivity, output, and dairy income. Climate-smart feed concentrates yielded more benefits regarding dairy milk commercialization and household income than climate-smart fodder.

4.2.3 Impacts on crop yields

Estimating the impacts of CSA adoption on crop yields is crucial for enhancing food security, improving farmers’ resilience to climate change, and guiding policy and investment towards sustainable agricultural development. In this special issue, we collected one paper that provided insights into this field.

Singh, Bisaria, Sinha, Patasaraiya and Sreerag’s paper, “ Developing A Composite Weighted Indicator-based Index for Monitoring and Evaluating Climate-Smart Agriculture in India ”, developed a composite index based on a weighted index to calculate the Climate Smart Score (CSS) at the farm level in India and tested the relationship between computed CSS and farm-level productivity. Through an intensive literature review, the authors selected 34 indicators, which were then grouped into five dimensions for calculating CSS. These dimensions encompassed governance (e.g., land ownership, subsidized fertilizer, and subsidized seeds), farm management practices (mulching, zero tillage farming, and inter-cropping and crop diversification), environment management practices (e.g., not converting forested land into agricultural land and Agroforestry/plantation), energy management (e.g., solar water pump and Biogas digester), and awareness and training (e.g., knowledge of climate-related risk and timely access to weather and agro-advisory). They tested the relationship between CSS and farm productivity using data collected from 315 farmers. They found that improved seeds, direct seeding of rice, crop diversification, zero tillage, agroforestry, crop residue management, integrated nutrient management, and training on these practices were the most popular CSA practices the sampled farmers adopted. In addition, there was a positive association between CSS and paddy, wheat, and maize yields. This finding underscores the beneficial impact of CSA practices on enhancing farm productivity.

4.2.4 Impacts on incomes and benefit–cost ratio

Understanding the income effects of CSA adoption is crucial for assessing its impact on household livelihoods, farm profitability, and income diversity. Quantifying income enhancements would contribute to informed decision-making and investment strategies to improve farming communities’ economic well-being. In this special issue, we collected two papers looking into the effects of CSA adoption on income.

Sang, Chen, Hu and Rahut’s paper, “ Economic benefits of climate-smart agricultural practices: Empirical investigations and policy implications ”, investigated the impact of CSA adoption intensity on household income, net farm income, and income diversity. They used the two-stage residual inclusion model to mitigate the endogeneity of CSA adoption intensity and analyzed the 2020 China Rural Revitalization Survey data. They also used the instrumental-variable-based quantile regression model to investigate the heterogeneous impacts of CSA adoption intensity. The authors found that the education level of the household head and geographical location determine farmers’ adoption intensity of CSAs.CSA practices. The higher levels of CSA adoption were positively and significantly associated with higher household income, net farm income, and income diversity. They also found that while the impact of CSA adoption intensity on household income escalates across selected quantiles, its effect on net farm income diminishes over these quantiles. Additionally, the study reveals that CSA adoption intensity notably enhances income diversity at the 20th quantile only.

Kandulu, Zuo, Wheeler, Dusingizimana and Chagund’s paper, “ Influence of climate-smart technologies on the success of livestock donation programs for smallholder farmers in Rwanda ”, investigated the economic, environmental, and health benefits of integrating CSA technologies —specifically barns and biogas plants—into livestock donation programs in Rwanda. Employing a stochastic benefit–cost analysis from the perspective of the beneficiaries, the authors assessed the net advantages for households that receive heifers under an enhanced program compared to those under the existing scheme. They found that incorporating CSA technologies not only boosts the economic viability of these programs but also significantly increases the resilience and sustainability of smallholder farming systems. More precisely, households equipped with cows and CSA technologies can attain net benefits up to 3.5 times greater than those provided by the current program, with the benefit–cost ratios reaching up to 5. Furthermore, biogas technology reduces deforestation, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, and lowering the risk of respiratory illnesses, underscoring the multifaceted advantages of integrating such innovations into livestock donation initiatives.

4.2.5 Impacts on factor demand and input substitution

Estimating the impacts of CSA adoption on factor demand and input substitution is key to optimizing resource use, reducing environmental footprints, and ensuring agricultural sustainability by enabling informed decisions on efficient input use and technology adoption. In this field, we collected one paper that enriched our understanding in this field. Understanding the impacts of CSA adoption on factor demand, input substitution, and financing options is crucial for promoting sustainable farming in diverse contexts. In this special issue, we collected one paper comprehensively discussing how CSA adoption impacted factor demand and input substitution.

Kehinde, Shittu, Awe and Ajayi’s paper, “ Effects of Using Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices on Factor Demand and Input Substitution among Smallholder Rice Farmers in Nigeria ”, examined the impacts of agricultural practices with CSA potential (AP-CSAPs) on the demand of labour and other production factors (seed, pesticides, fertilizers, and mechanization) and input substitution. The AP-CSAPs considered in this research included zero/minimum tillage, rotational cropping, green manuring, organic manuring, residue retention, and agroforestry. The authors employed the seemingly unrelated regression method to estimate data collected from 1,500 smallholder rice farmers in Nigeria. The authors found that labour and fertilizer were not easily substitutable in the Nigerian context; increases in the unit price of labour (wage rate) and fertilizer lead to a greater budget allocation towards these inputs. Conversely, a rise in the cost of mechanization services per hectare significantly reduced labour costs while increasing expenditure on pesticides and mechanization services. They also found that most AP-CSAPs were labour-intensive, except for agroforestry, which is labor-neutral. Organic manure and residue retention notably conserved pesticides, whereas zero/minimum tillage practices increased the use of pesticides and fertilizers. Furthermore, the demand for most production factors, except pesticides, was found to be price inelastic, indicating that price changes do not significantly alter the quantity demanded.

4.3 Progress of research on CSA

Understanding the progress of research on CSA is essential for identifying and leveraging technological innovations—like greenhouse advancements, organic fertilizer products, and biotechnological crop improvements—that support sustainable agricultural adaptation. This knowledge enables the integration of nature-based strategies, informs policy, and underscores the importance of international cooperation in overcoming patent and CSA adoption challenges to ensure global food security amidst climate change. We collected one paper in this field.

Tey, Brindal, Darham and Zainalabidin’s paper, “ Adaptation technologies for climate-smart agriculture: A patent network analysis ”, delved into the advancements in technological innovation for agricultural adaptation within the context of CSA by analyzing global patent databases. The authors found that greenhouse technologies have seen a surge in research and development (R&D) efforts, whereas composting technologies have evolved into innovations in organic fertilizer products. Additionally, biotechnology has been a significant focus, aiming to develop crop traits better suited to changing climate conditions. A notable emergence is seen in resource restoration innovations addressing climate challenges. These technologies offer a range of policy options for climate-smart agriculture, from broad strategies to specific operational techniques, and pave the way for integration with nature-based adaptation strategies. However, the widespread adoption and potential impact of these technologies may be hindered by issues related to patent ownership and the path dependency this creates. Despite commercial interests driving the diffusion of innovation, international cooperation is clearly needed to enhance technology transfer.

5 Summary of key policy implications

The collection of 19 papers in this special issue sheds light on the critical aspects of promoting farmers’ adoption of CSA practices, which eventually help enhance agricultural productivity and resilience, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, improve food security and soil health, offer economic benefits to farmers, and contribute to sustainable development and climate change adaptation. We summarize and discuss the policy implications derived from this special issue from the following four aspects:

5.1 Improving CSA adoption through extension services

Extension services help reduce information asymmetry associated with CSA adoption and increase farmers’ awareness of CSA practices’ benefits, costs, and risks while addressing their specific challenges. Therefore, the government should improve farmers’ access to extension services. These services need to be inclusive and customized to meet the gender-specific needs and the diverse requirements of various farming stakeholders. Additionally, fostering partnerships between small and medium enterprises and agricultural extension agents is crucial for enhancing the local availability of CSA technologies. Government-sponsored extension services should prioritize equipping farmers with essential CSA skills, ensuring they are well-prepared to implement these practices. This structured approach will streamline the adoption process and significantly improve the effectiveness of CSA initiatives.

5.2 Facilitating CSA adoption through farmers’ organizations

Farmers’ organizations, such as village cooperatives, farmer groups, and self-help groups, play a pivotal role in facilitating farmers’ CSA adoption and empowering rural women’s adoption through effective information dissemination and the use of agricultural apps. Therefore, the government should facilitate the establishment and development of farmers’ organizations and encourage farmers to join those organizations as members. In particular, the proven positive impacts of farmer-based organizations (FBOs) highlight the importance of fostering collaborations between governments and FBOs. Supporting farmer cooperatives with government financial and technical aid is essential for catalyzing community-driven climate adaptation efforts. Furthermore, the successful use of DAS in promoting CSA adoption underscores the need for government collaboration with farmer groups to expand DAS utilization. This includes overcoming usage barriers and emphasizing DAS’s reliability as a source of climate-smart information. By establishing and expanding digital hubs and demonstration centres in rural areas, farmers can access and experience DAS technologies firsthand, leading to broader adoption and integration into their CSA practices.

5.3 Enhancing CSA adoption through agricultural training and education

Agricultural training and education are essential in enhancing farmers’ adoption of CSA. To effectively extend the reach of CSA practices, the government should prioritize expanding rural ICT infrastructure investments and establish CSA training centres equipped with ICT tools that target key demographics such as women and older people, aiming to bridge the digital adoption gaps. Further efforts should prioritize awareness and training programs to ensure farmers can access weather and agro-advisory services. These programs should promote the use of ICT-based tools through collaborations with technology providers and include regular CSA training and the establishment of demonstration fields that showcase the tangible benefits of CSA practices.

Education plays a vital role in adopting CAPs, suggesting targeted interventions such as comprehensive technical training to assist farmers with limited educational backgrounds in understanding the value of CAPs, ultimately improving their adoption rates. Establishing robust monitoring mechanisms is crucial to maintaining farmer engagement and success in CSA practices. These mechanisms will facilitate the ongoing adoption and evaluation of CSA practices and help educate farmers on the long-term benefits. Centralizing and disseminating information about financial products and subsidies through various channels, including digital platforms tailored to local languages and contexts, is essential. This approach helps educate farmers on financing options and requirements, supporting the adoption of CSA technologies among smallholder farmers. Lastly, integrating traditional and local knowledge with scientific research and development can effectively tailor CSA initiatives. This integration requires the involvement of a range of stakeholders, including NGOs, to navigate the complexities of CSA and ensure that interventions are effective but also equitable and sustainable. The enhanced capacity of institutions and their extension teams will further support these CSA initiatives.

5.4 Promoting CSA adoption through establishing social networks and innovating strategies

The finding that social networks play a crucial role in promoting the adoption of CSA suggests that implementing reward systems to incentivize current CSA adopters to advocate for climate-smart practices within their social circles could be an effective strategy to promote CSA among farmers. The evidence of a significant link between family farms’ awareness of social responsibility and their adoption of CSA highlights that governments should undertake initiatives, such as employing lectures and pamphlets, to enhance family farm operating farmers’ understanding of social responsibility. The government should consider introducing incentives that foster positive behavioural changes among family farms to cultivate a more profound commitment to social responsibility. The government can also consider integrating social responsibility criteria into the family farm awards and recognition evaluation process. These measures would encourage family farms to align their operations with broader social and environmental goals, promoting CSA practices.

Combining traditional incentives, such as higher wages and access to improved agricultural inputs, with innovative strategies like community-driven development for equipment sharing and integrating moral suasion with Payment for Ecosystem Services would foster farmers’ commitment to CSA practices. The finding that technological evolution plays a vital role in shaping adaptation strategies for CSA highlights the necessity for policy instruments that not only leverage modern technologies but also integrate them with traditional, nature-based adaptation strategies, enhancing their capacity to address specific CSA challenges. Policymakers should consider the region’s unique socioeconomic, environmental, and geographical characteristics when promoting CSA, moving away from a one-size-fits-all approach to ensure the adaptability and relevance of CSA practices across different agricultural landscapes. They should foster an environment that encourages the reporting of all research outcomes to develop evidence-based policies that are informed by a balanced view of CSA’s potential benefits and limitations.

Finally, governance is critical in creating an enabling environment for CSA adoption. Policies should support CSA practices and integrate environmental sustainability to enhance productivity and ecosystem health. Development programs must offer financial incentives, establish well-supported voluntary schemes, provide robust training programs, and ensure the wide dissemination of informational tools. These measures are designed to help farmers integrate CAPs into their operations, improving economic and operational sustainability.

6 Concluding remarks

This special issue has provided a wealth of insights into the adoption and impact of CSA practices across various contexts, underscoring the complexity and multifaceted nature of CSA implementation. The 19 papers in this special issue collectively emphasize the importance of understanding local conditions, farmer characteristics, and broader socioeconomic and institutional factors that influence CSA adoption. They highlight the crucial role of extension services, digital advisory services, social responsibility awareness, and diverse forms of capital in facilitating the adoption of CSA practices. Moreover, the findings stress the positive impact of CSA on farm productivity, income diversification, and resilience to climate change while also pointing out the potential for CSA practices to address broader sustainability goals.

Significantly, the discussions underline the need for policy frameworks that are supportive and adaptive, tailored to specific regional and local contexts to promote CSA adoption effectively. Leveraging social networks, enhancing access to financial products and mechanisms, and integrating technological innovations with traditional agricultural practices are vital strategies for scaling CSA adoption. Furthermore, the discussions advocate for a balanced approach that combines economic incentives with moral persuasion and community engagement to foster sustainable agricultural practices.

These comprehensive insights call for concerted efforts from policymakers, researchers, extension agents, and the agricultural community to foster an enabling environment for CSA. Such an environment would support knowledge exchange, financial accessibility, and the adoption of CSA practices that contribute to the resilience and sustainability of agricultural systems in the face of climate change. As CSA continues to evolve, future research should focus on addressing the gaps identified, exploring innovative financing and technology dissemination models, and assessing the long-term impacts of CSA practices on agricultural sustainability and food security. This special issue lays the groundwork for further exploration and implementation of CSA practices, aiming to achieve resilient, productive, and sustainable agricultural systems worldwide and contribute to the achievements of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

Data availability

No new data were created or analyzed during this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

The conference agenda, biographies of the speakers, and conference recordings are available at the ADBI website: https://www.adb.org/news/events/climate-smart-agriculture-adoption-impacts-and-implications-for-sustainable-development .

Profile of Prof. Edward B. Barbie: http://www.edwardbbarbier.com/ .

Google Scholar of Prof. Tatsuyoshi Saijo: https://scholar.google.co.nz/citations?user=ju72inUAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao .

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Acknowledgements

We want to thank all the authors who have submitted papers for the special issue and the reviewers who reviewed manuscripts on time. We acknowledge the Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI) for supporting the virtual international conference on “ Climate-smart Agriculture: Adoption, Impacts, and Implications for Sustainable Development ” held on 10-11 October 2023. Special thanks to the invited keynote speakers, Prof. Edward Barbier and Prof. Tatsuyoshi Saijo. Finally, we would like to express our thanks, gratitude, and appreciation to the session chairs (Prof. Anita Wreford, Prof. Jianjun Tang, Prof. Alan Renwick, and Assoc. Prof. Sukanya Das), ADBI supporting team (Panharoth Chhay, Mami Nomoto, Mami Yoshida, and Raja Rajendra Timilsina), and discussants who made substantial contributions to the conference.

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Dil Bahadur Rahut

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Ma, W., Rahut, D.B. Climate-smart agriculture: adoption, impacts, and implications for sustainable development. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change 29 , 44 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-024-10139-z

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