how does a research vessel work

What is a Research Vessel?

Research vessels fulfil an important need of carrying out research at the sea. As their titular reference indicates, these ships help in the detailed analyses and studies of the oceanic arena for various purposes. The construction and the structural composition of these kinds of ships are majorly customised to suit the operational needs. This type of vessels are designed and built in a manner to face the toughest environmental conditions at the sea.

The earliest known utilisation of a research vessel predates back to the mid-1700s when the well-known and well-regarded adventurer James Cook was commissioned to study about planetary movements, while being positioned in the Pacific Ocean. Though at that time the vessel employed was not officially accredited as being a research ship, the nature and the characteristics of the outlined project demarcated it to be as one of the pioneering vessels to be applied in the field of sub-water researching.

A research vessel can be utilised for myriad purposes and in diverse oceanic regions.

Some of main purposes of research vessels are:

• Seismic Surveys (carried out by Seismic Vessel )
• Hydrographic Survey
• Oceanographic Research
• Polar Research
• Fisheries Research
• Naval/Defence Research
• Oil Exploration

Research vessels are majorly employed in the remotely vast polar arenas for polar region research. The vessels that address the scientific and analytical needs of these regions are structured with special torsos that allow them to pave their way through the icy sheets and extreme weather conditions.

A research ship can also be employed to study the patterns of the marine life-forms occurring within various water zones. Researching ships that are thus used come equipped with the necessary piscatorial equipment to aid the process.

Researching vessels are also utilised in the offshore oil and gas excavation sector so as to enable better understanding of the sub-water crude and gas reservoirs. They are employed so as to determine the best suited area to install the necessary excavation riggings.

As a means to validate the maritime security of a nation, researching vessels are employed at the national level so as to find out about any chances of naval security breach or invasion

The domain of Oceanology also necessitates the utilisation of a research ship. Such a research undertaking involves studying of the oceanic weather and tidal conditions, monitoring the features of the oceanic water and studying the seismologic trends of the underwater geography.

Research vessels are also utilized by the fishing industry to carry out various types of researches such as fish finding, water sampling etc.

In the present times on account of the development in science and technology, even researching vessels have become quite advanced. It is also expected that in the future, the concept of researching ships will bear several more pioneering hallmarks.

Some famous Research Vessels:

Flip Ship – A Unique Research Vessel

G.O. Sars – An Advanced Research Vessel

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What is a Research Vessel

The term’ research vessel’ is often used to describe a wide variety of vessels, but what exactly does it mean? As an expert in the field, I can tell you that research vessels are specialized boats designed for carrying out scientific operations. They’re essential tools for scientists and researchers who need access to the world’s oceans and waterways so they can explore new discoveries or develop new technologies. In this article, I’ll explain what makes a research vessel unique and why these ships are so important.

First, let me start by discussing what sets a research vessel apart from other types of boats. Unlike recreational or commercial vessels which may have limited capabilities, research vessels are equipped with state-of-the-art equipment specifically tailored for conducting experiments at sea. This includes advanced navigation systems, sophisticated communication systems, powerful engines and much more. Furthermore, their hulls have been designed to endure high speed sailing as well as rough seas – making them ideal for use in any environment.

On top of all that, research vessels also require highly trained personnel due to the complexity of their missions. Captains must be knowledgeable about oceanic conditions and regulations while crew members must understand how to operate onboard instruments correctly. Collecting data safely on open water takes a lot of skill and expertise!

In conclusion, understanding what makes research vessels unique requires knowledge beyond essential boating skillsets. These impressive boats combine advanced technology with experienced crews to help us unlock mysteries beneath the waves – giving us invaluable insight into our planet’s most precious resources.

A research vessel is a scientific vessel designed and built to assist in the conduct of oceanographic and other marine-based research. They are used for a variety of tasks, such as providing support for deep sea exploration, surveying underwater terrain, collecting samples from seabeds or conducting experiments. Research vessels can also be used for educational purposes, allowing students to gain hands-on experience with oceanography and related fields.

Research vessels come in all shapes and sizes; some are small enough to fit onto a single boat while others span multiple decks or even entire ships. Regardless of size, they must have certain features that make them suitable for performing their intended function. These include advanced navigation systems, powerful engines capable of navigating through rough waters, specialized equipment necessary to carry out specific tasks (such as sonar or magnetometers), laboratories equipped with analytical tools, and comfortable accommodations for passengers and crew members. In addition, research vessels typically require extensive maintenance due to the nature of their work – operating in harsh environments and often travelling long distances at high speeds. With proper care and maintenance, however, these vessels can provide invaluable data on various aspects of our oceans and coastal areas which help us better understand these vast bodies of water.

Design And Structure

Now that we’ve established what a research vessel is, let’s look at the design and structure of these vessels. Research vessels come in all shapes and sizes, ranging from small boats to larger ships. Generally speaking, they have strong hulls made of materials like steel or fiberglass which are designed to withstand harsh weather conditions.

The interior layout of each vessel varies depending on its purpose; for example, some may be equipped with laboratories while others may feature cargo holds. Other common features include navigation systems, communications equipment, and scientific instruments.

No matter what type of research vessel you’re looking for, it should always provide enough space for safe operations as well as necessary amenities such as sleeping quarters and recreational areas. In short, there should never be any compromise when it comes to safety and comfort aboard a research vessel.

Primary Uses And Applications

A research vessel is a multi-purpose ship used for a variety of scientific activities, focusing primarily on marine biology, oceanography studies and oil exploration. These ships are also used to conduct environmental monitoring as well as deep sea exploration. They provide an ideal platform from which scientists can observe, monitor and test the environment in order to gain new knowledge about our planet’s oceans.

The use of these vessels has become increasingly important in recent years due to the growing need for understanding how climate change impacts our world’s oceans. Research vessels are equipped with advanced technology such as sonar systems, specialized navigation equipment and robotic devices that allow them to explore uncharted areas or depths unreachable by humans alone. Additionally, they have sophisticated laboratories onboard where samples can be analyzed quickly and accurately while out at sea.

Research vessels offer invaluable tools for gathering data related to ocean health and resources, allowing us to better understand our planet’s natural processes and make more informed decisions moving forward. As the demand for information about oceanic life grows, so too does the importance of these vessels in helping us learn more about their ecosystems.

Equipment On Board

Moving on from the primary uses and applications of a research vessel, let us examine the equipment that is typically found onboard these vessels. Research vessels are equipped with specialized instruments, tools, and systems for performing scientific activities like collecting samples or making measurements in the field.

The below list outlines some of the key components found on board:

• Research Vessel Instruments- These include devices such as sonars and multibeam echosounders used to collect data from aquatic environments.
• Research Vessel Tools – This includes items such as dredging gear, GPS receivers, corers, cameras and other laboratory supplies necessary for sampling or analyzing specimens.
• Research Vessel Components – This can range from computers and communication systems needed to control instrumentation to climate monitoring stations that measure air temperatures, wind speed and direction.
• Research Vessel Systems – Many research vessels feature sophisticated computer based navigation systems that enable them to accurately map their course through various bodies of water. Additionally they may have advanced propulsion systems designed to reduce fuel consumption while aiding maneuverability in rough seas.

In short, research vessels come fitted with an array of high-tech equipment that allows scientists to conduct detailed studies in both shallow and deep waters across all sorts of marine environments. The information gathered by this equipment provides valuable insight into oceanic processes – helping researchers better understand our world’s oceans and coastal areas.

Crew Requirements

Operating a research vessel requires highly-skilled personnel, and the crew must meet certain requirements. Minimum qualifications for staff selection include having maritime experience and certification. Crew members should have an understanding of navigation, boat handling, engineering, electronics, communications systems, safety procedures, and other relevant skills. Furthermore, they must be able to use computers and specialized scientific equipment on board the vessel.

Qualifications needed also depend on the type of mission being performed aboard the ship. For example, if biological sampling is part of the mission then marine biologists will need to join the team; or if geophysical surveys are being conducted, then seismologists may require additional expertise as well. Other technicians may be required depending on what specific objectives are assigned during each voyage. In addition to technical knowledge and skill sets, it’s important that crews work harmoniously with one another, so it’s essential for all personnel to receive appropriate training prior to embarking on any research voyage in order to ensure safe operations at sea.

Size And Type Of Research Vessels

Now that we’ve discussed the crew requirements for research vessels, let’s explore their size and type. Research vessels come in various sizes, ranging from small boats to large ships. They also range in type, with some designed specifically for shallow-water exploration while others are able to traverse deep waters.

When considering which size or type of research vessel is best suited for your needs, it’s important to consider the following:

• The specifications of the vessel (including its length, width and draft).
• Whether the vessel has enough space on board to accommodate both a crew and any additional scientific equipment needed for the mission.
• How capable the vessel is when navigating different types of terrain such as coastal areas or open oceans.

No matter what size or type of research vessel you choose, it must be equipped with all necessary safety features so as not to put anyone at risk during operations. Additionally, each vessel should be outfitted with modern navigation systems and sensors required for data collection purposes. By ensuring these criteria are met when selecting a research vessel, you can ensure successful missions by sea.

Cost To Operate

In order to understand the true cost of operating a research vessel, it is important to consider all associated expenses. These include fuel costs, maintenance costs and other operational costs such as crew salaries and food supplies. Fuel is typically the largest expense for a research vessel and can range significantly depending on size and type of vessel used. Additionally, regular maintenance must be conducted in order to keep the vessel running safely and efficiently – these costs should also be taken into account when calculating total operating expenses.

Research vessels may also require additional specialized equipment to conduct their studies which will add further costs to the overall budget. Furthermore, any necessary modifications or upgrades need to be accounted for in the final cost estimate. All together, these factors determine the cost-effectiveness of using a research vessel, so they should not be overlooked when evaluating potential project options. When properly managed, owning and operating a research vessel can provide an invaluable asset for scientific exploration at relatively low cost.

Benefits Of Using A Research Vessel

Considering the cost to operate a research vessel, one must also consider the benefits. Using a research vessel can make operating at sea safer and more efficient than using smaller boats or even aircraft. Research vessels are designed to withstand harsh ocean conditions while still providing comfort for crew and passengers alike.

The use of a research vessel is often necessary when working with larger equipment such as sonar devices, water sampling pumps, and other bulky scientific instruments. Additionally, many modern vessels have laboratories onboard which allow researchers to conduct experiments in real time without having to return samples to shore-based labs. This saves both time and money when conducting complex studies on the open ocean.

Not only does having access to these resources increase safety for personnel, but it also increases efficiency allowing data collection from remote locations that would otherwise be impossible or considerably more expensive to reach. Ultimately, investing in a quality research vessel can provide substantial savings in both operational costs and manpower over traditional methods of marine exploration.

Potential Challenges Of Operating A Research Vessel

Operating a research vessel comes with many challenges that must be carefully managed. Research vessels are designed to provide safe and reliable access to marine environments, but they can also pose certain risks if not operated properly. Safety protocols must be followed strictly in order to minimize the likelihood of harm or injury, while crew duties must be clearly established and adhered to at all times. Additionally, regular maintenance is essential for keeping a research vessel in optimal condition.

Vessels used for oceanographic work require specialized equipment which may need repair or replacement on occasion, creating further complications when it comes to operating a research vessel. The environment itself presents its own set of unique conditions that must be taken into account when planning voyages and conducting experiments onboard. Weather patterns, currents, and sea life can all contribute to unexpected obstacles during a mission – emphasizing the importance of having an experienced captain and attentive crew aboard any research vessel voyage.

Regulations And Laws Governing Research Vessels

The potential challenges of operating a research vessel are numerous, but there are regulations and laws in place to ensure the safety of those on board. Research vessels must adhere to strict rules and guidelines for their operations, covering everything from personnel qualifications and onboard equipment to seafaring safety protocols.

International maritime law applies to all ships at sea, including research vessels. This includes both national and international requirements, such as the International Regulations for Prevention of Collisions at Sea (COLREGS), which governs how ships interact with each other. In addition, some countries have specific regulations related to research vessels that can provide additional protections or restrictions depending on where they operate. For example, most nations require crew members aboard research vessels to hold certain certifications or licenses in order to work legally on the ship.

Research vessel safety is paramount when it comes to protecting personnel and conducting successful experiments. All vessels must be equipped with necessary lifesaving gear like lifeboats, personal flotation devices (PFDs) and fire-fighting equipment along with navigation systems such as radar, radios and Global Positioning Systems (GPS). Furthermore, comprehensive training programs should be conducted before embarkation so that everyone knows what needs to be done during an emergency situation. Additionally, regular maintenance checks should take place throughout the voyage in order to identify any potential issues before they become major problems.

Health And Safety Considerations

The health and safety of the crew members on a research vessel is of utmost importance. Before any voyage, a series of protocols must be in place to ensure their well-being during the mission. This includes assessing potential health risks posed by hazardous materials onboard or in the areas that will be visited, as well as steps taken to prevent such hazards from arising. Additionally, emergency procedures should be established for any unexpected events that might occur while at sea.

To further protect the crew’s health, regular medical exams should be conducted throughout the duration of each voyage. In addition to physical exams, mental health assessments may also be necessary if there are long periods spent away from shore. All crewmembers should have access to proper healthcare services both during and after missions in case any complications arise due to their work environment. Ultimately, adhering to these protocols can help ensure a safe and successful research venture for all involved.

Maintenance Requirements

Now that health and safety considerations have been accounted for, it’s time to discuss the maintenance requirements of a research vessel. Keeping a research vessel in tip-top shape is essential for its continued operations. Vessels must be inspected on a regular basis and any necessary repairs should occur as soon as possible – no matter how small or insignificant they may seem. This will ensure the longevity and reliability of the vessel throughout its operational life.

When inspecting and performing upkeep on a research vessel, there are several areas which must be addressed; these include but are not limited to: propulsion systems, electrical components, fuel tanks/lines, hull integrity checks (including anti-fouling), navigational equipment calibration and other electronics testing. Additionally, all onboard personnel should familiarize themselves with each piece of machinery and understand their respective functions aboard the vessel. This knowledge can help identify potential issues before they arise during operations. It is also important to note that some vessels require specific types of engine oil or coolant fluid replacements depending on their age or model type. Adherence to these standards is critical when it comes to maintaining research vessels in good condition.

To sum up, proper maintenance of a research vessel is crucial for both safety reasons and overall performance while out at sea. Regular inspections, timely repairs, and knowledgeable crew members are all key ingredients when it comes to keeping research vessels running smoothly over long periods of time.

Popular Locations For Research Vessels

Research vessels are often found in some of the world’s most popular locations, including the Arctic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Indian Ocean, South Pacific and Bering Sea. Each location offers a unique opportunity for research due to its various geographical features and wildlife.

In the Arctic Ocean, research vessels can investigate the effects of climate change on sea ice formation and explore how species adapt to extreme temperatures. The Mediterranean Sea provides an ideal environment for studying ocean currents and analyzing sediment layers from human activity over time. In addition, a variety of marine life inhabits this region – making it a great spot for observing different behaviors and migration patterns. The Indian Ocean is known as one of Earth’s richest fishing grounds – providing researchers with valuable insight into stock management practices and fish population dynamics. Meanwhile, the South Pacific is home to some of the world’s deepest trenches which make it a perfect site for deep-sea exploration activities such as seafloor mapping or submarine surveys. Lastly, the Bering Sea is renowned for its abundance of whales that migrate through this area annually – giving researchers plenty of opportunities to observe their behavior up close.

Overall, these five regions offer fascinating insights into our planet’s many wonders – offering scientists ample opportunities to conduct much needed studies on issues ranging from environmental conservation to economic development.

How To Obtain Access To A Research Vessel

Obtaining access to a research vessel is not an easy task. It requires extensive preparation and the necessary permissions from various authorities. Here are some steps that must be taken in order for one to gain access rights:

• Obtain permission from maritime authorities- Research vessels operate within certain zones, so it is important to get approval from local or international governments before gaining access.
• Contact the research vessel’s owner- The owner of the vessel should provide details on what kind of access they are willing to grant, as well as any restrictions associated with utilizing their research vessel.
• Follow safety protocols- Safety protocols need to be followed in order to protect both personnel onboard and those conducting studies outside of the vessel.
• Understand legal obligations- Depending on where you plan to conduct your study, there may be additional laws that require compliance when accessing a research vessel.

In addition, researching all available options ahead of time is essential for determining which approach suits your needs best. Having an understanding of the different types of vessels, their capabilities, and cost estimates can help researchers select the most suitable option for their project objectives. Ultimately, taking these precautionary measures will ensure smooth sailing while obtaining access rights aboard a research vessel.

Future Prospects For The Industry

The future of the research vessel industry looks promising. Advances in marine research technology are driving new trends, such as using autonomous vessels for data collection and exploration projects. Autonomous vessels can cover greater distances than manned vessels and provide more accurate readings due to their advanced navigational capabilities. This could lead to a wider range of scientific discoveries that would be impossible with traditional methods.

Data collected by these vessels is also becoming increasingly valuable, as it offers insights into oceanic phenomena not previously accessible. Furthermore, the use of artificial intelligence-driven analysis tools has opened up opportunities for scientists to gain access to real-time data from remote locations. These advancements have made it easier for researchers to conduct experiments in difficult environments or at great depths without risking human lives.

These developments will continue to revolutionize the way we explore our oceans and make groundbreaking discoveries about our planet’s aquatic lifeforms. As this trend continues, research vessels will become an invaluable tool for collecting and analyzing data on a global scale – allowing us to further unlock secrets hidden beneath the waves.

Frequently Asked Questions

What Kind Of Research Can Be Conducted On A Research Vessel?

Research vessels are designed for a wide range of scientific investigations, such as oceanography and marine biology. They can also be used to collect data and carry out chemical analysis on water samples from the sea or other bodies of water. Fisheries research is another area where research vessels come in handy.

These vessels have specific designs that enable them to conduct experiments more efficiently than land-based laboratories. Their hulls provide stability in rough seas, while state-of-the-art equipment allows for accurate measurements even when waves are high. In addition, they often contain specialized systems for collecting data quickly and effectively over long distances. Research vessels also typically feature an onboard laboratory with the necessary facilities to analyze collected materials.

In short, research vessels offer great versatility when it comes to conducting various types of research related to oceanography, marine biology, fisheries, and chemical analysis. With their special features and capabilities, they make it easier for scientists to explore our oceans and gather valuable information about its depths – all without ever having to leave dry land!

How Long Does It Take To Travel On A Research Vessel?

When it comes to research vessel travel, the duration of a voyage can vary greatly depending on its purpose and destination. Research vessels are typically designed for extended periods at sea, often with trips lasting up to several months or longer. However, there are also occasions when shorter trips may be more suitable; such as if the research required is relatively quick or specialized in nature.

For instance, let’s say that you’re planning a trip aboard a research vessel to conduct oceanographic surveys in an area previously unexplored by scientists. This type of research requires detailed data collection and analysis over time, so your trip could take weeks or even months to complete successfully. On the other hand, if you were looking for an isolated species of fish or studying climate change impacts nearer to shore, then your journey would likely last only a few days instead.

No matter what kind of research travels you undertake on board a research vessel, it’s important to consider how long each venture will require before committing resources – both financial and personnel – towards making those plans a reality. Knowing the estimated duration for any given project ahead of time allows researchers to plan adequately and prepare their team accordingly for whatever conditions lie ahead during their vessel research trip.

What Is The Average Cost Of Renting A Research Vessel?

When it comes to renting a research vessel, the cost can vary depending on how long you need the vessel and what type of services are included in the rental. As an expert in researching vessels, I can tell you that there is no one-size-fits-all answer when it comes to pricing. Here are some factors to consider when determining the average cost of renting a research vessel:

• Type of Research Vessel – Different types of boats come with different price tags, from small skiffs to larger oceanographic vessels.
• Length of Time Needed – The longer you need the boat for, the more expensive it will be.
• Services Included – Will you be needing crew or equipment? Those additional services add up quickly.
•  Location – Are you looking at rentals nearshore or offshore? Renting further out at sea usually costs more than closer inshore locations.
• Fuel Costs – Depending on fuel usage and distance traveled, this could significantly increase your rental costs.

Keep in mind that these factors may affect not only the overall cost but also any applicable fees or taxes associated with renting a research vessel. Be sure to evaluate all options carefully before making your decision so that you know exactly what kind of deal you’re getting and whether it’s worth investing in a rental vessel instead of owning one outright.

How Long Does It Take To Maintain A Research Vessel?

Maintaining a research vessel is an important and time consuming process. It requires the utmost care to ensure that all of the components are working correctly, as any malfunctions can have serious consequences for the safety of those onboard. Generally speaking, it takes between two and three weeks to properly maintain a research vessel, depending on its size and complexity. During this period, all major systems must be inspected and serviced in order to keep them functioning optimally.

The maintenance schedule for a research vessel will vary from one vessel to another. Factors such as age, condition, type of equipment used, and amount of use will all influence how long it takes to complete upkeep procedures. Some routine maintenance may be performed more frequently than others – for example, fuel filters should be changed every month or so while other tasks may only need to be done annually or semi-annually. The total length of the overall maintenance procedure depends largely on these factors combined with the expertise and resources available for performing the maintenance work.

Therefore, when considering how much time is needed to maintain a research vessel, many different elements come into play which ultimately determine how well maintained it remains throughout its lifespan. Knowing what kind of systems are present on board along with their respective service timelines helps provide an estimate of just how long it might take to keep a particular vessel running smoothly over time.

What Kind Of Safety Measures Are In Place For Research Vessels?

When it comes to research vessels, safety is paramount. All research vessel operators must comply with the regulations and protocols set forth by both national and international maritime organizations. Research vessel security requires that all necessary precautions be taken to ensure the safe operation of a vessel at sea. This includes such measures as emergency preparedness plans, regular equipment inspections and maintenance, crew qualifications, navigation systems updates, proper communication protocols, and an overall understanding of best practices for operating in various conditions.

In order to maintain these safety standards on a research vessel, rigorous procedures are put into place during the design phase of construction. This ensures that fire protection systems meet relevant codes and that lifesaving appliances are up-to-date with current regulations. Additionally, depending upon the type of mission being conducted aboard the ship, additional measures may need to be taken in order to protect personnel or sensitive equipment. Such steps could include increased surveillance capabilities or specialized protective gear for those onboard.

It’s essential that researchers understand how important it is to adhere to all safety requirements while conducting their work from a research vessel. Taking extra care when making decisions related to marine operations can help make sure everyone remains safe while performing their duties at sea.

In conclusion, research vessels are a valuable asset for conducting various types of scientific and environmental research projects. They provide scientists with the ability to travel long distances in order to conduct their studies, without having to worry about inclement weather or other conditions which can interfere with research efforts.

Furthermore, they allow researchers access to areas otherwise inaccessible due to limited resources or safety concerns. In addition, renting a research vessel is relatively affordable when compared with other modes of transportation, while regular maintenance helps ensure that these vessels remain seaworthy over time.

All crew members aboard any research vessel must be aware of and adhere to specific safety protocols designed to protect both the personnel and equipment onboard at all times. With all this taken into account, it’s easy to see why so many people choose to use research vessels for completing their important work.

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Science at Sea: Meeting Future Oceanographic Goals with a Robust Academic Research Fleet (2009)

Chapter: 4 oceanographic research vessel design.

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

4 Oceanographic Research Vessel Design The most important factors in oceanographic research vessel design. Does specialized research needs dominate the design criteria and, if so, what are the impacts on costs and overall availability? Ship design is an exercise in conflict resolution. It is the creation of a system of systems to perform a specific mission while balancing con- flicting requirements to achieve a ship capable of performing its mission in the best way possible within economic constraints. Oceanographic ship design is one of the very complex subsets of ship design, due to the large variety of oceanographic missions: physical, biological, and chemi- cal oceanography; marine geology and geophysics; ocean engineering; and atmospheric science. Each discipline has its own unique set of mis- sion requirements, yet a given ship is often called upon to perform work for a number of different disciplines, often on the same research cruise. In addition, the capital needed to build effective oceanographic ships is finite and scarce. Ships will remain the primary method of conducting oceanographic research, both through direct observation and through deployment and recovery of sensors, moorings, and vehicles. Driven in part by national oceanographic research objectives, research will be conducted in increas- ingly remote and environmentally challenging areas. Future ships must be able to perform their science missions in all areas of the oceans, includ- ing the margins of the polar seas. Specialized vessels (icebreakers) will also be needed to work in ice-covered regions. 47 

48 SCIENCE AT SEA SCIENCE-DRIVEN SHIP DESIGN REQUIREMENTS The future science trends and technology advances that will drive oceanographic ship design have been described in Chapters 2 and 3. These have been synthesized into a matrix (Table 4-1). Several of these needs are unique to certain disciplines and are potential design require- ments that should be assessed carefully in general purpose oceanographic ship design. Other needs are more universal; for example, the ability to collect seawater samples throughout the water column is important for most of the oceanographic disciplines. Specific design considerations driven by the listed needs are discussed in the following sections. Handling Equipment Handling equipment overboard and onboard will continue to be of paramount importance, to allow for the safety of personnel, equipment, and the ship itself (Figure 4-1). Trends indicate that handling equipment must be able to operate effectively and safely up to sea state 6. General pur- pose oceanographic research ships require a permanently installed suite of winches (direct pull and traction) to perform conductivity-temperature- depth (CTD) type activities, deep tow, coring, and trawling missions. To expand the environmental operating window, active heave compensation has been incorporated on a number of recent ship designs. The Office of Naval Research (ONR) and the National Science Foundation (NSF) jointly funded a 2004 workshop to consider future handling systems. Recom- mendations from that workshop were used in motion compensation sys- tems installed on the Regional/Coastal class Sharp (Figure 4-1B,C), the Ocean class Kilo Moana, and the system designed for the Alaska Region Research Vessel (ARRV). It is likely that active heave compensation will be considered for all future University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System (UNOLS) vessels. Gliders, autonomous underwater and unmanned aerial vehicles (AUVs and UAVs), and remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) often require specific deployment and recovery procedures and equipment (e.g., Figure 4-1A). Although systems vary, deployment is usually much easier than recovery. While UAVs now use catchlines for recovery, advancements in remote aircraft are likely to change significantly in the future. Current oceanographic vessels, especially the larger classes, have high freeboard that makes recovery more difficult for offboard equipment. Requirements for damage stability and personnel safety in desired higher sea state   http://www.unols.org/publications/reports/lhsworkshop/index.html   Damage stability refers to the ability of a ship to have sufficient stability to survive a flooding casualty. 

Table 4-1  Science-Driven Ship Needs Science Driver Physical Biological Chemical MG&G Atmospheric Atmospheric measurement capability X X X X AUV/glider/UAV stowage and handling X X X X X Capability to service observatories X X X X Clean laboratory space X X X X Controlled temperature laboratory space X X Dynamic positioning X X X X High data rate communication X X X X X Hull mounted and deployable sensorsa X X X X X Low radiated noise X X X Low sonar self noise X X X Manned submersible use X X X Mooring/buoy deployment and recovery X X X X X Multi-channel seismics X X Ocean drilling and coring X Precise navigation X X X X X ROV stowage and handling X X X X Towing nets and/or vehicles X X X X X Underway scientific seawater supply X X X X X Watercatching/water column sampling X X X Xb X aIn this instance, deployable sensors include centerboards, stalks, and towed sensors that can be lowered beneath the level of bubble sweep- down interference. bFor hydrothermal plume studies. 49 

50 SCIENCE AT SEA (A) (C) (B) Figure 4-1  (A) An AUV being deployed using a custom OTS handling system (used with permission from ODIM Brooke Ocean). (B) The hands-free CTD han- dling system mounted on the R/V Sharp, which allows the CTD to be deployed and recovered without personnel holding the rosette. (C) A CTD deployed using the R/V Sharp’s OTS CTD handling system. The motion compensating function keeps the CTD at designated depth without regard to the motion of the ship, once deployed. (B and C used with permission from William Byam, University of Delaware). operations are likely to exacerbate this issue. Existing options, including using a small boat or a grapple to hook gliders, AUVs, or ROVs, will be less viable in rough weather conditions. Development of over-the-side (OTS) lifting equipment, either portable or permanent, will be neces- sary to protect equipment and personnel. However, designing handling equipment that is optimized for current OTS equipment could negatively impact vessel utility over the 30-year lifespan of a ship. Instead, this type of equipment should be designed with future needs in mind. 

OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH VESSEL DESIGN 51 Acoustic Quieting Acoustic quieting requirements are essential for many missions (e.g., shipborne acoustic sensors, acoustic releases on equipment, offboard platforms with acoustic communications). Double raft mounting and/or resilient mounting will be increasingly desirable. Achieving compliance with ship-radiated noise recommendations set forth in the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) report Underwater Noise of Research Vessels (commonly referred to as ICES 209; Mitson, 1995) is likely to be costly, and mission needs must clearly warrant imposition of this requirement if costs are to be minimized. Some recent and planned vessels, including the ARRV and RRS Discovery, are attempting partial compliance with ICES 209 specifications for a manageable and economic solution to ship-radiated noise. Attention should also be paid to ambient noise and its impacts on habitability for the ship crew and science party, especially when round- the-clock operations are undertaken. The positioning of berthing and accommodations should be designed to avoid unnecessary and disturb- ing ambient noise. Dynamic Positioning Dynamic positioning is critical to handle deployment, recovery, and operation of offboard vehicles safely. Design conditions should strive to maintain position beam-on in at least sea state 6-7, 30-knot winds gust- ing to 40 knots, and a 0.5-knot surface current all from the same direction (Williams and Hawkins, 2009). The current Ocean class Science Mission Requirements (SMR) require that the ship be designed to maintain posi- tion in sea state 5, a 35-knot wind, and a 2-knot current (UNOLS Fleet Improvement Committee, 2003b). Laboratories and Working Decks There will be a continued need for plentiful laboratory and working deck space and capabilities. Laboratory space should be divided between ultraclean, clean, normal, and temperature-controlled areas, with sufficient flexibility to be used for multiple needs (Williams and Hawkins, 2009). There should be ease of and logical access into and between lab spaces for personnel and sample movements. Vessel design should include a substantial scientific stores area, including areas for frozen and refriger- ated sample storage (Daidola, 2004). Working deck design must be open and clear, with tie-downs for equipment and containers. There should be flexible deck space to sup- port the use of laboratory and equipment vans, and easy and safe access 

52 SCIENCE AT SEA to covered working areas using integrated overhead lifting gear. Decks must be able to handle increasingly heavy gear, including moorings, fleets of autonomous vehicles, and ROV equipment and winches. Freeboard should be as low as possible to allow for optimal handling of over-the- side equipment while keeping decks dry. Berthing and Accommodations Accommodation trends aboard research vessels include more single berthing for crew, specialized technicians, and scientists; berthing with natural light to promote natural sleep patterns; and galley and relaxation spaces that promote a healthy lifestyle at sea (Williams and Hawkins, 2009). The quality and design of crew living spaces are paramount for employee retention and morale. Specifications for noise levels and envi- ronmental conditions in both interior laboratory spaces and living quar- ters should strive to minimize ambient noise levels. Other Design Attributes A number of other scientific and operational trends will drive oceano- graphic ship design in the future (Daidola, 2004; Williams and Hawkins, 2009). These include the following: • Larger, multidisciplinary science parties to make the best use of the ship resources and collect interdisciplinary and/or complementary data • Longer cruise durations ranging over larger areas of the ocean • Increasing desire to work in areas of rougher weather, demanding vessels capable of operating in higher sea states • Specifications that comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) • 24/7 operations • Higher-resolution and specialized hull-mounted swath bathymetry and sonar systems • Larger and heavier pieces of portable science equipment • Deployment, recovery, and maintenance of specialized offboard equipment • More specialists (in addition to marine technicians) to service com- plex equipment • Operational safety The impact of these trends on dimensions and displacement is discussed later in this chapter. 

OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH VESSEL DESIGN 53 DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS AND DESIGN DRIVERS Table 4-2 displays ship design characteristics that are dictated by science needs as well as other characteristics inherent to setting future mission requirements that may have a significant cost impact. These design drivers are assessed by their priority (1-9, with 9 being the high- est), established by the scientific community, and by their degree of ship impact (low-high), assessed by naval architects (UNOLS Fleet Improve- ment Committee, 2003b; Dan Rolland, personal communication, 2009). A “high” impact means that the ship’s capital cost will increase if that requirement is met. For example, dynamic positioning is important for many types of science missions and has a large impact on ship design. The thrust delivery and control required add significantly to the ship construc- tion cost, but given the high associated priority, dynamic positioning is likely to be an investment with widespread use. Conversely, aiming for higher ship speeds also has strong impacts on ship construction cost, but with a much lower priority. This indicates that when ship mission require- ments are set, care should be taken to fully justify any speed that is on the steep side of the power curve. A corollary impact of higher speed is greater fuel consumption, leading to increased operating cost, and greater fuel tank volume, which can increase ship cost. Efficiency Efficiency is a vital consideration in the design of future oceano- graphic ships. Seeking a design with high propulsion efficiencies will lead not only to a lower operating cost but to a “greener” ship. Efforts to be more environmentally friendly often result in the addition of equipment to reduce emissions, which requires space in and adds weight to the ship in addition to its own costs, increasing ship construction costs. However, the potential for stronger regulations on emissions in particular local or regional areas (exist in the North Sea Sulfur Oxide Emission Control Area; International Maritime Organization, 1997) will affect ship design require- ments and will not be achievable with current UNOLS vessels. Future oceanographic ship design may have to anticipate this by creating space and weight to comply with as-yet-undefined requirements or by accept- ing construction and operation cost increases associated with emission reduction measures. Other control measures, such as a carbon tax, could also drastically change the economics of traditional propulsion plants. Recent increases in fuel costs dictate that high priority should be given to improving propulsion plant efficiency and reducing ship hull resistance. Many recent academic research vessels, such as Atlantis and Kilo Moana, have used some form of electric propulsion, and currently the Navy is contemplating shifting its combatant fleet toward integrated 

54 SCIENCE AT SEA Table 4-2  Research Vessel Design Drivers Ship Design Driver Priority Ship Impact ABS class/USCG certified 9 High ADA accessibility 9 High Working deck area and arrangement 9 High Laboratory area and arrangement 9 High Draft (less than 20 feet) 9 Moderate Dynamic positioning capability 9 High Fuel efficiency 9 Moderate Maneuverability at slow speeds 9 Moderate Sonar self noise 9 High Bubble sweepdown 9 High Seakeeping 8 High Number of science accommodations 8 High Crane handling on deck and on/off ship 8 High Overboard handling operations 8 High Overboard discharges/stack emission 8 Low Other scientific echosounders 8 Moderate AUV/ROV handling and servicing 7 Moderate Workboat handling 7 Moderate Science storage 7 Low On deck incubations, locations/water 7 Low Long coring capability 6 High Mast location, met sensors 6 Moderate Rangea 6 High Speed 6 High Variable science payload 6 Moderate Radiated noiseb 6 High One degree deep water multibeam 6 High Endurance 5 Low Ice strengthening 4 High Marine mammal and bird observations 3 Low aThecommittee thinks that “Range” deserves a higher priority than the value shown in this table, due to growing needs for ships capable of reaching distant research sites. bThe committee thinks that “Radiated noise” deserves a higher priority than shown on this table unless “Sonar self noise” (which has a high priority) is controlled. SOURCE: Adapted from UNOLS Fleet Improvement Committee, 2003b; Dan Rolland, per- sonal communication, 2009. 

OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH VESSEL DESIGN 55 electric drives. This trend has resulted in larger research and develop- ment expenditures for naval combatant electric propulsion, and future oceanographic ships are likely to benefit from advancements in power conditioning, reductions in plant size, and reductions in fuel consumption for a given power level. There are other efficiencies to be considered. The performance of a research vessel is based upon the quantity and quality of the data it produces. A variety of issues can impact ship productivity, including the amount of time taken to deploy equipment to full depth and recover it, the time taken to change over from one piece of equipment to another, and time lost due to breakdowns in the winching and OTS handling equipment. This is increasingly important on multidisciplinary cruises, which often require capability for a variety of equipment to be used at any one site. Although little can be done to improve deployment and recovery speeds through the water column due to the limiting hydrodynamics of the equipment and potential for damage due to overspeeding, the U.K. academic research vessel RRS James Cook was designed to substan- tially reduce the time for equipment changeover and breakdown losses. Winches are arranged to allow all wires to be permanently rigged up and quickly connected, while a system of sheaves allows any wire to be led over any of the main OTS handling equipment (Robin Williams, personal communication, 2009). These types of ship arrangements permit a high degree of integration and support diverse science objectives simultane- ously, thus allowing more science to be carried out per day and increasing the ship’s efficiency. General Purpose and Specialized Design Requirements Large general purpose vessels yield an economical long-term fleet that can satisfy uncertainty in future mission requirements. Although general purpose ships will serve a broad spectrum of future research activities, some scientific mission requirements will call for special purpose ships. These include fisheries surveying, which requires very quiet platforms; operations in the marginal ice zone, which result in specialized hull struc- ture; deep submersible operations, which need strengthened A-frames and specialized hangar spaces; and three-dimensional (3D) seismic stud- ies, which require large reinforced deck spaces to accommodate streamer reels, large-capacity compressors for air guns, rigging and booms for handling air gun arrays, and the ability to tow multiple air gun arrays and/or streamers (Daidola, 2004). Of these, seismic needs are currently   For example, the Zumwalt-class destroyer DDG1000. 

56 SCIENCE AT SEA addressed with the Marcus Langseth; Atlantis serves as the tender for the Alvin manned submersible; and the NSF-funded ARRV will allow for work in marginal ice. These specialized ships are relatively young: Marcus Langseth was converted for research service in 2008, Atlantis was built in 1997, and the ARRV is anticipated to come online in 2014. Based on the evolving science and technology needs identified in Chapters 2 and 3 and the existence of capable specialized vessels, readily adaptable general purpose ship designs are most needed in the future fleet. The UNOLS fleet does not currently have any specialized fisheries vessels, although the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) operates four ultraquiet fisheries vessels and is slated to build three more by 2018 (Office of Marine and Aviation Operations, 2008; Tajr Hull, personal com- munication, 2009). There are a number of ship design trends involving displacement and dimensions that are useful to consider, including (Williams and Hawkins, 2009) • Increased beam, which increases damage survivability; • Increased length, which improves the hull form for powering and control of bubble sweepdown over hull mounted transducers; • Increased draft, which reduces bow emergence in a seaway and reduces bubble sweepdown; and • Increased displacement, which supports increases in range, roll stabilization, science outfitting, and over-the-side lifting equipment weights. Beam has been increasing as a result of stronger standards for damage stability but is likely to stabilize. Draft has also increased over time, likely due to the need to minimize bubble sweepdown for hull-mounted sonar systems. Minimization of bubble sweepdown has proven to be extremely challenging and can be a significant design driver for ships carrying these devices (Robin Williams, personal communication, 2009). Increasing beam and draft for conventional hull forms implies increased displace- ment, which leads to higher costs for ship construction. However, larger ships capable of carrying more scientists and performing more scientific experiments do provide an economy of scale. While adding more berth- ing and lab space increases ship construction costs, the cost per scientist decreases. This is supported by UNOLS statistics from 2008, where the average daily cost per scientist was higher for the Ocean ($1,062) and Intermediate ($982) classes than for the Global class ($946; data from UNOLS office, 2009). 

OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH VESSEL DESIGN 57 International Maritime Organization (IMO) MARPOL Regulations The United States is a party to Annex 1 of the IMO’s International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), which regulates oil pollution. A 2007 amendment to Annex 1 is likely to have a significant effect on the design, cost, and operation of future research vessels. Ships with fuel capacity of more than 600 m3 will be required to enclose the fuel tanks within a double hull. Several of the current Global class vessels (Revelle, Atlantis, Thompson, and Langseth) have fuel tanks with greater capacity. This regulation has the potential to severely restrict the range of larger ships of the academic fleet, which in turn will affect scientific activities. Although ships built using Navy funds could be exempt from these regu- lations, the amendment provides a significant driver toward more fuel- efficient operations, including lower transit speeds, more streamlined hull forms, and efficient power generation and distribution systems for future Global and Ocean class vessels. THE SHIP ACQUISTION PROCESS The Navy’s acquisition process related to the academic fleet has a significant impact on both ship cost and quality. The time from concept to delivery of any ship constructed with federal funds is extraordinarily long: the proposed new polar icebreaker is projected to take 8 to 10 years to enter service (National Research Council, 2007), and the new ARRV has taken more than 30 years of planning (http://www.sfos.uaf.edu/arrv/). Because of the lead times involved, it is vital that the most capable ship is constructed. Since decisions made at the earliest stage of design can have the greatest impact on the life-cycle cost of a ship (Bole and Forrest, 2005), science users need to participate in setting initial requirements and design specifications and to be included in the evolution of the design. This is especially important when the research requirements are translated into ship specifications, because poor decisions at this stage often yield a ship that will be unsatisfactory or uneconomical to operate. One strategy that almost guarantees an unsatisfactory solution is the use of poorly defined performance specifications. Shipbuilding is a business, and shipbuilders must compete for contracts that are usually awarded to the lowest bidder. If specifications are not tightly defined, the shipbuilder may use inexpensive and unsatisfactory approaches to construction. Some of the recent UNOLS vessels procured through the Navy acquisition process have been constructed with poor attention to   http://www.imo.org/Conventions/contents.asp?doc_id=678&topic_id=258#7. 

58 SCIENCE AT SEA detail because of this approach. Examples include the use of iron piping instead of copper-nickel for potable water systems because pipe material was not defined (as on Thompson), or deck drains that are not located at the local low point (thereby not working effectively) because the designer failed to specify a location (on Atlantis). There have even been cases where the drain piping has been run against grade (both Revelle and Atlantis). There is simply no substitute for specificity in fixed-price contracts, such as those the Navy uses to procure academic ships. While cost constraints may preclude securing a ship with every desired specification, improvements could be made to the current system. Since hull structure is one of the cheapest aspects of a complete ship, one alternative to the current approach might be to consider building a larger ship than may appear to be affordable and bid certain scientific systems separately. This would allow for “mix-and-matching” the systems, creat- ing a ship that does some part of the overall mission very well. Other capabilities could be deferred for a future refit, with unfinished space left for future equipment purchases and installation. Another alterna- tive would be for the procuring agency to purchase certain high-tech equipment separately and provide it to the shipbuilder for installation, ensuring that the desired equipment is installed rather than a lower-cost component that would require replacement and increase life-cycle costs. One caveat with this approach is that equipment must be delivered to the shipyard on time, and any required interfaces with the ship must be correctly and precisely defined. If this is not done, the shipyard will likely consume all potential cost savings by claiming increased costs due to delay and disruption associated with failure to be timely and properly defined. A common hull design between vessels of each class, as done previously with Global class ships (i.e., Thompson, Atlantis, Revelle, and the NOAA ship Ronald H. Brown), could also provide cost savings. NSF created a design and construction plan for the AARV that was intended to address many of the problems that have impacted earlier oceanographic ship acquisition programs. The ARRV process involves the scientific user community in the design and construction of an oceano- graphic ship from the preconstruction phase through post delivery of the ship. It is summarized in Box 4-1. CONCLUSIONS The fleet of the future will be required to support increasingly com- plex, multidisciplinary, multi-investigator research. The design of future oceanographic ships is likely to become more challenging in order to achieve the needed integration and balance of facilities and equipment. Multidisciplinary, multi-investigator cruises will drive many aspects of 

OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH VESSEL DESIGN 59 Box 4-1 The ARRV Procurement Process The ARRV is being built under the direction of NSF to support research in coastal and open ocean settings, particularly in those regions that experience mod- erate seasonal ice. ARRV, as the first ice-strengthened ship to join the academic fleet, requires special capabilities and presented engineering challenges that do not apply to more general purpose vessels. In order to provide strict oversight for vessel fabrication, NSF implemented a four-phase building project that required successful completion of early phases before funding would be awarded for subse- quent phases. The phases included a project refresh (design review), yard selec- tion and acquisition, ship construction, and delivery and transitions to operations. A key element of the process was the creation of an ARRV Oversight Commit- tee to obtain community input and advice on ship design and construction during all of the phases. This included a review of a final refreshed design and de-scop- ing plan, draft shipyard contract, and shipyard scope of work; a periodic review of ARRV construction progress; review of delivery voyage and the shakedown science test cruises; and review of warranty period and final acceptance. The oversight committee provides advice on the establishment of design and budget priorities, ensuring that construction remains within the agreed scope and cost. The committee was established and supported by the University of Alaska, Fairbanks (UAF), and its membership and scope of activities are approved by NSF. The committee is responsive to NSF and UAF by providing reports that detail and track the status of recommendations. The committee’s membership is fluid and may change depending on needed expertise for each phase of design, construction and trials. The ARRV procurement process entails a competitive two-step shipyard selec- tion process. Step 1 is the competitive qualification of shipyards through a technical proposal submission. Step 2 is a best-value price competition among acceptable shipyards in response to a request for cost proposals. Shipyards that do not pass Step 1 are expected to be eliminated to reduce risks of procurement delay, allow fewer potential protest risks or expenses, and maintain strong price competition among acceptable shipyards. The shipyard selection process begins with a request that interested shipyards demonstrate their qualifications for the ARRV project. The request includes the baseline project design package, a thorough description of the selection process (including evaluation methods), and detailed instructions to the potential offerors. design, including power plant and propulsion, laboratory and working deck layout, over-the-side handling, launch and recovery, and equip- ment changeover. Larger science parties and more complex technology will require more laboratory and berthing space. The growing trend toward use of multiple offboard vehicles will also impact the design with respect to freeboard and deck space. Vessel design will have to incorpo- rate technology that is currently available, such as dynamic positioning or 

60 SCIENCE AT SEA state-of-the-art sonar, while remaining adaptable for future technological upgrades. The capability to operate in high latitudes and high sea states will also be required. Because technology changes rapidly and ship lifespans are long, future academic vessel designs need to be general purpose and highly adaptable to changing science needs. Specialized ships will also be needed for some disciplines, with designs that are well matched to disciplinary needs while also being available for limited general purpose work. Trends toward increasing beam, length, draft, and displacement and the economy of scale present in larger hulls suggest that investments in larger, more capable vessels in any size class are preferred. The current Navy ship acquisition process does not emphasize inclu- sion of the scientific community in decision making regarding academic ship design and specifications. Development of the NSF-sponsored ARRV has benefited from community-driven ship design, allowing the users to participate more fully and create optimal designs for the cost constraints. 

The U.S. academic research fleet is an essential national resource, and it is likely that scientific demands on the fleet will increase. Oceanographers are embracing a host of remote technologies that can facilitate the collection of data, but will continue to require capable, adaptable research vessels for access to the sea for the foreseeable future. Maintaining U.S. leadership in ocean research will require investing in larger and more capable general purpose Global and Regional class ships; involving the scientific community in all phases of ship design and acquisition; and improving coordination between agencies that operate research fleets.

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The Complete Guide To Research Vessels

by Goodwin Marine Services | Jan 20, 2020 | Blog , Research Vessels | 0 comments

From mapping uncharted waters to discovering new species and beyond, research vessels have had a huge impact on human history. This post takes a look at notable research vessels , including titans from the past as well as some of those currently exploring our oceans. Enjoy our guide to research vessels!

The HMS Endeavour 

According to the UK’s National Oceanography Centre (NOC), modern-day research vessels owe a great deal to ancestors such as the HMS Endeavour and HMS Challenger. Both were part of the fleet of the British Royal Navy.

The BBC’s History Extra website has taken a deep dive into the history of the Endeavour. The ship is most famous for its 1768 voyage into the South Pacific, which was led by James Cook. An astronomer aboard observed the transit of Venus, an important celestial event. The ship also transported natural historians. By the end of the voyage, which involved 1,052 days on the sea, Cook had charted the coastline of New Zealand’s pair of islands. That, according to Smithsonian Magazine , was a first for European explorers.

Interestingly, the ship went by multiple names and served more than one function during its time: It began its seagoing days as the Earl of Pembroke and spent time involved in the coal industry. It was renamed the Endeavour upon the British Royal Navy’s purchase of the ship in 1768, and it took the moniker Lord Sandwich 2 in 1775, according to The Guardian . Its third and final role was serving in an invasion fleet during the Revolutionary War. It was sunk as part of British efforts to ruin the harbor at Newport.

The HMS Challenger

Taking place roughly a century later, in the 1870s, the Challenger’s key voyage saw it cover more than 68,000 nautical miles, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s page on the ship. This journey is the reason many people believe that the Challenger undertook the world’s first proper oceanic expedition. Among other feats, its passengers gathered data at 363 oceanic stations. That data revealed information on water chemistry, currents, temperature, and deposits on the ocean floor. The passengers also identified new organisms. The Challenger’s trip resulted in so much data that the end product was a report filling 50 volumes and 29,000 pages. It took 23 years to create that report.

Like the Endeavour, the Challenger filled multiple roles during its time in service. It began life as a warship in the British Royal Navy, boasting 17 guns and a powerful engine. It was 200 feet in length, and it featured three masts. (On its famous voyage, the ship used its sails more than its engine because the sails allowed for easier stops to gather data.) The Challenger began its later role as a ship of science thanks to the efforts of Dr. C Wyville Thomson, who requested through the Royal Society of London that a warship be repurposed as a research vessel. The British government was amenable to this, and the Challenger was converted.

The HMS Beagle

Between the adventures of the Endeavour and Challenger came the voyages of the HMS Beagle, which was the research vessel that famously carried Charles Darwin. It launched in 1820, per Britannica . Its second and most notable voyage occurred from 1831–1836, with Darwin on board and Robert Fitzroy as captain. This journey saw the ship circumnavigate the globe and collect a plethora of specimens. In particular, Darwin gathered numerous fossils. On a later voyage, lasting from 1837–1843, the lieutenants John Clements Wickham and John Lort Stokes fully surveyed the coasts of Australia, which was a first.

The Calypso

The Calypso is yet another example of a British vessel converted from military service to research purposes. Originally a minesweeper and finally a research vessel, this one spent a period of time in between those two jobs as a ferry in Malta. According to the Cousteau Society , pioneering oceanic explorer Jacques-Yves Cousteau discovered the ship in Malta and completed the process of buying it in 1950. From there, the ship traveled to Antibes, France, and was converted into a research vessel. (The ship’s original designation was J-826, and it became the Calypso upon Coustau’s purchase.) Companies, the French Navy, and Cousteau and his wife Simone put forth resources toward repurposing the ship.

The ship’s adventures began not long after, with test runs occurring in June 1951 and the ship’s first true expedition taking place in November 1951. It set out from the military port at Toulon for the Red Sea with the goal of studying corals. The ship succeeded from a research standpoint: It brought back documentation, including photographic evidence, of flora and fauna that was previously unknown. The ship also succeeded from an even wider point of view: It was this journey that convinced Cousteau that more exploration of the sea was necessary to truly understand it.

The Calypso had many more notable voyages to fulfill Cousteau’s goal. In 1953, it served as a platform for testing new underwater cameras that could capture images of deep-sea animals. In 1954, it took part in a journey that led to the discovery of a Persian Gulf oil field. Then, in 1955, Cousteau and his crew took part in filming The Silent World. As the New York Times review at the time of its release put it, this was a “feature-length fact film” that brought the images the Calypso captured to the masses.

The Calypso was also a key part of the TV series titled The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau and enjoyed a long career. Sadly, the ship suffered severe damage and sank after a 1996 collision with a barge. However, that wasn’t the end of the line for the Calypso: It was eventually raised, and the Cousteau Society is currently working to restore it .

The Flip Ship

A child of the 1960s, the Flip Ship is a truly unique research vessel. As covered by Marine Insight , this ship was created by the US Navy with help from the Marine Physical Laboratory in 1962. Spoon-like in shape and 355 feet long, it is able to shift into a vertical position—from the normal horizontal position of a ship—without difficulty. The ship uses ballast tanks to achieve this realignment, and the process takes just under half an hour.

It gets its name both from its most notable feature and its official acronym: FLIP, which stands for Floating Instrument Platform. The Flip Ship enters its vertical position to gather certain types of data more accurately, including measurements of waves. The ship does not have engines to maneuver itself; instead, other vessels tow it into position. The Flip Ship was renovated in 1995 and has provided very valuable data throughout its time in service.

Underwater Research Vessels

A number of research vessels prove their worth not above the waves but below them. For example, the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution maintains a number of state-of-the-art submersible research vehicles. In its original configuration, the Alvin could reach depths of 4,500 meters and dive for up to 10 hours at a time, making it able to reach approximately two-thirds of the ocean floor. Another notable vehicle in the institution’s fleet is the Deepsea Challenger , which oceanographer and cinematographer James Cameron used to visit Challenger Deep—the ocean’s deepest spot.

Icebreakers

Another specialty research vessel is the SA Agulhas II. This huge ship is an icebreaker—that is, it is able to break through thick ice, enabling it to explore the frigid area of Antarctica. Per the South African government , along with performing research, the ship has an important job in delivering supplies to South African research facilities in the Antarctic.

Joining the SA Agulhas II as a notable icebreaker is the RV Sikuliaq, which is operated by the University of Fairbanks and described in detail here . It uses a number of winches to deposit and retrieve scientific equipment, and it has a wide-ranging set of instruments for research. The ship was designed with the environment in mind, down to the noise it emits, which is purposely low.

The RV Investigator

The RV Investigator, launched in late 2014, represents Australia’s foray into high-tech research vessels. Along with advanced oceanographic capabilities, it can also collect data on the weather from far into the atmosphere, according to The Conversation . Its design is so well thought out that bubbles created by the hull won’t interfere with acoustic equipment on board.

The RRS James Cook and the RRS Discovery

Since 2006, the RRS James Cook has supported the efforts of the NOC by performing large-scale research expeditions. According to the organization’s writeup on the ship , it can perform a variety of duties, including seismic surveys, seawater sampling, the operation of remote vehicles, and deepwater coring. It can even measure changes in gravity. Additionally, the ship contains numerous laboratory facilities on board. The NOC also operates the RRS Discovery, which is the newest research ship in the organization’s fleet, featuring extremely modern equipment. These two ships represent some of the most cutting-edge research vessels out there, and it will be exciting to see what they and other modern ships reveal about the world’s oceans.

• Research Vessels

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R/V  Atlantis

Atlantis  is a Global Class research vessel in the U.S. academic fleet and is specially outfitted to carry the submersible Alvin and to conduct general oceanographic research

R/V  Neil Armstrong

Neil Armstrong  is an Ocean Class research vessel and, as one of the newest, most advanced ships in the U.S. academic fleet, is outfitted to conduct general oceanographic research.

Tioga , a small, fast research vessel owned and operated by WHOI and designed to conduct oceanographic work close to shore in waters along the Northeast U.S. coast.

Marine Facilities & Operations

Learn more about WHOI's shore operations, seagoing support and services, and the Iselin Marine Facility.

Find current and archived ship schedules in this section.

See the current location of each ship using graphical maps that show the current ship location and cruise track.

Research Vessels

R/V ROGER REVELLE

Global-Class, general-purpose research vessel capable of long-duration missions in extreme environments worldwide.

R/V SALLY RIDE

Ocean-Class, general-purpose research vessel.

R/V ROBERT GORDON SPROUL

Regional general-purpose research vessel serves research and education missions offshore California and the US West Coast.

R/V BOB AND BETTY BEYSTER

A purpose-built coastal research vessel designed for efficient operations offshore Southern California and throughout the Channel Islands. 

Emeritus Vessels

Emeritus vessel:  FLIP

The Floating Instrument Platform, or FLIP, was one of the most innovative oceanographic research tools ever invented. Over the course of its distinguished service life spanning more than 50 years, FLIP enabled research at the frontiers of science and exemplified the ingenuity of scientists and engineers at Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego.

Emeritus vessel:  R/V MELVILLE

After a distinguished 45-year service life, R/V Melville was retired from the U.S. Academic Research Fleet following her final cruise in September 2014.

Emeritus vessel:  R/V NEW HORIZON

A groundbreaking design by Scripps engineer Maxwell Silverman led to the development of the general-purpose research vessel New Horizon, which was used extensively by the CalCOFI Program and scores of other research missions throughout the eastern Pacific.

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Careers at Sea

The opportunities for jobs involving the ocean are wide and varied, and preparation makes them within reach. when most people think of a career at sea, they may envision a marine biologist watching whales, a captain piloting a large cargo ship, or a scuba diver studying reefs. in reality, there are hundreds of different careers at sea. on research vessel falkor alone there are deckhands, stewards, chefs, bosons, engineers, fitters, officers, pursers, marine technicians, scientists, and more., preparing for a career.

Classes in school are often the first steps people take in pursing their dream job. Studying sciences and math – chemistry, biology, physics, calculus, etc. is essential to pursuing marine sciences and engineering. It is good to have an idea of what you would like to specialize in, but also important to have wide-ranging foundation of understanding. Trade and vocational schooling can also open doors to jobs on ships. Internships and student opportunities help students get first-hand experience and exposure to a variety of careers.

No one claims that working on a ship is easy. Long hours and hard work are the rules, not the exceptions. However, many people are drawn to careers on ships for the chance to travel, long stretches of time off, and the chance to participate in unique work. In order to excel, a person needs to have a sense of adventure, good problem solving skills (there are limited resources when one is miles from land), and be able to work well with others (it is tight quarters on a ship). Being determined, curious, and eager to learn are important traits. Curiosity led Colleen Peters, one of Falkor’s Lead Marine Technician, to study marine sciences and continue exploring possibilities to find a job that would fulfill her the most. “I like to understand how things work. Troubleshooting is a big part of my job—if something breaks you have to figure out why and how to fix it.” Determination will also help you find a job you love. Put forth the effort to ask for advice and ask about opportunities such as internships or volunteering.

Career resources

Map Your Career FAQ’s How Do I Become A Marine Biologist? Explore Careers at Sea

Related stories

So, You Want To Go To Sea – Part One So, You Want To Go To Sea – Part Two Virtual Field Trip – Careers at Sea with EarthEcho International and Schmidt Ocean Institute 

Working on Falkor

Beginning a career can sometimes be overwhelming, so find out how some of the crew on research vessel falkor got their start:.

Name: Stian Alesandrini From: California Position on Falkor: Science Services Manager

What do you do: Stian works to make sure all the science cruises are organized and planned, working with both the crew on Falkor and the science teams.

How did you start: Stian was obsessed with SCUBA diving as a kid. He loved to free dive and learned to SCUBA at the age of 13. After finishing high school, he studied marine biology in college and graduate school. Stian worked as a SCUBA instructor, laboratory manager, and sub-tidal research biologist (working underwater in kelp forests and on small research boats), before joining the United States Antarctic Program as a marine technician on their research vessels. Fifteen years and several vessels later, he now gets to work both in the field and in the office, where he provides remote support to the technicians sailing on the Falkor .

Fun fact: Stian once got stuck in the ice for a month on an icebreaker in Antarctica.

Name: Archel Benitez From: Philippine Islands Position on Falkor : Deckhand

What do you do: As a deckhand, Archel helps with various science operations such as deploying robotic vehicles and CTDs, as well as assisting with the day-to-day operation such as looking after lines used to moor the ship, and general ship maintenance.

How did you start: Archel spent four years in marine studies after high school, and worked on a wide variety of ships including container vessels shipping cargo from Europe to the United States, passenger ships, and tugboats.

Advice: Archel recommends taking every aspect of your job seriously and to strive for perfection.

Name:  Shiella Marie Bonita From: Philippine Islands Position on Falkor : Stewardess

What do you do: Shiella attends to the living needs of crew, making sure the interior of Falkor is working and kept clean.

How did you start: Shiella graduated from college with a degree in Hotel and Restaurant Management. She worked in a five-star hotel, but wanted to see the world. After leaving the hotel, Sheilla worked on a cruise ship.

Many people do not consider the fact that there are also hospitality careers at sea.

Name: Leonard Pace From:  New York Position on Falkor : Science Program Manager

What do you do: Leonard manages Schmidt Ocean Institute’s annual collaborative proposal review process and related community coordination and outreach activities. He also manages special projects and liaising with the scientific community: for example, coordinating and leading SOI’s ROV Development Survey.

How did you start: From a young age Leonard was inspired to become a marine biologist. He majored in Marine and Environmental science in college and found passion during a semester at sea aboard S/V Westward . Leonard continued on to earn a Masters degree, which opened the door for his Knauss Marine Policy fellowship.

Advice: Enjoy what you do.

Name: Edwin Pabustan From: Philippine Islands Position on Falkor: Fitter

What do you do: Edwin works on everything from science instruments to ship parts, optimizing their fit and performance. Edwin also does maintenance and repair, a never-ending job on a ship.

How did you start: After high school, Edwin studied engineering at a technical school then worked on tankers that transported liquids for 10 years before joining Falkor .

• Ocean Exploration Facts

What is an ROV?

“rov” stands for remotely operated vehicle; rovs are unoccupied, highly maneuverable underwater machines that can be used to explore ocean depths while being operated by someone at the water surface..

The remotely operated vehicle, Deep Discoverer , being recovered after completing 19 dives during the Windows to the Deep 2019 expedition. Image courtesy of Art Howard, Global Foundation for Ocean Exploration, Windows to the Deep 2019. Download image (jpg, 153 KB) .

Remotely operated vehicles, or ROVs, allow us to explore the ocean without actually being in the ocean.

These underwater machines are controlled by a person typically on a surface vessel, using a joystick in a similar way that you would play a video game. A group of cables, or tether, connects the ROV to the ship, sending electrical signals back and forth between the operator and the vehicle.

Most ROVs are equipped with at least a still camera, video camera, and lights, meaning that they can transit images and video back to the ship. Additional equipment, such as a manipulator or cutting arm, water samplers, and instruments that measure parameters like water clarity and temperature, may also be added to vehicles to allow for sample collection.

First developed for industrial purposes, such as internal and external inspections of underwater pipelines and the structural testing of offshore platforms, ROVs are now used for many applications, many of them scientific. They have proven extremely valuable in ocean exploration and are also used for educational programs at aquaria and to link to scientific expeditions live via the Internet.

ROVs range in size from that of a small computer to as large as a small truck. Larger ROVs are very heavy and need other equipment such as a winch to put them over the side of a ship and into the water.

While using ROVs eliminates the “human presence” in the water, in most cases, ROV operations are simpler and safer to conduct than any type of occupied-submersible or diving operation because operators can stay safe (and dry!) on ship decks. ROVs allow us to investigate areas that are too deep for humans to safely dive themselves, and ROVs can stay underwater much longer than a human diver, expanding the time available for exploration.

For More Information

Observation Platforms: Submersibles

Introduction to Remotely Operated Vehicles and Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (pdf, 738 KB)

Oceanographic Research Vessels: How They Help Scientists

by Goodwin Marine Services | Apr 1, 2022 | Blog | 0 comments

Oceanographic Research Vessels cater to a crucial demand for doing study at sea. These ships assist in the extensive assessments and investigations of the maritime arena for numerous purposes. Plus, it aids scientists in many ways. 

To discover ocean regions

Oceanographic research vessels are built to study the oceans’ shoreline and remote areas. Moreover, the vessels assist in water testing and seabed surveying. These tests include: 

• Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth Recording
• Hydrographic sounding
• Coring and dredging

Oceanographic research vessels are also for a range of other jobs that assist scientists in deepening their knowledge of the seas.

Research vessels provide a diverse range of winches and lifting solutions for handling and deploying your expensive scientific equipment. With the help of research vessels, institutes, shipyards, and vessel designers can determine the appropriate equipment configuration for the anticipated activities. 

To deliver precise data

Despite growing exactness in satellite observations, electromagnetic radiation records information from the waters for the first few centimeters of the ocean surface. Moreover, it keeps physical equipment as the only practical option to investigate the ocean depths.

On the other hand, Oceanographic Research Vessels are the principal methods of oceanic observation, mainly for the near future. Such vessels are equipped with cutting-edge technology and devices that support sophisticated, multidisciplinary, multi-investigator studies throughout all oceanographic subfields.

Advanced sensors and scientific resources can generate accurate information for a wide range of oceanographic variables. The research vessels’ data enables makers to construct models and forecast how the prospective waters will change. In this way, oceanographic research vessels can permit scientists to carry the torch in oceanographic science.

For other crucial operations

For polar research.

Scientists mostly use oceanographic research vessels in the far-flung polar regions for polar area study. These ships respond to the areas’ scientific needs. It is because they are built with specific torsos that enable researchers to navigate under icy layers plus adverse weather conditions .

For oil research

Offshore oil and gas extraction companies also use research vessels to understand sub-surface crude and gas deposits. 

For Oceanography research

Oceanographic research vessels undertake studies on water’s tangible, chemical, and biological properties. This is not all. They also carry out research on such features of the atmosphere and the climate. 

Such vessels have tools for capturing water samples from a variety of depths, such as the deep oceans. Moreover, such ships have hydrographic sounding devices and a variety of other sensing devices. Through this, scientists can analyze what is happening and going to happen in the ocean. 

For fishing industry researches

The fishing business also uses research vessels to conduct various types of research, including fish discovery and water testing. Scientists can thus recognize the condition of the aquatic environment. 

Due to technological improvements, even oceanographic research vessels have gotten fairly complex in recent years. The concept of investigating ships is also predicted to display several other pioneering markings.

Want to know more about the ability of oceanographic research vessels? Contact Goodwin Marine Services today. With over 10 years of experience, the team will surely assist you with more information and details.

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Research Vessel

Become a scientist on expedition, our goal: building a research ship together.

Citizen Scientists want to participate in research projects that are well-designed, scientifically sound and match their interests and expertise.

Scientists and researchers apply to us for research projects to access unique research opportunities in remote or hard-to-reach areas, or to study specific species or ecosystems.

Ship owners are looking for a vessel that is reliable, durable and safe. They want a vessel that can withstand the rigours of scientific research and rough seas, and are looking for an intergenerational, sustainable investment.

Citizen Science Research Vessel

Building a new ship

Combination of a research and a cruise vessel.

For Citizen Science voyages, our intention is to build a new ship . For our research projects, we are planning a combination of a research and a cruise vessel with the following features:

- Passengers: approx. 300 with 150 cabins. - Crew: approx. 50 - Dry and wet laboratories - Small research boats and Zodiac inflatable dinghies for sampling and landing - Cranes with water bailers - Submarine drones and diving robots (ROV) - Diving equipment and a hyperbaric chamber - A helicopter landing deck - An arboretum - Several lecture halls of various sizes - Marinas - A hybrid or LNG drive

Research together

Our ambition

Combined cruise and research vessel.

Guidance and support from experts: Citizen Science trips provide access to experts from different scientific disciplines, such as marine biology, environmental science and climate research, who guide and support citizen scientists in their research activities.

Safe and comfortable accommodation: Citizen Science journeys ensures that the accommodation on the ship is safe, comfortable and conducive to research activities. This includes amenities such as private cabins, numerous lecture and work spaces, and extensive research equipment.

Education and cultural experiences: Citizen Science travellers are interested in learning more about the local culture, history and ecology of the areas and destinations they visit. Therefore, Citizen Science trips provide opportunities for cultural and educational experiences.

Networking: Our guests want to connect with other like-minded individuals and researchers. Through Citizen Science trips we open up new opportunities for networking, collaboration and team building.

Accessible and affordable costs: Citizen Science trips have accessible and affordable pricing options to enable a wide range of citizen scientists of different financial means to participate in science.

Ethical and responsible research practices: Citizen Science trips ensure that all research activities are conducted ethically and responsibly, with appropriate protocols to protect the environment and ensure the safety of participants and wildlife.

Opportunities for skills development and personal growth : Citizen Science trips provide opportunities for citizen scientists to expand their skills and knowledge through hands-on research experiences and to develop personally through travel and cultural experiences.

Research on board

Operator for citizen science

Information about research vessels, what is a research vessel.

A research vessel is a specially designed ship used for scientific purposes to gain knowledge about the world's oceans and their resources. It is an important part of oceanography, geology and marine biology.

These ships have a variety of scientific instruments and laboratories that enable researchers to carry out detailed measurements and sampling in the field. Some research vessels are also equipped with specialised equipment such as submersibles, cranes and deep-sea capable rovers to facilitate research activities in the deep ocean.

The research vessels are usually equipped with state-of-the-art communication and navigation systems that enable researchers to work safely and efficiently. They also have accommodation and recreational facilities for the crew and researchers who spend extended periods of time on the ship.

An important advantage of a research vessel is that it allows researchers to conduct their research directly in the ocean, rather than collecting samples and data from other sources. This allows them to gain a better understanding of the oceans and their ecosystems and make important discoveries in the field of marine research.

Operator for science

Research vessel ms freya stark, research vessels equippment.

The following scientific instruments and equipment may be present on a research vessel:

Measuring instruments for temperature, salinity and depth of the sea Echosounder systems for mapping the seabed Marine biological collection equipment such as nets and trawls Hydrology instruments for measuring currents, waves and tides Geological sampling tools such as drills and corers Weather stations for monitoring weather conditions Cameras and video equipment for documenting research results Laboratory rooms and equipment for analysing samples Submersibles and ROVs (Remotely Operated Vehicles) for deep-sea research Crane systems for lifting and transporting samples and equipment.

However, this is not an exhaustive list and the specific set of research instruments may vary from ship to ship, depending on the research projects planned.

Citizen Science Projects

Research projects in the North Atlantic

Research vessels.

The MS Walther Herwig III is the largest of the three German fisheries research vessels. It is managed by the German Federal Office for Agriculture and Food. The ship is being used primarily by the Johann Heinrich von Thünen Institute. It is mainly used for research projects in the North Atlantic as well as the North and Baltic Seas.

The Walther Herwig III is due to be auctioned in the near future since a new ship is being built (the MS Walter Herwig IV).

Operator in the polar regions

Citizen science vessel.

The MS Polar Pioneer is licensed to carry 54 passengers, is certified as ice class 1A Super, and has already been in operation as an expedition cruise ship. She is anchored in Denmark. The MS Polar Pioneer was being used by a Dutch expedition operator in the polar regions and has now been replaced by the new ship MS Honsius.

The MS Polar Pioneer was built in 1985 in Turku, Finland. As a citizen science vessel, the MS Polar Pioneer is particularly suitable for climate research in the polar regions due to her high ice class rating.

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Pressure Vessels – Everything you need to know

It is thought that the market volume of pressure vessels used in many different industries will increase with new investments made in the coming years. The weighted part of the pressure vessels produced is manufactured with metal materials. Steel is the most widely used material among metals in pressure boiler production. In the upcoming years, composite materials are expected to be a new alternative. Pressure vessels are containers that hold high-pressure gases or liquids and have wide applications in industries including oil & gas, chemicals, petrochemicals , distillation towers, nuclear reactor vessels, natural gas storage systems, and hot water storage tanks.

What is A Pressure Vessel?

Pressure vessels are leak-proof containers that store liquid or gas. Pressure vessels of various sizes and shapes have been produced for different purposes. Generally, preferred geometries are spherical, conical, and cylindrical. A typical model is the combination of a long cylinder with two heads. Pressure vessels work at internal pressures higher or lower than air pressure. Besides, the operating temperatures of these systems differentiate.

How Does It Work?

Pressure vessels are designed to work by reaching the level of pressure required to make an application function, like holding air in a scuba tank. They can deliver pressure either directly through valves and release gauges, or indirectly via heat transfer. Potential pressure levels range from 15 psi up to around 150,000 psi, while temperatures are often above 400°C (750°F). A pressure tank can hold anywhere from 75 liters (20 gallons) to several thousand liters.

Applications of Pressure Vessels in the Industry

Pressure vessels are used in many different industries, but 3 industries cover most of the market. These industries are the oil and gas industry, chemical industry, and energy industry.

Oil and Gas Industry

In the Oil and Gas industry, a pressure vessel is often used as a receiver where physical and chemical processes take place at high temperatures and pressures.

Although the columns are used for different purposes, they are similar in construction. Distillation columns are used to divide feed streams or streams into multiple sources, based on feed part boiling points. In general, pressure vessels and columns are purchased from the same manufacturers because of their similar construction process. Carbon steel and stainless steel are the two most commonly used materials for construction in the oil & gas industry. A pressure vessel also requires other components in addition to the external body to become usable, such as vessel internals, distillation trays. Such components are highly complex and they require specifications that are very different from those necessary for the manufacture of pressure vessels that are supplied by specialist suppliers.

Chemical Industry

It is a pressure vessel in which a process (chemical reaction) is carried out, which leads to a fundamental change in the content of the container. These can be processes such as combining one or more products to create a new product, dividing one product into one or more different products, removing directions of an existing product to create something else. Also, many different types of pressure vessels can be used simultaneously in the chemical industry.

Energy (Power Generation) Industry

There are a number of different causes of why the energy sector needs pressure vessels overall. One of the main reasons why they are needed within the energy sector is to contain harmful gases. Often in places such as oil refineries as well as metalwork’s excess gas needs to be stored. Also, Nuclear power plants use special pressure vessels named Reactor Pressure Vessels (RPVs). RPVs are large cylindrical steel vessels containing a core, cooling water, and generated steam, that requires high reliability to withstand high temperatures and high pressures, and neutron irradiation, which makes the RPV the most critical pressure boundary in the nuclear power plant. But keep in mind, not all power reactors have a reactor pressure vessel.

Pressure Vessel Types

Process Vessel: Process vessels (tanks) are designed to simply hold and store liquids and they are used for an integrated operation in petrochemical facilities, refineries, gas plants, oil and gas production facilities, and other facilities.

Autoclaves: Autoclaves are large vessels that are pressurized and brought to high temperatures. They are usually cylindrical since the rounded shape is better able to safely withstand high pressures. Autoclaves are designed to hold items that are placed inside and then the lid is sealed.

High-Pressure Vessels : They are the most durable vessels on the market which are capable of working under the heaviest loads and they provide the best resistance to corrosion, temperature, and pressure. The high-pressure vessels are usually made of stainless steel. Typical functions for the high-pressure vessel: high-speed mixers, chemical reactors, and supercritical extraction systems.

Expansion Tanks: The expansion tanks are designed to adjust for changes in the amount of hot water in heating systems and changes in water flow rate, and to maintain the static pressure produced by the pump at the utilization level in sanitary hot water systems.

Heat Exchangers: A heat exchanger is a device that transfers heat from one medium to another. Heat exchangers are most commonly used in industrial facilities such as iron and steel, petroleum, petrochemical, gas, power plants, food, pharmaceuticals, leather, textiles, air conditioning, ships, and marine industries.

Water Pressure Tanks: In a water well system the pressure tank produces water pressure by using compressed air to force down on the water. Because of this pressure, water is forced out of the tank through the pipes inside your home when a valve is opened.

Vacuum Tanks: A vacuum tank is part of a system that filters air or fluids through suction, outgassing, pumping, or a combination of techniques. Vacuums use pressure to prevent contamination, purify, dehydrate, and even power.

ASME Pressure Vessels: They also known as ASME boilers, are any pressure vessel with an ASME stamp. The ASME stamp indicates the vessel has undergone inspection and meets stringent ASME VIII code standards. In addition, the ASME stamps offer end-users information about the ASME boiler and its manufacturer.

Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels: A thin-walled pressure vessel is one in which the skin of the vessel has a thickness that is much smaller than the overall size of the vessel, and the vessel is subjected to internal pressure that is much greater than the exterior air pressure.

Boilers: They are closed pressure vessels used to heat fluids, mostly water. These heated fluids are used for cooking, power generation, central heating, water heating, and sanitation.

Pressure Vessel Production

Scientifically, the solution to the problem of reducing strain is a simple geometric answer: a sphere. The engineering solution obviously isn’t that simple. Spherical pressure vessels are incredibly difficult to build. Although NASA may choose to manufacture perfectly spherical, cryogenic carbon fiber tanks properly, most applications need a simpler, more realistic solution. The most used design is a configuration of a long, two-headed cylinder. The steel cylindrical pressure vessel matches the demands of various pressure vessel applications, these vessels are meticulously engineered to favor ease of production, while retaining a robust and resilient geometry.

The cylindrical middle section can be easily built from a rectangular steel piece while the absence of perpendicular edges provides a better distribution of the tension. While hemispheric heads provide better distribution of pressure, shallow heads are often used instead. Known as “dished” heads in the sector, they represent an important balance between strain minimization and manufacturability. These heads are much easier to form and can become slightly thicker and reach the same pressure resistance. In general, dished heads have one of two geometries: semi- ellipsoidal or torispherical. Torispherical heads consist of a plate with a fixed radius that connects to the cylinder with a toroidal joint. The relative ease of production has made torispherical heads the most common head shape of the pressure vessel, finding use in recompression chambers, distillation towers, petrochemical plants and a variety of storage uses.

Semi elliptical heads are another choice used on a regular basis. These are deeper, more spherical, and durable than a torispherical head, and thus more costly to construct, but can handle more challenging applications than torispherical heads. Semi elliptical heads are best suited to applications with slightly higher pressure where the entire length of the cylinder is still important.             The thicknesses determined by the relevant equations are minimal to which should be added various allowances, including allowances for corrosion, erosion, material supply tolerances, and any fabrication thinning. The thicknesses calculated by the equations in principle are minimal, to which various allowances should be applied, including allowances for corrosion, erosion, tolerances of material supply, and any fabrication thinning.

Material Selection

The spectrum of materials used in pressure vessels is wide and includes but is not limited to:

• Carbon steel (with less than 0.25% carbon)
• Carbon manganese steel (giving higher strength than carbon steel)
• Low alloy steels
• High alloy steels
• Austenitic stainless steels
• Non-ferrous materials (aluminum, copper, nickel, and alloys)
• High duty bolting material

In order to comply with the production standards, the following material properties must be known in the selected materials. The designs made without knowing these features are very likely to have problems during long use. Therefore, much attention should be paid to the choice of materials.

• Elongation and reduction of area at fracture
• Notch toughness
• Aging and embrittlement under operating conditions
• Fatigue strength
• Availability

Design stresses are adjusted using safety factors applied to material properties, including:

• Yield strength at design temperature
• Ultimate tensile strength at room temperature
• Creep strength at design temperature

Welders and manufacturers must keep in mind the following points to guarantee that their pressure vessels fulfill all the requirements of industrial applications:

• Vessel weight and contents
• Ambient and operational temperatures
• Static and dynamic pressures
• Residual and thermal stress
• Reaction forces

Steps Involved in Pressure Vessel Fabrication

Before construction starts, the manufacturer is often required to submit fully dimensioned drawings of the main pressure vessel shell and components for approval by the purchaser and inspecting authority. In addition to showing dimensions and thicknesses, these drawings include the following information:

• Design conditions.
• Welding procedures to be applied
• Key weld details
• Heat treatment procedures to be applied
• Non-destructive test requirements
• Test pressures.

The manufacturer is generally required to maintain a positive system of identification for the materials used in construction so that all material in the completed pressure vessel can be traced to its origin. The creation of plates in rollers or dished ends is a hot or cold process, depending on the material, thickness, and finished dimensions. The standard regulates the allowable mounting tolerances. These tolerances limit the stresses caused by roundness and misalignment of the joint.

Manufacturing Steel Dished Heads

There are two main stages of making dished heads made of metal. Firstly, the metal is sliced in the correct thickness and shape using plasma cutting machines or industrial circular shears which are commonly guided by computer. When cut to form, the metal is transformed into a head using a flanging process or a spinning process. In the spinning approach, the metal is rotated on a hydraulic lathe and pressed to a tool.

The tool forms the metal according to the desired head shape and enables the hinge radius and the bowl radius to be produced in one go. Flanging is a two-step process modeled to accelerate the final cylinder assembly: The steel is pressed cold into a shaped cap and then formed with a pressure roller so that it demonstrates a straight flange at the point where the cylinder is connected.

Development of composite vessels

Defines 4 types of composite cylinders to describe the specific making principles.

• Type 1 – Complete Metal: Cylinder made entirely of metal.
• Type 2 – Hoop Wrap: metal ring, covered with fiber-material belt-like hoop cover. For geometrical purposes, the spherical bottom and the head of a cylindrical cylinder can withstand twice the pressure as the cylindrical shell (assuming uniform metal wall thickness).
• Type 3 – Totally Wrapped, over Metal Liner: Diagonally wrapped fibers make the wall resistant to pressure right at the bottom and around the metal collar. The metal lining is thin and is close to the vessel water.
• Type 4 – A vessel made of all carbon fiber, with polyamide or polyethylene insulation inside the liner. Features are much lower weight and very high resistance. The price of carbon fibre is comparatively high.

Type 2 and 3 cylinders came up around 1995. Type 4 cylinders are commercially available at least from 2016 on.

Pressure Vessel Welding Process

Pressure vessels are used for the high-pressure storage and distribution of liquids and gases. Welding must be of exceptionally high quality on pressure vessels to withstand working conditions. Good surface preparation is crucial to passing first-time challenging pressure vessel welding inspections easily and protecting precious money in the process. It is possible that some errors occur during welding. These errors are mentioned below. It is common to use undamaged inspection tests to detect imperfection.

Porosity occurs when a gas enters the molten weld pool. As the source cools and solidifies, the gas creates bubbles that appear as voids during the inspection. Numerous problems can cause porosity in a weld. It is important to check whether appropriate welding techniques are followed and appropriate consumables are used.

Nitrides are a highly adherent contaminant created when plasma cutting with compressed air or nitrogen. They make the edges brittle and create porosity in some welding processes, especially gas metal arc welding. Because nitrides can exist from 0.005 to 0.010 inches. below the surface of the material, you cannot remove them with brushes.

Inclusions often result from surface contaminants that become mixed into the weld pool and are trapped during solidification. In multipass welding applications, slag that is not completely removed can be a source of inclusions. Thorough cleaning with a suitable wire brush before welding and between passes is a very effective means of eliminating this type of defect.

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) has established rules for the production of pressure vessels. The ASME pressure vessel code includes materials, assembly, and safety details to ensure that the manufacturing process for the pressure vessel meets industry needs and will function properly and without concerns about damage or injury to people working around them. Best welding preparation work and outstanding welding techniques are important for building safe and profitable pressure vessels as well as satisfying your customers.

The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (ASME Code) is a leading standard for pressure equipment and components worldwide and provides criteria for producer certification and quality assurance. It sets standards for the design, materials, manufacture, inspection, testing, and operation of boilers and pressure vessels (including power boilers, heating boilers, components of nuclear facilities, fibre-reinforced plastic pressure vessels, and transport tanks). Across over 100 countries, the ASME Code is accepted. The adding of the ASME certification mark to your pressure equipment encourages greater trust among your business partners, end-users, and authorities.

Adhere to Safety Standards and Codes: In addition to the ASME BPVC Standards Section VIII which governs the design and manufacture of pressure vessels, pressure vessel users should adhere to safety standards and codes such as OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) 1915 Subpart K for vessels, drums, and containers, API 510 Vessel Code for maintenance, repair, and alteration and API 572 for Inspection. By local jurisdiction authorized inspection agencies to govern and regulate inspections and installations.

Allow Trained Personnel to Handle Pressure Vessels: It is critical that only qualified personnel be allowed to handle the vessels because of the high-risk factor involved when dealing with the pressure vessels.

Inspection and Testing

During construction, each pressure vessel shall be inspected by the inspecting authority. The standard defines the stages from the reception of the material to the completed vessel for which the inspection by that authority is compulsory. For instance, the customer may require an extra inspection to check internals.

The manufacturer specifies the welding procedures used in the construction of the pressure vessel along with test pieces which are indicative of the materials and thicknesses used in the actual vessel. The inspecting authority must usually observe the creation and testing of such test pieces unless previously authenticated test pieces are available.

Welders must pass approval tests designed to show that they are capable of making welds identical to those used in the actual vessel. A recognized licensing authority reaffirms those permits for welders.

The national standard determines the level of non-destructive inspection applied during construction. Usually, non-destructive testing is one or more of the following.

• Magnetic particle or dye penetrant (for weld surface flaws).

Dye penetrant testing only detects discontinuities that are on the surface while magnetic particle testing detects not only surface cracks but also those imperfections that are very near to the surface.

• Radiography (for weld internal flaws).

X-ray inspection can detect cracking and inclusions on the subsurface, but it is incredibly expensive. Usually, only X-ray monitoring is performed for critical weld joints such as at nuclear plants and submarines.

• Ultrasonic (for weld internal flaws).

Ultrasonic testing can detect surface and subsurface imperfections and is conducted by directing a high-frequency sound wave through metal and welding.

The degree of non-destructive inspection depends on the material and thickness (i.e. depends on the difficulty of welding). Some standards use a “joint factor” approach that allows a reduced amount of non-destructive testing if the intended thickness is increased. This common factor is chosen and applied in the initial design phase.

Before delivery, most standards require a pressure test witnessed by the inspection authority. Since it cannot be compressed, water is the preferred test liquid. If air is the only test liquid possible, special precautions should be taken and consultations with the inspection authority and other relevant law enforcement agencies are needed. The test pressure is usually 1.2 to 1.5 times the design pressure, which is applied gradually and is held for a set period of time to demonstrate the pot adequacy.

When delivered and put into operation, the customer accepts liability for safe service. Legislation may also require periodic inspection over the life of the vessel and may require the intervention of the regulatory authority for certain essential contents.

To summarize, many criteria are important to choose the pressure boiler that best suits your own process. First of all, all the conditions of the process must be known very well. In this way, the most suitable design can be made according to the process and the most suitable material can be selected. However, even if all these steps take place properly, it may be necessary to check all steps of production with non-destructive testing after the production phase. It should not be forgotten to carry out maintenance for a certain period of time after the pressure vessel is started to be used. It should be noted that a pressure boiler manufactured according to the standards is safer. The standards recognized in many countries in this regard have been established by ASME.

High-Quality Engineering & Procurement

YENA Engineering provides pressure vessels with a wide range of material grades and thicknesses. Our facilities are ASME U and S code certified manufacturers for related products. YENA Engineering is able to provide heat exchangers for Shell and tube. We are pleased to offer custom design and manufacture of heat exchangers.

For more information, check out https://yenaengineering.nl/pressure-vessels/

or feel free to contact us https://yenaengineering.nl/contact/

• https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9780412054815
• https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=15034
• https://www.pressure-vessels.net
• https://www.wattco.com/2015/02/what-is-a-pressure-vessel/
• http://www.allweld.ca/blog/pressure-vessel-fabrication-a-brief-overview/
• https://www.asme.org/certification-accreditation
• https://nigen.com/asme-pressure-vessel-welding-code-rules/
• http://thermopedia.com/content/1058/
• https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/pressure-vessel-market
• https://www.cimtas.com/CompanyPresentation/downfiles/brochures/pvg.pdf
• https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/pressure-vessel-market-116301805.html
• https://www.nproxx.com/different-types-of-pressure-vessel/

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• Artificial Intelligence /

Perplexity will research and write reports

A new feature called pages will do the searching, writing, and laying out of a report with just a prompt..

By Emilia David , a reporter who covers AI. Prior to joining The Verge, she covered the intersection between technology, finance, and the economy.

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AI search platform Perplexity is launching a new feature called Pages that will generate a customizable webpage based on user prompts. The new feature feels like a one-stop shop for making a school report since Perplexity does the research and writing for you.

Pages taps Perplexity’s AI search models to find information and then creates what I can loosely call a research presentation that can be published and shared with others.  In a blog post , Perplexity says it designed Pages to help educators, researchers, and “hobbyists” share their knowledge.

Users type out what their report is about or what they want to know in the prompt box. They can gear the writing more toward beginners, expert readers, or a more general audience. Perplexity searches for information, then begins writing the page by breaking down the information into sections, citing some sources, and then adding visuals. Users can make the page as detailed or concise as they want, and they can also change the images Perplexity uses. However, you can’t edit the text it generates; you have to write another prompt to fix any mistakes.

I tried out Pages ahead of time to see how it works. Pages is not geared toward people like me who already have an avenue to share our knowledge. But it doesn’t seem geared toward researchers or teachers, either. I wanted to see how it can break down complex topics and if it can help with the difficult task of presenting dense information to different audiences.

Among other topics, I asked Perplexity’s Pages to generate a page on the “convergence of quantum computing and artificial intelligence and its impact on society” across the three audience types. The main difference between audiences seems to be the jargon in the written text and the kind of website it takes data from. Each generated report pulls from different sources, including introductory blog posts like this one from IBM . It also cited Wikipedia, which drove the student report vibe home.

The Perplexity-generated page did a passable job of explaining the basics of quantum computing and how AI fits into the technology. But the “research” didn’t go as deep as I could have if I were writing the presentation myself. The more advanced version didn’t even really talk about “the convergence of quantum computing and AI.” It found blog posts talking about quantum inflection points , which is when quantum technologies become more commercially viable and is not at all related to what I asked it to write about.

Then, I asked Pages to write a report about myself, mainly because the information there is easily verifiable. But it only took information from my personal website and an article about me on my high school’s website — not from other public, easily accessible sources like my author page on The Verge . It also sometimes elaborated on things that had nothing to do with me. For example, I began my journalism career during the 2008 financial crisis. Instead of talking about the pieces I wrote about mass layoffs, Perplexity explained the beginnings of the financial crisis.

Pages does the surface-level googling and writing for you, but it isn’t research. Perplexity claims that Pages will help educators develop “comprehensive” study guides for students and researchers to create detailed reports on their findings. I could not upload a research paper for it to summarize, and I couldn’t edit the text it generated, two things I believe users who want to make the most of Pages would appreciate.

I do see one potential user for Pages, and it isn’t one Perplexity called out: students rushing to put out an assignment. Pages may improve in the future. Right now, it’s a way to get easy, possibly correct surface-level information into a presentation that doesn’t really teach anything.

Pages will be available to all Perplexity users, and the company says it’s slowly rolling it out to its free, Pro, and Enterprise users. 

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Pokémon Go map trackers that still work

How to use map trackers to up your Pokémon Go game

When Pokémon Go first launched, many ambitious players invested time and resources into setting up interactive maps and trackers to assist players in finding everything in the game, from raids to rare Pokémon spawns. While some of this was great for everyone involved, it also put a lot of strain on Niantic and brought up concerns about cheating. Through a concerted effort on Niantic's part, changes were made to the back end of the game that make it more difficult for trackers and maps to work. Most of these sites have since gone offline, but a handful still remain.

These few sites have found legitimate ways to provide players with guidance to finding things in-game. And we're here to walk you through the remaining options. Also, be sure to check out our best Pokémon Go accessories , so you can be fully equipped on your Pokémon journey!

What you'll need

Want to get the best Pokémon Go experience? The best iPhone Apple has to offer with long battery life and a huge display will help you get the best experience possible. Add one of the best portable batteries for iPhone and you've got a fantastic setup to go out and catch em' all.

iPhone 15 Plus | $899 at Apple

The biggest iPhone Apple makes and it doesn't break the bank like the 15 Pro Max does. With a huge display, USB-C charging, and Dynamic Island, it's a fantastic smartphone capable of dealing with anything you throw at it.

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The Mophie Snap is a brilliant accessory for Pokémon Go players as it keeps your iPhone battery topped up throughout the day. For under $50 you won't find a better portable charging option

Why use a map or tracker in Pokémon Go in the first place?

While the information each map or tracker can provide varies and the quality of that information can be spotty in many areas, these tools can give players direction and save them a lot of time. If you're trying to find a Machop nest so you can power up your Machamp, some maps lay out all of the nests in an area and what Pokémon are spawning there. If you're looking for a particular raid battle, there are maps for that too. If you're visiting a new area and want to know where the biggest clusters of gyms and PokéStops are, there are also maps for that. One site even tries to keep track of rare Pokémon spawns.

While some players consider some or even all of these tools to be cheating , they can provide invaluable guidance for those who use them. Of those that are still up and running, four stand out.

Go Map for Pokémon Go

GO Map is a collaborative, real-time map that lists PokéStops and gyms, as well as Pokémon spawns. Because this site relies on players to report locations and spawns, it is more useful in some areas than others. This site also offers an interactive Pokédex with statistics and in-depth details about each Pokémon. They offer a PVP guide that provides not only step-by-step instructions, but also a break down of their preferred Pokémon for PVP battles. You can sort Pokémon by country and city as well for major cities, or use it as a more traditional map.

PokeHunter for Pokémon Go

PokeHunter is one of the maps and trackers that runs remarkably well. They offer detailed information on gyms, including which Team has control at any moment, how many spaces remain in a gym, and where raids are happening. It'd be a perfect tool save for one massive downside: it only works for a handful of cities in three US states. If you happen to live or work in one of the following cities, this is a fantastic tool:

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• California (Cupertino, Downtown Campbell, Mountain View, North San Jose, Santa Clara, Sunnyvale, Pasadena, and Los Banos)
• Minnesota (North Saint Paul, Apple Valley, Eagan, Savage, Burnsville, Prior Lake, South Minneapolis, and Lakeville)
• Oregon (Downtown Portland, Happy Valley, Gresham, and Hillsboro)

PogoMap for Pokémon Go

PogoMap is a comprehensive map of all Gyms, PokéStops, and Nests and one of my personal favorites for one particular reason: it differentiates between normal Gyms and Gyms that have the potential to hand out EX Raid Passes. Although EX Raids aren't happening at the moment, when they are happening, this is an invaluable tool.

While this map has the ability to report lots of useful details, such as which Pokémon are spawning in a current Nest, when Team Go Rocket has invaded a PokéStop or even which Field Research tasks any particular PokéStop is handing out, I found these features to be underutilized in my area despite being near multiple large cities. In some areas with more active players, these tools could be handy, but even without them, I find the information on this particular map to be super helpful.

The Silph Road

Saving the best for last, The Silph Road has remained the biggest and best-organized site for Pokémon Go players to collaborate. In addition to their comprehensive Pokédex and countless guides on Pokémon Go, they have a map that has all the Nest locations with both confirmed and rumored Nest spawns. Plus, there's an unofficial League Map that provides locations for real-world meet-ups of all varieties. Their site offers more information on Pokémon Go than any other I've ever found, and the people running it from all around the world are some of the most knowledgeable and dedicated players in the game. It's easy to see why they are the go-to authority on all things Pokémon Go.

Other options for Pokémon Go

Maybe, for some reason or another, these tools just aren't cutting it for you. While there will never be the number or quality of tools for Pokémon Go players as existed in its early days, there are still other options. Namely, the best thing you can do for real-time information on Pokémon Go is to connect with other local players. Many social platforms, such as Facebook and Reddit, run local Pokémon Go communities. These groups often have active Facebook Messengers Groups and Discord Chats, where you can connect with other local players who share locations of rare Pokémon spawns, Raids, coveted Research tasks, and more. If these tools just aren't enough, your best bet is to connect with other players through these groups.

Questions about maps and trackers in Pokémon Go?

Do you have any questions about how to use these tools to up your Pokémon Go game? Have you found another map or tracker that isn't listed here to be particularly useful? Drop us a comment below, and be sure to check out our other Pokémon Go Guides so you too can become a Pokémon Master!

Casian Holly has been writing about gaming at iMore since 2019, but their real passion is Pokémon. From the games to the anime, cards and toys, they eat, sleep, and breathe all things Pokémon. You can check out their many Pokémon Go and Pokémon Sword and Shield guides and coverage here on iMore.

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Omega-3 Fatty Acids: An Essential Contribution

The human body can make most of the types of fats it needs from other fats or carbohydrates. That isn’t the case for omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (also called omega-3 fats and n -3 fats). These are essential fats—the body can’t make them from scratch but must get them from food. Foods high in omega-3 include certain fish and seafood, some vegetable oils, nuts (especially walnuts), flax seeds, and leafy vegetables.

What makes omega-3 fats special? They are needed to build cell membranes throughout the body and affect the function of the cell receptors in these membranes. They also provide the starting point for making hormones that regulate blood clotting, contraction and relaxation of artery walls, and inflammation. In addition, they can bind to receptors in cells that regulate genetic function. Due to these effects, omega-3 fats can help prevent heart disease and stroke, may help control lupus, eczema, and rheumatoid arthritis, and may play protective roles in cancer and other conditions. [1]

Types of Omega-3s

There are two main types of omega-3 fats that have essential roles in human health:

• EPA and DHA: Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) come mainly from cold-water fish, so they are sometimes called marine omega-3s. Salmon, mackerel, tuna, herring, and sardines contain high amounts of EPA/DHA. EPA and DHA can be made from another omega-3 fat called alpha-linoleic acid (ALA), so they are more accurately termed “conditionally essential” fats. But because the conversion from ALA to EPA/DHA may not be sufficiently efficient, EPA/DHA are best obtained directly from food sources.
• ALA: Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), the most common omega-3 fatty acid in most Western diets, is found in plant oils (especially canola, soybean, flax), nuts (especially walnuts), chia and flax seeds, leafy vegetables, and some animal fats, especially from grass-fed animals. ALA is a true essential fat because it cannot be made by the body, and is needed for normal human growth and development. It can be converted into EPA and DHA, but the conversion rate is limited so we are still uncertain whether ALA alone can provide optimal intakes of omega-3 fatty acids. [1]

Omega-3 Fats and Health

The strongest evidence for a beneficial effect of omega-3 fats has to do with heart disease. These fats appear to help the heart beat at a steady clip and not veer into a dangerous or potentially fatal erratic rhythm. [2] Such arrhythmias cause most of the 500,000-plus cardiac deaths that occur each year in the United States. Omega-3 fats also lower blood pressure and heart rate, and improve blood vessel function. At higher doses, they lower triglycerides and may ease inflammation, which plays a role in the development of atherosclerosis. [2]

Given the wide-ranging importance of marine omega-3 fatty acids, it is important to eat fish or other seafood 1-2 times a week, particularly fatty (dark meat) fish that is richer in EPA and DHA. [3] This is especially important for women who are pregnant or hoping to become pregnant and nursing mothers. From the third trimester until the second year of life, a developing child needs a steady supply of DHA to form the brain and other parts of the nervous system as DHA is the most abundant fatty acid in the brain. Many women shy away from eating fish because of concerns that mercury and other possible contaminants might harm their babies, [4] yet the evidence for harm from lack of omega-3 fats is far more consistent, and a balance of benefit vs. risk is easily obtained by limiting intake of the types of fish higher in mercury. (To learn more about the controversy over contaminants in fatty fish, read Fish: Friend or Foe .)

Researchers are also looking at the effects of marine and plant omega-3 fats on prostate cancer. Results from the Health Professionals Follow-up Study and others show that men whose diets are rich in EPA and DHA (mainly from fish and seafood) are less likely to develop advanced prostate cancer than those with low intakes of EPA and DHA. [5] At the same time, some studies show an increase in prostate cancer and advanced prostate cancer among men with high intakes of ALA (mainly from supplements). However, this effect is inconsistent. In the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian (PLCO) Cancer Screening Trial, for example, there was no link between ALA intake and early, late, or advanced prostate cancer. [6] Also, in a recent analysis, ALA intake was not associated with higher risk of prostate cancer after about 2005. [7] This is consistent with concerns that partial hydrogenation of ALA in vegetable oils was responsible for the increase in prostate cancer; partial hydrogenation was greatly reduced after 2005 as part of efforts to reduce consumption of trans fats.

Unlike EPA/DHA, there is much less research on the health benefits of ALA. Though part of the health benefits of ALA may be attributed to its conversion to EPA/DHA, ALA alone may offer modest protection against cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. [8] However, more observational studies and clinical trials are needed. ALA is an important source of omega-3 fats for those who have a fish allergy or who eat a vegan diet.

If you don’t eat fish, is taking a supplement just as good? Fish oil pills contain both EPA and DHA. Research strongly supports that eating a diet with fatty fish weekly provides protection from cardiovascular disease. However, many large clinical trials have not shown that taking omega-3 supplements provide the same protection. [1,9] There may be a threshold of benefit, in which a certain amount of omega-3 might be protective, but higher dosages such as found in supplements may not further reduce risk. Another reason could be the increased use of highly effective statin medications, which might outshine any modest benefit provided from omega-3 supplements.

A scientific advisory from the American Heart Association reviewed the results of large randomized controlled trials studying the effects of marine-based omega-3 supplements (e.g., fish oil) on cardiovascular disease. [10] The review included the Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell’Infarto Miocardio (GISSI Prevention Trial), Japan EPA Lipid Intervention Study (JELIS), Effect of Omega 3-Fatty Acids on the Reduction of Sudden Cardiac Death After Myocardial Infarction Trial (OMEGA), Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Prevention of Post-Operative Atrial Fibrillation Trial (OPERA), Outcome Reduction With Initial Glargine Intervention Trial (ORIGIN), and Vitamin D and Omega-3 Trial (VITAL). [10-12] The authors of the advisory observed that the earlier trials showed benefit in reducing cardiac deaths, but not later studies. This could be because more people were consuming fatty fish rich in omega-3 during the recent trials, so that taking supplements did not offer more benefit. Another reason is that the use of statins, beta-blockers, and other heart medications were used in more patients in later trials, so that any benefit of taking omega-3 supplements was decreased. However, the authors stated that because omega-3 supplements are relatively safe and the review showed a modest 10% reduction in deaths from heart disease, they felt that using these supplements was reasonable for people with existing heart disease. However, there was not enough evidence to recommend supplements for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases.

The Food and Drug Administration specifies that the labels of dietary supplements should not recommend a daily intake of EPA and DHA higher than 2000 mg due to lack of evidence. For people with heart disease, the American Heart Association (AHA) recommends 1000 mg daily of EPA and DHA, preferably from fish, but supplements can be considered in consultation with a physician. In specific cases, such as to lower triglycerides, the AHA recommends 2000–4000 mg daily of EPA and DHA under a doctor’s supervision.

An alternative to fish oil is algal oil, derived from algae, the omega-3-rich ocean plants eaten by small marine life that is consumed by larger fatty fish. Algal oil contains mostly DHA, and although costlier than fish oil supplements, it is vegan and more sustainably produced without reliance on marine fishing. A review of randomized controlled trials found that algal oil supplementation may help to reduce triglycerides in people without established heart disease. [13]

Omega-3 supplements can act as a mild blood thinner and may increase the risk of bleeding. Inform your doctor if you begin using these supplements as they may also interact with some medications, especially blood thinners.

Prior to 1950, cattle were typically allowed to pasture and consume a diet of mostly grass. As demands for production increased, cattle were instead fed high-calorie grains made from soy or corn that also created a desirable marbling of the meat from the higher fat content. Today, most cows in the U.S. are still generally fed a grain-based diet; to further speed growth they may be given growth hormone and are restricted in movement.

One might imagine that cows fed primarily grass would be exposed to a more natural habitat of grazing freely and consuming native vegetation, high in nutrients and omega-3 fats. However, the term “grass-fed” is not a regulated term and does not always indicate that cattle are allowed to graze in pastures. They may simply be fed grass or vegetation in a confined space. The United States Department of Agriculture’s Agricultural Marketing Service offers a voluntary certification that specifies that cattle are fed only grass and forage (or hay and alfalfa during low pasture growth) and no grain or grain byproducts during their lifetime. [14]

Regardless if cattle are grain or grass-fed, the majority of fat in the beef is saturated, and the amount of total saturated fat is similar regardless of feeding type. The ratio of saturated to unsaturated fat is also similar for grain or grass-fed cattle, but generally grass-fed beef is leaner with less total fat. [14]

Among grass-fed cows, the amount of omega-3 can vary by types of pasture used for grazing and by the age and breed, as genetics play a role in how fat is stored. Beef from grass-fed cows contains slightly higher levels of omega-3 fat than grain-fed, mainly as ALA (different from the EPA/DHA found in fish). [15] But there is little comparison, as the amount of omega-3 in fatty fish is about 10 times the amount in grass-fed beef. Even plant foods that contain ALA generally offer higher amounts than grass-fed beef. This is represented in the table below, which compares 3 ounces of beef, salmon, and walnuts. Even a more typical 1 ounce serving of walnuts provides over 2500 mg of ALA—about 30 times the amount in a 3 ounce serving of grass-fed beef. Therefore grass-fed beef, though a source of ALA, is not a significant contributor of omega-3 fat in our diets.

Source: 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 via USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Legacy (2018).

The Omega-3 to Omega-6 Ratio: Separating Claims from the Evidence

Most Americans take in far more of another essential fat—omega-6 fats—than they do omega-3 fats. Like omega-3 fats, omega-6 fats are a critical part of the structure of every cell of our body and are building blocks for hormones that regulate inflammation, narrowing of blood vessels, and blood clotting. Normally, these are important functions that protect the body from injury and infection, but a popular claim is that an excess intake of omega-6 fats can over-stimulate these functions, causing more harm than benefit. In addition, because omega-3 and omega-6 fats compete for the same enzymes to produce other fatty acids, it is believed that eating an excess of one type may interfere with the metabolism of the other, thereby reducing its beneficial effects. [15]

Some researchers have proposed that a higher intake of omega-6 fats compared with omega-3 fats (also referred to as the omega-6/omega-3 ratio) could contribute to the development of chronic health conditions, like cardiovascular disease and cancer, but this has not been supported by evidence in humans. [1,16] Very consistently, carefully controlled feeding studies do not show that omega-6 fats increase inflammatory factors. [17]

Many studies and trials in humans support cardiovascular benefit of omega-6 fats. In the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fats wasn’t linked with heart disease risk because both of these fats were beneficial. [18] In a large prospective study of men and women who were free of cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes at the start of the study, the highest intakes of omega-6 fats were more strongly linked with lower death rates from these diseases than intakes of omega-3 fats. [19]

There is no question that many Americans could benefit from increasing their intake of omega-3 fats, but there is also evidence that omega-6 fats reduce cardiovascular risk factors and heart disease. Thus, the omega-6/omega-3 ratio is not a useful indicator of the healthfulness of a food or diet. Like many essential nutrients, it is possible that too much can cause problems. However in the U.S. diet, we have not been able to find individuals or groups who are consuming excessive amounts of omega-6 fatty acids.

What is conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)?

Ask the expert: Omega-3 fatty acids Different Dietary Fat, Different Risk of Mortality

• NIH Office of Dietary Supplements. Omega-3 Fatty Acids. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/ Accessed May 17, 2018.
• Leaf A. Prevention of sudden cardiac death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Journal of Cardiovascular Medicine . 2007 Sep 1;8:S27-9.
• Rimm EB, Appel LJ, Chiuve SE, Djoussé L, Engler MB, Kris-Etherton PM, Mozaffarian D, Siscovick DS, Lichtenstein AH. Seafood long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: a science advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation . 2018 Jul 3;138(1):e35-47.
• Oken E, Kleinman KP, Berland WE, Simon SR, Rich-Edwards JW, Gillman MW. Decline in fish consumption among pregnant women after a national mercury advisory. Obstetrics & Gynecology . 2003 Aug 1;102(2):346-51.
• Leitzmann MF, Stampfer MJ, Michaud DS, Augustsson K, Colditz GC, Willett WC, Giovannucci EL. Dietary intake of n− 3 and n− 6 fatty acids and the risk of prostate cancer. The American journal of clinical nutrition . 2004 Jul 1;80(1):204-16.
• Koralek DO, Peters U, Andriole G, Reding D, Kirsh V, Subar A, Schatzkin A, Hayes R, Leitzmann MF. A prospective study of dietary alpha-linolenic acid and the risk of prostate cancer (United States). Cancer Causes & Control . 2006 Aug;17:783-91.
• Wu J, Wilson KM, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Giovannucci EL. A 24‐year prospective study of dietary α‐linolenic acid and lethal prostate cancer. International journal of cancer . 2018 Jun 1;142(11):2207-14.
• Rajaram S. Health benefits of plant-derived α-linolenic acid. The American journal of clinical nutrition . 2014 Jul 1;100(suppl_1):443S-8S.
• Tummala R, Ghosh RK, Jain V, Devanabanda AR, Bandyopadhyay D, Deedwania P, Aronow WS. Fish oil and cardiometabolic diseases: recent updates and controversies. The American journal of medicine . 2019 Oct 1;132(10):1153-9.
• Siscovick DS, Barringer TA, Fretts AM, Wu JH, Lichtenstein AH, Costello RB, Kris-Etherton PM, Jacobson TA, Engler MB, Alger HM, Appel LJ. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (fish oil) supplementation and the prevention of clinical cardiovascular disease: a science advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation . 2017 Apr 11;135(15):e867-84.
• GISSI-Prevenzione Investigators. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. The Lancet . 1999 Aug 7;354(9177):447-55.
• Yokoyama M, Origasa H, Matsuzaki M, Matsuzawa Y, Saito Y, Ishikawa Y, Oikawa S, Sasaki J, Hishida H, Itakura H, Kita T. Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on major coronary events in hypercholesterolaemic patients (JELIS): a randomised open-label, blinded endpoint analysis. The Lancet . 2007 Mar 31;369(9567):1090-8.
• Bernstein AM, Ding EL, Willett WC, Rimm EB. A meta-analysis shows that docosahexaenoic acid from algal oil reduces serum triglycerides and increases HDL-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol in persons without coronary heart disease. The Journal of nutrition . 2012 Jan 1;142(1):99-104.
• Van Elswyk ME, McNeill SH. Impact of grass/forage feeding versus grain finishing on beef nutrients and sensory quality: The US experience. Meat science . 2014 Jan 1;96(1):535-40.
• Daley CA, Abbott A, Doyle PS, Nader GA, Larson S. A review of fatty acid profiles and antioxidant content in grass-fed and grain-fed beef. Nutrition journal . 2010 Dec;9(1):1-2.
• Willett WC. The role of dietary n-6 fatty acids in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Journal of Cardiovascular Medicine . 2007 Sep 1;8:S42-5.
• Su H, Liu R, Chang M, Huang J, Wang X. Dietary linoleic acid intake and blood inflammatory markers: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Food & function . 2017;8(9):3091-103.
• Mozaffarian D, Ascherio A, Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Siscovick DS, Rimm EB. Interplay between different polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease in men. Circulation . 2005 Jan 18;111(2):157-64.
• Wang DD, Li Y, Chiuve SE, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Hu FB. Association of specific dietary fats with total and cause-specific mortality. JAMA internal medicine . 2016 Aug 1;176(8):1134-45.

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