critical thinking developmental milestones

Milestones of critical thinking: a developmental model for medicine and nursing

Affiliation.

1 Dr. Papp is professor and associate dean, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania. Dr. Huang is associate professor of medicine, Harvard Medical School, and director of assessment, Carl J. Shapiro Institute for Education and Research at Harvard Medical School and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts. Dr. Lauzon Clabo is dean and professor, MGH Institute of Health Professions School of Nursing, Boston, Massachusetts. Dr. Delva is chair and professor, Department of Family Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Dr. Fischer is associate professor of medicine and associate dean for undergraduate medical education, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts. Dr. Konopasek is associate professor of pediatrics (education), Weill Cornell Medical College, and designated institutional official, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, New York. Dr. Schwartzstein is Ellen and Melvin Gordon professor of medicine and medical education and faculty associate dean for medical education, Harvard Medical School, vice president for education, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and executive director, Carl J. Shapiro Institute for Education and Research at Harvard Medical School and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts. Dr. Gusic is professor of pediatrics, Dolores and John Read professor of medical education, and executive associate dean for educational affairs, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana.
PMID: 24667504
DOI: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000000220

Critical thinking is essential to a health professional's competence to assess, diagnose, and care for patients. Defined as the ability to apply higher-order cognitive skills (conceptualization, analysis, evaluation) and the disposition to be deliberate about thinking (being open-minded or intellectually honest) that lead to action that is logical and appropriate, critical thinking represents a "meta-competency" that transcends other knowledge, skills, abilities, and behaviors required in health care professions. Despite its importance, the developmental stages of critical thinking have not been delineated for nurses and physicians. As part of a task force of educators who considered different developmental stage theories, the authors have iteratively refined and proposed milestones in critical thinking. The attributes associated with unreflective, beginning, practicing, advanced, accomplished, and challenged critical thinkers are conceived as independent of an individual's level of training. Depending on circumstances and environmental factors, even the most experienced clinician may demonstrate attributes associated with a challenged thinker. The authors use the illustrative case of a patient with abdominal pain to demonstrate how critical thinking may manifest in learners at different stages of development, analyzing how the learner at each stage applies information obtained in the patient interaction to arrive at a differential diagnosis and plan for evaluation. The authors share important considerations and provide this work as a foundation for the development of effective approaches to teaching and promoting critical thinking and to establishing expectations for learners in this essential meta-competency.

Publication types

Clinical Competence
Education, Medical / methods*
Education, Nursing / methods*
Models, Educational
Problem Solving
Professional Competence*

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Critical Thinking Developmental Milestones

Milestones for critical thinking do not lock a person into a single developmental state
Critical thinkers at any stage may regress under certain circumstances, such as confronting a demanding workload with sleep loss and fatigue, or emotional exhaustion brought on by personal factors
Competence in critical thinking is not automatically gained with increasing level of training or by competence in other domains
One cannot assume that clinicians with years in practice are accomplished critical thinkers; conversely, undergraduate students may already be highly developed critical thinkers

The task force identified five stages of critical thinking (shown below) that reflect progressively mature approaches to metacognition, attitudes, and skill development in this area. Review this table to compare the five stages and to help you assess your learners’ developmental stage. An additional sixth “devolved” stage represents a temporary state brought on by external forces that reverts to the pre-stress level of critical thinking and is described after the table.

Table 1: Adapted from Papp et al. 2014

A Temporarily Devolved State. Critical thinking can be compromised by external forces (family illness, etc.) resulting in a devolved state of thinking. The challenged thinker is temporarily resistant to what they already know about critical thinking and problem solving making them different from the beginner critical thinker who operates in ignorance, not resistance. In this devolved state, this stage is characterized by a failure to recognize their own personal cognitive biases, unwillingness to reflect on their own thoughts and approaches to problem-solving, and reversion to a singular approach to thinking about the current problem.

Prologue. We suggest that you review these stages of critical thinking and commit to using them to assess and guide your learners so that together we can make UofL a Great Place to Learn.

References:

1. Papp KK, Huang GC, Lauzon Clabo LM, et al. Milestones of critical thinking: A developmental model for medicine and nursing. Academic Medicine. 2014;89(5):715-720.

2. Ambrose SA. How learning works: Seven research-based principles for smart teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; 2010.

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Academic Medicine : Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges , 01 May 2014 , 89(5): 715-720 https://doi.org/10.1097/acm.0000000000000220 PMID: 24667504

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Developmental Milestones

This article explores the critical role of school psychologists in understanding and addressing developmental milestones across the lifespan of students. Beginning with early childhood, it examines cognitive, social, emotional, and physical milestones, delving into the challenges and opportunities faced by school psychologists in supporting these formative years. Moving into elementary and middle school, the article discusses academic, social, and emotional milestones, providing case studies to illustrate effective interventions. It further explores the distinctive developmental terrain of adolescence and high school, emphasizing the role of school psychologists in guiding adolescents through academic and personal growth. Additionally, the article addresses the importance of considering diverse populations, special education, and cultural diversity in the context of developmental milestones. In conclusion, it underscores the evolving nature of school psychology and the ongoing need for research and professional development to meet the diverse and complex needs of today’s students.

Introduction

School psychology is a multifaceted field that plays a pivotal role in the educational landscape, focusing on the psychological well-being and academic success of students. At its core, school psychology aims to bridge the gap between education and psychology, applying psychological principles to the challenges and opportunities within the school setting. One key aspect of this field is understanding and addressing developmental milestones in students, which are essential markers of growth and progress in child development.

Developmental milestones are significant achievements or skills that children typically acquire at various stages of their development. These milestones encompass a wide range of areas, including cognitive, social, emotional, and physical domains. They serve as fundamental building blocks, guiding us in understanding how children learn, interact, and adapt to their environment as they grow.

Understanding developmental milestones is paramount in comprehending child development comprehensively. These milestones provide educators, parents, and professionals in school psychology with valuable insights into children’s abilities, needs, and potential challenges. They offer a roadmap for assessing and supporting students as they progress through their educational journey.

The main purpose of this article is to delve into the world of developmental milestones in school psychology. We will embark on a journey through the critical stages of a student’s life, from early childhood to adolescence and high school, exploring the cognitive, social, emotional, and academic milestones that define each stage. Additionally, we will address the significance of considering special populations, cultural diversity, and socioeconomic factors in understanding these milestones. By the end of this article, readers will gain a comprehensive understanding of the role of school psychologists in assessing and supporting these developmental milestones, as well as the evolving nature of the field, necessitating ongoing research and professional development.

In the subsequent sections, we will examine each developmental stage in detail, highlighting key milestones, challenges, and opportunities for school psychologists. We will also explore recent research findings and emerging trends that continue to shape the practice of school psychology in the modern educational landscape.

Early Childhood Developmental Milestones

Early childhood, spanning from birth to age five, represents a critical period in child development. School psychologists play a pivotal role in understanding and addressing the developmental milestones during this phase, which lay the foundation for future academic and psychosocial growth.

Cognitive Milestones: In the early years, children undergo significant cognitive development. They begin to comprehend language, acquire basic numeracy skills, and develop cognitive functions such as memory and problem-solving. School psychologists often assess cognitive milestones to identify developmental delays and learning disorders, ensuring that children receive appropriate early interventions.
Social Milestones: Early childhood is marked by burgeoning social awareness. Young children learn to engage with peers and adults, developing social skills, empathy, and an understanding of social norms. School psychologists facilitate socialization by offering guidance to parents and educators on fostering positive social interactions and addressing any behavioral concerns that may arise.
Emotional Milestones: Emotional development is a central focus during early childhood. Children learn to identify and express their emotions, develop self-regulation, and form attachments to caregivers and peers. School psychologists assist in recognizing emotional milestones and offer strategies to support emotional well-being, helping children build resilience and coping skills.
Physical Milestones: Early childhood encompasses rapid physical growth and motor skill development. Children refine their motor coordination and gain independence in activities such as dressing and feeding. School psychologists collaborate with occupational therapists and physical therapists to address physical milestones, ensuring that children with motor delays receive appropriate interventions.

Research in school psychology has highlighted the importance of early childhood interventions. For instance, studies demonstrate that early identification and support for language delays significantly improve language development, positively impacting later reading and academic success. Additionally, research underscores the significance of nurturing positive parent-child relationships in early childhood, as these relationships contribute to emotional and social development.

School psychologists act as liaisons between parents, educators, and other specialists to create comprehensive support plans for children experiencing developmental challenges. They conduct assessments to identify developmental delays, collaborate with early intervention programs, and provide parents with resources and strategies to support their child’s development. Moreover, school psychologists offer guidance to educators on creating inclusive classroom environments that accommodate diverse developmental needs.

In conclusion, early childhood is a critical period in which developmental milestones in cognition, socialization, emotions, and physical growth are established. School psychologists play a pivotal role in assessing and supporting these milestones, ensuring that children receive the early interventions and support necessary to thrive academically and emotionally as they progress through their educational journey.

Elementary and Middle School Developmental Milestones

The elementary and middle school years, spanning ages 6 to 12, mark a crucial period in a child’s development, characterized by significant cognitive, social, emotional, and academic milestones. School psychologists play a pivotal role in understanding and supporting these milestones, which are central to a child’s overall well-being and educational success.

Cognitive Milestones: During these years, children experience substantial cognitive growth. They acquire advanced problem-solving skills, critical thinking abilities, and a deeper understanding of abstract concepts.
Social Milestones: Elementary and middle school children begin to form more complex peer relationships, refine their communication skills, and develop empathy and cooperation.
Emotional Milestones: Emotional development involves recognizing and managing a wider range of emotions, including coping with stress and frustration.
Academic Milestones: Academic milestones encompass the acquisition of foundational skills in reading, writing, and mathematics. Proficiency in these areas sets the stage for future academic success.

Addressing developmental issues during these years presents both challenges and opportunities for school psychologists. Challenges include identifying and supporting students with learning disabilities or emotional disturbances, addressing bullying and social conflicts, and fostering a positive school climate. School psychologists are also instrumental in addressing the mental health needs of students, as issues like anxiety and depression can emerge during this developmental stage.

Case studies illustrate the critical role school psychologists play in addressing developmental milestones in elementary and middle school. For instance, a case study might detail how a school psychologist worked with a student struggling with reading comprehension by conducting comprehensive assessments, designing targeted interventions, and collaborating with teachers and parents to monitor progress. Successful interventions often involve individualized education plans (IEPs) for students with learning disabilities and evidence-based strategies for promoting social-emotional learning.

One example of a successful assessment is the use of standardized tests to identify students in need of extra support or enrichment. Additionally, school psychologists may employ behavioral assessments to address challenging behaviors and provide guidance to educators and parents on effective strategies.

In conclusion, the elementary and middle school years are a pivotal stage in a child’s development, encompassing cognitive, social, emotional, and academic milestones. School psychologists, through their assessments, interventions, and collaborations, play a crucial role in ensuring that students navigate these milestones successfully, setting the stage for future academic achievement and personal growth.

Adolescence and High School Developmental Milestones

The adolescent and high school years, spanning ages 13 to 18, represent a unique and complex stage of development characterized by profound cognitive, social, emotional, and career-related milestones. School psychologists play a vital role in understanding and supporting adolescents as they navigate the challenges and opportunities of this critical period.

Cognitive Milestones: Adolescents experience significant cognitive development, including abstract thinking, problem-solving, and the ability to plan for the future. This period often involves increased academic rigor and the exploration of more advanced subjects.
Social Milestones: Peer relationships become increasingly important, with adolescents forming close friendships and developing a sense of identity. Social pressures and challenges, such as peer conflict and bullying, also become more pronounced.
Emotional Milestones: Emotional development in adolescence involves the ability to regulate emotions, cope with stress, and establish a sense of autonomy. Adolescents may grapple with issues related to identity, self-esteem, and body image.
Career-Related Milestones: Adolescents begin to explore career interests, set academic and vocational goals, and make decisions about post-secondary education and career pathways.

School psychologists are instrumental in helping adolescents navigate the unique challenges they face during these years. They provide support in several key areas:

Academic Challenges: School psychologists work with students to develop effective study habits, time management skills, and strategies for academic success. They also assist in identifying learning disabilities or other barriers to achievement.
Peer Relationships: Addressing social challenges such as bullying and peer conflict is a priority. School psychologists facilitate conflict resolution and provide social skills training to enhance peer relationships.
Emotional Well-being: Recognizing the increased vulnerability to mental health issues during adolescence, school psychologists play a critical role in early identification and intervention for conditions like depression and anxiety.
Career Planning: School psychologists assist in career exploration, college readiness, and vocational guidance, helping students make informed decisions about their futures.

Recent research in school psychology has shed light on the importance of incorporating socio-emotional learning (SEL) programs into high school curricula. SEL programs have been shown to enhance emotional intelligence, improve interpersonal relationships, and reduce behavior problems among adolescents.

Moreover, the integration of technology and telehealth services has emerged as an important trend, allowing school psychologists to reach and support students more effectively, especially in remote or underserved areas.

In conclusion, the adolescent and high school years are characterized by significant cognitive, social, emotional, and career-related milestones. School psychologists serve as crucial allies in helping adolescents successfully navigate these challenges, ensuring not only their academic achievement but also their emotional well-being and readiness for future endeavors. Recent research findings and emerging trends continue to inform and enhance the practice of school psychology in this vital developmental stage.

Special Populations and Diverse Developmental Milestones

The field of school psychology recognizes the critical importance of considering diverse populations of students, as their unique needs and backgrounds shape their developmental milestones. This section delves into the significance of diversity in school psychology, the impact of special education, cultural diversity, and socioeconomic factors on developmental milestones, as well as how school psychologists adapt their approaches to meet the distinctive needs of these various student populations.

Diversity encompasses differences in race, ethnicity, culture, language, disability status, socioeconomic background, and more. Recognizing and valuing diversity is fundamental in school psychology, as it allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the developmental milestones of all students. It promotes equity, inclusion, and cultural competence within the field.

Special Education: Students with disabilities often have unique developmental trajectories. School psychologists play a crucial role in assessing and supporting these students, tailoring interventions and accommodations to their specific needs.
Cultural Diversity: Cultural background significantly influences a child’s development. Cultural competence is essential for school psychologists to understand and address the diverse milestones that may arise within different cultural contexts.
Socioeconomic Factors: Socioeconomic disparities can impact cognitive, social, and emotional development. Students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may face additional challenges, such as limited access to educational resources.

School psychologists adapt their approaches to meet the diverse needs of students:

Cultural Competence: They engage in ongoing cultural competency training to better understand the cultural factors that influence students’ development. This includes recognizing the importance of family dynamics, cultural beliefs, and communication styles.
Collaboration: School psychologists collaborate closely with educators, parents, and community organizations to create a supportive network for students. This is especially critical when addressing the needs of special education students.
Individualized Services: Tailoring interventions and assessments to individual students ensures that their unique needs are addressed effectively. This applies to both students with disabilities and those from diverse cultural or socioeconomic backgrounds.

Research in school psychology highlights best practices for working with diverse student populations. For example, studies have shown the effectiveness of culturally responsive interventions in reducing disparities in academic achievement. Additionally, research on inclusive education underscores the importance of integrating students with disabilities into general education classrooms to promote positive developmental outcomes.

In summary, recognizing and addressing the developmental milestones of diverse student populations is a cornerstone of school psychology. This approach ensures that all students have the opportunity to reach their full potential, regardless of their background or unique needs. School psychologists play a pivotal role in adapting their approaches, staying culturally competent, and collaborating with stakeholders to foster inclusive and equitable educational environments. Relevant studies and best practices continue to inform the field, leading to more effective support for diverse student populations.

In this comprehensive exploration of developmental milestones in school psychology, we have journeyed through the critical stages of a student’s life, from early childhood to adolescence and high school, while also acknowledging the importance of diversity in shaping these milestones. This concluding section summarizes the key takeaways and underscores the significance of understanding these milestones for school psychologists, all within the context of the evolving nature of the field and the imperative for continuous research and professional development.

Throughout this article, we have examined the diverse developmental milestones that students experience across their educational journey. In early childhood, cognitive, social, emotional, and physical growth lay the foundation for future learning. In elementary and middle school, students encounter academic, social, emotional, and cognitive milestones. Adolescence and high school mark a period of profound cognitive development, complex social interactions, emotional maturation, and career-related decision-making. We have also underscored the importance of considering special populations and cultural diversity in understanding these milestones.

Understanding these developmental milestones is of paramount importance for school psychologists. They are the frontline professionals who assess, support, and guide students through these formative years. By recognizing the unique challenges and opportunities associated with each stage of development, school psychologists can tailor their interventions to address the specific needs of students. This, in turn, contributes to academic success, emotional well-being, and long-term personal growth.

The field of school psychology is dynamic and continually evolving. As our understanding of developmental milestones deepens and as the student population becomes more diverse, school psychologists must adapt their practices to remain effective. New research findings, emerging trends, and advancements in technology provide opportunities for innovation in assessment and intervention. Furthermore, the increasing recognition of the role of school psychologists in promoting mental health and well-being underscores the expanding scope of the profession.

To meet the ever-evolving demands of their roles, school psychologists must commit to ongoing research and professional development. Staying abreast of the latest research on child and adolescent development, as well as emerging best practices in assessment and intervention, is essential. Additionally, school psychologists should engage in cultural competency training to better serve diverse student populations. Collaborative efforts with educators, parents, and communities are also vital in creating supportive environments that facilitate positive developmental outcomes for all students.

In conclusion, developmental milestones are the building blocks of a student’s educational journey, and school psychologists are instrumental in fostering growth and success at each stage. By recognizing the significance of these milestones, school psychologists can adapt their approaches, promote inclusivity, and ensure that all students have the opportunity to thrive. As school psychology evolves to meet the changing needs of students and society, a commitment to ongoing research and professional development remains at the heart of this vital profession.

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Raver, C. C., Jones, S. M., Li-Grining, C., Metzger, M., Champion, K. M., & Sardin, L. (2008). Improving preschool classroom processes: Preliminary findings from a randomized trial implemented in Head Start settings. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23(1), 10-26.
Reschly, D. J., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (2002). Paradigm shift: The past is not the future. School Psychology Review, 31(3), 4-14.
Skiba, R. J., Horner, R. H., Chung, C. G., Rausch, M. K., May, S. L., & Tobin, T. (2011). Race is not neutral: A national investigation of African American and Latino disproportionality in school discipline. School Psychology Review, 40(1), 85-107.
Van Ryzin, M. J., Gravely, A. A., & Roseth, C. J. (2009). Autonomy, belongingness, and engagement in school as contributors to adolescent psychological well-being. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(1), 1-12.
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Child cognitive development is a fascinating and complex process that entails the growth of a child’s mental abilities, including their ability to think, learn, and solve problems. This development occurs through a series of stages that can vary among individuals. As children progress through these stages, their cognitive abilities and skills are continuously shaped by a myriad of factors such as genetics, environment, and experiences. Understanding the nuances of child cognitive development is essential for parents, educators, and professionals alike, as it provides valuable insight into supporting the growth of the child’s intellect and overall well-being.

Throughout the developmental process, language and communication play a vital role in fostering a child’s cognitive abilities . As children acquire language skills, they also develop their capacity for abstract thought, reasoning, and problem-solving. It is crucial for parents and caregivers to be mindful of potential developmental delays, as early intervention can greatly benefit the child’s cognitive development. By providing stimulating environments, nurturing relationships, and embracing diverse learning opportunities, adults can actively foster healthy cognitive development in children.

Key Takeaways

Child cognitive development involves the growth of mental abilities and occurs through various stages.
Language and communication are significant factors in cognitive development , shaping a child’s ability for abstract thought and problem-solving.
Early intervention and supportive environments can play a crucial role in fostering healthy cognitive development in children.

Child Cognitive Development Stages

Child cognitive development is a crucial aspect of a child’s growth and involves the progression of their thinking, learning, and problem-solving abilities. Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget developed a widely recognized theory that identifies four major stages of cognitive development in children.

Sensorimotor Stage

The Sensorimotor Stage occurs from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, infants and newborns learn to coordinate their senses (sight, sound, touch, etc.) with their motor abilities. Their understanding of the world begins to develop through their physical interactions and experiences. Some key milestones in this stage include object permanence, which is the understanding that an object still exists even when it’s not visible, and the development of intentional actions.

Preoperational Stage

The Preoperational Stage takes place between the ages of 2 and 7 years old. In this stage, children start to think symbolically, and their language capabilities rapidly expand. They also develop the ability to use mental images, words, and gestures to represent the world around them. However, their thinking is largely egocentric, which means they struggle to see things from other people’s perspectives. During this stage, children start to engage in pretend play and begin to grasp the concept of conservation, recognizing that certain properties of objects (such as quantity or volume) remain the same even if their appearance changes.

Concrete Operational Stage

The Concrete Operational Stage occurs between the ages of 7 and 12 years old. At this stage, children’s cognitive development progresses to more logical and organized ways of thinking. They can now consider multiple aspects of a problem and better understand the relationship between cause and effect . Furthermore, children become more adept at understanding other people’s viewpoints, and they can perform basic mathematical operations and understand the principles of classification and seriation.

Formal Operational Stage

Lastly, the Formal Operational Stage typically begins around 12 years old and extends into adulthood. In this stage, children develop the capacity for abstract thinking and can consider hypothetical situations and complex reasoning. They can also perform advanced problem-solving and engage in systematic scientific inquiry. This stage allows individuals to think about abstract concepts, their own thought processes, and understand the world in deeper, more nuanced ways.

By understanding these stages of cognitive development, you can better appreciate the complex growth process that children undergo as their cognitive abilities transform and expand throughout their childhood.

Key Factors in Cognitive Development

Genetics and brain development.

Genetics play a crucial role in determining a child’s cognitive development. A child’s brain development is heavily influenced by genetic factors, which also determine their cognitive potential , abilities, and skills. It is important to understand that a child’s genes do not solely dictate their cognitive development – various environmental and experiential factors contribute to shaping their cognitive abilities as they grow and learn.

Environmental Influences

The environment in which a child grows up has a significant impact on their cognitive development. Exposure to various experiences is essential for a child to develop essential cognitive skills such as problem-solving, communication, and critical thinking. Factors that can have a negative impact on cognitive development include exposure to toxins, extreme stress, trauma, abuse, and addiction issues, such as alcoholism in the family.

Nutrition and Health

Maintaining good nutrition and health is vital for a child’s cognitive development. Adequate nutrition is essential for the proper growth and functioning of the brain . Key micronutrients that contribute to cognitive development include iron, zinc, and vitamins A, C, D, and B-complex vitamins. Additionally, a child’s overall health, including physical fitness and immunity, ensures they have the energy and resources to engage in learning activities and achieve cognitive milestones effectively .

Emotional and Social Factors

Emotional well-being and social relationships can also greatly impact a child’s cognitive development. A supportive, nurturing, and emotionally healthy environment allows children to focus on learning and building cognitive skills. Children’s emotions and stress levels can impact their ability to learn and process new information. Additionally, positive social interactions help children develop important cognitive skills such as empathy, communication, and collaboration.

In summary, cognitive development in children is influenced by various factors, including genetics, environmental influences, nutrition, health, and emotional and social factors. Considering these factors can help parents, educators, and policymakers create suitable environments and interventions for promoting optimal child development.

Language and Communication Development

Language skills and milestones.

Children’s language development is a crucial aspect of their cognitive growth. They begin to acquire language skills by listening and imitating sounds they hear from their environment. As they grow, they start to understand words and form simple sentences.

Infants (0-12 months): Babbling, cooing, and imitating sounds are common during this stage. They can also identify their name by the end of their first year. Facial expressions play a vital role during this period, as babies learn to respond to emotions.
Toddlers (1-3 years): They rapidly learn new words and form simple sentences. They engage more in spoken communication, constantly exploring their language environment.
Preschoolers (3-5 years): Children expand their vocabulary, improve grammar, and begin participating in more complex conversations.

It’s essential to monitor children’s language development and inform their pediatrician if any delays or concerns arise.

Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication contributes significantly to children’s cognitive development. They learn to interpret body language, facial expressions, and gestures long before they can speak. Examples of nonverbal communication in children include:

Eye contact: Maintaining eye contact while interacting helps children understand emotions and enhances communication.
Gestures: Pointing, waving goodbye, or using hand signs provide alternative ways for children to communicate their needs and feelings.
Body language: Posture, body orientation, and movement give clues about a child’s emotions and intentions.

Teaching children to understand and use nonverbal communication supports their cognitive and social development.

Parent and Caregiver Interaction

Supportive interaction from parents and caregivers plays a crucial role in children’s language and communication development. These interactions can improve children’s language skills and overall cognitive abilities . Some ways parents and caregivers can foster language development are:

Reading together: From an early age, reading books to children enhance their vocabulary and listening skills.
Encouraging communication: Ask open-ended questions and engage them in conversations to build their speaking skills.
Using rich vocabulary: Expose children to a variety of words and phrases, promoting language growth and understanding.

By actively engaging in children’s language and communication development, parents and caregivers can nurture cognitive, emotional, and social growth.

Cognitive Abilities and Skills

Cognitive abilities are the mental skills that children develop as they grow. These skills are essential for learning, adapting, and thriving in modern society. In this section, we will discuss various aspects of cognitive development, including reasoning and problem-solving, attention and memory, decision-making and executive function, as well as academic and cognitive milestones.

Reasoning and Problem Solving

Reasoning is the ability to think logically and make sense of the world around us. It’s essential for a child’s cognitive development, as it enables them to understand the concept of object permanence , recognize patterns, and classify objects. Problem-solving skills involve using these reasoning abilities to find solutions to challenges they encounter in daily life .

Children develop essential skills like:

Logical reasoning : The ability to deduce conclusions from available information.
Perception: Understanding how objects relate to one another in their environment.
Schemes: Organizing thoughts and experiences into mental categories.

Attention and Memory

Attention refers to a child’s ability to focus on specific tasks, objects, or information, while memory involves retaining and recalling information. These cognitive abilities play a critical role in children’s learning and academic performance . Working memory is a vital component of learning, as it allows children to hold and manipulate information in their minds while solving problems and engaging with new tasks.

Attention: Focuses on relevant tasks and information while ignoring distractions.
Memory: Retains and retrieves information when needed.

Decision-Making and Executive Function

Decision-making is the process of making choices among various alternatives, while executive function refers to the higher-order cognitive processes that enable children to plan, organize, and adapt in complex situations. Executive function encompasses components such as:

Inhibition: Self-control and the ability to resist impulses.
Cognitive flexibility: Adapting to new information or changing circumstances.
Planning: Setting goals and devising strategies to achieve them.

Academic and Cognitive Milestones

Children’s cognitive development is closely linked to their academic achievement. As they grow, they achieve milestones in various cognitive domains that form the foundation for their future learning. Some of these milestones include:

Language skills: Developing vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure.
Reading and mathematics: Acquiring the ability to read and comprehend text, as well as understanding basic mathematical concepts and operations.
Scientific thinking: Developing an understanding of cause-and-effect relationships and forming hypotheses.

Healthy cognitive development is essential for a child’s success in school and life. By understanding and supporting the development of their cognitive abilities, we can help children unlock their full potential and prepare them for a lifetime of learning and growth.

Developmental Delays and Early Intervention

Identifying developmental delays.

Developmental delays in children can be identified by monitoring their progress in reaching cognitive, linguistic, physical, and social milestones. Parents and caregivers should be aware of developmental milestones that are generally expected to be achieved by children at different ages, such as 2 months, 4 months, 6 months, 9 months, 18 months, 1 year, 2 years, 3 years, 4 years, and 5 years. Utilizing resources such as the “Learn the Signs. Act Early.” program can help parents and caregivers recognize signs of delay early in a child’s life.

Resources and Support for Parents

There are numerous resources available for parents and caregivers to find information on developmental milestones and to learn about potential developmental delays, including:

Learn the Signs. Act Early : A CDC initiative that provides pdf checklists of milestones and resources for identifying delays.
Parental support groups : Local and online communities dedicated to providing resources and fostering connections between families experiencing similar challenges.

Professional Evaluations and Intervention Strategies

If parents or caregivers suspect a developmental delay, it is crucial to consult with healthcare professionals or specialists who can conduct validated assessments of the child’s cognitive and developmental abilities. Early intervention strategies, such as the ones used in broad-based early intervention programs , have shown significant positive impacts on children with developmental delays to improve cognitive development and outcomes.

Professional evaluations may include:

Pediatricians : Primary healthcare providers who can monitor a child’s development and recommend further assessments when needed.
Speech and language therapists : Professionals who assist children with language and communication deficits.
Occupational therapists : Experts in helping children develop or improve on physical and motor skills, as well as social and cognitive abilities.

Depending on the severity and nature of the delays, interventions may involve:

Individualized support : Tailored programs or therapy sessions specifically developed for the child’s needs.
Group sessions : Opportunities for children to learn from and interact with other children experiencing similar challenges.
Family involvement : Parents and caregivers learning support strategies to help the child in their daily life.

Fostering Healthy Cognitive Development

Play and learning opportunities.

Encouraging play is crucial for fostering healthy cognitive development in children . Provide a variety of age-appropriate games, puzzles, and creative activities that engage their senses and stimulate curiosity. For example, introduce building blocks and math games for problem-solving skills, and crossword puzzles to improve vocabulary and reasoning abilities.

Playing with others also helps children develop social skills and better understand facial expressions and emotions. Provide opportunities for cooperative play, where kids can work together to achieve a common goal, and open-ended play with no specific rules to boost creativity.

Supportive Home Environment

A nurturing and secure home environment encourages healthy cognitive growth. Be responsive to your child’s needs and interests, involving them in everyday activities and providing positive reinforcement. Pay attention to their emotional well-being and create a space where they feel safe to ask questions and explore their surroundings.

Promoting Independence and Decision-Making

Support independence by allowing children to make decisions about their playtime, activities, and daily routines. Encourage them to take age-appropriate responsibilities and make choices that contribute to self-confidence and autonomy. Model problem-solving strategies and give them opportunities to practice these skills during play, while also guiding them when necessary.

Healthy Lifestyle Habits

Promote a well-rounded lifestyle, including:

Sleep : Ensure children get adequate and quality sleep by establishing a consistent bedtime routine.
Hydration : Teach the importance of staying hydrated by offering water frequently, especially during play and physical activities.
Screen time : Limit exposure to electronic devices and promote alternative activities for toddlers and older kids.
Physical activity : Encourage children to engage in active play and exercise to support neural development and overall health .

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the key stages of child cognitive development.

Child cognitive development can be divided into several key stages based on Piaget’s theory of cognitive development . These stages include the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), preoperational stage (2-7 years), concrete operational stage (7-11 years), and formal operational stage (11 years and beyond). Every stage represents a unique period of cognitive growth, marked by the development of new skills, thought processes, and understanding of the world.

What factors influence cognitive development in children?

Several factors contribute to individual differences in child cognitive development, such as genetic and environmental factors. Socioeconomic status, access to quality education, early home environment, and parental involvement all play a significant role in determining cognitive growth. In addition, children’s exposure to diverse learning experiences, adequate nutrition, and mental health also influence overall cognitive performance .

How do cognitive skills vary during early childhood?

Cognitive skills in early childhood evolve as children progress through various stages . During the sensorimotor stage, infants develop fundamental skills such as object permanence. The preoperational stage is characterized by the development of symbolic thought, language, and imaginative play. Children then enter the concrete operational stage, acquiring the ability to think logically and solve problems. Finally, in the formal operational stage, children develop abstract reasoning abilities, complex problem-solving skills and metacognitive awareness.

What are common examples of cognitive development?

Examples of cognitive development include the acquisition of language and vocabulary, the development of problem-solving skills, and the ability to engage in logical reasoning. Additionally, memory, attention, and spatial awareness are essential aspects of cognitive development. Children may demonstrate these skills through activities like puzzle-solving, reading, and mathematics.

How do cognitive development theories explain children’s learning?

Piaget’s cognitive development theory suggests that children learn through active exploration, constructing knowledge based on their experiences and interactions with the world. In contrast, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural context in learning. Both theories imply that cognitive development is a dynamic and evolving process, influenced by various environmental and psychological factors.

Why is it essential to support cognitive development in early childhood?

Supporting cognitive development in early childhood is critical because it lays a strong foundation for future academic achievement, social-emotional development, and lifelong learning. By providing children with diverse and enriching experiences, caregivers and educators can optimize cognitive growth and prepare children to face the challenges of today’s complex world. Fostering cognitive development early on helps children develop resilience, adaptability, and critical thinking skills essential for personal and professional success.

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Second Opinion

Cognitive Development in the Teen Years

What is cognitive development.

Cognitive development means the growth of a child’s ability to think and reason. This growth happens differently from ages 6 to 12, and from ages 12 to 18.

Children ages 6 to 12 years old develop the ability to think in concrete ways. These are called concrete operations. These things are called concrete because they’re done around objects and events. This includes knowing how to:

Combine (add)

Separate (subtract or divide)

Order (alphabetize and sort)

Transform objects and actions (change things, such as 5 pennies = 1 nickel)

Ages 12 to 18 is called adolescence. Kids and teens in this age group do more complex thinking. This type of thinking is also known as formal logical operations. This includes the ability to:

Do abstract thinking. This means thinking about possibilities.

Reason from known principles. This means forming own new ideas or questions.

Consider many points of view. This means to compare or debate ideas or opinions.

Think about the process of thinking. This means being aware of the act of thought processes.

How cognitive growth happens during the teen years

From ages 12 to 18, children grow in the way they think. They move from concrete thinking to formal logical operations. It’s important to note that:

Each child moves ahead at their own rate in their ability to think in more complex ways.

Each child develops their own view of the world.

Some children may be able to use logical operations in schoolwork long before they can use them for personal problems.

When emotional issues come up, they can cause problems with a child’s ability to think in complex ways.

The ability to consider possibilities and facts may affect decision-making. This can happen in either positive or negative ways.

Types of cognitive growth through the years

A child in early adolescence:

Uses more complex thinking focused on personal decision-making in school and at home

Begins to show use of formal logical operations in schoolwork

Begins to question authority and society's standards

Begins to form and speak his or her own thoughts and views on many topics. You may hear your child talk about which sports or groups he or she prefers, what kinds of personal appearance is attractive, and what parental rules should be changed.

A child in middle adolescence:

Has some experience in using more complex thinking processes

Expands thinking to include more philosophical and futuristic concerns

Often questions more extensively

Often analyzes more extensively

Thinks about and begins to form his or her own code of ethics (for example, What do I think is right?)

Thinks about different possibilities and begins to develop own identity (for example, Who am I? )

Thinks about and begins to systematically consider possible future goals (for example, What do I want? )

Thinks about and begins to make his or her own plans

Begins to think long-term

Uses systematic thinking and begins to influence relationships with others

A child in late adolescence:

Uses complex thinking to focus on less self-centered concepts and personal decision-making

Has increased thoughts about more global concepts, such as justice, history, politics, and patriotism

Often develops idealistic views on specific topics or concerns

May debate and develop intolerance of opposing views

Begins to focus thinking on making career decisions

Begins to focus thinking on their emerging role in adult society

How you can encourage healthy cognitive growth

To help encourage positive and healthy cognitive growth in your teen, you can:

Include him or her in discussions about a variety of topics, issues, and current events.

Encourage your child to share ideas and thoughts with you.

Encourage your teen to think independently and develop his or her own ideas.

Help your child in setting goals.

Challenge him or her to think about possibilities for the future.

Compliment and praise your teen for well-thought-out decisions.

Help him or her in re-evaluating poorly made decisions.

If you have concerns about your child's cognitive development, talk with your child's healthcare provider.

Understanding Developmental Psychology

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Daniel B. Block, MD, is an award-winning, board-certified psychiatrist who operates a private practice in Pennsylvania.

Seeking Treatment

Frequently Asked Questions

Change is inevitable. As humans, we constantly grow throughout our lifespans, from conception to death. The field of developmental psychology explores the behavioral, emotional, physical, and cognitive changes that happen as people age.

Psychologists strive to understand and explain how and why people change throughout life. While many of these changes are normal and expected, they can still pose challenges that people sometimes need extra assistance to manage.

The principles of normative development help professionals spot potential problems and provide early intervention for better outcomes. Developmental psychologists can work with people of all ages to address roadblocks and support growth, although some choose to specialize in a specific age group such as childhood, adulthood, or old age.

What Is Developmental Psychology?

Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on how people grow and change over the course of a lifetime.

Those who specialize in this field are not just concerned with the physical changes that occur as people grow; they also look at the social, emotional, and cognitive development that occurs throughout life.

Some of the many issues developmental psychologists assist with include:

Cognitive development during childhood and throughout life
Developmental challenges and learning disabilities
Emotional development
Language acquisition
Moral reasoning
Motor skill development
Personality development
Self-awareness and self-concept
Social and cultural influences on child development

These professionals spend a great deal of time investigating and observing how these processes occur under normal circumstances, but they are also interested in learning about things that can disrupt developmental processes.

By better understanding how and why people change and grow, developmental psychologists help people live up to their full potential. Understanding the course of normal human development and recognizing potential problems early on can prevent difficulties with depression, low self-esteem, frustration, and low achievement in school.

Developmental Psychology Theories

Developmental psychologists often utilize a number of theories to think about different aspects of human development. For example, a psychologist assessing intellectual development in a child might consider Piaget's theory of cognitive development , which outlined the key stages that children go through as they learn.

A psychologist working with a child might also want to consider how the child's relationships with caregivers influences his or her behaviors, and so turn to Bowlby's theory of attachment .

Psychologists are also interested in looking at how social relationships influence the development of both children and adults. Erikson's theory of psychosocial development and Vygotsky's theory of sociocultural development are two popular theoretical frameworks that address the social influences on the developmental process.

Each approach tends to stress different aspects of development such as mental, social, or parental influences on how children grow and progress .

When to See a Developmental Psychologist

While development tends to follow a fairly predictable pattern, there are times when things might go off course. Parents often focus on what are known as developmental milestones, which represent abilities that most children tend to display by a certain point in development. These typically focus on one of four different areas:

Physical milestones
Cognitive milestones
Social/emotional milestones
Communication milestones

For example, walking is one physical milestone that most children achieve sometime between the ages of 9 and 15 months. If a child is not walking or attempting to walk by 16 to 18 months, parents might consider consulting with their family physician to determine if a developmental issue might be present.

While all children develop at different rates, when a child fails to meet certain milestones by a certain age, there may be cause for concern.

By being aware of these milestones, parents can seek assistance, and healthcare professionals can offer interventions that can help kids overcome developmental delays.

These professionals often evaluate children to determine if a developmental delay might be present, or they might work with elderly patients who are facing health concerns associated with old age such as cognitive declines, physical struggles, emotional difficulties, or degenerative brain disorders.

Developmental psychologists can provide support to individuals at all points of life who may be facing developmental issues or problems related to aging.

Developmental Psychology Stages

As you might imagine, developmental psychologists often break down development according to various phases of life. Each of these periods of development represents a time when different milestones are typically achieved.

People may face particular challenges at each point, and developmental psychologists can often help people who might be struggling with problems to get back on track.

Prenatal Development

The prenatal period is of interest to developmental psychologists who seek to understand how the earliest influences on development can impact later growth during childhood. Psychologists may look at how primary reflexes emerge before birth, how fetuses respond to stimuli in the womb, and the sensations and perceptions that fetuses are capable of detecting prior to birth.

Developmental psychologists may also look at potential problems such as Down syndrome, maternal drug use, and inherited diseases that might have an impact on the course of future development.

Early Childhood Development

The period from infancy through early childhood is a time of remarkable growth and change. Developmental psychologists look at things such as the physical, cognitive, and emotional growth that takes place during this critical period of development.

In addition to providing interventions for potential developmental problems at this point, psychologists are also focused on helping kids achieve their full potential . Parents and healthcare experts are often on the lookout to ensure that kids are growing properly, receiving adequate nutrition, and achieving cognitive milestones appropriate for their age.

Middle Childhood Development

This period of development is marked by both physical maturation and the increased importance of social influences as children make their way through elementary school.

Kids begin to make their mark on the world as they form friendships, gain competency through schoolwork, and continue to build their unique sense of self. Parents may seek the assistance of a developmental psychologist to help kids deal with potential problems that might arise at this age including social, emotional, and mental health issues.

Adolescent Development

The teenage years are often the subject of considerable interest as children experience the psychological turmoil and transition that often accompanies this period of development. Psychologists such as Erik Erikson were especially interested in looking at how navigating this period leads to identity formation .

At this age, kids often test limits and explore new identities as they explore the question of who they are and who they want to be. Developmental psychologists can help support teens as they deal with some of the challenging issues unique to the adolescent period including puberty, emotional turmoil, and social pressure.

Early Adult Development

This period of life is often marked by forming and maintaining relationships. Critical milestones during early adulthood may include forming bonds, intimacy, close friendships, and starting a family.

Those who can build and sustain such relationships tend to experience connectedness and social support while those who struggle with such relationships may be left feeling alienated and lonely .

People facing such issues might seek the assistance of a developmental psychologist in order to build healthier relationships and combat emotional difficulties.

Middle Adult Development

This stage of life tends to center on developing a sense of purpose and contributing to society. Erikson described this as the conflict between generativity and stagnation .

Those who engage in the world, contribute things that will outlast them, and leave a mark on the next generation emerge with a sense of purpose. Activities such as careers, families, group memberships, and community involvement are all things that can contribute to this feeling of generativity.

Older Adult Development

The senior years are often viewed as a period of poor health, yet many older adults are capable of remaining active and busy well into their 80s and 90s. Increased health concerns mark this period of development, and some individuals may experience mental declines related to dementia.

Theorist Erik Erikson also viewed the elder years as a time of reflection back on life . Those who are able to look back and see a life well-lived emerge with a sense of wisdom and readiness to face the end of their lives, while those who look back with regret may be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.

Developmental psychologists may work with elderly patients to help them cope with issues related to the aging process.

Diagnosing Developmental Issues

To determine if a developmental problem is present, a psychologist or other highly trained professional may administer either a developmental screening or evaluation.

For children, such an evaluation typically involves interviews with parents and other caregivers to learn about behaviors they may have observed, a review of a child's medical history, and standardized testing to measure functioning in terms of communication, social/emotional skills, physical/motor development, and cognitive skills.

If a problem is found to be present, the patient may then be referred to a specialist such as a speech-language pathologist, physical therapist, or occupational therapist.

A Word From Verywell

Receiving a diagnosis of a developmental issue can often feel both confusing and frightening, particularly when it is your child who is affected. Once you or your loved one has received a diagnosis of a developmental issue, spend some time learning as much as you can about the diagnosis and available treatments.

Prepare a list of questions and concerns you may have and discuss these issues with your doctor, developmental psychologist, and other healthcare professionals who may be part of the treatment team. By taking an active role in the process, you will feel better informed and equipped to tackle the next steps in the treatment process.

The three major developmental psychology issues are focused on physical development, cognitive development, and emotional development.

The seven major stages of development are:

Infant development
Toddler development
Preschool development
Middle childhood development
Adolescent development
Early adult development
Older adult development

The principles of developmental psychology outlined by Paul Baltes suggest that development is (1) lifelong, (2) multidimensional, (3) multidirectional, (4) involves gains and losses, (5) plastic, and that developmental psychology is (6) multidisciplinary.

Four developmental issues that psychologists explore are focused on the relative contributions of:

Nature vs. nurture : Is development primarily influenced by genetics or environmental factors?
Early vs. later experience : Do early childhood events matter more than events that happen later in life?
Continuity vs discontinuity : Is developmental change a gradual process or do changes happen suddenly and follow a specific course?
Abnormal behavior vs. individual differences : What represents abnormal development and what can be considered individual variations in development?

Keenan T, Evans S. An Introduction to Child Development . 2nd ed. SAGE; 2009.

Erikson EH. (1963).Childhood and Society. (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.
Erikson EH. (1968).Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Critical Thinking Questions

Describe the nature versus nurture controversy, and give an example of a trait and how it might be influenced by each?

Compare and contrast continuous and discontinuous development.

Why should developmental milestones only be used as a general guideline for normal child development?

What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation? Provide examples of each.

Why was Carol Gilligan critical of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

What is egocentrism? Provide an original example.

What are some known teratogens, and what kind of damage can they do to the developing fetus?

What is prenatal care and why is it important?

Describe what happens in the embryonic stage of development. Describe what happens in the fetal stage of development.

What makes a personal quality part of someone’s personality?

Describe some of the newborn reflexes. How might they promote survival?

Compare and contrast the four parenting styles and describe the kinds of childhood outcomes we can expect with each.

What is emerging adulthood and what are some factors that have contributed to this new stage of development?

Describe the five stages of grief and provide examples of how a person might react in each stage.

What is the purpose of hospice care?

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Publication date: Apr 22, 2020
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Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction
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Parent Resources for Learning > How It Begins > 5-Year-Old Developmental Milestones: The Quick Guide

5-Year-Old Developmental Milestones: The Quick Guide

by Dr. Jody Sherman LeVos | May 23, 2023 | How It Begins

Girl playing with magnifying glass and hat, text next to her reading Age 5 and squiggly arrow in the background

Five-year-olds typically go through some big changes, which can result in some big feelings. They’re in an incredibly rapid time of change and development, and many are gearing up for major milestones such as attending kindergarten (or adapting to a different classroom setting).

While 5-year-olds are better at expressing how they’re feeling than they were at previous ages, they might be struggling with intense emotions associated with changes to their routine, anxiety about making new friends, and more. Those emotions can lead to some surprising behaviors, like sleep regression, outbursts, or clinginess.

Having said that, 5-year-olds are also developing their sense of humor and delighting you with their new inventions and ideas, and their brains are growing and forming new neural connections at an astonishing rate.

The Short Cut

Five-year-olds are developing important skills, such as understanding symbol systems that allow them to read and exploring friends’ interests to strengthen relationships
Developmental milestones for 5-year-olds show up in the 5 C’s : Creativity , Critical Thinking , Curiosity , Character , and Core Skills
For 5-year-olds, the 5 C’s can be supported through play and simple, everyday interactions
Parents can help 5-year-olds develop the 5 C’s through a combination of guided play , artistic activities, social interactions , and reading

At Begin, we know that brain growth is just one piece of early learning. Your child is unique, multi-faceted, and has limitless potential. Because our mission is to give every child their best start to achieving their fullest potential, we focus on skills critical for school and life success.

We’ve simplified those skills into the Begin Approach through 5 C’s: Creativity, Critical Thinking, Curiosity, Character, and Core Skills.

So what do those C’s look like for your 5-year-old? Let’s take a look!

Creativity is a child’s ability to come up with solutions to problems, invent new ideas, and express themselves in novel ways. Most young children are naturally creative, and chances are your child is no exception! Our job as parents and caregivers is to foster that creativity throughout their childhood to help them become creative adults.

Your 5-year-old’s creativity might look unexpected, such as using a toothbrush to comb their hair if they can’t find their hairbrush (because a brush is a brush, right?). While we may not always agree with or like their “solutions,” your child’s ability to think outside the box is a wonderful sign! Allowing them to explore solutions to see how well they work or don’t work is a great way to help them feel empowered and to encourage future problem-solving.

At this age, you’ll probably notice they can fix or extend simple patterns, whether visual (blue, red, blue, red, blue, ?) or auditory (clap, clap, stomp, clap, clap, stomp, clap, clap, ?). The ability to detect (and repeat, extend, or fix) patterns is a sign that your child’s brain is organizing information in important ways.

Patterns help us make sense of the world throughout our lives. Creativity often involves recognizing, and in some cases making or breaking, patterns (think of your favorite song and how a series of notes and words repeats, and sometimes changes, within it). As they get better at working with patterns, your 5-year-old lays the foundation for more complex creativity down the road.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking includes two elements: the ability to make decisions and analyze information, and a broad set of processing skills often referred to as executive functions. These skills help people make good decisions, understand rules and consequences, and identify trustworthy information versus untrustworthy information.

There is a LOT of critical thinking development happening for 5-year-olds! Given how much kids are growing at this age, it’s important to know what to look for and how to foster cognitive skills.

You’ll probably notice your child’s improving (and sometimes surprisingly sophisticated) ability to answer questions about a story after you read a book together. Examples of this might include what the big lesson in the story was, how the main character felt at a particular moment in the story, or why the story ended the way it did.

Questions like this require your child to not just hear (or read) a story, but to think about what the words mean together and identify big themes and lessons. This ability to comprehend things within text is important for later literacy skills such as comparing and contrasting, writing book reports, and learning about new topics through reading.

Another element of critical thinking is your child’s growing ability to follow simple rules in increasingly complex collaborative or competitive games. Understanding, remembering, and following rules (especially if you have to ignore distractions or avoid immediate gratification) is an important aspect of developing executive functioning skills.

This one probably feels obvious! By age 5, kids have been asking approximately a question a minute for several years—which really adds up! By this age, children will be well versed in asking ALL the different types of questions (“how,” “why,” “who,” “what,” and “where”), putting you on the edge of your seat wondering what they’re going to ask next. For 5-year-olds, questions remain a primary tool for understanding the world, which makes sense given how many new things they’re encountering—and how much more they’re understanding about familiar places and routines.

Because of that, curiosity isn’t something we usually need to “teach.” Our job is to encourage their natural curiosity to support other knowledge development and create a lifelong love of learning. Curious 5-year-olds will test boundaries and experiment during play to learn about consequences, patterns, and how things are related or unrelated. Unstructured, free playtime is a critical part of fostering your child’s curiosity!

At this age, you might consider deconstructing an old appliance with your child to examine the parts. Building can be fun too! Many 5-year-olds enjoy putting together models of objects, such as model planes or trains, as a way to learn how they work. Both building and taking apart are important aspects of exploring the world.

As they explore, your child’s interests may extend into new topics. This is great (even if it’s hard to keep up with what they like!), as it reflects your child’s growing exposure to new things and a desire to seek novelty rather than stick to what’s familiar. Your child’s new interests might also come from being influenced by their friends and wanting to know more about what their friends are interested in—which is part of Character development and the process of making and keeping new friends.

Children who develop Character, or social-emotional skills, in their early years tend to do better in school and life, including having more positive relationships with teachers and friends. Five-year-olds develop some key Character skills, including a growing sense of empathy and more nuanced emotions-related vocabulary. Given the big developmental milestones kids reach during this age, like starting formal schooling, you may notice your child expressing emotions or behaviors related to changes in their routine!

Your 5-year-old will also likely start to develop and maintain friendships that go beyond simply playing with peers of the same age. They might become more selective about who is their friend versus who isn’t, and they may start asking for play dates or other opportunities to interact with their friends outside of their normal routine.

This is an exciting time! These new friendships will stretch your child’s ability to communicate their feelings, collaborate toward common goals (such as building a sand castle at the playground), negotiate when conflict inevitably arises, and appreciate that others have feelings that may differ from their own.

You can even highlight how you and your child sometimes have different feelings about the same thing. For instance, you might feel excited to meet up with a new friend from your child’s kindergarten class on the weekend, but notice your child feels apprehensive about the meetup. You can highlight how you both are experiencing different emotions about the same event, and that both of those feelings are valid.

Your 5-year-old will also likely display a growing awareness that behaviors in some contexts, such as a park, are not appropriate for other contexts, such as a library or a church. This ability to regulate their behaviors is a tremendous step towards being able to navigate a range of social situations and environments with ease.

Core Skills

The need to develop foundational learning skills, such as reading and thinking mathematically, is never going to go away, even as we better understand the importance of the other C’s. Your 5-year-old needs a strong base upon which to develop the skills they need to thrive in this ever-changing world. Core Skills, like counting, reading, writing, and background knowledge on a range of social and scientific topics, represent a critical part of that strong base.

Luckily, a LOT of Core Skills can (and should be) supported through playful everyday experiences. Your 5-year-old is likely learning the names of different shapes, and you can go on a “shape scavenger hunt” while you’re driving or out for a walk—look for all the shapes you see in the world around you and see how many you can find. Or find all the shapes that you don’t know! For instance, a stop sign is an octagon, and you can talk about how “octo” means “eight” like an “octopus” has eight arms.

It’s also very likely that your 5-year-old is ready to sound out words and read simple books. Reading requires an incredibly complex set of skills and isn’t a single thing that happens at the flip of a switch. In order to read, your child needs to:

Control their eye movements
Ignore distractions (such as a noise in the other room or an itchy sock)
Recognize a specific squiggle as a letter
Bring to mind the sound that a letter makes and how that sound might change in the context of other squiggles/letters, such as a “bossy ‘e’” making a vowel take on a new sound
Move their mouth to articulate those sounds
Process what the words mean, so they’re not just saying them but understanding them

And those are just a few of the skills required! No wonder early readers take their time!

Fortunately there are many fun ways to support early literacy, such as reading aloud together, inviting your child to put on a puppet show (in which they get to make up a story), suggesting they “write” their own book (using invented spelling, dictating to you, or illustrating their ideas), and encouraging your child to read something they’re interested in to one of their stuffed animals or a family pet. All of these activities are important and exciting parts of developing your child’s Core Skills.

Learning Begins with Play

As you can see, there is a LOT going on when a child is 5 years old, and everything we’ve described above begins with—and continues to be supported by — play .

To learn more about your 5-year-old’s development and how to help them across the 5 C’s, check out our other parent resources.

Jody has a Ph.D. in Developmental Science and more than a decade of experience in the children’s media and early learning space.

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Dr. Jody Sherman LeVos

Chief Learning Officer at Begin

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Creative Development in 0-2 Year Olds

Learn how your child develops creativity and help your little one's imagination grow..

Is creativity something we are born with? While we cannot answer “yes” in the literal sense, the capacity for creativity is a trait associated with even very young children. Creativity is about more than the colors someone chooses for a painting or drawing. It is a way of thinking, problem solving, and applying knowledge as well. Creativity is separate and different from intelligence, although the two can and do influence one another. From their earliest days, babies respond to contrasts, colors, sounds, and movements. How they integrate these various experiences will influence their growth and development across many areas, including creativity. In this way, creativity is ageless and timeless. Possibly more important, creativity can be acquired, and fostered.

Creativity can be developed through the various ways parents interact with and respond to very young babies. These may be seen in the diverse ways a caregiver might use to calm, soothe, comfort, engage, amuse, delight, enthrall, even confuse or confound their child. Playing creatively with babies — even newborns — fosters many aspects of development. The physical skills it promotes becomes one of the primary ways that babies learn about their world, thereby allowing them mental development and new ways of thinking, engaging, discovering, and problem solving. This growth may come from actual toys such as blocks, rings, or cups, but it may also come from cushions with bright colors or textures to explore, even objects that make interesting sounds will ignite a child’s curiosity.

Singing, cuddling, and interacting are important ways to participate in play, but it is equally important to encourage independent play time as well. For a young baby, this may be a toy that is foot operated (one of the first gross motor skills to come online is control of kicking) that they can enjoy without parental interaction. Such moments, built up over time, allow your child’s focus to be self-directed for periods, and allow a sense of curiosity and wonder to build.

Very young children learn about the world through their senses. Thus, to foster creativity and creative thinking right from the start, draw on this natural proclivity. Stimulating multiple senses, as babies develop the stamina, is a great way to foster imaginative thinking. A vast majority of your interactions should be hands-on activities where you and your baby interact face-to-face. However, there are also great ways to stimulate creativity with online interactions where parent and child are engaged in the experiences together. The element of surprise will also challenge your baby’s expectations, another great way to foster thinking.

Toddlers are ready for more when it comes to creative opportunities. Allow your child an expressive outlet for her thoughts, feelings, wishes, and imaginings. Challenge her new representational abilities by using her body in space: have her hop like a bunny, roar like a lion, etc. Get more abstract and see if he can become a kite, blowing in the wind, or a balloon blown too full that pops. Have her become a plane taking off or a lost kitten who finds its owner.

Challenge your child’s play to go beyond the familiar routine she may have developed. For example, fly your car to the moon. Look at everyday moments as opportunities to enhance creative thinking. Ask your child why she thinks the dog is chasing the squirrel, or where the bird that flew out of sight is off to. Ask your child what she thinks will happen next as events unfold in front of her, or make up her own ending to a story. While you are reading, have her start a new story the day after “happily ever after” and see where she goes with it. Along the same lines, bring literature to life: Act out We’re Going on a Bear Hunt by Michael Rosen, or the story of the Three Little Pigs . Then, surprise your child with an unexpected alternate ending!

Regardless of your child’s age, creativity is a process, as opposed to a product. This is especially true with babies and toddlers who are just developing the coordination to control and manipulate objects with intention, and the cognitive capacity to problem solve and organize thinking. Your excitement, enthusiasm, and interest will play a big part in what he continues to explore, and what he shies away from. So find ways to capture your child’s experience: photos of her painting, scribbles proudly hung at your child’s eye level, excited conversations relating your child’s experiments…even her frustrations or failures! Problems that are never faced cannot be problem-solved and overcome!

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Milestones of Critical Thinking: A Developmental Model for M ...
Building on the conceptual framework first established by the Foundation for Critical Thinking, 19 the milestones for critical thinking articulated here were also heavily influenced by the Dreyfus model of the stages of expertise, 20 which has been applied extensively in nursing 21 and in medicine. 16 The language used in specialty board ...
Milestones of critical thinking: a developmental model for ...
As part of a task force of educators who considered different developmental stage theories, the authors have iteratively refined and proposed milestones in critical thinking. The attributes associated with unreflective, beginning, practicing, advanced, accomplished, and challenged critical thinkers are conceived as independent of an individual ...
PDF Milestones of Critical Thinking: A Developmental Model for Medicine and
to define stages (i.e., developmental milestones) of critical thinking for medicine and nursing across the continuum. The group met by conference call for one hour semimonthly from December 2011 to September 2012. The task force reviewed and considered competency models within and outside of the medicine and nursing literature.
Critical Thinking Developmental Milestones
In 2014, an elite working group of educators from 17 Schools of Medicine and Nursing in the U.S. came together and proposed milestones of critical thinking. 1 This group defined critical thinking in two components: "the ability to apply higher-order cognitive skills (conceptualization, analysis, evaluation)" and "the disposition to be ...
Cognitive Developmental Milestones
Cognitive milestones represent important steps forward in a child's development. Cognitive development refers to how children think, learn, explore, remember, and solve problems. Historically, babies were often thought of as simple, passive beings. Prior to the 20th-century, children were often seen simply as miniature versions of adults.
[PDF] Milestones of Critical Thinking: A Developmental Model for
DOI: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000000220 Corpus ID: 2636986; Milestones of Critical Thinking: A Developmental Model for Medicine and Nursing @article{Papp2014MilestonesOC, title={Milestones of Critical Thinking: A Developmental Model for Medicine and Nursing}, author={Klara K. Papp and Grace C. Huang and Laurie M Lauzon Clabo and Dianne Delva and Melissa A. Fischer and Lyuba Konopasek and Richard M ...
Milestones of critical thinking: a developmental model for medicine and
As part of a task force of educators who considered different developmental stage theories, the authors have iteratively refined and proposed milestones in critical thinking. The attributes associated with unreflective, beginning, practicing, advanced, accomplished, and challenged critical thinkers are conceived as independent of an individual ...
Cognitive Development in 8- to 10-Year-Olds
In summary, between 8 and 10 years old, children learn to mentally combine, separate, order, and transform objects and actions. They learn to conserve mass and area, with many also learning to conserve volume. Their ability to apply logic and reason increases, as does their ability to focus attention. They can consider multiple perspectives and ...
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Critical thinking is defined as "the ability to apply higher-order cognitive skills (conceptualization, analysis, evaluation) intellectually honest) that lead to action that is logical and ...
Developmental Milestones
In conclusion, early childhood is a critical period in which developmental milestones in cognition, socialization, emotions, and physical growth are established. School psychologists play a pivotal role in assessing and supporting these milestones, ensuring that children receive the early interventions and support necessary to thrive ...
Child Cognitive Development: Essential Milestones and Strategies
Child cognitive development is a fascinating and complex process that entails the growth of a child's mental abilities, including their ability to think, learn, and solve problems. This development occurs through a series of stages that can vary among individuals. As children progress through these stages, their cognitive abilities and skills ...
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Cognitive development means the growth of a child's ability to think and reason. This growth happens differently from ages 6 to 12, and from ages 12 to 18. Children ages 6 to 12 years old develop the ability to think in concrete ways. These are called concrete operations. These things are called concrete because they're done around objects ...
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Cognitive Development in 11-13 Year Olds. Children become increasingly competent at adult-style thinking during the "tween" years. Learn more. By Michelle Anthony, PhD. Ages. 11-13. Around the age of 11 or 12, children learn to think about abstract concepts. They complete what Piaget termed the concrete operational period and enter the formal ...
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Ages. 6-7. The time between 6 and 8 is one of tremendous cognitive change for children. They move from being preschoolers into middle childhood, from a life dominated by fantasy to one that is beginning to be governed by logic and reason. They start to see themselves as more autonomous individuals, capable of basic independent problem solving.
Milestones of Critical Thinking: A Developmental Model for Medicine and
As part of a task force of educators who considered different developmental stage theories, the authors have iteratively refined and proposed milestones in critical thinking. The attributes associated with unreflective, beginning, practicing, advanced, accomplished, and challenged critical thinkers are conceived as independent of an individual ...
Developmental Psychology: Definition, Stages, and Issues
Developmental psychologists look at things such as the physical, cognitive, and emotional growth that takes place during this critical period of development. In addition to providing interventions for potential developmental problems at this point, psychologists are also focused on helping kids achieve their full potential .
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Critical Thinking Questions; Personal Application Questions; 14 Stress, Lifestyle, and Health. Introduction; 14.1 What Is Stress? 14.2 Stressors; 14.3 Stress and Illness; ... Why should developmental milestones only be used as a general guideline for normal child development? 18.
4-Year-Old Developmental Milestones: The Quick Guide
The Short Cut. Four-year-olds are developing important skills that will help them get and stay ready for school, then learn throughout their lives. The 5 C's that lead to thriving in school and life are Creativity, Critical Thinking, Curiosity, Character, and Core Skills. For 4-year-olds, the 5 C's can be supported through play and simple ...
5-Year-Old Developmental Milestones: The Quick Guide
Developmental milestones for 5-year-olds show up in the 5 C's: Creativity, Critical Thinking, Curiosity, Character, and Core Skills. For 5-year-olds, the 5 C's can be supported through play and simple, everyday interactions. Parents can help 5-year-olds develop the 5 C's through a combination of guided play, artistic activities, social ...
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The use of good learning media can increase and direct students' attention so as to lead to learning motivation. This study aims to developing an animation audiovisual media product in Excretory System material which is valid, practical, and effective at Grade XI High School. This study uses a 4D model which consists of Define, Design, Develop, and Dissemnate stages. The collecting data using ...
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Ages. 3-5. The world of the preschooler is one of imagination and magic. For many children, their creativity will reach its peak before the age of six, after which it will begin to decline with the onset of formal schooling and the developmental drive towards conformity. However, supporting your child's creativity in preschool sets the stage ...
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Milestones of critical thinking: a developmental model for medicine and nursing

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Critical Thinking Developmental Milestones

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Milestones of critical thinking: a developmental model for medicine and nursing.

Abstract

References

The ACGME outcome project: retrospective and prospective.

Addressing the National League for Nursing critical-thinking outcome.

Cognitive forcing strategies in clinical decisionmaking.

Diagnostic error in internal medicine.

Thinking about diagnostic thinking: a 30-year perspective.

A universal model of diagnostic reasoning.

Contextual factors in the activation of first diagnostic hypotheses: expert-novice differences.

From the educational bench to the clinical bedside: translating the Dreyfus developmental model to the learning of clinical skills.

Critical thinking in health professions education: summary and consensus statements of the Millennium Conference 2011.

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Developmental Milestones

Introduction

Early Childhood Developmental Milestones

Elementary and Middle School Developmental Milestones

Adolescence and High School Developmental Milestones

Special Populations and Diverse Developmental Milestones

References:

Child Cognitive Development: Essential Milestones and Strategies

Key Takeaways

Child Cognitive Development Stages

Sensorimotor Stage

Preoperational Stage

Concrete Operational Stage

Formal Operational Stage

Key Factors in Cognitive Development

Environmental Influences

Nutrition and Health

Emotional and Social Factors

Language and Communication Development

Nonverbal Communication

Parent and Caregiver Interaction

Cognitive Abilities and Skills

Reasoning and Problem Solving

Attention and Memory

Decision-Making and Executive Function

Academic and Cognitive Milestones

Developmental Delays and Early Intervention

Resources and Support for Parents

Professional Evaluations and Intervention Strategies

Fostering Healthy Cognitive Development

Supportive Home Environment

Promoting Independence and Decision-Making

Healthy Lifestyle Habits

Frequently Asked Questions

What factors influence cognitive development in children?

How do cognitive skills vary during early childhood?

What are common examples of cognitive development?

How do cognitive development theories explain children’s learning?

Why is it essential to support cognitive development in early childhood?

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Cognitive Development in the Teen Years

How cognitive growth happens during the teen years

Types of cognitive growth through the years

How you can encourage healthy cognitive growth

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Understanding Developmental Psychology

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What Is Developmental Psychology?