critical thinking as a manager

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How Leaders Should Think Critically

• John Baldoni

If you want to succeed in 21st Century business you need to become a critical thinker. Roger Martin of the Rotman School of Management figured this out a decade ago and as dean, has been working to transform his school’s business curriculum with greater emphasis on critical thinking skills. As Lane Wallace explained in the […]

If you want to succeed in 21st Century business you need to become a critical thinker. Roger Martin of the Rotman School of Management figured this out a decade ago and as dean, has been working to transform his school’s business curriculum with greater emphasis on critical thinking skills. As Lane Wallace explained in the New York Times , what Martin and many others are seeking to do is approach learning and problem solving from a multicultural platform that borrows from academia, business, the arts and even history.

• John Baldoni is an internationally recognized executive coach and leadership educator. His most recent book is MOXIE: The Secret to Bold and Gutsy Leadership .

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• The Project Manager’s Guide to Critical Thinking Skills

Remember playing the game Clue as a kid? You’d collect evidence, analyze the possibilities, and come to your own conclusions based on what you knew (and what you didn’t). As a project manager, the skills you developed playing games like Clue are extremely useful. The acting gatekeeper for your team, you’re used to evaluating information and making decisions to benefit your department and the business as a whole. Whether you’re a seasoned project manager or just learning the ropes, knowing how to fine-tune your critical thinking skills will come in handy every single day.

Continue reading to learn: 

• A definition of critical thinking
• The six critical skills project managers need
• Why critical thinking skills are crucial for project managers
• How to work your critical thinking muscles
• Effective critical thinking techniques

Let’s get critical. 

What is critical thinking?

Ask five different people what critical thinking means and you’ll probably get five different answers. But, generally speaking, critical thinking refers to intellectual tactics used to observe and analyze information to draw better conclusions. A key factor in critical thinking is looking beyond the surface of an idea, a concept, or a piece of information. It involves asking questions — to yourself or others — to go deeper and draw better conclusions.

Critical thinking can be used by anyone, in any role, to make their job easier. You can find new insights, optimize an inefficient process, and get projects done faster. Developing your critical thinking means building habits that follow you throughout your career.

Here’s a breakdown of crucial critical thinking skills for project managers — or any other role.

6 critical thinking skills for project managers

Skill #1: observation.

Critical thinking skills starts with being more aware of what’s going on. Working on an important project? Being observant might mean keeping a close eye on comments from collaborators, or just paying better attention during meetings with your data team. Becoming a more observant person means you can identify problems others miss or pick up on context clues that help you solve problems down the road.

Skill #2: Analysis

Spotting problems, clues, and that one important comment in a Slack thread is just the beginning. If observation is how you bring in more information, analysis is how you determine what you’re going to do with it. Having an analytical approach to your problems means knowing what information you have available, knowing how relevant each piece is to the problem at hand, and being able to ask better questions. 

Skill #3: Identifying bias

This critical thinking skill ties in closely with analysis but is important enough to be its own skill. Bias is inherent in everything we do, from collecting data to creating content and solving problems. For instance, because this blog post is being written by a marketer, it might use different examples than a writer from a more technical team. You can spot a bias by asking yourself questions, like “are there elements of this person’s experience or perspective that might be affecting what they’re saying?” Bias can affect every role in an organization.

Skill #4: Inference

This is a fancy term for drawing better conclusions. This crucial critical thinking skill helps you make better use of the information you collect, the questions you ask, and the potential problems you spot. Think of everything you might have done so far as putting ingredients in a stew. You can have the best ingredients in the world, but if you leave the pot on too long, you’ll end up with something closer to charcoal than stew.

One of the quickest ways to improve your inference skills is, ironically, by slowing down. Instead of blurting out the first conclusion that comes to mind, start with a few educated guesses, and compare them to each other. Which one makes the most sense? Which is weakest?

Skill #5: Problem-solving

If inference is how you come to better conclusions, problem-solving is how you put them into action. This critical thinking skill encompasses the tactics and strategies you use to take something that looks good on paper and make it great in practice. Problem-solving includes  planning  how you’ll solve a problem, but also reacting to hurdles along the way and staying flexible. A great way to improve your problem-solving skills is asking yourself “is this still the best way to solve the problem?” at every stage of your plan. Sometimes, people can get set in their ways, meaning they stick to an ineffective solution long after they should have pivoted to something else.

Skill #6: Curiosity

This is less a skill than it is a characteristic every critical thinker should work to develop. Every other critical thinking skill is helped by broadening having access to more information and more knowledge. For instance, you can be the most observant person in the world, but you’d still struggle to pick out all the problems in a presentation from the data team if you weren’t at least a little familiar with data analysis. Beyond expertise in specific fields, critical thinking — and thinking in general — is easier when you have a breadth of knowledge and experiences to draw from. You can find links that others would miss and learn to think in different ways. Read more books, listen to more podcasts, and approach the world at large with more curiosity.

Why do project managers need critical thinking skills? 

When people hear the phrase ‘critical thinking’, they often picture a negative person. Being a critical thinker doesn’t mean you have a bad attitude or that you aren’t a team player. It’s quite the opposite. 

Critical thinking means questioning processes, projects, and even core business practices that are widely accepted as given. Not to tear them down, but to improve them for the benefit of the entire team. 

The Project Management Institute (PMI) outlines how important this skill is: 

“Corporate leaders have put critical thinking at the top of the list of essential competencies needed by their workers to understand these challenges, explore opportunities, and make good decisions in this new competitive environment.” 

When used in the context of project management, effective critical thinking can: 

• Encourage deeper, more  productive discussions
• Facilitate open communication between team members 
• Resolve issues between team members and stakeholders more quickly
• Develop better solutions to problems 
• Reduce stress throughout a project 
• Prevent repetitive issues
• Achieve better results faster 

Now that you know why critical thinking skills are priority for project managers, it’s time to find out how you can improve yours.

How project managers can develop better critical thinking skills 

There’s one core principle that will guide your critical thinking: question everything. Project managers can’t just approve all requests that come in from stakeholders across the organization — unless they want a stressed-out, overworked team.

A good project manager knows how to prioritize projects according to the business’ overall needs and goals. With every request that comes in, you need to be prepared to evaluate the project’s impact on the business, the necessity of the project, and the why. Building this process — this instinct — into your daily work is how you build and strengthen your critical thinking skills.

For every potential project, consider: 

• Why is this important right now? While most stakeholders will say their project is urgent, you need to find out exactly how true this is. Perhaps the project could be scheduled for a later date that works better for your team’s schedule. 
• Why does my team need to be involved? For example, if you manage the creative team and a request for a sales presentation comes in, figure out exactly what your team will need to do.
• Why is my team’s time better spent on this project than other projects? Does this project contribute more to the business than other work your team could be doing? 

Those are three important questions to ask yourself, but what about the questions you ask others?

When a new project lands in your inbox, you need to know what to ask of the sender and how to delicately frame those questions. There are a few question formats that work especially well for this stage of the project. These include:

• ‘tell me more’ questions (eg. Tell me more about what will be required from each member of my team)
• ‘help me understand’ questions (eg. Help me understand why this project is urgent)
• ‘can you give me an example’ questions (eg. Can you give me an example of the types of results you’re looking for here?). 

These questions allow you to get a better understanding of the project and make sure it’s a good fit for your team. They’re also usually well-received by whoever initiated the project.

Prioritization means making tough calls, and project managers need to be ready and equipped to do so. You can’t be afraid to say no when the project doesn’t make sense from a timing or business standpoint. However, you will also need to be ready to explain the reasoning behind your “no”. The following techniques will help you feel confident in your decisions and authority as a project manager. 

Critical thinking techniques for project managers 

Critical thinking skills are one thing, but when evaluating the priority of a new project, there are critical thinking techniques you can put into practice to boost results and team morale. 

• Avoid making or accepting assumptions 
• Identify potential issues (and their consequences) from the start
• Use the Five Whys to find the root of problems 

Let’s dive into these a little bit more. 

1. Avoid assumptions 

You know what they say about assuming things. When you make assumptions as a project manager, you’re missing out on and ignoring key information that could make or break your project. You can have the best critical thinking skills in the office, but making the wrong assumption can undo all your hard work.

A big part of critical thinking is digging into reasoning and probing for evidence rather than drawing your own immediate conclusions. When you’re pitched a new project — and during the course of the entire project — question any preconceived notions (yours or theirs). Ensure you’re given concrete evidence for the viability of the project, and look for any holes in the process or strategy that could impact your team. 

When challenging assumptions, consider the following questions: 

• Am I assuming all members of this project have all the information they need to complete their tasks?
• What assumptions am I making about each team members’ skill sets? 
• Am I making assumptions about each team member’s time and availability? 
• What are some possible issues that may arise with this project? How can I work backwards and challenge any assumptions in order to avoid these issues? 
• What assumptions have I made about the stakeholder or project creator? What do they need to know? 

Never take anything for granted. When your job is to facilitate and manage expectations, it’s important that you’re questioning and challenging your own assumptions — and those of team members and stakeholders — at all stages of the process. 

2. Consider potential issues 

When you’re questioning assumptions, you’re also working towards another big part of your job: risk management. By proactively questioning what could go wrong, you can prepare for any issues that might arise during the course of the project. Not only that, but you can consider the implications and consequences of when things go awry. 

Consider a cause and effect approach with hypothetical — but realistic — issues. Give yourself an hour to write down any possible issues that could arise with the project, along with a list of consequences associated with each one. For example: 

• Problem : The video editor won’t have enough time to deliver the final file. 
• Consequence : The rest of the project will be held up. Costs will increase and we could miss the deadline.  

In a perfect world, project managers wouldn’t face any problems and all projects would be smooth sailing. Since that’s unfortunately not the case, here are some helpful tools you can use to avoid the escalation of issues — as well as repeating roadblocks with future projects.

3. Use the Five Whys

In addition to the “why” questions outlined above, a proven project management technique called “The Five Whys” can help you explore the true cause or causes of any problem. 

Here’s how ProjectManagement.com explains it: 

“5 Whys is an iterative elicitation method used to explore cause-and-effect relationships underlying a particular problem. The primary goal of the technique is to determine the root cause of a defect or problem by repeating the question ‘Why?’. Each answer forms the basis of the next question.” 

To complete The Five Whys, you simply repeat the question “why?” five times until you come to the root of the problem. Each answer is understood to be a “contributing cause” that impacts the final result. 

For example: 

• Because multiple teams weren’t able to complete their tasks on time (contributing cause). 
• Because their time wasn’t prioritized properly (contributing cause). 
• Because multiple last-minute projects were assigned (contributing cause). 
• Because other stakeholders didn’t understand the prioritization and project assignment process (contributing cause). 
• Because they haven’t been properly trained or given the necessary information (root cause). 

Once you get to the root of the problem, you can take action to ensure these issues are minimized or avoided in the future. 

For project managers, sometimes taking a moment to just stop and consider all of the possibilities, consequences, and information can make all the difference between a well-thought-out decision and a future regret. Developing and exercising your critical thinking skills is a surefire way to drive positive business results.

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• Seek out diverse perspectives: Engage with people with different perspectives and experiences. This can help managers to consider multiple viewpoints and make more informed decisions.
• Read widely: Read books, articles, and other materials from various disciplines and perspectives. It can help managers to broaden their knowledge base and develop new insights and ideas.
• Practice active listening: Listen carefully to others and seek to understand their perspectives. This can help managers to identify potential problems and develop more effective solutions.
• Ask probing questions: Ask questions that challenge assumptions and encourage deeper thinking. It can help managers identify the problem’s root causes and develop more effective solutions.
• Use data to inform decisions: Use data and evidence to inform decision-making . It will help managers to identify patterns and trends and make more informed decisions.
• Embrace uncertainty: Embrace uncertainty and be open to the possibility of failure. This can help managers to take calculated risks and learn from mistakes.
• Engage in reflection: Reflect on past decisions and problem-solving efforts. Consider what worked well and what could have been done differently.
• Practice creativity: Practice creative thinking techniques such as brainstorming , mind-mapping, or lateral thinking. It helps managers to generate new ideas and develop innovative solutions.
• Define the problem: Clearly define the problem or issue that needs to be addressed. Use facts and data to clarify the issue and determine the scope of the problem.
• Gather information: Collect relevant data and information to understand the problem better. Use both internal and external sources to gather insights and perspectives.
• Analyze the information: Use critical thinking skills to analyze the data and information collected. Look for patterns, identify cause-and-effect relationships, and consider potential solutions.
• Generate potential solutions: Use creative thinking techniques such as brainstorming to generate a list of potential solutions. Consider multiple options and evaluate them based on their feasibility, impact, and alignment with team goals.
• Evaluate potential solutions: Evaluate each solution using critical thinking skills. Consider the pros and cons of each option, weigh the risks and benefits, and consider potential unintended consequences.
• Choose a solution: Based on evaluating solutions, choose the most appropriate solution. Consider the resources required to implement the solution, the timeline for implementation, and any potential obstacles.
• Implement the solution: Develop a plan for implementing the chosen solution. Communicate the plan to stakeholders, assign roles and responsibilities, and establish a timeline for implementation.
• Evaluate the solution: Monitor the implementation of the solution and evaluate its effectiveness. Collect feedback from stakeholders and make adjustments as necessary.
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Critical Thinking Training For Managers Simplified

• Understanding The Role Of Team Dynamics To Make A Healthy Work Environment
• Identifying root causes: A critical-thinking manager might investigate a recurring problem in their department by asking questions to identify the root cause. They might analyze data and seek input from team members to identify potential contributing factors and develop a plan to address the issue.
• Evaluating risks: A manager might use critical thinking to assess the risks associated with a proposed project or initiative. They might consider potential risks and develop contingency plans to mitigate them or decide to postpone the project if the risks are deemed too high.
• Analyzing data: A manager might use critical thinking to analyze data to identify trends and patterns. For example, they might analyze sales data to identify growth opportunities or analyze employee performance data to identify areas for improvement.
• Developing creative solutions: A manager might use critical thinking and problem-solving skills to develop creative solutions to complex problems. For example, they might brainstorm with team members to create innovative products or services that meet customer needs.
• Evaluating proposals: A manager might use critical thinking to assess proposals from vendors or outside consultants. They might ask questions to ensure the proposal aligns with the team’s goals and objectives and consider potential risks and benefits before deciding.
• Develop a growth mindset: Embrace a growth mindset and believe your skills and abilities can improve with effort and practice.
• Challenge your assumptions: Identify them and challenge them by considering alternative perspectives.
• Use logic and reasoning: Use logical reasoning to evaluate arguments and evidence and make informed decisions.
• Practice active listening: Listen carefully to others and ask questions to clarify their perspectives .
• Analyze data: Use data to inform decision-making and analyze trends and patterns.
• Develop creative solutions: Practice creative techniques like brainstorming and lateral thinking to generate new ideas and solutions.
• Consider potential consequences: Evaluate the possible consequences of your decisions and actions, both positive and negative.
• Seek feedback: Seek feedback from others to identify areas for improvement and growth.
• Practice mindfulness: Practice mindfulness to reduce stress and improve focus and clarity.
• Continuously learn: Seek opportunities to learn and develop new skills, such as attending workshops, taking courses, or reading books and articles.

Suprabha Sharma

Suprabha, a versatile professional who blends expertise in human resources and psychology, bridges the divide between people management and personal growth with her novel perspectives at Risely. Her experience as a human resource professional has empowered her to visualize practical solutions for frequent managerial challenges that form the pivot of her writings.

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Critical thinking enables leaders at every level to understand the impact of their decisions on the business as a whole and ensures both alignment with organisational goals and accountability for results.  

The "new normal" is a different kind of competitive landscape, buffeted by geopolitics and global instability, rapid technological change, unique financial pressures, a rising tide of data and information to filter through, and the proliferation of new corporate business models.

The mind-set that made leaders successful in the past probably won't ensure success in the future. In fact, several recent studies and surveys have identified critical thinking as the number one requirement for successful leadership in the 21st century. Yet there is mounting evidence that many current and emerging leaders lack this quality. And it is this competency gap that is shaking up and reshaping leadership as we have come to know it.

Leadership in the "new normal"

In the wake of the economic crisis, we all know what a failure of leadership looks like. The companies that folded in the GFC serve as stark examples of what happens when decisions are based upon erroneous, partially false or incomplete information and when management fails to think clearly and strategically about the full implications of its actions. The resulting fall-out put an end to business as usual and created a "new normal" that looks markedly different from anything anyone has seen before.

Business organisations must be prepared to do things differently if they expect different results. In this demanding, dynamic landscape, it is only natural that they also require a different mind-set from those in charge.

The equation works like this: Thinking drives behaviour; behaviour drives results. So enterprises that want to change the results - and, indeed, change the organisation itself - can achieve the highest leverage by changing the thinking of leaders and managers throughout the organisation.

But what kind of thinking - or rather rethinking - will be required of leaders if they want to succeed in the "new normal"?

Why critical thinking is critical

Critical thinking appears to be exactly what is needed from leaders who are navigating the volatility of the "new normal". Diane Halpern, an award-winning professor of psychology at Claremont McKenna College and a widely read author on the subject, offers this definition in her seminal book, Thought and Knowledge :

"Critical thinking is the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome. It is used to describe thinking that is purposeful, reasoned, and goal-directed - the kind of thinking involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions ... it's the kind of thinking that makes desirable outcomes more likely."

If ever there was a time for clear, discerning, solution-centric thinking, this is it.

Every two years since 1983, Executive Development Associates (EDA) has conducted an extensive survey on trends, growth and the evolution of executive development. The 2009/2010 EDA Trends in Executive Development: A Benchmark Report revealed trouble on the horizon for corporations seeking future business leaders.

To gauge the readiness of the next generation of leadership talent, EDA asked senior executive development professionals to share their views on the strengths and weaknesses of the incoming leadership group - the people who are most likely to fill executive-level positions in the next three to five years - and the subsequent impact on executive development.

The survey identified "hot topics" in executive development for the next two to three years. At the top of the list was leadership, followed by "business acumen, honing skills in strategy execution, leading / managing change, and talent management."

But when asked "What competencies are your leaders lacking?" their responses indicated little confidence that leaders had what it takes to execute in these critical areas successfully. Here's what they said was missing:

• Strategic thinking
• Leading change
• Ability to create a vision and engage others around it
• Ability to inspire
• Understanding the total enterprise and how the parts work together

What critical thinking looks like

Having established the need for a mind-set shift to more critical thinking, we need to be clear on what that means in the workplace.

In general, critical thinking is the ability to deal with the contradictions and problems of a tumultuous environment in a reasoned, purposeful, productive way. Decisions are made using an approach that is fair, objective, accurate and based on information that is relevant to the situation.

Critical thinking is also reflective and focused, constantly evaluating the thinking process itself. It is thinking with a purpose. Critical thinking requires a healthy dose of skepticism and an equal measure of good judgement.

For decades, companies have relied on the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal , a widely used assessment tool for evaluating the cognitive ability of current and future leaders. Developed in 1925, the model identifies factors that are key to critical thinking and decision making and predicts judgment, problem solving, creativity, openness to experience and other leadership behaviours.

Five sub-tests measure critical thinking as a composite of attitudes, knowledge and skills:

• Recognition of assumptions
• Interpretation
• Evaluation of arguments

Professionals with high scores in these sub-tests are able to identify and examine the assumptions, influences and biases that might sway them. They stand back from the fray and strategically assess the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions or approaches to problems. They make business decisions that answer the right questions, solve the right problems, mitigate risk and improve productivity. They also lead from a position of strength, being able to motivate and move people both inspirationally and intellectually by providing solid reasons for actions.

Whether they lead teams, departments or entire enterprises, leaders who apply the skills of critical thinking to their roles perform at a higher level and offer their organisations a distinct competitive advantage.

Critical thinkers think differently about their impact on the organisation - understanding how their decisions and actions influence business both inside and outside their narrow functional silos. These leaders are able to balance department or team issues with broader company issues and embrace a larger responsibility for the success of the organisation. This keen sense of accountability is what enables them to execute for results now while fulfilling their obligations to positively impact the future.

Leaders who engage in critical thinking also understand the total organisation and how the individual parts work together. Context is key. Now more than ever, business acumen is foundational to effective leadership. It is impossible to apply critical thinking skills to the business of making money without an understanding of the business drivers that connect day-to-day decisions and actions to key financial and strategic performance goals of the organisation. It is one thing to understand one's role as a leader. It is altogether another thing to understand how to set direction and directly affect the outcomes.

Critical thinking is big-picture thinking too. As Hagemann describes it, "Leaders need to be able to comfortably climb to the 30,000-foot view and analyse a dynamic system, while simultaneously and adeptly analysing information to quickly make decisions across levels." Critical thinkers operate from a broad perspective in order to make sure the correct problems are addressed and they are taking acceptable risk. They recognise the difference between short-term gains and sustainable, long-term results and lead accordingly.

The advantages of this kind of leadership behavior are readily apparent. Critical thinking enables leaders at every level to understand the impact of their decisions on the business as a whole and ensures both alignment with organisational goals and accountability for results. It's exactly the type of leadership behaviour demanded by the "new normal" - and exactly what's missing. And this disconnect is likely to intensify over time.

Given the critical-thinking competency gap exposed by the EDA survey and other research, the obvious assumption is that the traditional development process that businesses have relied upon in the past to prepare leaders simply hasn't kept up. So, what's the solution? To accelerate development and raise leadership accountability to a whole new level of awareness and action, there needs to be a new emphasis on critical thinking in leadership development.

Learning to think like a leader

The good news is critical thinking is a skill that can be taught. According to Halpern, "There is a large body of evidence showing that people can learn to think better. Of course, education makes us all more intelligent, but critical thinking is more focused. Everyone can learn to recognise and use the skills of critical thinking, and we can always get better."

New competencies, however, may require a deeper, more analytical approach. The challenge today is not to discard what has been learned in the past, but to build upon traditional competencies with a whole new and more complex set of skills, tools and sensitivities.

Leaders in the new normal need to learn how to be discerning, how to think clearly and wisely, and how to be accountable for their impact on the business.

Discovery learning in leadership courses

Critical thinking can be impacted by the right leadership courses. However, the process can be more challenging than improving a behavioural skill, because you can't easily measure it. Success is demonstrated in results.

As with any skill, intellectual or otherwise, the key to building critical thinking - and achieving successful results - is practice. Research has demonstrated that people learn best when they are actively involved in the learning process and engaging in the behaviours they want to learn. But what's vital in developing critical thinking skills is framing the concept of practice within a relevant, job-related context.

Acquiring critical thinking skills requires participating in learning experiences that force you to consider new ways of thinking about and acting within complex situations that are directly related to the work you do. You need the opportunity to respond to issues, reflect on and reframe your experiences, develop new thinking, and, in turn, engage in new behaviours and actions that are relevant to your position and objectives.

Developing your critical thinking skills

In addition to participating in these types of leadership courses, leaders can take charge of their own critical thinking development by taking these actions:

• Get some feedback about your critical thinking skills from a trusted boss, colleague or coach Are you jumping to conclusions or using a reasoned, analytic process as you work toward a goal? Are you able to put aside biases and assumptions during analysis and decision-making? What kind of "thinker" are you perceived to be and why?
• Challenge yourself to develop a deeper understanding of your company's business, especially its financial and strategic drivers of success Are you clear about what drives the organisation's decisions, how financial success is achieved and how you impact both strategy and the bottom line? Are you making decisions that are aligned with this understanding?Is your knowledge of the business strong enough to drive behaviour and to engage teams and employees?
• Use multiple sources of data to form an "information web" before making a decision or forming a conclusion Are you asking a lot of questions? Identifying stakeholders and their issues and opinions? Separating facts from assumptions?Are you using the Internet as "one" source of information rather than "the" source? Can you analyse information from different perspectives and viewpoints?
• Take time to think Are you rising above the fray when it's important to make a decision, take action or form an opinion? Are you aware of the distractions getting in the way of your thinking time and taking action to minimize these distractions? Are you finding time and space to let your mind focus and reflect on important issues?
• Ask for input, critique and opinions from others as you analyse alternatives Are you checking tentative conclusions with others? Using peers, coaches or mentors to critique your thinking process? Are you willing to open your mind to other ideas or alternatives?

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Critical Thinking for Managers

Structured Decision-Making and Persuasion in Business

• © 2021
• Radu Atanasiu   ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8850-9538 0

Bucharest International School of Management, Bucharest, Romania

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

• Offers a structured approach and easy-to-use tools for improving decision-making in business
• Presents tested methods to cope with disagreement and to learn from failure
• Structures the persuasion process by highlighting the correct mix of arguments and empathy
• Discusses critical thinking as tool for humane leadership

Part of the book series: Management for Professionals (MANAGPROF)

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Table of contents (15 chapters)

Front matter, introduction.

Radu Atanasiu

Who Needs Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking in business decision-making, hidden assumptions, test your business assumptions, reason, emotions, intuition, cognitive biases, decisions, decisions, decisions, decision-making in groups, problem solving, critical thinking in persuasion, one-on-one persuasion, ten fair-play principles in argumentation, the courage to change our mind.

• Critical thinking course
• Testing business assumptions
• Strategic thinking
• A/B testing
• Managerial intuition and rationality
• Managerial heuristics
• Cognitive biases in leadership
• Dunning Kruger effect
• Cognitive dissonance in business

About this book

This book discusses critical thinking as a tool for more compassionate leadership, presenting tried and tested methods for managing disagreement, for anticipating and solving problems, and for enhancing empathy. Employing a lighter tone of voice than most management books, it also shows how and when less-than-rational mechanisms such as intuition and heuristics may be efficient decision-making tools in any manager’s toolbox.  

Critical thinking is useful for analyzing incoming information in the context of decision-making and is crucial for structuring outgoing information in the context of persuasion. When trying to convince a client to buy a service, an executive board to fund a project, or a colleague to change a procedure, managers can use the simple step-by-step guides provided here to prepare for successful meetings and effective pitches.

Managerial thinking can be steadily improved, using a structured process, especially if we learn to think about our thinking. This book guides current and would-be managers through this process of improving and metathinking, in connection with decision-making and persuasion. Using examples from business, together with research insights from Behavioral Economics and from Management and Organizational Cognition, the author illustrates common pitfalls like hidden assumptions and cognitive biases, and provides easy-to-use solutions for testing hypotheses and resolving dilemmas. 

“It is a how-to guide on critical thinking for managers. Although it is a very serious subject it is written in a pleasant, engaging and easy-to-read style and is larded with some fun, enlightening and sometimes challenging intermezzos. The book has a certain focus on decision making and pursuasion as the subtitle discloses and it is a very efficient pick from the vast world of critical thinking for practical use by managers.” (Paul Hartog, goodreads.com, July 15, 2021)

Authors and Affiliations

About the author, bibliographic information.

Book Title : Critical Thinking for Managers

Book Subtitle : Structured Decision-Making and Persuasion in Business

Authors : Radu Atanasiu

Series Title : Management for Professionals

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73600-2

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Business and Management , Business and Management (R0)

Copyright Information : Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-030-73599-9 Published: 11 May 2021

eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-73600-2 Published: 10 May 2021

Series ISSN : 2192-8096

Series E-ISSN : 2192-810X

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : VII, 186

Number of Illustrations : 1 b/w illustrations, 16 illustrations in colour

Topics : Human Resource Development , Management , Industrial and Organizational Psychology , Economic Psychology

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Why Critical Thinking Matters in Your Business

Critical thinking should become a second-nature skill for leaders and employees across your organization.

Table of Contents

Many professionals hope to pursue careers they’re passionate about so they can find joy and meaning in their work. Caring deeply about your work is vital for engagement and productivity, but balancing emotions with critical thinking is essential in the workplace. 

When employees engage in critical thinking, they use an independent, reflective thought process to evaluate issues and solve problems based on knowledge and objective evidence. 

Critical thinking skills can guide your organization toward success, but to truly maximize the problem-solving benefits of critical thinking, it’s crucial to teach this skill to your entire team. We’ll explore critical thinking skills and how to teach them in the workplace to help your business improve its decision-making and problem-solving. 

What is critical thinking?

Jen Lawrence, co-author of Engage the Fox: A Business Fable About Thinking Critically and Motivating Your Team , defines critical thinking as “the ability to solve problems effectively by systematically gathering information about an issue, generating further ideas involving a variety of perspectives, evaluating the information using logic, and making sure everyone involved is on board.”

This is a complex definition for a challenging concept. Though critical thinking might seem as straightforward as stepping back and using a formal thinking process instead of reacting instinctively to conflicts or problems, it is actually a much more challenging task.

Critical thinking’s ultimate goal is ensuring you have the best answer to a problem with maximum buy-in from all parties involved – an outcome that will ultimately save your business time, money and stress.

Why is critical thinking essential in the workplace?

A World Economic Forum report revealed that critical thinking is one of the most in-demand career skills employers seek when trying to attract and retain the best employees – and employers believe critical thinking skills will become even more necessary in the coming years. 

Critical thinking in the workplace guarantees objective and efficient problem-solving, ultimately reducing costly errors and ensuring that your organization’s resources are used wisely. Team members employing critical thinking can connect ideas, spot errors and inconsistencies, and make the best decisions most often. 

Employees with critical thinking are also more likely to accomplish the following:

• Analyzing information
• Thinking outside the box
• Coming up with creative solutions to sudden problems
• Devising thought-through, systematic plans
• Requiring less supervision

What are critical thinking skills?

Critical thinking is a soft skill that comprises multiple interpersonal and analytical abilities and attributes. Here are some essential critical thinking skills that can support workforce success.

• Observation: Employees with critical thinking can easily sense and identify an existing problem – and even predict potential issues – based on their experience and sharp perception. They’re willing to embrace multiple points of view and look at the big picture. 
• Analytical thinking: Analytical thinkers collect data from multiple sources, reject bias, and ask thoughtful questions. When approaching a problem, they gather and double-check facts, assess independent research, and sift through information to determine what’s accurate and what can help resolve the problem. 
• Open-mindedness: Employees who demonstrate critical thinking are open-minded – not afraid to consider opinions and information that differ from their beliefs and assumptions. They listen to colleagues; they can let go of personal biases and recognize that a problem’s solution can come from unexpected sources. 
• Problem-solving attitude: Critical thinkers possess a positive attitude toward problem-solving and look for optimal solutions to issues they’ve identified and analyzed. They are usually proactive and willing to offer suggestions based on all the information they receive. [Related article: How to Develop a Positive Attitude in the Workplace ]
• Communication: When managers make a decision, they must share it with the rest of the team and other stakeholders. Critical thinkers demonstrate excellent communication skills and can provide supporting arguments and evidence that substantiate the decision to ensure the entire team is on the same page. 

What are the benefits of critical thinking in the workplace?

Many workplaces operate at a frantic tempo that reinforces hasty thinking and rushed business decisions, resulting in costly mistakes and blunders. When employees are trained in critical thinking, they learn to slow the pace and gather crucial information before making decisions. 

Along with reducing costly errors, critical thinking in the workplace brings the following benefits: 

• Critical thinking improves communication. When employees think more clearly and aren’t swayed by emotion, they communicate better. “If you can think more clearly and better articulate your positions, you can better engage in discussions and make a much more meaningful contribution in your job,” said David Welton, managing partner at Grove Critical Thinking.
• Critical thinking boosts emotional intelligence. It might seem counterintuitive to associate analytical rationality with emotional intelligence . However, team members who possess critical thinking skills are less prone to rash, emotion-driven decisions. Instead, they take time to analyze the situation and make the most informed decision while being mindful and respectful of the emotional and ethical implications. 
• Critical thinking encourages creativity. Critical thinkers are open to new ideas and perspectives and accumulate a significant amount of information when facing decisions. Because of this, they’re more likely to come up with creative solutions . They are also curious and don’t shy away from asking open-ended questions. 
• Critical thinking saves time and money. By encouraging critical thinking in the workplace, you minimize the need for supervision, catch potential problems early, promote independence and initiative, and free managers to focus on other duties. All this helps your company save valuable time and resources. 

How do you teach critical thinking in the workplace?

Experts agree that critical thinking is a teachable skill. Both Lawrence and Welton recommend exploring critical thinking training programs and methods to improve your workplace’s critical thinking proficiency. Here’s a breakdown of how to teach critical thinking in the workplace: 

• Identify problem areas. Executives and managers should assess workplace areas most lacking in critical thinking. If mistakes are consistently made, determine whether the issue is a lack of critical thinking or an inherent issue with a team or process. After identifying areas that lack critical thinking, research the type of training best suited to your organization. 
• Start small. Employees newly embracing critical thinking might have trouble tackling large issues immediately. Instead, present them with smaller challenges. “Start practicing critical thinking as a skill with smaller problems as examples, and then work your way up to larger problems,” Lawrence said.
• Act preemptively. Teaching and implementing critical thinking training and methodology takes time and patience. Lawrence emphasized that critical thinking skills are best acquired during a time of calm. It might feel urgent to seek critical thinking during a crisis, but critical thinking is a challenging skill to learn amid panic and stress. Critical thinking training is best done preemptively so that when a crisis hits, employees will be prepared and critical thinking will come naturally.
• Allow sufficient time. From a managerial perspective, giving employees extra time on projects or problems might feel stressful in the middle of deadlines and executive pressures. But if you want those working for you to engage in critical thinking processes, it’s imperative to give them ample time. Allowing employees sufficient time to work through their critical thinking process can save the company time and money in the long run.

How do you identify successful critical thinking?

Successful critical thinking happens during a crisis, not after.

Lawrence provided an example involving restaurants and waitstaff: If a customer has a bad experience at a restaurant, a server using critical thinking skills will be more likely to figure out a solution to save the interaction, such as offering a free appetizer or discount. “This can save the hard-earned customer relationship you spent a lot of marketing dollars to create,” Lawrence said. This concept is applicable across many business and organizational structures. 

You should also be aware of signs of a lack of critical thinking. Lawrence pointed out that companies that change strategy rapidly, moving from one thing to the next, are likely not engaging in critical thinking. This is also the case at companies that seem to have good ideas but have trouble executing them.

As with many issues in business, company leadership determines how the rest of the organization acts. If leaders have excellent ideas but don’t follow critical thinking processes, their team will not buy into those ideas, and the company will suffer. This is why critical thinking skills often accompany positive communication skills.

“Critical thinking doesn’t just help you arrive at the best answer, but at a solution most people embrace,” Lawrence said. Modeling critical thinking at the top will help the skill trickle down to the rest of the organization, no matter your company’s type or size.

Critical thinking is the key to your business success

When critical thinking is actively implemented in an organization, mistakes are minimized, and operations run more seamlessly. 

With training, time and patience, critical thinking can become a second-nature skill for employees at all levels of experience and seniority. The money, time and conflict you’ll save in the long run are worth the extra effort of implementing critical thinking in your workplace.

Rebecka Green contributed to the writing and reporting in this article. Source interviews were conducted for a previous version of this article.

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Critical Thinking Skills for Managers

Most companies will have managers on their team. There are different types of managers, but they follow a general job description. In most cases, they oversee a team or a group of people in a certain department.

Managers take care of the overall performance of their assigned department or area. They make sure that it’s provisioned and well-staffed. They make decisions such as hiring and training employees.

Making decisions that will impact their own group, department, or the company in general require skills that involve critical thinking. Critical thinking skills are crucial for managers because it will help them solve problems within the team more efficiently.

What is critical thinking and what are the critical thinking skills for managers ? Critical thinking is the process of analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing facts about an issue so that a decision or judgment can be made.

Critical Thinking Skills For Managers

• Managers need to learn to observe and then ask questions.

As manager, you are not supposed to take things at face value. When you receive a report, When a report is passed to managers, evaluate and verify information stated in the report. Ask questions from colleagues and employees.

• Managers should think broadly and evaluate the validity of ideas, arguments, and points raised.

As a manager, you’ll always have to look at the bigger picture. You’ll have to be always curious – always questioning. You should not be immediately satisfied with what is presented to you. Always have a thirst for knowledge, this will help you see the bigger picture.

• Be open to bigger ideas.  

A manager will never stay inside their comfort zone. You will always have to think outside the box.

• Managers should learn to reason clearly.

When you ask questions, you get enough information to make intelligent decisions. Once you get the different answers to your questions, maintain a clear mind to think things through – deeply and carefully.

Weigh in your options and think about different possible scenarios.

Think about the worst thing that could happen, but also think about what good may come out of the different options. Consider what impact a particular decision would have – on the people and on the company, in general.

Consider the pros and cons. Make a list of the benefits and detriments of certain actions (options). Analyze your list. If you listed 5 pros and 2 cons, ask yourself if they are of equal weight. Do these cons far outweigh the 5 pros?

Ask questions, analyze, evaluate, and you’ll see the bigger picture.

• Managers should know how to organize their thoughts so they can have good working relationships with both their subordinates, colleagues, and superiors.

There are mangers who fail in doing their job because they fail to communicate well. For some, they are always overcome with emotions causing them to say and do things they’d regret once they have calmed down.

You should learn how to organize your thoughts – even before you say and do anything. Learning to organize your thinking goes a long way in terms of your overall relationships with the people you work with, whether they are your superiors or your subordinates.

Organizing one’s thinking may be different for different people. For some, they are comfortable having a journal where they write their thoughts, ideas, dreams, aspirations, opinions, etc.

For others, they take advantage of technology and create online to-do-lists with their PDAs or personal digital assistants.

Whatever method you want to adapt will be up to you. Choose one wherein you’ll be most comfortable with. It is important to find a way to organize your though process. Doing so will get you one step closer to organizing your life.

• Managers should give time to thinking.

Your brain is like a muscle that you need to exercise to function the way it should be. Immerse yourself in activities that will stimulate your brainpower. Be committed to self-growth and to achieving good health.

For instance, you have tons of magazines and other reading materials just sitting on your desk. If you are always swamped with work and you don’t have time to read them (hence, they just keep on piling up), make it a point to pick two mags with relevant content every start of the week.

Run through the table of contents and choose at least 3 topics (articles) that you can read over lunch, or when riding the bus or subway, or during your coffee break.

You’ll find this practice more efficient in the long run. Aside from getting caught up with relevant things, you also get to exercise your brain. Reading is a good brain stimulant.

Finding the time to read can also apply to taking time to think. This allows you think things carefully and rationally. This will help avoid making hurried decisions and actions.

Need to make an important decision? If time permits, take a walk first and think. You’ll be amazed at how fresh your mind will become after you’ve taken a “thinking break”.

• Managers should learn to look at problems as challenges to overcome.

Most managers also fail at this. Often, you might look as problems as a hindrance to achieving their goals, that they end up ignoring the problems rather than facing them.

A strong manager will have a different perspective – they will look at every aspect, every option, and every possible action to work around their problems.

Learn to “explore” the problems you are presented.

• Managers are not afraid to discover different perspectives.

As a manager, you should look beyond the facts, as you learned earlier. But you’ll also have to be open to other people’s perspectives. Don’t be afraid to ask for other people’s opinions, suggestions, and ideas.

• Managers are fair and reflective.

A good manager will always play fair. It is important that you carefully analyze if you are playing favorites or you are biased that may be clouding your decision-making.

As a manager, you should be able to give equal opportunities to all your employees. Also, you should also have to know when to reprimand (punish) an employee who may have done wrong.

Critical thinkers make decisions not just based on intuition or instinct alone. Everything is based on facts, information gathered, and careful evaluation.

Critical thinking is a life skill that not only managers can learn.

References:

• http://changethis.com/17.CriticalThinking
• https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/critical-thinking.html

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What is Critical Thinking and Why is it Valuable in the Workplace?

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• > Personal Effectiveness and Preparing for Change
• > What is Critical Thinking and Why is it Valuable in the Workplace?

There are times at work when you simply have to “do.” A tight deadline, a demanding project outline, or a highly particular superior might mean that it makes sense to complete a task without too much mental tinkering. But work like this can be unsustainable and worse — it won’t leverage your ability to think critically.

There is value in thinking critically in every aspect of your life. From making decisions in your personal life, to interrogating the media you consume, to assessing your work with a critical eye, applying critical thinking is an essential skill everyone should be trying to hone.

At your workplace, critical thinking can distinguish you as a leader, and a valuable mind to bounce ideas off. It can help improve the quality of your work, and the perception those higher up the chain have of you.

Here’s what you need to know about critical thinking in the workplace:

What Exactly is “Critical Thinking”?

  In a nutshell, critical thinking is the ability to think reasonably, detaching yourself from personal bias, emotional responses, and subjective opinions. It involves using the data at hand to make a reasoned choice without falling prey to the temptations of doing things simply because they’ve always been done a certain way.

Critical thinking takes time. It might be quicker simply to take instruction at face value, or rely on the traditions of your team. But without analyzing the reasons behind decisions and tasks, it becomes extremely easy to adopt bad habits. This might be time-wasting meetings, inefficient uses of effort, or poor interactions with team members. Taking the time to ask “why” you’re doing something is the first step to thinking critically.

Sometimes, data is available which allows you to make reasoned decisions based on absolute facts. If you can show that a new best practice can objectively improve current processes with hard data, you’ve used the very basics of critical thinking. That said, actual numbers aren’t always available when making a decision. Real critical thinking involves taking a careful look at situations and making a decision based on what is known, not what is felt.

Why Is Critical Thinking Important in the Workplace?

The short answer to the above question is this: critical thinkers make the best decisions, most often. And in the workplace, where choices about how to complete tasks, communicate information, relate with coworkers, and develop strategy are so common, critical thinkers are extremely valuable.

A savvy hiring manager will make this part of the recruitment process. It’s pretty easy to gauge how someone is inclined to solve a problem — ask them how they would deal with a specific situation, and give them the opportunity to use their critical thinking skills, versus deferring to an emotional, or prescribed reaction. Employing people who can think and act reasonably will pay enormous dividends down the road.

Using your critical thinking skills in the workplace will define you as a problem solver. This is not only useful career-wise (although having upper-level people at your company think highly of you is undoubtedly a benefit) it also establishes you as a leader among your fellow team members. Demonstrating your ability to solve problems and accomplish goals effectively will help instill confidence in you with all your coworkers.

How to Use Critical Thinking in the Workplace

The first step to actually using critical thinking is approaching every situation with an open mind. You need to be receptive to all information available, not just the kind that satisfies your preconceived notions or personal biases. This can be easier said than done, of course — lessons learned and beliefs held are often done so with a reason. But when it comes to critical thinking, it’s important to analyze each situation independently.

Once you’ve analyzed a situation with an open mind, you need to consider how to communicate it properly. It’s all very well and good to approach situations with objective logic, but it doesn’t do you any favours to sound like  Mr. Spock  when you’re conveying your conclusions. Be tactful, patient and humble when you are explaining how and why you’ve come to decisions. Use data if available to support your findings, but understand that not everyone is able to remove emotion from situations.

The final, and perhaps least obvious, application with critical thinking is creativity. Often, getting creative means pushing boundaries and reshaping convention. This means taking a risk — one that can often be worth the reward. Using a critical thinking approach when getting creative can help you mitigate the risk, and better determine what value your creativity can bring. It will help you and your team try new things and reinvent current processes while hopefully not rocking the boat too much.

Learn More About Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is a valuable skill for all aspects of your life. It benefits problem solving, creativity, and teamwork. And it translates particularly well to the workplace, where it can distinguish you as a valuable employee and leader.

Taking the extra time to examine things objectively, make decisions based on logic, and communicate it tactfully will help you, those you work with, and your work goals prosper. To learn more about how to do that, have a look at our  Critical Thinking and Problem Solving for Effective Decision-Making   workshop and register today!

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Critical Thinking Definition, Skills, and Examples

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Critical thinking refers to the ability to analyze information objectively and make a reasoned judgment. It involves the evaluation of sources, such as data, facts, observable phenomena, and research findings.

Good critical thinkers can draw reasonable conclusions from a set of information, and discriminate between useful and less useful details to solve problems or make decisions. These skills are especially helpful at school and in the workplace, where employers prioritize the ability to think critically. Find out why and see how you can demonstrate that you have this ability.

Examples of Critical Thinking

The circumstances that demand critical thinking vary from industry to industry. Some examples include:

• A triage nurse analyzes the cases at hand and decides the order by which the patients should be treated.
• A plumber evaluates the materials that would best suit a particular job.
• An attorney reviews the evidence and devises a strategy to win a case or to decide whether to settle out of court.
• A manager analyzes customer feedback forms and uses this information to develop a customer service training session for employees.

Why Do Employers Value Critical Thinking Skills?

Employers want job candidates who can evaluate a situation using logical thought and offer the best solution.

Someone with critical thinking skills can be trusted to make decisions independently, and will not need constant handholding.

Hiring a critical thinker means that micromanaging won't be required. Critical thinking abilities are among the most sought-after skills in almost every industry and workplace. You can demonstrate critical thinking by using related keywords in your resume and cover letter and during your interview.

How to Demonstrate Critical Thinking in a Job Search

If critical thinking is a key phrase in the job listings you are applying for, be sure to emphasize your critical thinking skills throughout your job search.

Add Keywords to Your Resume

You can use critical thinking keywords (analytical, problem solving, creativity, etc.) in your resume. When describing your work history, include top critical thinking skills that accurately describe you. You can also include them in your resume summary, if you have one.

For example, your summary might read, “Marketing Associate with five years of experience in project management. Skilled in conducting thorough market research and competitor analysis to assess market trends and client needs, and to develop appropriate acquisition tactics.”

Mention Skills in Your Cover Letter

Include these critical thinking skills in your cover letter. In the body of your letter, mention one or two of these skills, and give specific examples of times when you have demonstrated them at work. Think about times when you had to analyze or evaluate materials to solve a problem.

Show the Interviewer Your Skills

You can use these skill words in an interview. Discuss a time when you were faced with a particular problem or challenge at work and explain how you applied critical thinking to solve it.

Some interviewers will give you a hypothetical scenario or problem, and ask you to use critical thinking skills to solve it. In this case, explain your thought process thoroughly to the interviewer. He or she is typically more focused on how you arrive at your solution rather than the solution itself. The interviewer wants to see you analyze and evaluate (key parts of critical thinking) the given scenario or problem.

Of course, each job will require different skills and experiences, so make sure you read the job description carefully and focus on the skills listed by the employer.

Top Critical Thinking Skills

Keep these in-demand skills in mind as you refine your critical thinking practice —whether for work or school.

Part of critical thinking is the ability to carefully examine something, whether it is a problem, a set of data, or a text. People with analytical skills can examine information, understand what it means, and properly explain to others the implications of that information.

• Asking Thoughtful Questions
• Data Analysis
• Interpretation
• Questioning Evidence
• Recognizing Patterns

Communication

Often, you will need to share your conclusions with your employers or with a group of classmates or colleagues. You need to be able to communicate with others to share your ideas effectively. You might also need to engage in critical thinking in a group. In this case, you will need to work with others and communicate effectively to figure out solutions to complex problems.

• Active Listening
• Collaboration
• Explanation
• Interpersonal
• Presentation
• Verbal Communication
• Written Communication

Critical thinking often involves creativity and innovation. You might need to spot patterns in the information you are looking at or come up with a solution that no one else has thought of before. All of this involves a creative eye that can take a different approach from all other approaches.

• Flexibility
• Conceptualization
• Imagination
• Drawing Connections
• Synthesizing

Open-Mindedness

To think critically, you need to be able to put aside any assumptions or judgments and merely analyze the information you receive. You need to be objective, evaluating ideas without bias.

• Objectivity
• Observation

Problem-Solving

Problem-solving is another critical thinking skill that involves analyzing a problem, generating and implementing a solution, and assessing the success of the plan. Employers don’t simply want employees who can think about information critically. They also need to be able to come up with practical solutions.

• Attention to Detail
• Clarification
• Decision Making
• Groundedness
• Identifying Patterns

More Critical Thinking Skills

• Inductive Reasoning
• Deductive Reasoning
• Noticing Outliers
• Adaptability
• Emotional Intelligence
• Brainstorming
• Optimization
• Restructuring
• Integration
• Strategic Planning
• Project Management
• Ongoing Improvement
• Causal Relationships
• Case Analysis
• Diagnostics
• SWOT Analysis
• Business Intelligence
• Quantitative Data Management
• Qualitative Data Management
• Risk Management
• Scientific Method
• Consumer Behavior

Key Takeaways

• Demonstrate you have critical thinking skills by adding relevant keywords to your resume.
• Mention pertinent critical thinking skills in your cover letter, too, and include an example of a time when you demonstrated them at work.
• Finally, highlight critical thinking skills during your interview. For instance, you might discuss a time when you were faced with a challenge at work and explain how you applied critical thinking skills to solve it.

University of Louisville. " What is Critical Thinking ."

American Management Association. " AMA Critical Skills Survey: Workers Need Higher Level Skills to Succeed in the 21st Century ."

• Questions for Each Level of Bloom's Taxonomy
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Critical thinking helps managers work through problems

“Education is not the learning of facts, but the training of the mind to think.” — Albert Einstein

Critical thinking is the ability to use intelligence, knowledge and skills to question and carefully explore situations and arrive at thoughtful conclusions based on evidence and reason.

The critical-thinking approach is a powerful analytical method which helps managers and entrepreneurs to consider intended and unintended consequences of behaviors on their teams, organizations and communities. Organizations need managers who think independently without judgment and bias and predict patterns of behaviors and processes. They ask the right questions: how and why versus just what, in order to make effective and thoughtful decisions.

The latest research shows businesses are desperate to attract employees with critical-thinking skills, because organizations are undergoing such rapid change that they need employees to consistently introduce new, fresh ideas to stay ahead of the competition.

Time and again, research has shown the effectiveness of critical thinking in the workplace. A recent article published in the journal “Current Directions in Psychological Science,” reports that cognitive ability tests, including critical thinking tests “... are among the strongest and most consistent predictors of performance across academic and work settings.”

The process of critical thinking provides you with the tools to make better decisions as a manager, and help you to predict the effects and consequences of those decisions. Research suggests seven steps to the effective critical thinking:

• Observe (recognize the behavior)
• Interpret (understand the cause and effects of behavior)
• Analyze (investigate the causes and effects of behavior)
• Infer (propose paths to change behavior)
• Evaluate (assess the consequences of changing behavior)
• Explain (justify a change to behavior)
• Meta-think (consider the process used to propose this behavior change)

For example, suppose that you own a local restaurant. One of your waiting staff has persistently failed to show up for shifts without giving any meaningful reason. As she is one of your most valued workers, you are puzzled by her absenteeism. You become frustrated, but because you don’t have all the facts, you decide to use critical-thinking skills to investigate the real source of the problem.

The next time she comes to work, you observe the situation objectively, suspending all bias and judgment. You notice that she is abrupt with customers, doesn’t attempt to communicate with her fellow colleagues and walks across the restaurant with a heavy gait.

This helps you to interpret the situation better and you have enough evidence to deduce that your employee is not happy. You might analyze these effects and infer a way to deal with the behavior. The shift manager thinks you should fire her, but she is one of your most competent employees. You decide to evaluate the situation and assess the consequences of trying to change her behavior. You explain to your manager why you believe that an attempt to change the behavior might be justified. Finally, you need to meta-think by arranging a process to instigate this behavior change.

You set up a meeting with the employee to ascertain the reasons behind her unexplained absences. She apologizes and tells you she has become dissatisfied with her job, and would much rather work at the front desk of the restaurant, greeting customers and taking reservations. You decide to give her a trial period in this role, and she immediately becomes more motivated, and her attendance is impeccable.

Of course, there could be many ways to handle this dilemma, but critical thinking helps you find the best solution for each situation when dealing with the complexities of real-life challenges.

Christopher P. Neck is an associate professor of management and author of the soon to be released textbook, “Organizational Behavior: A Critical Thinking Approach."

MIT Sloan Management Review Article on Critical Thinking and Cognitive Flexibility

• MIT Sloan Management Review

What is the best way for a modern executive to process information? How do managers and business leaders gather and interpret information effectively?

In this collection of articles, you'll learn:

• How to use technology-enabled insights to make informed decisions and predictions when dealing with uncertainty and complex issues
• The dangers of projection and making assumptions during decision making and negotiation processes
• How to utilize technology to create “better selves” within business
• The benefits of data and experimentation over intuition, assumptions, or perceived expertise
• How to identify and interpret weak or indistinct indicators of change

Learn more about MIT SMR.

In this Book

• Introduction
• Building a More Intelligent Enterprise
• How Assumptions of Consensus Undermine Decision Making
• How Digital Media Will Bring Out Our Best Selves in the Workplace
• Embrace Your Ignorance
• How to Make Sense of Weak Signals

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10 Most In-Demand Soft Skills to Put on Your Resume

L ong gone are the days when listing hard skills was the best (and oftentimes only) way to get your foot in the door at a prestigious company. While technical knowledge and training will always be important, soft skills (or essentially personality traits) are becoming increasingly important to highlight on your resume. And it makes sense, as more companies prioritize work culture and, therefore, the personalities of those they’re hiring.

But which soft skills are the ones that standout the most on a resume? Using data from Indeed.com, CashNetUSA scoured job ads for 46 predetermined soft skills to find the ones that appeared the most on high-paid jobs that surpassed the 75th percentile of wages in America’s most populated cities as well as each state. These are the soft skills that came out on top.

10. Resilience

Percentage of highly paid jobs requiring the skill: 34.29%

Resilience is a soft skill that highlights your ability to handle stress and challenges that come up at work. 

A good example of how to add this to your resume could be, “Showed resilience when leading a team after budget cuts by still delivering work on time and within scope.”

* Data comes from a January 2024 report released by CashNetUSA .

9. Financial Management

Percentage of highly paid jobs requiring the skill: 38.24%

If you’ve ever been in charge of a budget of any size, you can say that you have financial management skills. 

For instance, something like “oversaw the financial management of the freelance budget” could work if you hired contractors for a specific project.

8. Innovation

Percentage of highly paid jobs requiring the skill: 39.24%

Sure, this one makes our eyes roll a bit, too, but in today’s fast-paced world, innovation is key. No one wants an employee that stays stagnant or, worse, digs their heels in at the slight mention of change. 

You know who’s not stagnant? Someone who “excelled at brainstorming and ideation in the innovation process for [fill in project name].” You get it.

7. Emotional Intelligence

Percentage of highly paid jobs requiring the skill: 43.11%

We’re actually pleasantly surprised with this one. After all, we didn’t think corporations necessarily had it in them to care about this.

Jokes aside, having emotional intelligence is something that makes a good team member and an even better manager. After all, it’s hard to resolve team conflicts without it. The more a company emphasizes a “harmonious work environment,” the more this soft skill will matter.

6. Mentoring

Percentage of highly paid jobs requiring the skill: 47.89%

Here’s another managerial skill that job ads like to use to weed out the haves from the have-nots when it comes to managers. Do you actually enjoy mentoring people or have you just fallen up the corporate ladder into a management position?

True leaders will make mentoring a priority and want to highlight it on their resume.

5. Critical Thinking

Percentage of highly paid jobs requiring the skill: 47.94%

“Critical thinking” or “problem solving” can be put in the same bucket as resilience. How did you handle a challenging situation at work? It’s even better if you have data to back up your claim.

Well, maybe you “demonstrated strong critical-thinking skills when analyzing financial reports and making forecasts for the following quarter.”

4. Presentation Skills

Percentage of highly paid jobs requiring the skill: 56%

Presentation skills are the nature of the beast when it comes to today's Corporate America. That's because lots of today’s high-paying jobs require working with cross-functional teams and being able to explain your work in easy, digestible terms.

Think someone on a data science team explaining their findings to a marketing team. Along with "presentation skills," you could also add the specific presentation tools or software you use for your presentations on your resume.

3. Persuasion

Percentage of highly paid jobs requiring the skill: 57.41%

Persuasion sounds rather seductive, but it's crucial when trying to get specific projects across the finish line.

It's also a term that's used a lot in marketing when talking about "persuasive marketing skills" required to communicate well with a customer audience.

2. Negotiation

Percentage of highly paid jobs requiring the skill: 58.26%

This skill goes back to business basics. Proper negotiation skills come in handy in any aspect of life, whether you're negotiating a $1 billion merger or whether or not your toddler can have dessert for breakfast.

That said, it's a skill that takes time to hone — which is why it's considered all the more valuable.

1. Strategic Thinking

Percentage of highly paid jobs requiring the skill: 64.77%

Strategic thinking is essentially a combination of innovation and critical thinking, but the best way to incorporate this keyword on your resume is by using the CAR (challenge, action, result) technique.

You could say something like, "Used strategic thinking skills by analyzing user engagement data and running an A/B test that resulted in increased engagement of 20 percent."

For more resume advice, check out "How to Make Your Resume Shine."

OpenSAFELY: Effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccination in children and adolescents

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Background Children and adolescents in England were offered BNT162b2 as part of the national COVID-19 vaccine roll out from September 2021. We assessed the safety and effectiveness of first and second dose BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccination in children and adolescents in England.

Methods With the approval of NHS England, we conducted an observational study in the OpenSAFELY-TPP database, including a) adolescents aged 12-15 years, and b) children aged 5-11 years and comparing individuals receiving i) first vaccination with unvaccinated controls and ii) second vaccination to single-vaccinated controls. We matched vaccinated individuals with controls on age, sex, region, and other important characteristics. Outcomes were positive SARS-CoV-2 test (adolescents only); COVID-19 A&E attendance; COVID-19 hospitalisation; COVID-19 critical care admission; COVID-19 death, with non-COVID-19 death and fractures as negative control outcomes and A&E attendance, unplanned hospitalisation, pericarditis, and myocarditis as safety outcomes.

Results Amongst 820,926 previously unvaccinated adolescents, the incidence rate ratio (IRR) for positive SARS-CoV-2 test comparing vaccination with no vaccination was 0.74 (95% CI 0.72-0.75), although the 20-week risks were similar. The IRRs were 0.60 (0.37-0.97) for COVID-19 A&E attendance, 0.58 (0.38-0.89) for COVID-19 hospitalisation, 0.99 (0.93-1.06) for fractures, 0.89 (0.87-0.91) for A&E attendances and 0.88 (0.81-0.95) for unplanned hospitalisation. Amongst 441,858 adolescents who had received first vaccination IRRs comparing second dose with first dose only were 0.67 (0.65-0.69) for positive SARS-CoV-2 test, 1.00 (0.20-4.96) for COVID-19 A&E attendance, 0.60 (0.26-1.37) for COVID-19 hospitalisation, 0.94 (0.84-1.05) for fractures, 0.93 (0.89-0.98) for A&E attendance and 0.99 (0.86-1.13) for unplanned hospitalisation. Amongst 283,422 previously unvaccinated children and 132,462 children who had received a first vaccine dose, COVID-19-related outcomes were too rare to allow IRRs to be estimated precisely. A&E attendance and unplanned hospitalisation were slightly higher after first vaccination (IRRs versus no vaccination 1.05 (1.01-1.10) and 1.10 (0.95-1.26) respectively) but slightly lower after second vaccination (IRRs versus first dose 0.95 (0.86-1.05) and 0.78 (0.56-1.08) respectively). There were no COVID-19-related deaths in any group. Fewer than seven (exact number redacted) COVID-19-related critical care admissions occurred in the adolescent first dose vs unvaccinated cohort. Among both adolescents and children, myocarditis and pericarditis were documented only in the vaccinated groups, with rates of 27 and 10 cases/million after first and second doses respectively.

Conclusion BNT162b2 vaccination in adolescents reduced COVID-19 A&E attendance and hospitalisation, although these outcomes were rare. Protection against positive SARS-CoV-2 tests was transient.

Competing Interest Statement

BG has received research funding from the Laura and John Arnold Foundation, the NHS National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), the NIHR School of Primary Care Research, NHS England, the NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, the Mohn-Westlake Foundation, NIHR Applied Research Collaboration Oxford and Thames Valley, the Wellcome Trust, the Good Thinking Foundation, Health Data Research UK, the Health Foundation, the World Health Organisation, UKRI MRC, Asthma UK, the British Lung Foundation, and the Longitudinal Health and Wellbeing strand of the National Core Studies programme; he is a Non-Executive Director at NHS Digital; he also receives personal income from speaking and writing for lay audiences on the misuse of science. BMK is also employed by NHS England working on medicines policy and clinical lead for primary care medicines data. IJD has received unrestricted research grants and holds shares in GlaxoSmithKline (GSK).

Funding Statement

The OpenSAFELY Platform is supported by grants from the Wellcome Trust (222097/Z/20/Z); MRC (MR/V015757/1, MC_PC-20059, MR/W016729/1); NIHR (NIHR135559, COV-LT2-0073), and Health Data Research UK (HDRUK2021.000, 2021.0157). In addition, this research used data assets made available as part of the Data and Connectivity National Core Study, led by Health Data Research UK in partnership with the Office for National Statistics and funded by UK Research and Innovation (grant ref MC_PC_20058). BG has also received funding from: the Bennett Foundation, the Wellcome Trust, NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, NIHR Applied Research Collaboration Oxford and Thames Valley, the Mohn-Westlake Foundation; all Bennett Institute staff are supported by BG's grants on this work. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the NIHR, NHS England, UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA) or the Department of Health and Social Care.

Funders had no role in the study design, collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; and in the decision to submit the article for publication.

Author Declarations

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

This study was approved by the Health Research Authority (REC reference 20/LO/0651) and by the London School of Hygeine and Tropical Medicine Ethics Board (reference 21863).

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

Data Availability

All data were linked, stored and analysed securely using the OpenSAFELY platform, https://www.opensafely.org/ , as part of the NHS England OpenSAFELY COVID-19 service. Data include pseudonymised data such as coded diagnoses, medications and physiological parameters. No free text data was included. All code is shared openly for review and re-use under MIT open license [ https://github.com/opensafely/vaccine-effectiveness-in-kids ]. Detailed pseudonymised patient data is potentially re-identifiable and therefore not shared. Primary care records managed by the GP software provider, TPP were linked to ONS death data and the Index of Multiple Deprivation through OpenSAFELY.

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